Volume I—A To Elba (continued 7)

The Standard Natural History (J. S. Kingsley, editor), volume 6, pages 245-248.

ALSO IN F. Keller, The Amazon and Madeira Rivers, chapters 2 and 6.

H. W. Bates, A Naturalist on the River Amazons, chapters 7-13.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Guuchies.

See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Hackinsacks.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Haidas.

See below: SKITTAGETAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Hidatsa, or Minnetaree, or Grosventres

See Note, Appendix E.

"The Hidatsa, Minnetaree, or Grosventre Indians, are one of the three tribes which at present inhabit the permanent village at Fort Berthold, Dakota Territory, and hunt on the waters of the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers, in Northwestern Dakota and Eastern Montana. The history of this tribe is … intimately connected with that of the politically allied tribes of the Aricarees and Mandans." The name, Grosventres, was given to the people of this tribe "by the early French and Canadian adventurers. The same name was applied also to a tribe, totally distinct from these in language and origin, which lives some hundreds of miles west of Fort Berthold; and the two nations are now distinguished from one another as Grosventres of the Missouri and Grosventres of the Prairie. … Edward Umfreville, who traded on the Saskatchewan River from 1784 to 1787, … remarks: … 'They [the Canadian French] call them Grosventres, or Big-Bellies; and without any reason, as they are as comely and as well made as any tribe whatever.' … In the works of many travellers they are called Minnetarees, a name which is spelled in various ways. … This, although a Hidatsa word, is the name applied to them, not by themselves, but by the Mandans; it signifies 'to cross the water,' or 'they crossed the water.' … Hidatsa was the name of the village on Knife River farthest from the Missouri, the village of those whom Lewis and Clarke considered the Minnetarees proper." It is the name "now generally used by this people to designate themselves."

W. Matthews, Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians, parts 1-2 (United States Geological and Geographical Survey. F. V. Hayden, Mis. Pub., No. 7).

See also, below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

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AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Hitchitis.

See below: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Horikans.

North of the Mohegans, who occupied the east bank of the Hudson River opposite Albany, and covering the present counties of Columbia and Rensselaer, dwelt the Algonkin tribe of Horikans, "whose hunting grounds appear to have extended from the waters of the Connecticut, across the Green Mountains, to the borders of that beautiful lake [named Lake George by the too loyal Sir William Johnson] which might now well bear their sonorous name."

J. R. Brodhead, History of the State of New York, page 77.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Huamaboya.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Huancas.

See PERU.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Huastecs.

See below: MAYAS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Huecos, or Wacos.

See below: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Humas, or Oumas.

See below: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Hupas.

See Note, Appendix E. See below: MODOCS, &c.

Hurons, or Wyandots. Neutral Nation. Eries.

"The peninsula between the Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario was occupied by two distinct peoples, speaking dialects of the Iroquois tongue. The Hurons or Wyandots, including the tribe called by the French the Dionondadies, or Tobacco Nation, dwelt among the forests which bordered the eastern shores of the fresh water sea to which they have left their name; while the Neutral Nation, so called from their neutrality in the war between the Hurons and the Five Nations, inhabited the northern shores of Lake Erie, and even extended their eastern flank across the strait of Niagara. The population of the Hurons has been variously stated at from 10,000 to 30,000 souls, but probably did not exceed the former estimate. The Franciscans and the Jesuits were early among them, and from their descriptions it is apparent that, in legends, and superstitions, manners and habits, religious observances and social customs, they were closely assimilated to their brethren of the Five Nations. … Like the Five Nations, the Wyandots were in some measure an agricultural people; they bartered the surplus products of their maize fields to surrounding tribes, usually receiving fish in exchange; and this traffic was so considerable that the Jesuits styled their country the Granary of the Algonquins. Their prosperity was rudely broken by the hostilities of the Five Nations; for though the conflicting parties were not ill matched in point of numbers, yet the united counsels and ferocious energies of the confederacy swept all before them. In the year 1649, in the depth of winter, their warriors invaded the country of the Wyandots, stormed their largest villages, and involved all within in indiscriminate slaughter. The survivors fled in panic terror, and the whole nation was broken and dispersed. Some found refuge among the French of Canada, where, at the village of Lorette, near Quebec, their descendants still remain; others were incorporated with their conquerors, while others again fled northward, beyond Lake Superior, and sought an asylum among the wastes which bordered on the north-eastern lands of the Dahcotah. Driven back by those fierce bison-hunters, they next established themselves about the outlet of Lake Superior, and the shores and islands in the northern parts of Lake Huron. Thence, about the year 1680, they descended to Detroit, where they formed a permanent settlement, and where, by their superior valor, capacity and address, they soon acquired an ascendancy over the surrounding Algonquins. The ruin of the Neutral Nation followed close on that of the Wyandots, to whom, according to Jesuit authority, they bore an exact resemblance in character and manners. The Senecas soon found means to pick a quarrel with them; they were assailed by all the strength of the insatiable confederacy, and within a few years their destruction as a nation was complete."

F. Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac, chapter 1.

F. Parkman, The Jesuits in North America, chapter 1.

"The first in this locality [namely, the western extremity of the State of New York, on and around the site of the city of Buffalo], of whom history makes mention, were the Attiouandaronk, or Neutral Nation, called Kah-kwas by the Senecas. They had their council-fires along the Niagara, but principally on its western side. Their hunting grounds extended from the Genesee nearly to the eastern shores of Lake Huron, embracing a wide and important territory. … They are first mentioned by Champlain during his winter visit to the Hurons in 1615 … but he was unable to visit their territory. … The peace which this peculiar people had so long maintained with the Iroquois was destined to be broken. Some jealousies and collisions occurred in 1647, which culminated in open war in 1650. One of the villages of the Neutral Nation, nearest the Senecas and not far from the site of our city [Buffalo], was captured in the autumn of the latter year, and another the ensuing spring. So well-directed and energetic were the blows of the Iroquois, that the total destruction of the Neutral Nation was speedily accomplished. … The survivors were adopted by their conquerors. …. A long period intervened between the destruction of the Neutral Nation and the permanent occupation of their country by the Senecas,"—which latter event occurred after the expulsion of the Senecas from the Genesee Valley, by the expedition under General Sullivan, in 1779, during the Revolutionary War. "They never, as a nation, resumed their ancient seats along the Genesee, but sought and found a new home on the secluded banks and among the basswood forests of the Dó-syo-wa, or Buffalo Creek, whence they had driven the Neutral Nation 130 years before. … It has been assumed by many writers that the Kah-kwas and Eries were identical. This is not so. The latter, according to the most reliable authorities, lived south of the western extremity of Lake Erie until they were destroyed by the Iroquois in 1655. The Kah-kwas were exterminated by them as early as 1651. On Coronelli's map, published in 1688, one of the villages of the latter, called 'Kahouagoga, a destroyed nation,' is located at or near the site of Buffalo."

O. H. Marshall, The Niagara Frontier, pages 5-8, and foot-note.

"Westward of the Neutrals, along the Southeastern shores of Lake Erie, and stretching as far east as the Genesee river, lay the country of the Eries, or, as they were denominated by the Jesuits, 'La Nation Chat,' or Cat Nation, who were also a member of the Huron-Iroquois family. The name of the beautiful lake on whose margin our city [Buffalo] was cradled is their most enduring monument, as Lake Huron is that of the generic stock. They were called the Cat Nation either because that interesting but mischievous animal, the raccoon, which the holy fathers erroneously classed in the feline gens, was the totem of their leading clan, or sept, or in consequence of the abundance of that mammal within their territory."

W. C. Bryant, Interesting Archaeological Studies in and about Buffalo, page 12.

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Mr. Schoolcraft either identifies or confuses the Eries and the Neutral Nation.

H. R. Schoolcraft, Sketch of the History of the Ancient Eries (Information Respecting the Indian Tribes, part 4. page 197).

ALSO IN J. G. Shea, Inquiries Respecting the lost Neutral Nation (same, part 4, page 204).-

D. Wilson, The Huron-Iroquois of Canada (Transactions Royal Society of Canada, 1884).

P. D. Clarke, Origin and Traditional History of the Wyandottes.

W. Ketchum, History of Buffalo, volume 1, chapter 1-2.

N. B. Craig. The Olden Time, volume 1, page 225.

See below: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY;

Also, CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1608-1611; 1611-1616; 1634-1652; 1640-1700.

See, also, PONTIAC'S WAR.

For an account of "Lord Dunmore's War,"

See OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1774.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Illinois and Miamis.

"Passing the country of the Lenape and the Shawanoes, and descending the Ohio, the traveller would have found its valley chiefly occupied by two nations, the Miamis or Twightwees, on the Wabash and its branches, and the Illinois, who dwelt in the neighborhood of the river to which they have given their name, while portions of them extended beyond the Mississippi. Though never subjugated, as were the Lenape, both the Miamis and the Illinois were reduced to the last extremity by the repeated attacks of the Five Nations; and the Illinois, in particular, suffered so much by these and other wars, that the population of ten or twelve thousand, ascribed to them by the early French writers, had dwindled, during the first quarter of the eighteenth century, to a few small villages."

F. Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac, chapter 1.

See, also, above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY; and below: SACS, &c.; also CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1669-1687.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Incas, or Yncas.

See PERU.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Innuits.

See above: ESKIMAUAN.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Iowas.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY, and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Iroquois Confederacy. Iroquoian Family.

"At the outset of the 16th Century, when the five tribes or nations of the Iroquois confederacy first became known to European explorers, they were found occupying the valleys and uplands of northern New York, in that picturesque and fruitful region which stretches westward from the head-waters of the Hudson to the Genesee. The Mohawks, or Caniengas—as they should properly be called—possessed the Mohawk River, and covered Lake George and Lake Champlain with their flotillas of large canoes, managed with the boldness and skill which, hereditary in their descendants, make them still the best boatmen of the North American rivers. West of the Caniengas the Oneidas held the small river and lake which bear their name. … West of the Oneidas, the imperious Onondagas, the central and, in some respects, the ruling nation of the League, possessed the two lakes of Onondaga and Skaneateles. together with the common outlet of this inland lake system, the Oswego River to its issue into Lake Ontario. Still proceeding westward, the lines of trail and river led to the long and winding stretch of Lake Cayuga, about which were clustered the towns of the people who gave their name to the lake; and beyond them, over the wide expanse of hills and dales surrounding Lakes Seneca and Canandaigua, were scattered the populous villages of the Senecas, more correctly called Sonontowanas, or Mountaineers. Such were the names and abodes of the allied nations, members of the far-famed Kanonsionni, or League of United Households, who were destined to become for a time the most notable and powerful community among the native tribes of North America. The region which has been described was not, however, the original seat of those nations. They belonged to that linguistic family which is known to ethnologists as the Huron-Iroquois stock. This stock comprised the Hurons or Wyandots, the Attiwandaronks or Neutral Nation, the Iroquois, the Eries, the Andastes or Conestogas, the Tuscaroras and some smaller bands. The tribes of this family occupied a long irregular area of inland territory, stretching from Canada to North Carolina. The northern nations were all clustered about the great lakes; the southern bands held the fertile valleys bordering the head-waters of the rivers which flowed from the Allegheny mountains. The languages of all these tribes showed a close affinity. … The evidence of language, so far as it has yet been examined, seems to show that the Huron clans were the older members of the group; and the clear and positive traditions of all the surviving tribes, Hurons, Iroquois, and Tuscarora, point to the lower St. Lawrence as the earliest known abode of their stock. Here the first explorer, Cartier, found Indians of this stock at Hochelaga and Stadaconé, now the sites of Montreal and Quebec. … As their numbers increased, dissensions arose. The hive swarmed, and band after band moved off to the west and south. As they spread they encountered people of other stocks, with whom they had frequent wars. Their most constant and most dreaded enemies were the tribes of the Algonkin family, a fierce and restless people, of northern origin, who everywhere surrounded them. At one period, however, if the concurrent traditions of both Iroquois and Algonkins can be believed, these contending races for a time stayed their strife, and united their forces in an alliance against a common and formidable foe. This foe was the nation, or perhaps the confederacy, of the Alligewi or Talligewi, the semi-civilized 'Mound-builders' of the Ohio Valley, who have left their name to the Allegheny river and mountains, and whose vast earthworks are still, after half-a-century of study, the perplexity of archæologists. A desperate warfare ensued, which lasted about a hundred years, and ended in the complete overthrow and destruction, or expulsion, of the Alligewi. The survivors of the conquered people fled southward. … The time which has elapsed since the overthrow of the Alligewi is variously estimated. The most probable conjecture places it at a period about a thousand years before the present day. It was apparently soon after their expulsion that the tribes of the Huron-Iroquois and the Algonkin stocks scattered themselves over the wide region south of the Great Lakes, thus left open to their occupancy."

H. Hale, Introduction to Iroquois Book of Rites.

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After the coming of the Europeans into the New World, the French were the first to be involved in hostilities with the Iroquois, and their early wars with them produced a hatred which could never be extinguished. Hence the English were able to win the alliance of the Five Nations, when they struggled with France for the mastery of the North American continent, and they owed their victory to that alliance, probably, more than to any other single cause. England still retained the faithful friendship and alliance of the Iroquois when she came to a struggle with her own colonies, and all the tribes except the Oneidas were in arms against the Americans in the Revolutionary War. "With the restoration of peace, the political transaction of the League were substantially closed. This was, in effect, the termination of their political existence. The jurisdiction of the United States was extended over their ancient territories, and from that time forth they became dependent nations. During the progress of the Revolution, the Mohawks abandoned their country and removed to Canada, finally establishing themselves partly upon Grand River, in the Niagara peninsula, and partly near Kingston, where they now reside upon two reservations secured to them by the British government. … The policy of the State of New York [toward the Iroquois nations] was ever just and humane. Although their country, with the exception of that of the Oneidas, might have been considered as forfeited by the event of the Revolution, yet the government never enforced the rights of conquest, but extinguished the Indian title to the country by purchase, and treaty stipulations. A portion of the Oneida nation [who had sold their lands to the State, from time to time, excepting one small reservation] emigrated to a reservation on the river Thames in Canada, where about 400 of them now [1851] reside. Another and a larger band removed to Green Bay, in Wisconsin, where they still make their homes to the number of 700. But a small part of the nation have remained around the seat of their ancient council-fire … near Oneida Castle, in the county of Oneida." The Onondagas "still retain their beautiful and secluded valley of Onondaga, with sufficient territory for their comfortable maintenance. About 150 Onondagas now reside with the Senecas; another party are established on Grand River, in Canada, and a few have removed to the west. … In the brief space of twelve years after the first house of the white man was erected in Cayuga county (1789) the whole nation [of the Cayugas] was uprooted and gone. In 1795, they ceded, by treaty, all their lands to the State, with the exception of one reservation, which they finally abandoned about the year 1800. A portion of them removed to Green Bay, another to Grand River, and still another, and a much larger band, settled at Sandusky, in Ohio, from whence they were removed by government, a few years since, into the Indian territory, west of the Mississippi. About 120 still reside among the Senecas, in western New York. … The Tuscaroras, after removing from the Oneida territory, finally located near the Niagara river, in the vicinity of Lewiston, on a tract given to them by the Senecas. … The residue of the Senecas are now shut up within three small reservations, the Tonawanda, the Cattaraugus and the Allegany, which, united, would not cover the area of one of the lesser counties of the State."

L. H. Morgan, The League of the Iroquois, book 1, chapter 1.

"The Indians of the State of New York number about 5,000, and occupy lands to the estimated extent of 87,()77 acres. With few exceptions, these people are the direct descendants of the native Indians, who once possessed and controlled the soil of the entire State."

Report of Special Committee to Investigate the Indian Problem of the State of New York 1889.

H. R. Schoolcraft, Notes on the Iroquois.

F. Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac, chapter 1.

C. Colden, History of the Five Indian Nations.

J. Fiske, Discovery of America, chapter 1.

In 1715 the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy became Six Nations, by the admission of the Tuscaroras, from North Carolina.

See below: IROQUOIS TRIBES OF THE SOUTH.

On the relationship between the Iroquois and the Cherokees,

See above: CHEROKEES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Iroquois Confederacy. Their Name.

"The origin and proper meaning of the word Iroquois are doubtful. All that can be said with certainty is that the explanation given by Charlevoix cannot possibly be correct. The name of Iroquois, he says, is purely French, and has been formed from the term 'hiro,' 'I have spoken,' a word by which these Indians close all their speeches, and 'kouê,' which, when long drawn out, is a cry of sorrow, and when briefly uttered is an exclamation of joy. … But … Champlain had learned the name from his Indian allies before he or any other Frenchman, so far as is known, had ever seen an Iroquois. It is probable that the origin of the word is to be sought in the Huron language; yet, as this is similar to the Iroquois tongue, an attempt may be made to find a solution in the latter. According to Bruyas, the word 'garokwa' meant a pipe, and also a piece of tobacco,—and, in its verbal form, to smoke. This word is found, somewhat disguised by aspirates, in the Book of Rites,—denighroghkwayen,—'let us two smoke together.' … In the indeterminate form the verb becomes 'ierokwa,' which is certainly very near to Iroquois. It might be rendered 'they who smoke,' or 'they who use tobacco,' or, briefly, 'the Tobacco People.' This name, the Tobacco Nation ('Nation du Petun') was given by the French, and probably also by the Algonkins, to one of the Huron tribes, the Tionontates, noted for the excellent tobacco which they raised and sold. The Iroquois were equally well known for their cultivation of this plant, of which they had a choice variety."

H. Hale, Iroquois Book of Rites, appendix, note A.

Iroquois Confederacy. Their conquests and wide dominion.

"The project of a League [among the 'Five Nations' of the Iroquois] originated with the Onondagas, among whom it was first suggested, as a means to enable them more effectually to resist the pressure of contiguous nations. The epoch of its establishment cannot now be decisively ascertained; although the circumstances attending its formation are still preserved by tradition with great minuteness. These traditions all refer to the northern shore of the Onondaga lake, as the place where the Iroquois chiefs assembled in general congress, to agree upon the terms and principles of the compact. … After the formation of the League, the Iroquois rose rapidly in power and influence. … With the first consciousness of rising power, they turned their long-cherished resentment upon the Adirondacks, who had oppressed them in their infancy as a nation, and had expelled them from their country, in the first struggle for the ascendancy. {91} … At the era of French discovery (1535), the latter nation [the Adirondacks] appear to have been dispossessed of their original country, and driven down the St. Lawrence as far as Quebec. … A new era commenced with the Iroquois upon the establishment of the Dutch trading-post at Orange, now Albany, in 1615. … Friendly relations were established between the Iroquois and the Dutch, which continued without interruption until the latter surrendered their possessions upon the Hudson to the English in 1664. During this period a trade sprang up between them in furs, which the Iroquois exchanged for European fabrics, but more especially for fire-arms, in the use of which they were afterwards destined to become so expert. The English, in turn, cultivated the same relations of friendship. … With the possession of fire-arms commenced not only the rapid elevation, but absolute supremacy of the Iroquois over other Indian nations. In 1643, they expelled the Neuter Nation from the Niagara peninsula and established a permanent settlement at the mouth of that river. They nearly exterminated, in 1653, the Eries, who occupied the south side of Lake Erie, and from thence east to the Genesee, and thus possessed themselves of the whole area of western New York, and the northern part of Ohio. About the year 1670, after they had finally completed the dispersion and subjugation of the Adirondacks and Hurons, they acquired possession of the whole country between lakes Huron, Erie and Ontario, and of the north bank of the St. Lawrence, to the mouth of the Ottawa river, near Montreal. … They also made constant inroads upon the New England Indians. … In 1680, the Senecas with 600 warriors invaded the country of the Illinois, upon the borders of the Mississippi, while La Salle was among the latter. … At various times, both before and after this period, the Iroquois turned their warfare against the Cherokees upon the Tennessee, and the Catawbas in South Carolina. … For about a century, from the year 1600 to the year 1700, the Iroquois were involved in an almost uninterrupted warfare. At the close of this period, they had subdued and held in nominal subjection all the principal Indian nations occupying the territories which are now embraced in the states of New York, Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, the northern and western parts of Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Northern Tennessee, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, a portion of the New England States, and the principal part of Upper Canada. Over these nations, the haughty and imperious Iroquois exercised a constant supervision. If any of them became involved in domestic difficulties, a delegation of chiefs went among them and restored tranquillity, prescribing at the same time their future conduct."

L. H. Morgan, League of the Iroquois, book 1, chapter 1.

"Their [the Iroquois's] war-parties roamed over half America, and their name was a terror from the Atlantic to the Mississippi; but when we ask the numerical strength of the dreaded confederacy, when we discover that, in the days of their greatest triumphs, their united cantons could not have mustered 4,000 warriors, we stand amazed at the folly and dissension which left so vast a region the prey of a handful of bold marauders. Of the cities and villages now so thickly scattered over the lost domain of the Iroquois, a single one might boast a more numerous population than all the five united tribes."

F. Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac, chapter 1.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. 1608-1700. Their wars with the French.

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1608-1611; 1611-1616; 1634-1652; 1640-1700; 1696.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. 1648-1649. Their destruction of the Hurons and the Jesuit Missions.

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1634-1652; also, above, HURONS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. 1684-1744. Surrenders and conveyances to the English.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1684, and 1726; VIRGINIA: A. D. 1744; OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1748-1754; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765-1768.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Iroquois Confederacy: A. D. 1778-1779. Their part in the War of the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778 (JUNE-NOVEMBER) and (JULY); and 1779 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Iroquois Tribes of the South.

See Note, Appendix E.

"The southern Iroquois tribes occupied Chowan River and its tributary streams. They were bounded on the east by the most southerly Lenape tribes, who were in possession of the low country along the sea shores, and those of Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds. Towards the south and the west they extended beyond the river Neuse. They appear to have been known in Virginia, in early times, under the name of Monacans, as far north as James River. … Lawson, in his account of the North Carolina Indians, enumerates the Chowans, the Meherrins, and the Nottoways, as having together 95 warriors in the year 1708. But the Meherrins or Tuteloes and the Nottoways inhabited respectively the two rivers of that name, and were principally seated in Virginia. We have but indistinct notices of the Tuteloes. … It appears by Beverly that the Nottoways had preserved their independence and their numbers later than the Powhatans, and that, at the end of the 17th century, they had still 130 warriors. They do not appear to have migrated from their original seats in a body. In the year 1820, they are said to have been reduced to 27 souls, and were still in possession of 7,000 acres in Southampton county, Virginia, which had been at an early date reserved for them. … The Tuscaroras were by far the most powerful nation in North Carolina, and occupied all the residue of the territory in that colony, which has been described as inhabited by Iroquois tribes. Their principal seats in 1708 were on the Neuse and the Taw or Tar rivers, and according to Lawson they had 1,200 warriors in fifteen towns." In 1711 the Tuscaroras attacked the English colonists, massacring 130 in a single day, and a fierce war ensued. "In the autumn of 1712. all the inhabitants south and southwest of Chowan River were obliged to live in forts; and the Tuscaroras expected assistance from the Five Nations. This could not have been given without involving the confederacy in a war with Great Britain; and the Tuscaroras were left to their own resources. A force, consisting chiefly of southern Indians under the command of Colonel Moore, was again sent by the government of South Carolina to assist the northern Colonies. He besieged and took a fort of the Tuscaroras. … Of 800 prisoners 600 were given up to the Southern Indians, who carried them to South Carolina to sell them as slaves. {92} The Eastern Tuscaroras, whose principal town was on the Taw, twenty miles above Washington, immediately made peace, and a portion was settled a few years after north of the Roanoke, near Windsor, where they continued till the year 1803. But the great body of the nation removed in 1714-15 to the Five Nations, was received as the Sixth, and has since shared their fate."

A. Gallatin, Synopsis of the Indian Tribes (Archæologia Americana, volume 2), introduction, section 2.

ALSO IN J. W. Moore, History of North Carolina, volume 1, chapter 3.

See, also, above: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Itocos.

See above: CHIBCHAS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Itonamos, or Itonomos.

See above: ANDESIANS; also BOLIVIA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Jivara, or Jivaro.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kah-kwas.

See above: HURONS, &c.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kalapooian Family.

"Under this family name Scouler places two tribes, the Kalapooian, inhabiting 'the fertile Willamat plains' and the Yamkallie, who live 'more in the interior, towards the sources of the Willamat River.'… The tribes of the Kalapooian family inhabited the valley of Willamette River, Oregon, above the falls."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 81.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kanawhas, or Ganawese.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kansas, or Kaws.

See below: SIOUAN.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kapohn.

See above: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Karankawan Family.

"The Karankawa formerly dwelt upon the Texan coast, according to Sibley, upon an island or peninsula in the Bay of St. Bernard (Matagorda Bay). … In 1884 Mr. Gatschet found a Tonkawe at Fort Griffin, Texas, who claimed to have formerly lived among the Karankawa. From him a vocabulary of twenty-five terms was obtained, which was all of the language he remembered. The vocabulary … such as it is, represents all of the language that is extant. Judged by this vocabulary the language seems to be distinct not only from the Attakapa but from all others."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 82.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Karoks, or Cahrocs.

See below: MODOCS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kaskaskias.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kaus, or Kwokwoos.

See below: KUSAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kaws, or Kansas.

See below: SIOUAN.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kenai, or Blood Indians.

See above: BLACKFEET.

See Note, Appendix E.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Keresan Family.

"The … pueblos of Keresan stock … are situated in New Mexico on the upper Rio Grande, on several of its small western affluents, and on the Jemez and San Jose, which also are tributaries of the Rio Grande."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 83.

See PUEBLO.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kikapoos.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and below: SACS, &c., and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kiowan Family.

"Derivation: From the Kiowa word Kó-i, plural Kó-igu, meaning 'Káyowe man.' The Comanche term Káyowe means 'rat.' The author who first formally separated this family appears to have been Turner. … Turner, upon the strength of a vocabulary furnished by Lieutenant Whipple, dissents from the opinion expressed by Pike and others to the effect that the language is of the same stock as the Comanche, and, while admitting that its relationship to Comanche is greater than to any other family, thinks that the likeness is merely the result of long intercommunication. His opinion that it is entirely distinct from any other language has been indorsed by Buschmann and other authorities. The family is represented by the Kiowa tribe. So intimately associated with the Comanches have the Kiowa been since known to history that it is not easy to determine their pristine home. … Pope definitely locates the Kiowa in the valley of the Upper Arkansas, and of its tributary, the Purgatory (Las Animas) River. This is in substantial accord with the statements of other writers of about the same period. Schermerhorn (1812) places the Kiowa on the heads of the Arkansas and Platte. Earlier still they appear upon the headwaters of the Platte."-

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 84.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kiriri, Cuyriri.

See above: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kitunahan Family.

"This family was based upon a tribe variously termed Kitunaha, Kutenay, Cootenai, or Flatbow, living on the Kootenay River, a branch of the Columbia in Oregon."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 85.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Klamaths.

See below: MODOCS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Koluschan Family.

"Derivation: From the Aleut word kolosh, or more properly, kaluga, meaning 'dish,' the allusion being to the dishshaped lip ornaments. This family was based by Gallatin upon the Koluschen tribe (the Tshinkitani of Marchand), 'who inhabit the islands and the [Pacific] coast from the 60th to the 55th degree of north latitude.'"

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 86.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kulanapan Family.

"The main territory of the Kulanapan family is bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the east by the Yukian and Copohan territories, on the north by the watershed of the Russian River, and on the south by a line drawn from Bodega Head to the southwest corner of the Yukian territory, near Santa Rosa, Sonoma County, California."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 88.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kusan Family:

"The 'Kaus or Kwokwoos' tribe is merely mentioned by Hale as living on a river of the same name between the Umqua and the Clamet."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 89.

See Note, Appendix E.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Kwokwoos.

See above: KUSAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Lenape.

See above: DELAWARES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Machicuis.

See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Macushi.

See above: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Manaos.

See above: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mandans, or Mandanes.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Manhattans.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and, also, MANHATTAN ISLAND.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Manioto, or Mayno.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mapochins.

See CHILE: A. D. 1450-1724.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Maranha.

See above: GUCK OR Coco GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Maricopas.

See below: PUEBLOS.

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AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mariposan Family.

"Derivation: A Spanish word meaning 'butterfly,' applied to a county in California and subsequently taken for the family name. Latham mentions the remnants of three distinct bands of the Coconoon, each with its own language, in the north of Mariposa County. These are classed together under the above name. More recently the tribes speaking languages allied to the Coconun have been treated of under the family name Yokut. As, however, the stock was established by Latham on a sound basis, his name is here restored."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 90.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mascoutins, or Mascontens.

See below: SACS, &c.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Massachusetts.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mataguayas.

See BOLIVIA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mayas.

"In his second voyage, Columbus heard vague rumors of a mainland westward from Jamaica and Cuba, at a distance of ten days' journey in a canoe. … During his fourth voyage (1503-4), when he was exploring the Gulf southwest from Cuba, he picked up a canoe laden with cotton clothing variously dyed. The natives in it gave him to understand that they were merchants, and came from a land called Maia. This is the first mention in history of the territory now called Yucatan, and of the race of the Mayas; for although a province of similar name was found in the western extremity of the island of Cuba, the similarity was accidental, as the evidence is conclusive that no colony of the Mayas was found on the Antilles. … Maya was the patrial name of the natives of Yucatan. It was the proper name of the northern portion of the peninsula. No single province bore it at the date of the Conquest, and probably it had been handed down as a generic term from the period, about a century before, when this whole district was united under one government. … Whatever the primitive meaning and first application of the name Maya, it is now used to signify specifically the aborigines of Yucatan. In a more extended sense, in the expression 'the Maya family,' it is understood to embrace all tribes, wherever found, who speak related dialects presumably derived from the same ancient stock as the Maya proper. … The total number of Indians of pure blood speaking the Maya proper may be estimated as nearly or quite 200,000, most of them in the political limits of the department of Yucatan; to these should be added nearly 100,000 of mixed blood, or of European descent, who use the tongue in daily life. For it forms one of the rare examples of American languages possessing vitality enough not only to maintain its ground, but actually to force itself on European settlers and supplant their native speech. … The Mayas did not claim to be autochthones. Their legends referred to their arrival by the sea from the East, in remote times, under the leadership of Itzamna, their hero-god, and also to a less numerous immigration from the West, which was connected with the history of another hero-god, Kukul Càn. The first of these appears to be wholly mythical. … The second tradition deserves more attention from the historian. … It cannot be denied that the Mayas, the Kiches [or Quiches] and the Cakchiquels, in their most venerable traditions, claimed to have migrated from the north or west from some part of the present country of Mexico. These traditions receive additional importance from the presence on the shores of the Mexican Gulf, on the waters of the river Panuco, north of Vera Cruz, of a prominent branch of the Maya family, the Huastecs. The idea suggests itself that these were the rear-guard of a great migration of the Maya family from the north toward the south. Support is given to this by their dialect, which is most closely akin to that of the Tzendals of Tabasco, the nearest Maya race to the south of them, and also by very ancient traditions of the Aztecs. It is noteworthy that these two partially civilized races, the Mayas and the Aztecs, though differing radically in language, had legends which claimed a community of origin in some indefinitely remote past. We find these on the Maya side narrated in the sacred book of the Kiches, the Popol Vuh, in the Cakchiquel 'Records of Tecpan Atillan,' and in various pure Maya sources. … The annals of the Aztecs contain frequent allusions to the Huastecs."

D. G. Brinton, The Maya Chronicles, introduction.

"Closely enveloped in the dense forests of Chiapas, Gautemala, Yucatan, and Honduras, the ruins of several ancient cities have been discovered, which are far superior in extent and magnificence to any seen in Aztec territory, and of which a detailed description may be found in the fourth volume of this work. Most of these cities were abandoned and more or less unknown at the time of the [Spanish] Conquest. They bear hieroglyphic inscriptions apparently identical in character; in other respects they resemble each other more than they resemble the Aztec ruins—or even other and apparently later works in Guatemala and Honduras. All these remains bear evident marks of great antiquity. … I deem the grounds sufficient … for accepting this Central American civilization of the past as a fact, referring it not to an extinct ancient race, but to the direct ancestors of the peoples still occupying the country with the Spaniards, and applying to it the name Maya as that of the language which has claims as strong as any to be considered the mother tongue of the linguistic family mentioned. … There are no data by which to fix the period of the original Maya empire, or its downfall or breaking up into rival factions by civil and foreign wars. The cities of Yucatan, as is clearly shown by Mr. Stephens, were, many of them, occupied by the descendants of the builders down to the conquest, and contain some remnants of wood-work still in good preservation, although some of the structures appear to be built on the ruins of others of a somewhat different type. Palenque and Copan, on the contrary, have no traces of wood or other perishable material, and were uninhabited and probably unknown in the 16th century. The loss of the key to what must have been an advanced system of hieroglyphics, while the spoken language survived, is also an indication of great antiquity, confirmed by the fact that the Quiché structures of Guatemala differed materially from those of the more ancient epoch. It is not likely that the Maya empire in its integrity continued later than the 3d or 4th century, although its cities may have been inhabited much later, and I should fix the epoch of its highest power at a date preceding rather than following the Christian era."

H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, volume 2, chapter 2; volume 4, chapters 3-6; volume 5, chapters 11-13.

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ALSO IN Marquis de Nadaillac, Prehistoric America, chapters 6-7.

J. L. Stephens, Incidents of Travel in Yucatan; and Travel in Central America, &c.

B. M. Norman, Rambles in Yucatan.

D. Charnay, Ancient Cities of the New World.

See, also, MEXICO: ANCIENT, and AZTEC AND AND MAYA PICTURE-WRITING.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mayoruna, or Barbudo.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Menominees.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and SACS, &c.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Metöacs.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Miamis, or Twightwees.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, ILLINOIS, and SACS, &c.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Micmacs.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mingoes.

"The name of Mingo, or Mengwe, by which the Iroquois were known to the Delawares and the other southern Algonkins, is said to be a contraction of the Lenape word 'Mahongwi,' meaning the 'People of the Springs.' The Iroquois possessed the head-waters of the rivers which flowed through the country of the Delawares."

H. Hale, The Iroquois Book of Rites, appendix, note. A.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Minneconjou.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Minnetarees.

See above: HIDATSA; and below: SIOUAN FAMILY. See Note, Appendix E. 9.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Minquas.

See below: SUSQUEHANNAS; and above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Minsis, Munsees, or Minisinks.

See above: DELAWARES, and ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Miranha.

See above: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Missouris.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mixes.

See below: ZAPOTECS, ETC.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mixtecs.

See below: ZAPOTECS, ETC.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mocovis.

See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Modocs (Klamaths) and their California and Oregon neighbors.

See Note, Appendix E.

"The principal tribes occupying this region [of Northern California from Rogue River on the north to the Eel River, south] are the Klamaths, who live on the head waters of the river and on the shores of the lake of that name; the Modocs, on Lower Klamath Lake and along Lost River; the Shastas, to the south-west of the Lakes; the Pitt River Indians; the Euroes, on the Klamath River between Weitspek and the coast; the Cahrocs, on the Klamath River from a short distance above the junction of the Trinity to the Klamath Mountains; the Hoopahs [or Hupas, a tribe of the Athapascan Family] in Hoopah Valley on the Trinity near its junction with the Klamath; numerous tribes on the coast from Eel River and Humboldt Bay north, such as the Weeyots, Wallies, Tolewahs, etc., and the Rogue River Indians, on and about the river of that name. The Northern Californians are in every way superior to the central and southern tribes."

H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States, volume 1, chapter 4.

"On the Klamath there live three distinct tribes, called the Yú-rok, Ká-rok, and Mó-dok, which names are said to mean, respectively, 'down the river,' 'up the river,' and 'head of the river.' … The Karok are probably the finest tribe in California. … Hoopa Valley, on the Lower Trinity, is the home of [the Hú-pá]. Next after the Ká-rok they are the finest race in all that region, and they even excel them in their statecraft, and in the singular influence, or perhaps brute force, which they exercise over the vicinal tribes. They are the Romans of Northern California in their valor and their wide-reaching dominions; they are the French in the extended diffusion of their language." The Modoks, "on the whole … are rather a cloddish, indolent, ordinarily good-natured race, but treacherous at bottom, sullen when angered, notorious for keeping Punic faith. But their bravery nobody can impeach or deny; their heroic and long defense of their stronghold against the appliances of modern civilized warfare, including that arm so awful to savages—the artillery—was almost the only feature that lent respectability to their wretched tragedy of the Lava Beds [1873]."

S. Powers, Tribes of California (Contributions to North American Ethnology, volume 3), chapter 1, 7, and 27.

"The home of the Klamath tribe of southwestern Oregon lies upon the eastern slope of the southern extremity of the Cascade Range, and very nearly coincides with what we may call the head waters of the Klamath River, the main course of which lies in Northern California. … The main seat of the Modoc people was the valley of Lost River, the shores of Tule and of Little Klamath Lake. … The two main bodies forming the Klamath people are (1) the Klamath Lake Indians; (2) the Modoc Indians. The Klamath Lake Indians number more than twice as many as the Modoc Indians. They speak the northern dialect and form the northern chieftaincy. … The Klamath people possess no historic traditions going further back in time than a century, for the simple reason that there was a strict law prohibiting the mention of the person or acts of a deceased individual by using his name. … Our present knowledge does not allow us to connect the Klamath language genealogically with any of the other languages compared, but … it stands as a linguistic family for itself."

A. S. Gatschet, The Klamath Indians (Contributions to North American Ethnology, volume 2, part 1).

In Major Powell's linguistic classification, the Klamath and Modoc dialects are embraced in a family called the Lutuamian Family, derived from a Pit River word signifying "lake;" the Yuroks in a family called the Weitspekan; and the Pit River Indian dialects are provisionally set apart in a distinct family named the Palaihnihan Family.

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, pages 89 and 97.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mohaves (Mojaves).

See above: APACHE GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mohawks.

See above: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mohegans, or Mahicans.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY; and below: STOCKBRIDGE INDIANS; also, NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1637.

Montagnais.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY; and ATHAPASCAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Montauks.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Moquelumnan Family.

"Derivation: From the river and hill of the same name in Calaveras County, California. … It was not until 1856 that the distinctness of the linguistic family was fully set forth by Latham. Under the head of Moquelumne, this author gathers several vocabularies representing different languages and dialects of the same stock. These are the Talatui of Hale, the Tuolumne from Schoolcraft, the Sonoma dialects as represented by the Tshokoyem vocabulary, the Chocuyem and Youkiousme paternosters, and the Olamentke of Kostromitonov in Bäer's Beiträge. … The Moquelumnan family occupies the territory bounded on the north by the Cosumne River, on the south by the Fresno River, on the east by the Sierra Nevada, and on the west by the San Joaquin River, with the exception of a strip on the east bank occupied by the Cholovone. A part of this family occupies also a territory bounded on the south by San Francisco Bay."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, pages 92-93.

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AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Moquis.

See below: PUEBLOS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Morona.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Moxos, or Mojos.

See above: ANDESIANS; also, BOLIVIA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mundrucu.

See below: TUPI.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Munsees.

See above: DELAWARES, and ALGONQUIAN FAMILY; also MANHATTAN ISLAND.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Mura.

See above: GUCK OR Coco GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Muskhogean, or Maskoki Family.

"Among the various nationalities of the Gulf territories the Maskoki family of tribes occupied a central and commanding position. Not only the large extent of territory held by them, but also their numbers, their prowess in war, and a certain degree of mental culture and self-esteem made of the Maskoki one of the most important groups in Indian history. From their ethnologic condition of later times, we infer that these tribes have extended for many centuries back in time from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and beyond that river, and from the Apalachian ridge to the Gulf of Mexico. With short intermissions they kept up warfare with all the circumjacent Indian communities, and also among each other. … The irresolute and egotistic policy of these tribes often caused serious difficulties to the government of the English and French colonies, and some of them constantly wavered in their adhesion between the French and the English cause. The American government overcame their opposition easily whenever a conflict presented itself (the Seminole War forms an exception), because, like all the Indians, they never knew how to unite against a common foe. The two main branches of the stock, the Creek and the Cha'hta [or Choctaw] Indians, were constantly at war, and the remembrance of their deadly conflicts has now passed to their descendants in the form of folk lore. … The only characteristic by which a subdivision of the family can be attempted, is that of language. Following their ancient topographic location from east to west, we obtain the following synopsis: First branch, or Maskoki proper: The Creek, Maskokálgi or Maskoki proper, settled on Coosa, Tallapoosa, Upper and Middle Chatahuchi rivers. From these branched off by segmentation the Creek portion of the Seminoles, of the Yámassi and of the little Yamacraw community. Second, or Apalachian branch: This southeastern division, which may be called also 'a parte potiori' the Hitchiti connection, anciently comprised the tribes on the Lower Chatahuchi river, and, east from there, the extinct Apalachi, the Mikasuki, and the Hitchiti portion of the Seminoles, Yámassi and Yamacraws. Third, or Alibamu branch, comprised the Alibamu villages on the river of that name; to them belonged the Koassáti and Witumka on Coosa river, its northern affluent. Fourth, Western or Cha'hta [Choctaw] branch: From the main people, the Cha'hta, settled in the middle portions of the State of Mississippi, the Chicasa, Pascagoula, Biloxi, Huma, and other tribes once became separated through segmentation. The strongest evidence for a community of origin of the Maskoki tribes is furnished by the fact that their dialects belong to one linguistic family. … Maskóki, Maskógi, isti Maskóki, designates a single person of the Creek tribe, and forms, as a collective plural, Maskokálgi, the Creek community, the Creek people, the Creek Indians. English authors write this name Muscogee, Muskhogee, and its plural Muscogulgee. The first syllable, as pronounced by the Creek Indians, contains a clear short a. … The accent is usually laid on the middle syllable: Maskóki, Maskógi. None of the tribes are able to explain the name from their own language. … Why did the English colonists call them Creek Indians? Because, when the English traders entered the Maskoki country from Charleston or Savannah, they had to cross a number of streams or creeks, especially between the Chatahuchi and Savannah rivers. Gallatin thought it probable that the inhabitants of the country adjacent to Savannah river were called Creeks from an early time. … In the southern part of the Cha'hta territory several tribes, represented to be of Cha'hta lineage, appear as distinct from the main body, and are always mentioned separately. The French colonists, in whose annals they figure extensively, call them Mobilians, Tohomes, Pascogoulas, Biloxis, Mougoulachas, Bayogoulas and Humas (Oumas). They have all disappeared in our epoch, with the exception of the Biloxi [Major Powell, in the Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, places the Biloxi in the Siouan Family], [See Note, Appendix E.] of whom scattered remnants live in the forests of Louisiana, south of the Red River."

A. S. Gatschet, A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians, volume 1, part 1.

"The Uchees and the Natches, who are both incorporated in the [Muskhogee or Creek] confederacy, speak two distinct languages altogether different from the Muskhogee. The Natches, a residue of the well-known nation of that name, came from the banks of the Mississippi, and joined the Creeks less than one hundred years ago. The original seats of the Uchees were east of the Coosa and probably of the Chatahoochee; and they consider themselves as the most ancient inhabitants of the country. They may have been the same nation which is called Apalaches in the accounts of De Soto's expedition. … The four great Southern nations, according to the estimates of the War Department … consist now [1836] of 67,000 souls, viz.: The Cherokees, 15,000; the Choctaws (18,500), the Chicasas (5,500), 24,000; the Muskhogees, Seminoles, and Hitchittees, 26,000; the Uchees, Alibamons, Coosadas, and Natches, 2,000. The territory west of the Mississippi, given or offered to them by the United States in exchange for their lands east of that river, contains 40,000,000 acres, exclusively of what may be allotted to the Chicasas."

A. Gallatin, Synopsis of the Indian Tribes (Archæologia Americana, volume 2), section 3.

See below: SEMINOLES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Musquito, or Mosquito Indians.

"That portion of Honduras known as the Musquito Coast derived its name, not from the abundance of those troublesome insects, but from a native tribe who at the discovery occupied the shore near Blewfield Lagoon. They are an intelligent people, short in stature, unusually dark in color, with finely cut features, and small straight noses—not at all negroid, except where there has been an admixture of blood. They number about 6,000, many of whom have been partly civilized by the efforts of missionaries, who have reduced the language to writing and published in it a number of works. The Tunglas are one of the sub-tribes of the Musquitos."

D. G. Brinton, The American Race, page 162.

See, also, NICARAGUA: A. D., 1850.

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AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Nahuas.

See MEXICO, ANCIENT: THE MAYA AND NAHUA PEOPLES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Nanticokes.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Napo.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Narragansetts.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY; also RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1636; and NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1637; 1674-1675; 1675; and 1676-1678.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Natchesan Family.

When the French first entered the lower Mississippi valley, they found the Natchez [Na'htchi] occupying a region of country that now surrounds the city which bears their name. "By the persevering curiosity of Gallatin, it is established that the Natchez were distinguished from the tribes around them less by their customs and the degree of their civilization than by their language, which, as far as comparisons have been instituted, has no etymological affinity with any other whatever. Here again the imagination too readily invents theories; and the tradition has been widely received that the dominion of the Natchez once extended even to the Wabash. History knows them only as a feeble and inconsiderable nation, who in the 18th century attached themselves to the confederacy of the Creeks."

G. Bancroft, History of the United States (Author's last revision), volume 2, page 97.

"Chateaubriand, in his charming romances, and some of the early French writers, who often drew upon their fancy for their facts, have thrown an interest around the Natchez, as a semi-civilized and noble race, that has passed into history. We find no traces of civilization in their architecture, or in their social life and customs. Their religion was brutal and bloody, indicating an Aztec origin. They were perfidious and cruel, and if they were at all superior to the neighboring tribes it was probably due to the district they occupied—the most beautiful, healthy and productive in the valley of the Mississippi—and the influence of its attractions in substituting permanent for temporary occupation. The residence of the grand chief was merely a spacious cabin, of one apartment, with a mat of basket work for his bed and a log for his pillow. … Their government was an absolute despotism. The supreme chief was master of their labor, their property, and their lives. … The Natchez consisted exclusively of two classes—the Blood Royal and its connexions, and the common people, the Mich-i-mioki-quipe, or Stinkards. The two classes understood each other, but spoke a different dialect. Their customs of war, their treatment of prisoners, their ceremonies of marriage, their feasts and fasts, their sorceries and witchcraft, differed very little from other savages. Father Charlevoix, who visited Natchez in 1721, saw no evidences of civilization. Their villages consisted of a few cabins, or rather ovens, without windows and roofed with matting. The house of the Sun was larger, plastered with mud, and a narrow bench for a seat and bed. No other furniture in the mansion of this grand dignitary, who has been described by imaginative writers as the peer of Montezuma!"

J. F. H. Claiborne, Mississippi, volume 1, chapter 4.

In 1729, the Natchez, maddened by insolent oppressions, planned and executed a general massacre of the French within their territory. As a consequence, the tribe was virtually exterminated within the following two years.

C. Gayarre, Louisiana, its Colonial History and Romance, 2d series, lecture 3 and 5.

"The Na'htchi, according to Gallatin, a residue of the well-known nation of that name, came from the banks of the Mississippi, and joined the Creek less than one hundred years ago. The seashore from Mobile to the Mississippi was then inhabited by several small tribes, of which the Na'htchi was the principal. Before 1730 the tribe lived in the vicinity of Natchez, Miss., along St. Catherine Creek. After their dispersion by the French in 1730 most of the remainder joined the Chicasa and afterwards the Upper Creek. They are now in Creek and Cherokee Nations, Indian Territory. The linguistic relations of the language spoken by the Taensa tribe have long been in doubt, and it is possible they will ever remain so."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 96.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1719-1750. See, also, above: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Natchitoches;

See Note, Appendix E. See TEXAS: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Nausets.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Navajos.

See above: ATHAPASCAN FAMILY, and APACHE GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Neutral Nation.

See above: HURONS, &c.; and IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY: THEIR CONQUESTS, &c.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Nez Percés, or Sahaptins.

"The Sahaptins or Nez Percés [the Shahaptian Family in Major Powell's classification], with their affiliated tribes, occupied the middle and upper valley of the Columbia and its affluents, and also the passes of the mountains. They were in contiguity with the Shoshones and the Algonkin Blackfeet, thus holding an important position, intermediate between the eastern and the Pacific tribes. Having the commercial instinct of the latter, they made good use of it."

D. G. Brinton, The American Race, page 107.

ALSO IN J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, page 106.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Niniquiquilas.

See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Nipmucs, or Nipnets.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY; also, NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1674-1675; 1675; and 1676-1678 (KING PHILIP'S WAR).

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Nootkas.

See below: WAKASHAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Nottoways.

See above: IROQUOIS TRIBES OF THE SOUTH.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Nyantics.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Ogalalas.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Ojibwas, or Chippewas.

"The Ojibways, with their kindred, the Pottawattamies, and their friends the Ottawas,—the latter of whom were fugitives from the eastward, whence they had fled from the wrath of the Iroquois,—were banded into a sort of confederacy. They were closely allied in blood, language, manners and character. The Ojibways, by far the most numerous of the three, occupied the basin of Lake Superior, and extensive adjacent regions. In their boundaries, the career of Iroquois conquest found at length a check. The fugitive Wyandots sought refuge in the Ojibway hunting grounds; and tradition relates that, at the outlet of Lake Superior, an Iroquois war-party once encountered a disastrous repulse. In their mode of life, they were far more rude than the Iroquois, or even the southern Algonquin tribes."

F. Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac, chapter 1.

{97}

"The name of the tribe appears to be recent. It is not met with in the older writers. The French, who were the earliest to meet them, in their tribal seat at the falls or Sault de Ste Marie, named them Saulteur, from this circumstance. M'Kenzie uses the term 'Jibway,' as the equivalent of this term, in his voyages. They are referred to, with little difference in the orthography, in General Washington's report, in 1754, of his trip to Le Bœuf, on Lake Erie; but are first recognized, among our treaty-tribes, in the general treaty of Greenville, of 1794, in which, with the Ottawas they ceded the island of Michilimackinac, and certain dependencies, conceded by them at former periods to the French. … The Chippewas are conceded, by writers on American philology … to speak one of the purest forms of the Algonquin."

H. R. Schoolcraft, Information respecting the History, Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes, part 5, page 142.

ALSO IN G. Copway, The Ojibway Nation.

J. G. Kohl, Kitchi-gami.

See, also, PONTIAC'S WAR: and above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Omahas.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY, and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Oneidas.

See above: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

Onondagas.

See above: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Orejones.

See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Osages.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY, and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Otoes, or Ottoes.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY, and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Otomis.

"According to Aztec tradition, the Otomis were the earliest owners of the soil of Central Mexico. Their language was at the conquest one of the most widely distributed of any in this portion of the continent. Its central regions were the States of Queretaro and Guanajuato. … The Otomis are below the average stature, of dark color, the skull markedly dolichocephalic, the nose short and flattened, the eyes slightly oblique."

D. G. Brinton, The American Race, page 135.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Ottawas.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and OJIBWAS. See, also, PONTIAC'S WAR.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES Pacaguara.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pacamora.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pamlicoes.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pampas Tribes.

"The chief tribe of the Pampas Indians was entitled Querandis by the Spaniards, although they called themselves Pehuelches [or Puelts—that is, the Eastern]. Various segments of these, under different names, occupied the immense tract of ground, between the river Parana and the republic of Chili. The Querandis … were the great opponents to settlement of the Spaniards in Buenos Ayres. … The Ancas or Aracaunos Indians [see CHILE] resided on the west of the Pampas near Chili, and from time to time assisted the Querandis in transporting stolen cattle across the Cordilleras. The southern part of the Pampas was occupied by the Balchitas, Uhilches, Telmelches, and others, all of whom were branches of the original Quelches horde. The Guarani Indians were the most famous of the South American races. … Of the Guayanas horde there were several tribes—independent of each other, and speaking different idioms, although having the same title of race. Their territory extended from the river Guarai, one of the affluents into the Uruguay, for many leagues northwards, and stretched over to the Parana opposite the city of Corpus Christi. They were some of the most vigorous opponents of the Spanish invaders. … The Nalicurgas Indians, who lived up to near 21° South latitude were reputed to dwell in caves, to be very limited in number, and to go entirely naked. The Gausarapos, or Guuchies dwelt in the marshy districts near where the river Gausarapo, or Guuchie, has its source. This stream enters from the east into the Paraguay at 19° 16' 30" South latitude. … The Cuatos lived inside of a lake to the west of the river Paraguay, and constituted a very small tribe. … The Orejones dwelt on the eastern brows of the mountains of Santa Lucia or San Fernando—close to the western side of Paraguay river. … Another tribe, the Niniquiquilas, had likewise the names of Potreros, Simanos, Barcenos, and Lathanos. They occupied a forest which began at about 19° South latitude, some leagues backward from the river Paraguay, and separated the Gran Chaco from the province of Los Chiquitos in Peru. … The Guanas Indians were divided into eight separate segments, for each of which there was a particular and different name. They lived between 20° and 22° of South latitude in the Gran Chaco to the west of Paraguay, and they were not known to the Spaniards till the latter crossed the last-named river in 1673. … The Albaias and Payaguas Indians … in former times, were the chief tribes of the Paraguay territory. … The Albaias were styled Machicuis and Enimgas by other authors. At the time of the Spaniards' arrival here, the Albaias occupied the Gran Chaco side of the river Paraguay from 20° to 22° South latitude. Here they entered into a treaty offensive and defensive with the Payaguas. … The joined forces of Albaias and Payaguas had managed to extend their territory in 1673 down to 24° 7' South on the eastern side of Paraguay river. … The Albaias were a very tall and muscular race of people. … The Payagua Indians, before and up to, as well as after, the period of the conquest, were sailors, and domineered over the river Paraguay. … The Guaicarus lived on the Chaco side of Paraguay river and subsisted entirely by hunting. From the barbarous custom which their women had of inducing abortion to avoid the pain or trouble of child-bearing, they became exterminated soon after the conquest. … The Tobas, who have also the titles of Natecœt and Yncanabaite, were among the best fighters of the Indians. They occupy the Gran Chaco, chiefly on the banks of the river Vermejo, and between that and the Pilcomayo. Of these there are some remains in the present day. … The Mocovis are likewise still to be found in the Chaco. … The Abipones, who were also styled Ecusgina and Quiabanabaite, lived in the Chaco, so low down as 28° South. This was the tribe with whom the Jesuits incorporated, when they erected the city of San Geronimo, in the Gran Chaco, and nearly opposite Goya, in 1748."

T. J. Hutchinson, The Parana, chapters 6-7.

{98}

"The Abipones inhabit [in the 18th century] the province Chaco, the centre of all Paraguay; they have no fixed abodes, nor any boundaries, except what fear of their neighbours has established. They roam extensively in every direction, whenever the opportunity of attacking their enemies, or the necessity of avoiding them renders a journey advisable. The northern shore of the Rio Grande or Bermejo, which the Indians call Iñatè, was their native land in the last century [the 17th]. Thence they removed, to avoid the war carried on against Chaco by the Spaniards … and, migrating towards the south, took possession of a valley formerly held by the Calchaquis. … From what region their ancestors came there is no room for conjecture."

M. Dobrizhoffer, Account of the Abipones, volume 2, chapter 1.

"The Abipones are in general above the middle stature, and of a robust constitution. In summer they go quite naked; but in winter cover themselves with skins. … They paint themselves all over with different colours."

Father Charlevoix, History of Paraguay, book 7 (volume 1).

ALSO IN The Standard Natural History (J. S. Kingsley, editor), volume 6, pages 256-262.

See, also, below: TUPI. GUARANI.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pampticokes.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pano.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Papagos.

See below: PIMAN FAMILY, and PUEBLOS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Parawianas.

See above: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pascogoulas.

See above: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Passé.

See above: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Patagonians and Fuegians.

"The Patagonians call themselves Chonek or Tzoueca, or Inaken (men, people), and by their Pampean neighbors are referred to as Tehuel-Che, southerners. They do not, however, belong to the Aucanian stock, nor do they resemble the Pampeans physically. They are celebrated for their stature, many of them reaching from six to six feet four inches in height, and built in proportion. In color they are a reddish brown, and have aquiline noses and good foreheads. They care little for a sedentary life, and roam the coast as far north as the Rio Negro. … On the inhospitable shores of Tierra del Fuego there dwell three nations of diverse stock, but on about the same plane of culture. One of these is the Yahgans, or Yapoos, on the Beagle Canal; the second is the Onas or Aonik, to the north and east of these; and the third the Aliculufs, to the north and west. … The opinion has been advanced by Dr. Deniker of Paris, that the Fuegians represent the oldest type or variety of the American race. He believes that at one time this type occupied the whole of South America south of the Amazon, and that the Tapuyas of Brazil and the Fuegians are its surviving members. This interesting theory demands still further evidence before it can be accepted."

D. G. Brinton, The American Race, pages 327-332.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pawnee Family (named "Caddoan" by Major Powell).

"The Pawnee Family, though some of its branches have long been known, is perhaps in history and language one of the least understood of the important tribes of the West. In both respects it seems to constitute a distinct group. During recent years its extreme northern and southern branches have evinced a tendency to blend with surrounding stocks; but the central branch, constituting the Pawnee proper, maintains still in its advanced decadence a bold line of demarcation between itself and all adjacent tribes. The members of the family are: The Pawnees, the Arikaras, the Caddos, the Huecos or Wacos, the Keechies, the Tawaconies, and the Pawnee Picts or Wichitas. The last five may be designated as the Southern or Red River branches. At the date of the Louisiana purchase the Caddos were living about 40 miles northwest of where Shreveport now stands. Five years earlier their residence was upon Clear Lake, in what is now Caddo Parish. This spot they claimed was the place of their nativity, and their residence from time immemorial. … They have a tradition that they are the parent stock, from which all the southern branches have sprung, and to some extent this claim has been recognized. … The five [southern] bands are now all gathered upon a reserve secured for them in the Indian Territory by the Government. … In many respects, their method of building lodges, their equestrianism, and certain social and tribal usages, they quite closely resemble the Pawnees. Their connection, however, with the Pawnee family, not till recently if ever mentioned, is mainly a matter of vague conjecture. … The name Pawnee is most probably derived from 'párĭk-ĭ,' a horn; and seems to have been once used by the Pawnees themselves to designate their peculiar scalp-lock. From the fact that this was the most noticeable feature in their costume, the name came naturally to be the denominative term of the tribe. The word in this use once probably embraced the Wichitas (i. e., Pawnee Picts) and the Arikaras. … The true Pawnee territory till as late as 1833 may be described as extending from the Niobrara south to the Arkansas. They frequently hunted considerably beyond the Arkansas; tradition says as far as the Canadian. … On the east they claimed to the Missouri, though in eastern Nebraska, by a sort of tacit permit, the Otoes, Poncas, and Omahas along that stream occupied lands extending as far west as the Elkhorn. In Kansas, also, east of the Big Blue, they had ceased to exercise any direct control, as several remnants of tribes, the Wyandots, Delawares, Kickapoos, and Iowas, had been settled there and were living under the guardianship of the United States. … On the west their grounds were marked by no natural boundary, but may perhaps be described by a line drawn from the mouth of Snake River on the Niobrara southwest to the North Platte, thence south to the Arkansas. … It is not to be supposed, however, that they held altogether undisturbed possession of this territory. On the north they were incessantly harassed by various bands of the Dakotas, while upon the south the Osages, Comanches, Cheyennes, Arapahoes and Kiowas (the last three originally northern tribes) were equally relentless in their hostility. … In 1833 the Pawnees surrendered to the United States their claim upon all the above described territory lying south of the Platte. In 1858 all their remaining territory was ceded, except a reserve 30 miles long and 15 wide upon the Loup Fork of the Platte, its eastern limit beginning at Beaver Creek. In 1874 they sold this tract and removed to a reserve secured for them by the Government in the Indian Territory, between the Arkansas and Cimarron at their junction."

J. B. Dunbar, The Pawnee Indians (Magazine of American History, April, 1880, volume 4).

ALSO IN G. B. Grinnell, Pawnee Hero Stories.

D. G. Brinton, The American Race, pages 95-97.

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, page 59.

See, also, above: ADAIS and BLACKFEET.

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AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Payaguas.

See above: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pehuelches, or Puelts.

See above: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Penacooks, or Pawtucket Indians.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Peorias.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pequots.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY; and below: SHAWANESE; also, NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1637.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Piankishaws.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and SACS, &c.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Piegans.

See above: BLACKFEET.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Piman Family.

"Only a small portion of the territory occupied by this family is included within the United States, the greater portion being in Mexico, where it extends to the Gulf of California. The family is represented in the United States by three tribes, Pima alta, Sobaipuri, and Papago. The former have lived for at least two centuries with the Maricopa on the Gila River about 160 miles from the mouth. The Sobaipuri occupied the Santa Cruz and San Pedro Rivers, tributaries of the Gila, but are no longer known. The Papago territory is much more extensive and extends to the south across the border."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, pages 98-99.

See below: PUEBLOS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pimenteiras.

See above: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Piru.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pit River Indians.

See above: MODOCS (KLAMATHS), &c.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Piutes.

See below: SHOSHONEAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pokanokets, or Wampanoags.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY; also, NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1674-1675; 1675; 1676-1678 (KING PHILIP'S WAR).

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Ponkas, or Puncas.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY; and above: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Popolocas.

See above: CHONTALS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pottawatomies.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, OJIBWAS, and SACS, &c.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Powhatan Confederacy.

"At the time of the first settlement by the Europeans, it has been estimated that there were not more than 20,000 Indians within the limits of the State of Virginia. Within a circuit of 60 miles from Jamestown, Captain Smith says there were about 5,000 souls, and of these scarce 1,500 were warriors. The whole territory between the mountains and the sea was occupied by more than 40 tribes, 30 of whom were united in a confederacy under Powhatan, whose dominions, hereditary and acquired by conquest, comprised the whole country between the rivers James and Potomac, and extended into the interior as far as the falls of the principal rivers. Campbell, in his History of Virginia, states the number of Powhatan's subjects to have been 8,000. Powhatan was a remarkable man; a sort of savage Napoleon, who, by the force of his character and the superiority of his talents, had raised himself from the rank of a petty chieftain to something of imperial dignity and power. He had two places of abode, one called Powhatan, where Richmond now stands, and the other at Werowocomoco, on the north side of York River, within the present county of Gloucester. … Besides the large confederacy of which Powhatan was the chief, there were two others, with which that was often at war. One of these, called the Mannahoacs, consisted of eight tribes, and occupied the country between the Rappahannoc and York rivers; the other, consisting of five tribes, was called the Monacans, and was settled between York and James rivers above the Falls. There were also, in addition to these, many scattering and independent tribes."

G. S. Hillard, Life of Captain John Smith (Library of American Biographies), chapter 4.

"The English invested savage life with all the dignity of European courts. Powhatan was styled 'King,' or 'Emperor,' his principal warriors were lords of the kingdom, his wives were queens, his daughter was a 'princess,' and his cabins were his various seats of residence. … In his younger days Powhatan had been a great warrior. Hereditarily, he was the chief or werowance of eight tribes; through conquest his dominions had been extended. … The name of his nation and the Indian appellation of the James River was Powhatan. He himself possessed several names."

E. Eggleston and L. E. Seelye, Pocahontas, chapter 3.

ALSO IN Captain John Smith, Description of Virginia, and General Historie of Virginia. (Arber's reprint of Works, pages 65 and 360).

See, also, above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Puans.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pueblos.

"The non-nomadic semi-civilized town and agricultural peoples of New Mexico and Arizona … I call the Pueblos, or Townspeople, from pueblo, town, population, people, a name given by the Spaniards to such inhabitants of this region as were found, when first discovered, permanently located in comparatively well-built towns. Strictly speaking, the term Pueblos applies only to the villagers settled along the banks of the Rio Grande del Norte and its tributaries between latitudes 34° 45' and 36° 30', and although the name is employed as a general appellation for this division, it will be used, for the most part, only in its narrower and popular sense. In this division, besides the before mentioned Pueblos proper, are embraced the Moquis, or villagers of eastern Arizona, and the non-nomadic agricultural nations of the lower Gila river,—the Pimas, Maricopas, Papagos, and cognate tribes. The country of the Townspeople, if we may credit Lieutenant Simpson, is one of 'almost universal barrenness,' yet interspersed with fertile spots; that of the agricultural nations, though dry, is more generally productive. The fame of this so-called civilization reached Mexico at an early day … in exaggerated rumors of great cities to the north, which prompted the expeditions of Marco de Niza in 1539, of Coronado in 1540, and of Espejo in 1586 [1583]. These adventurers visited the north in quest of the fabulous kingdoms of Quivira, Tontonteac, Marata and others, in which great riches were said to exist. The name of Quivira was afterwards applied by them to one or more of the pueblo cities. The name Cibola, from 'Cibolo,' Mexican bull, 'bos bison,' or wild ox of New Mexico, where the Spaniards first encountered buffalo, was given to seven of the towns which were afterwards known as the Seven Cities of Cibola. But most of the villages known at the present day were mentioned in the reports of the early expeditions by their present names. {100} … The towns of the Pueblos are essentially unique, and are the dominant feature of these aboriginals. Some of them are situated in valleys, others on mesas; sometimes they are planted on elevations almost inaccessible, reached only by artificial grades, or by steps cut in the solid rock. Some of the towns are of an elliptical shape, while others are square, a town being frequently but a block of buildings. Thus a Pueblo consists of one or more squares, each enclosed by three or four buildings of from 300 to 400 feet in length, and about 150 feet in width at the base, and from two to seven stories of from eight to nine feet each in height. … The stories are built in a series of gradations or retreating surfaces, decreasing in size as they rise, thus forming a succession of terraces. In some of the towns these terraces are on both sides of the building; in others they face only towards the outside; while again in others they are on the inside. These terraces are about six feet wide, and extend around the three or four sides of the square, forming a walk for the occupants of the story resting upon it, and a roof for the story beneath; so with the stories above. As there is no inner communication with one another, the only means of mounting to them is by ladders which stand at convenient distances along the several rows of terraces, and they may be drawn up at pleasure, thus cutting off all unwelcome intrusion. The outside walls of one or more of the lower stories are entirely solid, having no openings of any kind, with the exception of, in some towns, a few loopholes. … To enter the rooms on the ground floor from the outside, one must mount the ladder to the first balcony or terrace, then descend through a trap door in the floor by another ladder on the inside. … The several stories of these huge structures are divided into multitudinous compartments of greater or less size, which are apportioned to the several families of the tribe."

H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, volume 1, chapter 5.

"There can be no doubt that Cibola is to be looked for in New Mexico. … We cannot … refuse to adopt the views of General Simpson and of Mr. W. W. H. Davis, and to look at the pueblo of Zuni as occupying, if not the actual site, at least one of the sites within the tribal area of the Seven Cities of Cibola. Nor can we refuse to identify Tusayan with the Moqui district, and Acuco with Acoma."

A. F. Bandelier, Historical Introduction to Studies among the Sedentary Indians of North Mexico (Papers of the Archœolog. Institute of America: American Series, volume 1).

ALSO IN J. H. Simpson, The March of Coronado.

L. H. Morgan, Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines (Contributions to North American Ethnology, volume 4), chapter 6.

F. H. Cushing, My Adventures in Zuñi (Century, volume 3-4).

F. H. Cushing, Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (1882-83), pages 473-480.

F. W. Blackmar, Spanish Institutions of the Southwest, chapter 10.

See, also, AMERICA, PREHISTORIC, and above: PIMAN FAMILY and KERESAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pujunan Family.

"The following tribes were placed in this group by Latham: Pujuni, Secumne, Tsamak of Hale, and the Cushna of Schoolcraft. The name adopted for the family is the name of a tribe given by Hale. This was one of the two races into which, upon the information of Captain Sutter as derived by Mr. Dana, all the Sacramento tribes were believed to be divided. 'These races resembled one another in every respect but language.' … The tribes of this family have been carefully studied by Powers, to whom we are indebted for most all we know of their distribution. They occupied the eastern bank of the Sacramento in California, beginning some 80 or 100 miles from its mouth, and extended northward to within a short distance of Pit River."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, pages 99-100.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Puncas, or Ponkas.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY: and above: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Purumancians.

See CHILE: A. D. 1450-1724.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Quapaws.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Quelches.

See above: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Querandis, or Pehuelches, or Puelts.

See above: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Quiches. Cakchiquels.

"Of the ancient races of America, those which approached the nearest to a civilized condition spoke related dialects of a tongue, which from its principal members has been called the Maya Quiche linguistic stock. Even to-day, it is estimated that half a million persons use these dialects. They are scattered over Yucatan, Guatemala, and the adjacent territory, and one branch formerly occupied the hot lowlands on the Gulf of Mexico, north of Vera Cruz. The so-called 'metropolitan' dialects are those spoken relatively near the city of Guatemala, and include the Cakchiquel, the Quiche, the Pokonchi and the Tzutuhill. They are quite closely allied, and are mutually intelligible, resembling each other about as much as did in ancient Greece the Attic, Ionic and Doric dialects. … The civilization of these people was such that they used various mnemonic signs, approaching our alphabet, to record and recall their mythology and history. Fragments, more or less complete, of these traditions have been preserved. The most notable of them is the national legend of the Quiches of Guatemala, the so-called Popol Vuh. It was written at an unknown date in the Quiche dialect, by a native who was familiar with the ancient records."

D. G. Brinton, Essays of an Americanist, page 104.

ALSO IN, D. G. Brinton, Annals of the Cakchiquels.

H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, chapter 11.

See, also, above: MAYAS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Quichuas.

See PERU.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Quijo.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Quoratean Family.

"The tribes occupy both banks of the lower Klamath from a range of hills a little above Happy Camp to the junction of the Trinity, and the Salmon River from its mouth to its sources. On the north, Quoratean tribes extended to the Athapascan territory near the Oregon line."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 101.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Rapid Indians.

A name applied by various writers to the Arapahoes, and other tribes.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Raritans.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Remo.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Rogue River Indians.

See above: MODOCS, ETC.

See Note, Appendix E.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Rucanas.

See PERU.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Sabaja.

See above: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

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AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Sacs (Sauks), Foxes, etc.

"The Sauks or Saukies (White Clay), and Foxes or Outagamies, so called by the Europeans and Algonkins, but whose true name is Musquakkiuk (Red Clay), are in fact but one nation. The French missionaries on coming first in contact with them, in the year 1665, at once found that they spoke the same language, and that it differed from the Algonkin, though belonging to the same stock; and also that this language was common to the Kickapoos, and to those Indians they called Maskontens. This last nation, if it ever had an existence as a distinct tribe, has entirely disappeared. But we are informed by Charlevoix, and Mr. Schoolcraft corroborates the fact, that the word 'Mascontenck' means a country without woods, a prairie. The name Mascontens was therefore used to designate 'prairie Indians.' And it appears that they consisted principally of Sauks and Kickapoos, with an occasional mixture of Potowotamies and Miamis, who probably came there to hunt the Buffalo. The country assigned to those Mascontens lay south of the Fox River of Lake Michigan and west of Illinois River. … When first discovered, the Sauks and Foxes had their seats toward the southern extremity of Green Bay, on Fox River, and generally farther east than the country which they lately occupied. … By the treaty of 1804, the Sauks and Foxes ceded to the United States all their lands east of … the Mississippi. … The Kickapoos by various treaties, 1809 to 1819, have also ceded all their lands to the United States. They claimed all the country between the Illinois River and the Wabash, north of the parallel of latitude passing by the mouth of the Illinois and south of the Kankakee River. … The territory claimed by the Miamis and Piankishaws may be generally stated as having been bounded eastwardly by the Maumee River of Lake Erie, and to have included all the country drained by the Wabash. The Piankishaws occupied the country bordering on the Ohio."

A. Gallatin, Synopsis of the Indian Tribes (Archæologia Americana, volume 2), introduction, section 2.

The Mascontens, or Mascoutins, "seldom appear alone, but almost always in connection with their kindred, the Ottagamies or Foxes and the Kickapoos, and like them bear a character for treachery and deceit. The three tribes may have in earlier days formed the Fire-Nation [of the early French writers], but, as Gallatin observes in the Archæologia Americana, it is very doubtful whether the Mascoutins were ever a distinct tribe. If this be so, and there is no reason to reject it, the disappearance of the name will not be strange."

J. G. Shea, Brief Researches Respecting the Mascoutins (Schoolcraft's Information Respecting Indian Tribes, part 4, page 245).

See above, ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

For an account of the Black Hawk War

See Illinois, A. D. 1832.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Sahaptins.

See above: NEZ PERCÉS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Salinan Family.

This name is given by Major Powell to the San Antonio and San Miguel dialects spoken by two tribes on the Salinas River, Monterey County, California.

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 101.

See ESSELENIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Salishan Family.

See above: FLATHEADS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Sanhikans, or Mincees.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Sans Arcs.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES Santees.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

See Note. Appendix E.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Sarcee (Tinneh).

See above: BLACKFEET.

See Note. Appendix E.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Sastean Family.

"The single tribe upon the language of which Hale based his name was located by him to the southwest of the Lutuami or Klamath tribes. … The former territory of the Sastean family is the region drained by the Klamath River and its tributaries from the western base of the Cascade range to the point where the Klamath flows through the ridge of hills east of Happy Camp, which forms the boundary between the Sastean and the Quoratean families. In addition to this region of the Klamath, the Shasta extended over the Siskiyou range northward as far as Ashland, Oregon:"

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 106.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Savannahs.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Seminoles.

"The term 'semanóle,' or 'isti Simanóle,' signifies 'separatish' or 'runaway,' and as a tribal name points to the Indians who left the Creek, especially the Lower Creek settlements, for Florida, to live, hunt, and fish there in independence. The term does not mean 'wild,' 'savage,' as frequently stated; if applied now in this sense to animals, it is because of its original meaning, 'what has become a runaway.' … The Seminoles of modern times are a people compounded of the following elements: separatists from the Lower Creek and Hitchiti towns; remnants of tribes partly civilized by the Spaniards; Yamassi Indians, and some negroes. … The Seminoles were always regarded as a sort of outcasts by the Creek tribes from which they had seceded, and no doubt there were reasons for this. … These Indians showed, like the Creeks, hostile intentions towards the thirteen states during and after the Revolution, and conjointly with the Upper Creeks on Tallapoosa river concluded a treaty of friendship with the Spaniards at Pensacola in May, 1784. Although under Spanish control, the Seminoles entered into hostilities with the Americans in 1793 and 1812. In the latter year Payne míko ['King Payne'] was killed in a battle at Alachua, and his brother, the influential Bowlegs, died soon after. These unruly tribes surprised and massacred American settlers on the Satilla river, Georgia, in 1817, and another conflict began, which terminated in the destruction of the Mikasuki and Suwanee river towns of the Seminoles by General Jackson, in April, 1818. [See FLORIDA: A. D. 1816-1818.] After the cession of Florida, and its incorporation into the American Union (1819), the Seminoles gave up all their territory by the treaty of Fort Moultrie, Sept. 18th, 1823, receiving in exchange goods and annuities. When the government concluded to move these Indians west of the Mississippi river, a treaty of a conditional character was concluded with them at Payne's landing, in 1832. The larger portion were removed, but the more stubborn part dissented, and thus gave origin to one of the gravest conflicts which ever occurred between Indians and whites. The Seminole war began with the massacre of Major Dade's command near Wahoo swamp, December 28th, 1835, and continued with unabated fury for five years, entailing an immense expenditure of money and lives. [See FLORIDA: A. D. 1835-1843.] A number of Creek warriors joined the hostile Seminoles in 1836. A census of the Seminoles taken in 1822 gave a population of 3,899, with 800 negroes belonging to them. The population of the Seminoles in the Indian Territory amounted to 2,667 in 1881. … There are some Seminoles now in Mexico, who went there with their negro slaves."

A. S. Gatschet, A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians, volume 1, part 1, section 2.

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"Ever since the first settlement of these Indians in Florida they have been engaged in a strife with the whites. … In the unanimous judgment of unprejudiced writers, the whites have ever been in the wrong."

D. G. Brinton, Notes on the Floridian Peninsula, page 148.

"There were in Florida, October 1, 1880, of the Indians commonly known as Seminole, 208. They constituted 37 families, living in 22 camps, which were gathered into five widely separated groups or settlements. … This people our Government has never been able to conciliate or to conquer. … The Seminole have always lived within our borders as aliens. It is only of late years, and through natural necessities, that any friendly intercourse of white man and Indian has been secured. … The Indians have appropriated for their service some of the products of European civilization, such as weapons, implements, domestic utensils, fabrics for clothing, &c. Mentally, excepting a few religious ideas which they received long ago from the teaching of Spanish missionaries, and, in the southern settlements, excepting some few Spanish words, the Seminole have accepted and appropriated practically nothing from the white man."

C. MacCauley, The Seminole Indians of Florida (Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-84), introduction and chapter 4.

ALSO IN J. T. Sprague, The Florida War.

S. G. Drake, The Aboriginal Races of North America. book 4, chapter 6-21.

See, also, above: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Senecas; their name.

"How this name originated is a 'vexata quæstio' among Indo-antiquarians and etymologists. The least plausible supposition is, that the name has any reference to the moralist Seneca. Some have supposed it to be a corruption of the Dutch term for vermillion, cinebar, or cinnabar, under the assumption that the Senecas, being the most warlike of the Five Nations, used that pigment more than the others, and thus gave origin to the name. This hypothesis is supported by no authority. … The name 'Sennecas' first appears on a Dutch map of 1616, and again on Jean de Laet's map of 1633. … It is claimed by some that the word may be derived from 'Sinnekox,' the Algonquin name of a tribe of Indians spoken of in Wassenaer's History of Europe, on the authority of Peter Barentz, who traded with them about the year 1626. … Without assuming to solve the mystery, the writer contents himself with giving some data which may possibly aid others in arriving at a reliable conclusion. [Here follows a discussion of the various forms of name by which the Senecas designated themselves and were known to the Hurons, from whom the Jesuits first heard of them.] By dropping the neuter prefix O, the national title became 'Nan-do-wah-gaah,' or 'The great hill people,' as now used by the Senecas. … If the name Seneca can legitimately be derived from the Seneca word 'Nan-do-wah-gaah' … it can only be done by prefixing 'Son,' as was the custom of the Jesuits, and dropping all unnecessary letters. It would then form the word 'Son-non-do-wa-ga,' the first two and last syllables of which, if the French sounds of the letters are given, are almost identical in pronunciation with Seneca. The chief difficulty, however, would be in the disposal of the two superfluous syllables. They may have been dropped in the process of contraction so common in the composition of Indian words—a result which would be quite likely to occur to a Seneca name, in its transmission through two other languages, the Mohawk and the Dutch. The foregoing queries and suggestions are thrown out for what they are worth, in the absence of any more reliable theory."