Part 2 — Chapter III. (These four articles abrogated by the four articles following them, 118-122.) Article 118. The Federal Constitution may at any time be amended. (continued 127)

PADUA: A. D. 1405. Added to the dominion of Venice.

See ITALY: A. D. 1402-1406.

PADUA: A. D. 1509-1513. In the War of the League of Cambrai. Siege by the Emperor Maximilian.

See ITALY: A. D. 1510-1513.

—————PADUA: End————

PADUCAH: Repulse of Forrest.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (APRIL: TENNESSEE).

PADUS, The.

The name by which the river Po was known to the Romans. Dividing Cisalpine Gaul, as the river did, into two parts, they called the northern part Transpadane and the southern part Cispadane Gaul.

PÆANS.

"The pæans [among the ancient Greeks] were songs of which the tune and words expressed courage and confidence. 'All sounds of lamentation,' … says Callimachus, 'cease when the Ie Pæan, Ie Pæan, is heard.' … Pæans were sung, not only when there was a hope of being able, by the help of the gods, to overcome a great and imminent danger, but when the danger was happily past; they were songs of hope and confidence as well as of thanksgiving for, victory and safety."

K. O. Müller, History of the Literature of Ancient Greece, volume 1, page 27.

PÆONIANS, The.

"The Pæonians, a numerous and much-divided race, seemingly neither Thracian nor Macedonian nor Illyrian, but professing to be descended from the Teukri of Troy, … occupied both banks of the Strymon, from the neighbourhood of Mount Skomius, in which that river rises, down to the lake near its mouth. … The Pæonians, in their north-western tribes, thus bordered upon the Macedonian Pelagonia, —in their northern tribes upon the Illyrian Dardani and Autariatæ,—in the eastern, southern and south-eastern tribes, upon the Thracians and Pierians."

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 25.

Darius, king of Persia, is said to have caused a great part of the Pæonians to be transported to a district in Phrygia, but they escaped and returned home.

PAGANISM: Suppressed in the Roman Empire.

See ROME: A. D. 391-395.

PAGE.

See CHIVALRY.

PAGUS.

See GENS, ROMAN; also, HUNDRED.

PAIDONOMUS, The.

The title of an officer who was charged with the general direction of the education and discipline of the young in ancient Sparta.

G. Schömann, Antiquities of Greece: The State, part 3, chapter 1.

PAINE, Thomas, and the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (JANUARY-JUNE) KING GEORGE'S WAR MEASURES.

PAINTED CHAMBER.

See WESTMINSTER PALACE.

PAINTSVILLE, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY: KENTUCKY-TENNESSEE).

PAIONIANS, The.

See ALBANIANS.

PAIRS, Legislative.

See WHIPS, PARTY.

PAITA: A. D. 1740. Destroyed by Commodore Anson.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1739-1741.

PAITA, The.

See CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA.

PALACE, Origin of the name.

The house of the first of the Roman Emperors, Augustus, was on the Palatine Hill, which had been appropriated by the nobility for their residence from the earliest age of the republic. The residence of Augustus was a quite ordinary mansion until A. U. C. 748 (B. C. 6) when it was destroyed by fire. It was then rebuilt on a grander scale, the people contributing, in small individual sums—a kind of popular testimonial—to the cost. Augustus affected to consider it public property, and gave up a large part of it to the recreation of the citizens. His successors added to it, and built more and more edifices connected with it; so that, naturally, it appropriated to itself the name of the hill and came to be known as the Palatium, or Palace.

C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 40.

PALÆOLITHIC PERIOD.

See STONE AGE.

{2410}

PALÆOLOGI, The.

The family which occupied the Greek imperial throne, at Nicæa and at Constantinople, from 1260, when Michael Palæologus seized the crown, until the Empire was extinguished by the Turks in 1453.

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 62 (Genealogical table).

ALSO IN: Sir J. E. Tennant, History of Modern Greece.

PALÆOPOLIS, PALÆPOLIS.

See NEAPOLIS.

PALÆSTRA, The.

See GYMNASIA, GREEK.

PALAIS ROYAL, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1642-1643.

—————PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: Start————

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE. PALATINE ELECTORATE.

The Palatine Electorate or Palatinate (Pfalz in German), arose in the breaking up of the old Duchy of Franconia.

See FRANCONIA; also PALATINE COUNTS, and GERMANY: A. D. 1125-1152.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1214. Acquisition by the Wittelsbach or Bavarian House.

The House of Wittelsbach (or Wisselbach), which acquired the Duchy of Bavaria in 1180, came also into possession of the Palatinate of the Rhine in 1214 (see BAVARIA: A. D. 1180-1356). In the next century the two possessions were divided. "Rudolph, the elder brother of Louis III. [the emperor, known as Louis the Bavarian] inherited the County Palatine, and formed a distinct line from that of Bavaria for many generations. The electoral dignity was attached to the Palatine branch."

Sir A. Halliday, Annals of the House of Hanover, volume I, page 424.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1518-1572. The Protestant Reformation. Ascendancy of Calvinism.

"The Electors Palatine of the Rhine might be justly regarded, during the whole course of the 16th century, as more powerful princes than those of Brandenburg. The lower Palatine, of which Heidelberg was then the capital, formed a considerable tract of country, situate on the banks of the Rhine and the Neckar, in a fertile, beautiful, and commercial part of Germany. … The upper Palatinate, a detached and distant province situated between Bohemia, Franconia, and Bavaria, which constituted a part of the Electoral dominions, added greatly to their political weight, as members of the Germanic body. … Under Louis V., Luther began to disseminate his doctrines at Heidelberg, which were eagerly and generally imbibed; the moderate character of the Elector, by a felicity rare in that age, permitting the utmost freedom of religious opinion, though he continued, himself, to profess the Catholic faith. His successors, who withdrew from the Romish see, openly declared their adherence to Lutheranism; but, on the accession of Frederic III., a new ecclesiastical revolution took place. He was the first among the Protestant German princes who introduced and professed the reformed religion denominated Calvinism. As the toleration accorded by the 'Peace of religion' to those who embraced the 'Confession of Augsburg,' did not in a strict and legal sense extend to or include the followers of Calvin, Frederic might have been proscribed and put to the Ban of the Empire: nor did he owe his escape so much to the lenity or friendship of the Lutherans, as to the mild generosity of Maximilian II., who then filled the Imperial throne, and who was an enemy to every species of persecution. Frederic III., animated with zeal for the support of the Protestant cause, took an active part in the wars which desolated the kingdom of France under Charles IX.; protected all the French exiles who fled to his court or dominions; and twice sent succours, under the command of his son John Casimir, to Louis, Prince of Condé, then in arms, at the head of the Hugonots."

Sir N. W. Wraxall, History of France, 1574-1610, volume 2, pages 163-165.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1608. The Elector at the head of the Evangelical Union.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1608-1618.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1619-1620. Acceptance of the crown of Bohemia by the Elector.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1618-1620.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1621-1623. The Elector placed under the ban of the empire. Devastation and conquest of his dominions. The electoral dignity transferred to the Duke of Bavaria.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1621-1623.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1631-1632. Temporary recovery by Gustavus Adolphus. Obstinate bigotry of the Elector.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1632. Death of Frederick V. Treaty with the Swedes. Nominal restoration of the young Elector.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1632-1634.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1648. Division in the Peace of Westphalia. Restoration of the Lower Palatinate to the old Electoral Family. Annexation of the Upper to Bavaria. The recreated electorate.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1674. In the Coalition against Louis XIV. Ravaged by Turenne.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1672-1674; and 1674-1678.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1679-1680. Encroachments by France upon the territory of the Elector.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1679-1680.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1686. The claims of Louis XIV. in the name of the Duchess of Orleans.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1686.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1690. The second devastation and the War of the League of Augsburg.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1689-1690, and after.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1697. The Peace of Ryswick. Restitutions by France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1697.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1705. The Upper Palatinate restored to the Elector.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1705.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A: D. 1709-1710. Emigration of inhabitants to England, thence to Ireland and America.

See PALATINES.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1714. The Upper Palatinate ceded to the Elector of Bavaria in exchange for Sardinia.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1801-1803. Transferred in great part to Baden.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1849. Revolution suppressed by Prussian troops.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1848-1850.

—————PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: Start————

PALATINATES, American.

See MARYLAND: A. D. 1632; NEW ALBION; MAINE: A. D. 1639; NEWFOUNDLAND: A. D. 1610-1655; NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1669-1693.

PALATINE, Counts.

In Germany, under the early emperors, after the dissolution of the dominion of Charlemagne, an office came into existence called that of the 'comes palatii'—Count Palatine. This office was created in the interest of the sovereign, as a means of diminishing the power of the local rulers. {2411} The Counts Palatine were appointed as their coadjutors, often with a concurrent and sometimes with a sole jurisdiction. Their "functions were more extensive than those of the ancient 'missi dominici.' Yet the office was different. Under the Carlovingian emperors there had been one dignitary with that title, who received appeals from all the secular tribunals of the empire. The missi dominici were more than his mere colleagues, since they could convoke any cause pending before the ordinary judges and take cognisance of more serious cases even in the first instance. As the missi were disused, and as the empire became split among the immediate descendants of Louis le Debonnaire, the count palatine (comes palatii) was found inadequate to his numerous duties; and coadjutors were provided him for Saxony, Bavaria, and Swabia. After the elevation of Arnulf, however, most of these dignities ceased; and we read of one count palatine only—the count or duke of Franconia or Rhenish France. Though we have reason to believe that this high functionary continued to receive appeals from the tribunals of each duchy, he certainly could not exercise over them a sufficient control; nor, if his authority were undisputed, could he be equal to his judicial duties. Yet to restrain the absolute jurisdiction of his princely vassals was no less the interest of the people than the sovereign; and in this view Otho I. restored, with even increased powers, the provincial counts palatine. He gave them not only the appellant jurisdiction of the ancient comes palatii, but the primary one of the missi dominici. … They had each a castle, the wardenship of which was intrusted to officers named burgraves, dependent on the count palatine of the province. In the sequel, some of these burgraves became princes of the empire."

S. A. Dunham, History of the Germanic Empire, volume 1, pages 120-121.

PALATINE, The Elector.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1125-1152; and PALATINATE OF THE RHINE.

PALATINE, The English Counties.

"The policy of the Norman kings stripped the earls of their official character. They ceased to have local jurisdiction or authority. Their dignity was of a personal nature, and they must be regarded rather as the foremost of the barons, and as their peers, than as a distinct order in the state. … An exception to the general policy of William [the Conqueror] as to earldoms was made in those governments which, in the next century, were called palatine. These were founded in Cheshire, and perhaps in Shropshire, against the Welsh, and in the bishopric of Durham both to oppose the Scots, and to restrain the turbulence of the northern people, who slew Walcher, the first earl bishop, for his ill government. An earl palatine had royal jurisdiction within his earldom. So it was said of Hugh, earl of Chester, that he held his earldom in right of his sword, as the king held all England in right of his crown. All tenants-in–chief held of him; he had his own courts, took the whole proceeds of jurisdiction, and appointed his own sheriff. The statement that Bishop Odo had palatine jurisdiction in Kent may be explained by the functions which he exercised as justiciary."

W. Hunt, Norman Britain, pages 118-119.

"The earldom of Chester has belonged to the eldest son of the sovereign since 1396; the palatinate jurisdiction of Durham was transferred to the crown in 1836 by act of Parliament, 6 Will. IV, c. 19."

W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 9, section 98, footnote (volume 1).

See, also, PALATINE, THE IRISH COUNTIES.

PALATINE, The Hungarian.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1301-1442.

PALATINE, The Irish Counties.

"The franchise of a county palatine gave a right of exclusive civil and criminal jurisdiction; so that the king's writ should not run, nor his judges come within it, though judgment in its courts might be reversed by writ of error in the king's bench. The lord might enfeoff tenants to hold by knights' service of himself; he had almost all regalian rights; the lands of those attainted for treason escheated to him; he acted in every thing rather as one of the great feudatories of France or Germany than a subject of the English crown. Such had been the earl of Chester, and only Chester, in England; but in Ireland this dangerous independence was permitted to Strongbow in Leinster, to Lacy in Meath, and at a later time to the Butlers and Geraldines in parts of Munster. Strongbow's vast inheritance soon fell to five sisters, who took to their shares, with the same palatine rights, the counties of Carlow, Wexford, Kilkenny, Kildare, and the district of Leix, since called the Queen's County. In all these palatinates, forming by far the greater portion of the English territories, the king's process had its course only within the lands belonging to the church."

E. Hallam, Constitutional History of England, chapter 18 (volume 3).

PALATINE HILL, The. The Palatine City. The Seven Mounts.

"The town which in the course of centuries grew up as Rome, in its original form embraced according to trustworthy testimony only the Palatine, or 'square Rome' (Roma quadrata), as it was called in later times from the irregularly quadrangular form of the Palatine hill. The gates and walls that enclosed this original city remained visible down to the period of the empire. … Many traces indicate that this was the centre and original seat of the urban settlement. … The 'festival of the Seven Mounts' ('septimontium'), again, preserved the memory of the more extended settlement which gradually formed round the Palatine. Suburbs grew up one after another, each protected by its own separate though weaker circumvallation and joined to the original ring-wall of the Palatine. … The 'Seven Rings' were, the Palatine itself; the cermalus, the slope of the Palatine in the direction of the morass that in the earliest times extended between it and the Capitoline (velabrum); the Velia, the ridge which connected the Palatine with the Esquiline, but in subsequent times was almost wholly obliterated by the buildings of the empire; the Fagutal, the Oppius, and the Cispius, the three summits of the Esquiline; lastly, the Sucusa, or Subura, a fortress constructed outside of the earthern rampart which protected the new town on the Carinae, in the low ground between the Esquiline and the Quirinal, beneath S. Pietro in Vincoli. These additions, manifestly the results of a gradual growth, clearly reveal to a certain extent the earliest history of the Palatine Rome. … The Palatine city of the Seven Mounts may have had a history of its own; no other tradition of it has survived than simply that of its having once existed. But as the leaves of the forest make room for the new growth of spring, although they fall unseen by human eyes, so has this unknown city of the Seven Mounts made room for the Rome of history."

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 1, chapter 4 (volume 1).

See, also, QUIRINAL; and SEVEN HILLS OF ROME.

{2412}

PALATINES: A. D. 1709-1710. Migration to Ireland and America.

"The citizens of London [England] were astonished to learn, in May and June, 1709, that 5,000 men, women and children, Germans from the Rhine, were under tents in the suburbs. By October the number had increased to 13,000, and comprised husbandmen, tradesmen, school teachers and ministers. These emigrants had deserted the Palatinate, owing to French oppression and the persecution by their prince, the elector John William, of the House of Newburgh, who had become a devoted Romanist, though his subjects were mainly Lutherans and Calvinists. Professor Henry A. Homes, in a paper treating of this emigration, read before the Albany Institute in 1871, holds that the movement was due not altogether to unbearable persecutions, but largely to suggestions made to the Palatines in their own country by agents of companies who were anxious to obtain settlers for the British colonies in America, and thus give value to the company's lands. The emigrants were certainly seized with the idea that by going to England its government would transport them to the provinces of New York, the Carolinas, and Pennsylvania. Of the latter province they knew much, as many Germans were already there. … Great efforts were made to prevent suffering among these poor people; thousands of pounds were collected for their maintenance from churches and individuals all over England; they were lodged in warehouses, empty dwellings and in barns, and the Queen had a thousand tents pitched for them back of Greenwich, on Blackheath. … Notwithstanding the great efforts made by the English people, very much distress followed this unhappy hegira. … Numbers of the younger men enlisted in the British army serving in Portugal, and some made their own way to Pennsylvania. … The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland petitioned the Queen that some of the people might be sent to him, and by February, 1710, 3,800 had been located across the Irish Sea, in the province of Munster, near Limerick. … Professor Homes recites in his monograph that they 'now number about 12,000 souls, and, under the name of Palatinates, continue to impress a peculiar character upon the whole district they inhabit.' … According to 'Luttrell's Diary,' about one-tenth of the whole number that reached England were returned by the Crown to Germany." A Swiss land company, which had bought 10,000 acres of land from the Lords Proprietors of Carolina, "covenanted with the English authorities for the transfer of about 700 of these poor Heidelberg refugees to the colony. Before the end of the year they had arrived with them at a point in North Carolina where the rivers Neuse and Trent join. Here they established a town, calling it New-Berne, in honor of Berne, Switzerland. … It has not been found possible to properly account for all the 13,000 Palatines who reached England. Queen Anne sent some of them to Virginia, settling them above the falls of the Rappahanock, in Spottsylvania County, from whence they spread into several adjoining counties, and into North Carolina. … After the Irish transportation, the largest number that was moved in one body, and probably the final one under government auspices, was the fleet-load that in the spring of 1710 was despatched to New York. … A fleet of ten ships set sail with Governor Hunter in March, having on board, as is variously estimated, between 3,000 and 4,000 Germans. … The immigrants were encamped on Nut, now Governor's Island, for about three months, when a tract of 6,000 acres of the Livingston patent was purchased for them, 100 miles up the Hudson, the locality now being embraced in Germantown, Columbia County. Eight hundred acres were also acquired on the opposite side of the river at the present location of Saugerties, in Ulster County. To these two points most of the immigrants were removed." But dissatisfaction with their treatment and difficulties concerning land titles impelled many of these Germans to move off, first into Schoharie County, and afterwards to Palatine Bridge, Montgomery County and German Flats, Herkimer County, New York, to both of which places they have affixed the names. Others went into Pennsylvania, which was for many years the favorite colony among German immigrants.

A. D. Mellick, Jr., The Story of an Old Farm, chapter 4.

ALSO IN: C. B. Todd, Robert Hunter and the Settlement of the Palatines (Memorial History of the City of New York, volume 2, chapter 4).

PALE, The English.

"That territory within which the English retreated and fortified themselves when a reaction began to set in after their first success [under Henry II.] in Ireland," acquired the name of the Pale or the English Pale. But "that term did not really come into use until about the beginning of the 16th century. In earlier times this territory was called the English Land. It is generally called Galldacht, or the 'foreigner's territory,' in the Irish annals, where the term Galls comes to be applied to the descendants of the early adventurers, and that of Saxons to Englishmen newly arrived. The formation of the Pale is generally considered to date from the reign of Edward I. About the period of which we are now treating [reign of Henry IV.—beginning of 15th century] it began to be limited to the four counties of Louth, Meath, Kildare, and Dublin, which formed its utmost extent in the reign of Henry VIII. Beyond this the authority of the king of England was a nullity."

M. Haverty, History of Ireland, pages 313-314, foot-note.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1169-1175; and 1515.

PALE, The Jewish, in Russia.

See JEWS: A. D. 1727-1880, and 19TH CENTURY.

PALE FACES, The (Ku-Klux Klan).

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1866-1871.

PALENQUE, Ruins of.

See MEXICO, ANCIENT; and AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MAYAS.

—————PALERMO: Start————

PALERMO: Origin.

See PANORMUS; also SICILY: EARLY INHABITANTS.

PALERMO: A. D. 1146. Introduction of silk culture.

See BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D. 1146.

PALERMO: A. D. 1282. The Sicilian Vespers.

See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 1282-1300.

PALERMO: A. D. 1848-1849. Expulsion of the Neapolitan garrison. Surrender to King "Bomba."

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

PALERMO: A. D. 1860. Capture by Garibaldi and his volunteers. Bombardment by the Neapolitans.

See ITALY: A. D. 1859-1861.

{2413}

—————PALESTINE: Start————

PALESTINE: Early inhabitants.

See AMALEKITES; AMMONITES; AMORITES; HITTITES; JEWS: EARLY HEBREW HISTORY; MOABITES; PHILISTINES; PHŒNICIANS.

PALESTINE: Name.

After the suppression of the revolt of the Jews in A. D. 130, by Hadrian, the name of their province was changed from Judæa to Syria Palæstina, or Syria of the Philistines, as it had been called by Herodotus six centuries before. Hence the modern name, Palestine.

See JEWS: A. D. 130-134.

PALESTINE: History.

See EGYPT: about B. C. 1500-1400; JEWS; JERUSALEM; SYRIA; CHRISTIANITY; MAHOMETAN CONQUEST AND EMPIRE; CRUSADES.

—————PALESTINE: End————

PALESTRO, Battle of (1859).

See ITALY: A. D. 1856-1859.

PALFREYS, PALAFRENI.

See DESTRIERS.

PALI.

"The earlier form of the ancient spoken language [of the Aryan race in India], called Pali or Magadhi, … was introduced into Ceylon by Buddhist missionaries from Magadha when Buddhism began to spread, and is now the sacred language of Ceylon and Burmah, in which all their Buddhist literature is written." The Pali language is thought to represent one of the stages in the development of the Prakrit, or common speech of the Hindus, as separated from the Sanskrit, or language of the learned.

See SANSKRIT.

M. Williams, Indian Wisdom, introduction, pages xxix-xxx, foot-note.

PALILIA, Festival of the.

"The festival named Palilia [at Rome] was celebrated on the Palatine every year on the 21st April, in honour of Pales, the tutelary divinity of the shepherds, who dwelt on the Palatine. This day was held sacred as an anniversary of the day on which Romulus commenced the building of the city."

H. M. Westropp, Early and Imperial Rome, page 40.

PALLA, The.

See STOLA.

PALLADIUM, The.

"The Palladium, kept in the temple of Vesta at Rome, was a small figure of Pallas, roughly carved out of wood, about three feet high. Ilos, King of Troy, grandfather of Priam, after building the city asked Zeus to give him a visible sign that he would take it under his special protection. During the night the Palladium fell down from heaven, and was found the next morning outside his tent. The king built a temple for it, and from that time the Trojans firmly believed that as long as they could keep this figure their town would be safe; but if at any time it should be lost or stolen, some dreadful calamity would overtake them. The story further relates that, at the siege of Troy, its whereabouts was betrayed to Diomed, and he and the wily Ulysses climbed the wall at night and carried it off. The Palladium, enraged at finding itself in the Grecian camp, sprang three times in the air, its eyes flashing wildly, while drops of sweat stood on its brow. The Greeks, however, would not give it up, and Troy, robbed of her guardian, was soon after conquered by the Greeks. But an oracle having warned Diomed not to keep it, he, on landing in Italy, gave it to one of Æneas' companions, by whom it was brought into the neighbourhood of the future site of Rome. Another legend relates that Æneas saved it after the destruction of Troy, and fled with it to Italy, where it was afterwards placed by his descendants in the Temple of Vesta, in Rome. Here the inner and most sacred place in the Temple was reserved for it, and no man, not even the chief priest, was allowed to see it except when it was shown on the occasion of any high festival. The Vestals had strict orders to guard it carefully, and to save it in case of fire, as the welfare of Rome depended on its preservation."

F. Nösselt, Mythology, Greek and Roman, page 3.

PALLESCHI, The.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1498-1500.

PALLIUM, The.

"The pallium, or mantle of the Greeks, from its being less cumbersome and trailing than the toga of the Romans, by degrees superseded the latter in the country and in the camp. When worn over armour, and fastened on the right shoulder with a clasp or button, this cloak assumed the name of paludamentum."

T. Hope, Costume of the Ancients, volume 1, p 37.

PALM, The Execution of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1806 (JANUARY-AUGUST).

PALMERSTON MINISTRIES.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1855; 1858-1859.

PALMI.

See FOOT, THE ROMAN.

—————PALMYRA: Start————

PALMYRA, Earliest knowledge of.

"The outlying city of Palmyra—the name of which is first mentioned during the wars of M. Antony in Syria [B. C. 41]—was certainly at this period [of Augustus, B. C. 31-A. D. 14] independent and preserved a position of neutrality between the Romans and Parthians, while it carried on trade with both. It does not appear however to have as yet risen to a place of great importance, as its name is not mentioned by Strabo. The period of its prosperity dates only from the time of Hadrian."

E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, chapter 20, section 1 (volume 2).

PALMYRA: Rise and fall.

"Amidst the barren deserts of Arabia a few cultivated spots rise like islands out of the sandy ocean. Even the name of Tadmor, or Palmyra, by its signification in the Syriac as well as in the Latin language, denoted the multitude of palm-trees which afforded shade and verdure to that temperate region. The air was pure, and the soil, watered by some invaluable springs, was capable of producing fruits as well as corn. A place possessed of such singular advantages, and situated at a convenient distance between the gulf of Persia and the Mediterranean, was soon frequented by the caravans which conveyed to the nations of Europe a considerable part of the rich commodities of India. [It has been the opinion of some writers that Tadmor was founded by Solomon as a commercial station, but the opinion is little credited at present.] Palmyra insensibly increased into an opulent and independent city, and, connecting the Roman and the Parthian monarchies by the mutual benefits of commerce, was suffered to observe an humble neutrality, till at length, after the victories of Trajan, the little republic sunk into the bosom of Rome, and flourished more than one hundred and fifty years in the subordinate though honourable rank of a colony." On the occasion of the invasion of Syria by the Persian king, Sapor, when the Emperor Valerian was defeated and taken prisoner (A. D. 260-261), the only effectual resistance opposed to him was organized and led by a wealthy senator of Palmyra, Odenathus (some ancient writers call him a Saracen prince), who founded, by his exploits at that time, a substantial military power. {2414} Aided and seconded by his famous wife, Zenobia, who is one of the great heroines of history, he extended his authority over the Roman East and defeated the Persian king in several campaigns. On his death, by assassination, in 267, Zenobia ascended the Palmyrenian throne and ruled with masculine firmness of character. Her dominions were extended from the Euphrates and the frontiers of Bithynia to Egypt, and are said, with some doubtfulness, to have included even that rich province, for a time. But the Romans, who had acquiesced in the rule of Odenathus, and recognized it, in the day of their weakness, now resented the presumption and the power of his widowed queen. Perhaps they had reason to fear her ambition and her success. Refusing to submit to the demands that were made upon her, she boldly challenged the attack of the warlike emperor, Aurelian, and suffered defeat in two great, battles, fought A. D. 272 or 273, near Antioch and near Emesa. A vain attempt to hold Palmyra against the besieging force of the Roman, an unsuccessful flight and a capture by pursuing horsemen, ended the political career of the brilliant 'Queen of the East.' She saved her life somewhat ignobly by giving up her counsellors to Aurelian's vengeance. The philosopher Longinus was one who perished. Zenobia was sent to Rome and figured among the captives in Aurelian's triumph. She was then given for her residence a splendid villa at Tibur (Tivoli) twenty miles from Rome, and lived quietly through the remainder of her days, connecting herself, by the marriage of her daughters, with the noble families of Rome. Palmyra, which had been spared on its surrender, rashly rose in revolt quickly after Aurelian had left its gates. The enraged emperor returned and inflicted on the fated city a chastisement from which it never rose."

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapters 10-11.

—————PALMYRA: End————

PALMYRÊNÉ, The.

"Palmyrêné, or the Syrian Desert—the tract lying between Cœle-Syria on the one hand, and the valley of the middle Euphrates on the other, and abutting towards the south on the great Arabian Desert, to which it is sometimes regarded as belonging. It is for the most part a hard sandy, or gravelly plain, intersected by low rocky ranges, and either barren or productive only of some sapless shrubs and of a low thin grass. Occasionally, however, there are oases, where the fertility is considerable. Such an oasis is the region about Palmyra itself, which derived its name from the palm groves in the vicinity; here the soil is good, and a large tract is even now under cultivation. … Though large armies can never have traversed the desert even in this upper region, where it is comparatively narrow, trade in ancient times found it expedient to avoid the long 'détour' by the Orontes valley, Aleppo, and Bambuk and to proceed directly from Damascus by way of Palmyra to Thapsacus on the Euphrates."

G. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies: Babylonia, chapter 1.

PALO ALTO, Battle of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1846-1847.

PALSGRAVE.

An Anglicized form of Pfalzgraf.

See PALATINE COUNT.

PALUDAMENTUM, The.

"As soon as the [Roman] consul entered upon his military career, he assumed certain symbols of command. The cloak of scarlet or purple which the imperator threw over his corslet was named the paludamentum, and this, which became in later times the imperial robe, he never wore except on actual service."

C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 31.

See, also, PALLIUM.

PALUS MÆOTIS, MÆOTIS PALUS.

The ancient Greek name of the Sea of Azov.

PAMLICOS.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

PAMPAS. LLANOS.

"In the southern continent [of America], the regions which correspond with the prairies of the United States are the 'pampas' of the La Plata and the 'llanos' of Columbia [both 'pampa' and 'llano' having in Spanish the signification of 'a plain']. … The llanos of Venezuela and New Granada have an area estimated at 154,000 square miles, nearly equal to that of France. The Argentine pampas, which are situated at the other extremity of the continent, have a much more considerable extent, probably exceeding 500,000 square miles. This great central plain … stretches its immense and nearly horizontal surface over a length of at least 1,900 miles, from the burning regions of tropical Brazil to the cold countries of Patagonia."

E. Reclus, The Earth, chapter 15.

For an account of the Indian tribes of the Pampas.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

PAMPELUNA: Siege by the French (1521).

See NAVARRE: A. D. 1442-1521.

PAMPTICOKES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

PAN-AMERICAN CONGRESS, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1889-1890.

PAN-HANDLE, The.

See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1779-1786.

PAN-IONIC AMPHICTYONY.

See IONIC AMPHICTYONY.

—————PANAMA: Start————

PANAMA: A. D. 1501-1502. Discovery by Bastidas. Coasted by Columbus.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1498-1505, and 1500.

PANAMA: A. D. 1509. Creation of the Province of Castilla del Oro. Settlement on the Gulf of Uraba.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1509-1511.

PANAMA: A. D. 1513-1517. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa and the discovery of the Pacific. The malignant rule of Pedrarias Davila.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1513-1517.

PANAMA: A. D. 1519. Name and Origin of the city.

Originally, Panama was the native name of an Indian fishing village, on the Pacific coast of the Isthmus, the word signifying "a place where many fish are taken." In 1519 the Spaniards founded there a city which they made their capital and chief mart on the Pacific coast.

H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States, volume 1, chapters 10-11 and 15.

PANAMA: A. D. 1671-1680. Capture, destruction and recapture of the city of Panama by the Buccaneers.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1639-1700.

PANAMA: A. D. 1688-1699. The Scottish colony of Darien.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1695-1699.

PANAMA: A. D. 1826. The Congress of American States.

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1826.

PANAMA: A. D. 1846-1855. American right of transit secured by Treaty. Building of the Panama Railroad.

See NICARAGUA: A. D. 1850.

PANAMA: A. D. 1855. An independent state in the Colombian Confederation. Opening of the Panama Railway.

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1830-1886.

{2415}

PANAMA CANAL. PANAMA SCANDAL.

"The commencement of an undertaking [projected by Count Ferdinand de Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal] for connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, through the Isthmus of Panama, was a natural result of the success achieved by the Suez Canal. Various sites have been proposed from time to time for the construction of a canal across the Isthmus, the most northern being the Tehuantepec route, at a comparatively broad part of the Isthmus, and the most southern the Atrato route, following for some distance the course of the Atrato River. The site eventually selected, in 1879, for the construction of a canal was at the narrowest part of the Isthmus, and where the central ridge is the lowest, known as the Panama route, nearly following the course of the Panama Rail way. It was the only scheme that did not necessarily involve a tunnel or locks. The length of the route between Colon on the Atlantic, and Panama on the Pacific, is 46 miles, not quite half the length of the Suez Canal; but a tide-level canal involved a cutting across the Cordilleras, at the Culebra Pass, nearly 300 feet deep, mainly through rock. The section of the canal was designed on the lines of the Suez Canal, with a bottom width of 72 feet, and a depth of water of 27 feet, except in the central rock cutting, where the width was to be increased to 78¾ feet on account of the nearly vertical sides, and the depth to 29½ feet. … The work was commenced in 1882. … The difficulties and expenses, however, of the undertaking had been greatly under–estimated. The climate proved exceptionally unhealthy, especially when the soil began to be turned up by the excavations. The actual cost of the excavation was much greater than originally estimated; and the total amount of excavation required to form a level canal, which had originally been estimated at 100 million cubic yards, was subsequently computed, on more exact data, at 176½ million cubic yards. The preliminary works were also very extensive and costly; and difficulties were experienced, after a time, in raising the funds for carrying on the works, even when shares were offered at a very great discount. Eventually, in 1887, the capital at the disposal of the company had nearly come to an end; whilst only a little more than one-fifth of the excavation had been completed. … At that period it was determined to expedite the work, and reduce the cost of completing the canal, by introducing locks, and thus diminish the remaining amount of excavation by 85 million cubic yards; though the estimated cost, even with this modification, had increased from £33,500,000 to £65,500,000. … The financial embarrassments, however, of the company have prevented the carrying out of this scheme for completing the canal; and the works are at present [1891] at a standstill, in a very unfinished state."

L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Achievements in Engineering, chapter 14.

"It was on December 14, 1888, that the Panama Canal Company stopped payments. Under the auspices of the French Government, a parliamentary inquiry was started in the hope of finding some means of saving the enterprise. Facts soon came to light, which, in the opinion of many, justified a prosecution. The indignation of the shareholders against the Count de Lesseps, his son, and the other Directors, waxed loud. In addition to ruinous miscalculations, these men were charged with corrupt expenditure with a view to influence public opinion. … The gathering storm finally burst on November 21 [1892], when the interpellation in regard to the Canal question was brought forward in the Chamber. M. Delahaye threw out suggestions of corruption against a large number of persons, alleging that 3,000,000 francs had been used by the company to bribe 150 Senators and Deputies. Challenged to give their names, he persisted in merely replying that if the Chamber wanted details, they must vote an inquiry. … It was ultimately agreed, by 311 to 243, to appoint a special Committee of 33 Members to conduct an investigation. The judicial summonses against the accused Directors were issued the same day, charging them with 'the use of fraudulent devices for creating belief in the existence of a chimerical event, the spending of sums accruing from issues handed to them for a fixed purpose, and the swindling of all or part of the fortune of others.' The case being called in the Court of Appeals, November 25, when all of the defendants—M. Ferdinand de Lesseps; Charles, his son; M. Marius Fontanes, Baron Cottu, and M. Eiffel—were absent, it was adjourned to January 10, 1893. … On November 28, the Marquis de la Ferronaye, followed by M. Brisson, the Chairman of the Committee of Inquiry, called the attention of the Government to the rumors regarding the death of Baron Reinach, and pressed the demand of the Committee that the body be exhumed, and the theory of suicide be tested. But for his sudden death, the Baron would have been included in the prosecution. He was said to have received immense sums for purposes of corruption; and his mysterious and sudden death on the eve of the prosecution started the wildest rumors of suicide and even murder. Public opinion demanded that full light be thrown on the episode; but the Minister of Justice said, that, as no formal charges of crime had been laid, the Government had no power to exhume the body. M. Loubet would make no concession in the matter; and, when M. Brisson moved a resolution of regret that the Baron's papers had not been sealed at his death, petulantly insisted that the order of the day 'pure and simple' be passed. This the Chamber refused to do by a vote of 304 to 219. The resignation of the Cabinet immediately followed. … A few days' interregnum followed during which M. Brisson and M. Casimir-Périer successively tried in vain to form a Cabinet. M. Ribot, the Foreign Minister, finally consented to try the task, and, on December 5, the new Ministry was announced. … The policy of the Government regarding the scandal now changed. … In the course of the investigation by the Committee, the most startling evidence of corruption was revealed. It was discovered that the principal Paris papers had received large amounts for puffing the Canal scheme. M. Thierrée, a banker, asserted that Baron Reinach had paid into his bank 3,390,000 francs in Panama funds, and had drawn it out in 26 checks to bearer. … On December 13, M. Rouvier, the Finance Minister, resigned, because his name had been connected with the scandal. … In the meantime, sufficient evidence had been gathered to cause the Government, on December 16, to arrest M. Charles de Lesseps, M. Fontane, and M. Sans-Leroy, Directors of the Canal Company, on the charge, not, as before, of maladministration of the company's affairs, but of corrupting public functionaries. This was followed by the adoption of proceedings against five Senators and five Deputies.

Quarterly Register of Current History, March, 1893.

{2416}

"The trial of the De Lesseps, father and son, MM. Fontane, Cottu, and Eiffel, began January 10, before the court of appeals. MM. Fontane and Eiffel confessed, the latter to the bribery of Hebrard, director of 'Le Temps,' a newspaper, with 1,750,000 francs. On February 14, sentence was pronounced against Ferdinand and Charles De Lesseps, each being condemned to spend five years in prison and to pay a fine of 3,000 francs; MM. Fontane and Cottu, two years and 3,000 francs each; and M. Eiffel, two years and 20,000 francs. … On March 8, the trial of the younger de Lesseps, MM. Fontane, Baihaut, Blondin, and ex-Minister Proust, Senator Beral, and others, on charges of corruption, began before the assize court. … De Lesseps, … with MM. Baihaut and Blondin, was found guilty March 21, and sentenced to one year more of imprisonment. M. Blondin received a two-year sentence; but M. Baihaut was condemned to five years, a fine of 75,000 francs, and loss of civil rights. The others were acquitted."

Cyclopedic Review of Current History, volume 3, number 1 (1803).

"On June 15 the Court of Cassation quashed the judgment in the first trial on the ground that the acts had been committed more than three years before the institution of proceedings, reversing the ruling of the trial court that a preliminary investigation begun in 1891 suspended the three years' prescription. Fontane and Eiffel were set at liberty, but Charles de Lesseps had still to serve out the sentence for corruption."

Appleton's Annual Cyclopædia, 1893, page 321.

The enemies of the Republic had wished to establish the venality of the popular representatives; "they succeeded only in showing the resistance that had been made to a temptation of which the public had not known before the strength and frequency. Instead of proving that many votes had been sold, they proved that many were found ready to buy them, which was very different."

P. De Coubertin, L'Evolution Frarçaise sous la Troisième Republique, page 266.

PANATHENÆA, The Festival of the.

See PARTHENON AT ATHENS.

PANDECTS OF JUSTINIAN.

See CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS.

PANDES.

See CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA.

PANDOURS.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1567-1604.

PANICS OF 1837, 1857, 1873, 1893.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1835-1837, 1873, 1893-1894; and TARIFF LEGISLATION (UNITED STATES): A. D. 1846-1861.

PANIPAT, PANNIPUT, Battles of (1526, 1556, and 1761).

See INDIA: A. D. 1399-1605; and 1747-1761.

PANIUM, Battle of (B. C. 198).

See SELEUCIDÆ: B. C. 224-187.

PANJAB, The.

See PUNJAB.

PANNONIA AND NORICUM.

"The wide extent of territory which is included between the Inn, the Danube, and the Save—Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the Lower Hungary, and Sclavonia—was known to the ancients under the names of Noricum and Pannonia. In their original state of independence their fierce inhabitants were intimately connected. Under the Roman government they were frequently united."

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 1.

Pannonia embraced much the larger part of the territory described above, covering the center and heart of the modern Austro-Hungarian empire. It was separated from Noricum, lying west and northwest of it, by Mons Cetius. For the settlement of the Vandals in Pannonia, and its conquest by the Huns and Goths:

See VANDALS: ORIGIN, &c.; HUNS: A. D. 433-453, and 453; and GOTHS: A. D. 473-474.

PANO, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

PANORMUS.

The modern city of Palermo was of very ancient origin, founded by the Phœnicians and passing from them to the Carthaginians, who made it one of their principal naval stations in Sicily. Its Greek name, Panorma, signified a port always to be depended upon.

PANORMUS, Battles at (B. C. 254-251).

See PUNIC WAR, THE FIRST.

PANTANO DE BARGAS, Battle of (1819).

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1810-1819.

PANTHEON AT ROME, The.

"At the same time with his Thermæ, Agrippa [son-in-law and friend of Augustus] built the famous dome, called by Pliny and Dion Cassius, and in the inscription of Severus on the architrave of the building itself, the Pantheon, and still retaining that name, though now consecrated as a Christian church under the name of S. Maria ad Martyres or dell a Rotonda. This consecration, together with the colossal thickness of the walls, has secured the building against the attacks Of time, and the still more destructive attacks of the barons of the Middle Ages. … The Pantheon was always be reckoned among the masterpieces of architecture for solid durability combined with beauty of interior effect. The Romans prided themselves greatly upon it as one of the wonders of their great capital, and no other dome of antiquity could rival its colossal dimensions. … The inscription assigns its completion to the year A. D. 27, the third consulship of Agrippa. … The original name Pantheon, taken in connection with the numerous niches for statues of the gods in the interior, seems to contradict the idea that it was dedicated to any peculiar deity or class of deities. The seven principal niches may have been intended for the seven superior deities, and the eight ædiculæ for the next in dignity, while the twelve niches in the upper ring were occupied by the inferior inhabitants of Olympus. Dion hints at this explanation when he suggests that the name was taken from the resemblance of the dome to the vault of heaven."

R. Burn, Rome and the Campagna, chapter 13, part 2.

"The world has nothing else like the Pantheon. … The rust and dinginess that have dimmed the precious marble on the walls; the pavement, with its great squares and rounds of porphyry and granite, cracked crosswise and in a hundred directions, showing how roughly the troublesome ages have trampled here; the gray dome above, with its opening to the sky, as if heaven were looking down into the interior of this place of worship, left unimpeded for prayers to ascend the more freely: all these things make an impression of solemnity, which Saint Peter's itself fails to produce. 'I think,' said the sculptor, 'it is to the aperture in the dome—that great Eye, gazing heavenward—that the Pantheon owes the peculiarity of its effect.'"

N. Hawthorne, The Marble Faun, chapter 50.

{2417}

PANTIBIBLON, The exhumed Library of.

See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT: BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.

PANTIKAPÆUM.

See BOSPHORUS, THE CITY AND KINGDOM.

PAOLI, and the Corsican struggle.

See CORSICA: A. D. 1729-1769.

PAOLI, Surprise of Wayne at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1777 (JANUARY-DECEMBER).

—————PAPACY: Start————

PAPACY: St. Peter and the Church at Rome.

"The generally received account among Roman Catholics, and one which can claim a long traditional acceptance, is that Peter came to Rome in the second year of Claudius (that is, A. D. 42), and that he held the see twenty-five years, a length of episcopate never reached again until by Pio Nono, who exceeded it. … Now if it is possible to prove a negative at all, we may conclude, with at least high probability, that Peter was not at Rome during any of the time on which the writings of the canonical Scriptures throw much light, and almost certainly that during that time he was not its bishop. We have an Epistle of Paul to the Romans full of salutations to his friends there, but no mention of their bishop. Nor is anything said of work done by Peter in founding that Church. On the contrary, it is implied that no Apostle had as yet visited it; for such is the inference from the passage already cited, in which Paul expresses his wish to see the Roman Christians in order that he might impart some spiritual gift to the end that they might be established. We have letters of Paul from Rome in which no message is sent from Peter; and in the very last of these letters Paul complains of being left alone, and that only Luke was with him. Was Peter one of the deserters? The Scripture accounts of Peter place him in Judæa, in Antioch, possibly in Corinth, but finally in Babylon. … Plainly, if Peter was ever at Rome, it was after the date of Paul's second Epistle to Timothy. Some Protestant controversialists have asserted that Peter was never at Rome; but though the proofs that he was there are not so strong as I should like them to be if I had any doctrine depending on it, I think the historic probability is that he was; though, as I say, at a late period of the history, and not long before his death. … For myself, I am willing, in the absence of any opposing tradition, to accept the current account that Peter suffered martyrdom at Rome. We know with certainty from John xxi. that Peter suffered martyrdom somewhere. If Rome, which early laid claim to have witnessed that martyrdom, were not the scene of it, where then did it take place? Any city would be glad to claim such a connexion with the name of the Apostle, and none but Rome made the claim. … From the question, whether Peter ever visited Rome, we pass now to a very different question, whether he was its bishop. … We think it scandalous when we read of bishops a hundred years ago who never went near their sees. … But if we are to believe Roman theory, the bad example had been set by St. Peter, who was the first absentee bishop. If he became bishop of Rome in the second year of Claudius, he appears never afterwards to have gone near his see until close upon his death. Nay, he never even wrote a letter to his Church while he was away; or if he did, they did not think it worth preserving. Baronius (in Ann. lviii. § 51) owns the force of the Scripture reasons for believing that Peter was not in Rome during any time on which the New Testament throws light. His theory is that, when Claudius commanded all Jews to leave Rome, Peter was forced to go away. And as for his subsequent absences, they were forced on him by his duty as the chief of the Apostles, having care of all the Churches. … These, no doubt, are excellent reasons for Peter's not remaining at Rome; but why, then, did he undertake duties which he must have known he could not fulfil?"

G. Salmon, The Infallibility of the Church, pages 347-350.

The Roman Catholic belief as to St. Peter's episcopacy, and the primacy conferred by it on the Roman See, is stated by Dr. Dollinger as follows: "The time of … [St. Peter's] arrival in Rome, and the consequent duration of his episcopacy in that city, have been the subjects of many various opinions amongst the learned of ancient and modern times; nor is it possible to reconcile the apparently conflicting statements of ancient writers, unless we suppose that the prince of the apostles resided at two distinct periods in the imperial capital. According to St. Jerome, Eusebius, and Orosius, his first arrival in Rome was in the second year of the reign of Claudius (A. D. 42); but he was obliged, by the decree of the emperor, banishing all Jews from the city, to return to Jerusalem. From Jerusalem he undertook a journey through Asia Minor, and founded, or at least, visited, the Churches of Pontus, Gallacia, Cappadocia, and Bythinia. To these Churches he afterwards addressed his epistle from Rome. His second journey to Rome was in the reign of Nero; and it is of this journey that Dionysius, of Corinth, and Lactantius, write. There, with the blessed Paul, he suffered, in the year 67, the death of a martyr. We may now ascertain that the period of twenty-five years assigned by Eusebius and St. Jerome, to the episcopacy of St. Peter in Rome, is not a fiction of their imaginations; for from the second year of Claudius, in which the apostle founded the Church of Rome, to the year of his death, there intervene exactly twenty-five years. That he remained during the whole of this period in Rome, no one has pretended. … Our Lord conferred upon his apostle, Peter, the supreme authority in the Church. After he had required and obtained from him a public profession of his faith, he declared him to be the rock, the foundation upon which he would build his Church; and, at the same time, promised that he would give to him the keys of the kingdom of heaven. … In the enumeration of the apostles, frequently repeated by the Evangelists, we find that Peter is always the first named:—he is sometimes named alone, when the others are mentioned in general. {2418} After the ascension of our Lord, it is he who directs and governs: he leads the assembly in which a successor to the apostle who had prevaricated, is chosen: after the descent of the Holy Ghost, he speaks first to the people, and announces to them Jesus Christ: he performs the first miracle, and, in the name of his brethren, addresses the synedrium: he punishes the crime of Ananias: he opens the gates of the Church to the Gentiles, and presides at the first council at Jerusalem. … The more the Church was extended, and the more its constitution was formed, the more necessary did the power with which Peter had been invested become,—the more evident was the need of a head which united the members in one body, of a point and centre of unity. … Succession by ordination was the means, by which from the beginning the power left by Christ in his Church was continued: thus the power of the apostles descended to the bishops, their successors, and thus as Peter died bishop of the Church of Rome, where he sealed his doctrine with his blood, the primacy which he had received would be continued in him by whom he was there succeeded. It was not without a particular interposition of Providence that this pre-eminence was granted to the city of Rome, and that it became the depository of ecclesiastical supremacy. This city, which rose in the midway between the east and the west, by its position, by its proximity to the sea, by its dignity, as capital of the Roman empire, being open on all sides to communication even with the most distant nations, was evidently more than any other adapted to become the centre of the universal Church. … There are not wanting, in the first three centuries, testimonies and facts, some of which directly attest, and others presuppose, the supremacy of the Roman Church and of its bishops."

J. J. I. Dollinger, History of the Church, period 1, chapter 1, section 4, and chapter 3, section 4 (volume 1).

PAPACY: Supremacy of the Roman See: Grounds of the Claim.

The historical ground of the claim to supremacy over the Christian Church asserted on behalf of the Roman See is stated by Cardinal Gibbons as follows: "I shall endeavor to show, from incontestable historical evidence, that the Popes have always, from the days of the Apostles, continued to exercise supreme jurisdiction, not only in the Western church, till the Reformation, but also throughout the Eastern church, till the great schism of the ninth century.

1. Take the question of appeals. An appeal is never made from a superior to an inferior court, nor even from one court to another of co-ordinate jurisdiction. We do not appeal from Washington to Richmond, but from Richmond to Washington. Now if we find the See of Rome, from the foundation of Christianity, entertaining and deciding cases of appeal from the Oriental churches; if we find that her decision was final and irrevocable, we must conclude that the supremacy of Rome over all the churches is an undeniable fact. Let me give you a few illustrations: To begin with Pope St. Clement, who was the third successor of St. Peter, and who is laudably mentioned by St. Paul in one of his Epistles. Some dissension and scandal having occurred in the church of Corinth, the matter is brought to the notice of Pope Clement. He at once exercises his supreme authority by writing letters of remonstrance and admonition to the Corinthians. And so great was the reverence entertained for these Epistles, by the faithful of Corinth, that for a century later it was customary to have them publicly read in their churches. Why did the Corinthians appeal to Rome far away in the West, and not to Ephesus so near home in the East, where the Apostle St. John still lived? Evidently because the jurisdiction of Ephesus was local, while that of Rome was universal. About the year 190, the question regarding the proper day for celebrating Easter was agitated in the East, and referred to Pope St. Victor I. The Eastern church generally celebrated Easter on the day on which the Jews kept the Passover; while in the West it was observed then, as it is now, on the first Sunday after the full moon of the vernal equinox. St. Victor directs the Eastern churches, for the sake of uniformity, to conform to the practice of the West, and his instructions are universally followed. Dionysius, Bishop of Rome, about the middle of the third century, having heard that the Patriarch of Alexandria erred on some points of faith, demands an explanation of the suspected Prelate, who, in obedience to his superior, promptly vindicates his own orthodoxy. St. Athanasius, the great Patriarch of Alexandria, appeals in the fourth century, to Pope Julius I., from an unjust decision rendered against him by the Oriental bishops; and the Pope reverses the sentence of the Eastern council. St. Basil, Archbishop of Cæsarea, in the same century, has recourse, in his afflictions, to the protection of Pope Damasus. St. John Chrysostom, Patriarch of Constantinople, appeals in the beginning of the fifth century, to Pope Innocent I., for a redress of grievances inflicted on him by several Eastern Prelates, and by the Empress Eudoxia of Constantinople. St. Cyril appeals to Pope Celestine against Nestorius; Nestorius also appeals to the same Pontiff, who takes the side of Cyril. Theodoret, the illustrious historian and Bishop of Cyrrhus, is condemned by the pseudo-council of Ephesus in 449, and appeals to Pope Leo. … John, Abbot of Constantinople, appeals from the decision of the Patriarch of that city to Pope St. Gregory I., who reverses the sentence of the Patriarch. In 859, Photius addressed a letter to Pope Nicholas I., asking the Pontiff to confirm his election to the Patriarchate of Constantinople. In consequence of the Pope's conscientious refusal, Photius broke off from the communion of the Catholic Church, and became the author of the Greek schism. Here are a few examples taken at random from Church History. We see Prelates most eminent for their sanctity and learning, occupying the highest position in the Eastern church, and consequently far removed from the local influences of Rome, appealing in every period of the early church, from the decisions of their own Bishops and their Councils to the supreme arbitration of the Holy See. If this does not constitute superior jurisdiction, I have yet to learn what superior authority means.

2. Christians of every denomination admit the orthodoxy of the Fathers of the first five centuries of the Church. No one has ever called in question the faith of such men as Basil, Chrysostom, Cyprian, Augustine, Jerome, Ambrose, and Leo. … Now the Fathers of the Church, with one voice, pay homage to the Bishops of Rome as their superiors. …

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3. Ecumenical Councils afford another eloquent vindication of Papal supremacy. An Ecumenical or General Council is an assemblage of Prelates representing the whole Catholic Church. … Up to the present time, nineteen Ecumenical Councils have been convened, including the Council of the Vatican. … The first General Council was held in Nicæa, in 325; the second, in Constantinople, in 381; the third, in Ephesus, in 431; the fourth, in Chalcedon, in 451; the fifth, in Constantinople, in 553; the sixth, in the same city, in 680; the seventh, in Nicæa, in 787; and the eighth, in Constantinople, in 809. The Bishops of Rome convoked these assemblages, or at least consented to their convocation; they presided by their legates over all of them, except the first and second councils of Constantinople, and they confirmed all these eight by their authority. Before becoming a law, the acts of the Councils required the Pope's signature.

4. I shall refer to one more historical point in support of the Pope's jurisdiction over the whole Church. It is a most remarkable fact that every nation hitherto converted from Paganism to Christianity, since the days of the Apostles, has received the light of faith from missionaries who were either especially commissioned by the See of Rome, or sent by Bishops in open communion with that See. This historical fact admits of no exception. Let me particularize: Ireland's Apostle is St. Patrick. Who commissioned him? Pope St. Celestine, in the fifth century. St. Palladius is the Apostle of Scotland. Who sent him? The same Pontiff, Celestine. The Anglo-Saxons received the faith from St. Augustine, a Benedictine monk, as all historians Catholic and non-Catholic testify: Who empowered Augustine to preach? Pope Gregory I., at the end of the sixth century. St. Remigius established the faith in France, at the close of the fifth century. He was in active communion with the See of Peter. Flanders received the Gospel in the seventh century from St. Eligius, who acknowledged the supremacy of the reigning Pope. Germany and Bavaria venerate as their Apostle St. Boniface, who is popularly known in his native England by his baptismal name of Winfrid. He was commissioned by Pope Gregory II., in the beginning of the eighth century, and was consecrated Bishop by the same Pontiff. In the ninth century, two saintly brothers, Cyril and Methodius, evangelized Russia, Sclavonia, and Moravia, and other parts of Northern Europe. They recognized the supreme authority of Pope Nicholas I., and of his successors, Adrian II. and John VIII. In the eleventh century, Norway was converted by missionaries introduced from England by the Norwegian King St. Olave. The conversion of Sweden was consummated in the same century by the British Apostles Saints Ulfrid and Eskill. Both of these nations immediately after their conversion commenced to pay Rome-scot, or a small annual tribute to the Holy See,—a clear evidence that they were in communion with the Chair of Peter. All the other nations of Europe, having been converted before the Reformation, received likewise the light of faith from Roman Catholic missionaries, because Europe then recognized only one Christian Chief."

James, Cardinal Gibbons, The Faith of our Fathers, chapter 10.

ALSO IN: Francis P. Kenrick, Archbishop of Baltimore, The Primacy of the Apostolic See vindicated.

PAPACY: Supremacy of the Roman See: Grounds of the Denial.

"The first document by which the partisans of the Papal sovereignty justify themselves, is the letter written by St. Clement in the name of the Church at Rome to the Church at Corinth. They assert, that it was written by virtue of a superior authority attached to his title of Bishop of Rome. Now, it is unquestionable, 1st. That St. Clement was not Bishop of Rome when he wrote to the Corinthians. 2d. That in this matter he did not act of his own authority, but in the name of the Church at Rome, and from motives of charity. The letter signed by St. Clement was written A. D. 69, immediately after the persecution by Nero, which took place between the years 64 and 68, as all learned men agree. … It may be seen from the letter itself that it was written after a persecution; if it be pretended that this persecution was that of Domitian, then the letter must be dated in the last years of the first century, since it was chiefly in the years 95 and 96 that the persecution of Domitian took place. Now, it is easy to see from the letter itself, that it was written before that time, for it speaks of the Jewish sacrifices as still existing in the temple of Jerusalem. The temple was destroyed with the city of Jerusalem, by Titus A. D. 70. Hence, the letter must have been written before that year. Besides, the letter was written after some persecution, in which had suffered, at Rome, some very illustrious martyrs. There was nothing of the kind in the persecution of Domitian. The persecution of Nero lasted from the year 64 to the year 68. Hence it follows, that the letter to the Corinthians could only have been written in the year 69, that is to say, twenty-four years before Clement was Bishop of Rome. In presence of this simple calculation what becomes of the stress laid by the partisans of Papal sovereignty, upon the importance of this document as emanating from Pope St. Clement? Even if it could be shown that the letter of St. Clement was written during his episcopate, this would prove nothing, because this letter was not written by him by virtue of a superior and personal authority possessed by him, but from mere charity, and in the name of the Church at Rome. Let us hear Eusebius upon this subject: 'Of this Clement there is one epistle extant, acknowledged as genuine, … which he wrote in the name of the Church at Rome to that of Corinth, at the time when there was a dissension in the latter.' … He could not say more explicitly, that Clement did not in this matter act of his own authority, by virtue of any power he individually possessed. Nothing in the letter itself gives a suspicion of such authority. It thus commences: 'The Church of God which is at Rome, to the Church of God which is at Corinth.' … There is every reason to believe that St. Clement draughted this letter to the Corinthians. From the first centuries it has been considered as his work. It was not as Bishop of Rome, but as a disciple of the Apostles, that he wrote it. … In the second century the question concerning Easter was agitated with much warmth. Many Oriental Churches wished to follow the Judaical traditions, preserved by several Apostles in the celebration of that feast, and to hold it upon the fourteenth day of the March moon; other Eastern Churches, in agreement with the Western Churches according to an equally Apostolic tradition, celebrated the festival of Easter the Sunday following the fourteenth day of the March moon. {2420} The question in itself considered was of no great importance; and yet it was generally thought that all the Churches should celebrate at one and the same time the great Christian festival, and that some should not be rejoicing over the resurrection of the Saviour, while others were contemplating the mysteries of his death. How was the question settled? Did the Bishop of Rome interpose his authority and overrule the discussion, as would have been the case had he enjoyed a supreme authority? Let us take the evidence of History. The question having been agitated, 'there were synods and convocations of the Bishops on this question,' says Eusebius, 'and all unanimously drew up an ecclesiastical decree, which they communicated to all the Churches in all places. … There is an epistle extant even now of those who were assembled at the time; among whom presided Theophilus, Bishop of the Church in Cesarea and Narcissus, Bishop of Jerusalem. There is another epistle' (of the Roman Synod) 'extant on the same question, bearing the name of Victor. An epistle also of the Bishops in Pontus, among whom Palmas, as the most ancient, presided; also of the Churches of Gaul over whom Irenæus presided. Moreover, one from those in Osrhoene, and the cities there. And a particular epistle from Bacchyllus, Bishop of the Corinthians; and epistles of many others who, advancing one and the same doctrine, also passed the same vote.' It is evident that Eusebius speaks of the letter of the Roman synod in the same terms as of the others; he does not attribute it to Bishop Victor, but to the assembly of the Roman Clergy; and lastly, he only mentions it in the second place after that of the Bishops of Palestine. Here is a point irrefragably established; it is that in the matter of Easter, the Church of Rome discussed and judged the question in the same capacity as the other churches, and that the Bishop of Rome only signed the letter in the name of the synod which represented that Church."

Abbé Guettée, The Papacy, pages 53-58.

"At the time of the Council of Nicæa it was clear that the metropolitans of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch, held a superior rank among their brethren, and had a kind of ill-defined jurisdiction over the provinces of several metropolitans. The fathers of Nicæa recognized the fact that the privileges of these sees were regulated by customs already regarded as primitive, and these customs they confirmed. … The empire was afterwards divided for the purposes of civil government into four Prefectures. … The organization of the Church followed in its main lines that of the empire. It also had its dioceses and provinces, coinciding for the most part with the similarly named political divisions. Not only did the same circumstances which marked out a city for political preeminence also indicate it as a fit centre of ecclesiastical rule, but it was a recognized principle with the Church that the ecclesiastical should follow the civil division. At the head of a diocese was a patriarch, at the head of a province was a metropolitan; the territory of a simple bishop was a parish. … The see of Constantinople … became the oriental counterpart of that of Rome. … But the patriarchal system of government, like every other, suffered from the shocks of time. The patriarch of Antioch had, in the first instance, the most extensive territory, for he claimed authority not only over the civil diocese of the East, but over the Churches in Persia, Media, Parthia, and India, which lay beyond the limits of the empire. But this large organization was but loosely knit, and constantly tended to dissolution. … After the conquests of Caliph Omar the great see of Antioch sank into insignificance. The region subject to the Alexandrian patriarch was much smaller than that of Antioch, but it was better compacted. Here too however the Monophysite tumult so shook its organization that it was no longer able to resist the claims of the patriarch of Constantinople. It also fell under the dominion of the Saracens—a fate which had already befallen Jerusalem. In the whole East there remained only the patriarch of Constantinople in a condition to exercise actual authority. … According to Rufinus's version of the sixth canon of the Council of Nicæa, the Bishop of Rome had entrusted to him the care of the suburbicarian churches [probably including Lower Italy and most of Central Italy, with Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica]. … But many causes tended to extend the authority of the Roman patriarch beyond these modest limits. The patriarch of Constantinople depended largely for his authority on the will of the emperor, and his spiritual realm was agitated by the constant intrigues of opposing parties. His brother of Rome enjoyed generally more freedom in matters spiritual, and the diocese over which he presided, keeping aloof for the most part from controversies on points of dogma, was therefore comparatively calm and united. Even the Orientals were impressed by the majesty of old Rome, and gave great honour to its bishop. In the West, the highest respect was paid to those sees which claimed an Apostle as founder, and among these the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul naturally took the highest place. It was, in fact, the one apostolic see of Western Europe, and as such received a unique regard. … Doubtful questions about apostolic doctrine and custom were addressed certainly to other distinguished bishops, as Athanasius and Basil, but they came more readily and more constantly to Rome, as already the last appeal in many civil matters. We must not suppose however that the Churches of the East were ready to accept the sway of Rome, however they might respect the great city of the West. … The authority of the Roman see increased from causes which are sufficiently obvious to historical enquirers. But the greatest of the Roman bishops were far too wise to tolerate the supposition that their power depended on earthly sanctions. They contended steadfastly that they were the heads of the Church on earth, because they were the successors of him to whom the Lord had given the keys of the kingdom of heaven, St. Peter. And they also contended that Rome was, in the most emphatic sense, the mother-church of the whole West. Innocent I. claims that no Church had ever been founded in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Africa, Sicily, or the Mediterranean islands, except by men who had received their commission from St. Peter or his successors. At the same time, they admitted that the privileges of the see were not wholly derived immediately from its founder, but were conferred by past generations out of respect for St. Peter's see. {2421} But the bishop who most clearly and emphatically asserted the claims of the Roman see to preeminence over the whole Church on earth was no doubt Leo I., a great man who filled a most critical position with extraordinary firmness and ability. Almost every argument by which in later times the authority of the see of St. Peter was supported is to be found in the letters of Leo. … The Empire of the West never seriously interfered with the proceedings of the Roman bishop; and when it fell, the Church became the heir of the empire. In the general crash, the Latin Christians found themselves compelled to drop their smaller differences, and rally round the strongest representative of the old order. The Teutons, who shook to pieces the imperial system, brought into greater prominence the essential unity of all that was Catholic and Latin in the empire, and so strengthened the position of the see of Rome. … It must not however be supposed that the views of the Roman bishops as to the authority of Rome were universally accepted even in the West. Many Churches had grown up independently of Rome and were abundantly conscious of the greatness of their own past. … And in the African Church the reluctance to submit to Roman dictation which had showed itself in Cyprian's time was maintained for many generations. … In Gaul too there was a vigorous resistance to the jurisdiction of the see of St. Peter."

S. Cheetham, History of the Christian Church during the First Six Centuries, pages 181-195.

"A colossal city makes a colossal bishop, and this principle reached its maximum embodiment in Rome. The greatest City of the World made the greatest Bishop of the World. Even when the Empire was heathen the City lifted the Bishop so high that he drew to himself the unwelcome attention of the secular power, and in succession, in consequence, as in no other see, the early Bishops of Rome were martyrs. When the Empire became Christian, Rome's place was recognized as first, and the principle on which that primacy rested was clearly and accurately defined when the Second General Council, acting on this principle, assigned to the new seat of empire, Constantinople, the second place; it was the principle, namely, of honor, based upon material greatness. … The principle of the primacy, as distinguished from the supremacy growing out of Petrine claims was the heart and soul of Gallicanism in contrast to Ultramontanism, and was crushed out even in the Roman communion not twenty years ago."

Rt. Rev. G. F. Seymour, The Church of Rome in her relation to Christian Unity ("History and Teachings of the Early Church," lecture 5).

ALSO IN: H. Hallam, The Middle Ages, chapter 7, part 1.

PAPACY: Origin of the Papal title.

"'Papa,' that strange and universal mixture of familiar endearment and of reverential awe, extended in a general sense to all Greek Presbyters and all Latin Bishops, was the special address which, long before the names of patriarch or archbishop, was given to the head of the Alexandrian church. … He was the Pope. The Pope of Rome was a phrase which had not yet [at the time of the meeting of the Council of Nicæa, A. D. 325] emerged in history. But Pope of Alexandria was a well-known dignity. … This peculiar Alexandrian application of a name, in itself expressing simple affection, is thus explained:—Down to Heraclas (A. D. 230), the Bishop of Alexandria, being the sole Egyptian Bishop, was called 'Abba' (father), and his clergy 'elders.' From his time more bishops were created, who then received the name of 'Abba,' and consequently the name of 'Papa' ('ab-aba,' pater patrum=grandfather) was appropriated to the primate. The Roman account (inconsistent with facts) is that the name was first given to Cyril, as representing the Bishop of Rome in the Council of Ephesus. (Suicer, in voce). The name was fixed to the Bishop of Rome in the 7th century."

A. P. Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church, lecture 3.

ALSO IN: J. Bingham, Antiquities of the Christian Church, book 2, chapter 2, section 7.

J. Alzog, Manual of Universal Christian History, section 130.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 312-337.

PAPACY: A. D. 42-461. The early Bishops of Rome, to Leo the Great.

The following is the succession of the popes, according to Roman Catholic authorities, during the first four hundred and twenty years: "Peter, to the year of Christ 67; Linus, Anencletus, Clement; (to 77?) Evaristus, Alexander, Xystus, Telesphorus, Hyginus, to 142; Pius, to 157; Anicetus, to 168; Soter, to 177; Eleutherius, to 193; Victor, to 202; Zephyrinus, to 219; Callistus, to 223; Urban, to 230; Pontianus, to 235; Anterus, to 236; Fabian, to 250; Cornelius, from 251 to 252; Lucius, to 253; Stephan, to 257; Xystus II, to 258; Dionysius, from 259 to 269; Felix, to 274; Eutychianus, to 283; Caius, to 296; Marcellinus, to 304; Marcellus, after a vacancy of four years, from 308 to 310; Eusebius, from the 20th of May to the 26th of September, 310; Melchiades, from 311 to 314; Silvester, from 314 to 335. … Mark was chosen on the 18th of January 336, and died on the 7th of October of the same year. Julius I, from 337 to 352, the steadfast defender of St. Athanasius. …

The less steadfast Liberius, from 352 to 366, purchased, in 358 his return from exile by an ill-placed condescension to the demands of the Arians. He, however, soon redeemed .the honour which he had forfeited by this step, by his condemnation of the council of Rimini, for which act he was again driven from his Church. During his banishment, the Roman clergy were compelled to elect the deacon Felix in his place, or probably only as administrator of the Roman Church. When Liberius returned to Rome, Felix fled from the city, and died in the country, in 365.

Damasus, from 366 to 384, by birth a Spaniard, had, at the very commencement of his pontificate, to assert his rights against a rival named Ursicinus, who obtained consecration from some bishops a few days after the election of Damasus. The faction of Ursicinus was the cause of much bloodshed. …

Siricius, from 385 to 389, was, although Ursicinus again endeavoured to intrude himself, unanimously chosen by the clergy and people. …

Anastasius, from 398 to 402; a pontiff, highly extolled by his successor, and by St. Jerome, of whom the latter says, that he was taken early from this earth, because Rome was not longer worthy of him, and that he might not survive the desolation of the city by Alaric. He was succeeded by Innocent I, from 402 to 417. … During the possession of Rome by Alaric [see ROME: A. D. 408-410], Innocent went to Ravenna, to supplicate the emperor, in the name of the Romans, to conclude a peace with the Goths. The pontificate of his successor, the Greek Zosimus, was only of twenty one months. {2422} The election of Boniface, from 418 to 422, was disturbed by the violence of the archdeacon Eulalius, who had attached a small party to his interests. … He was followed by Celestine I, from 422 to 432, the combatant of Nestorianism and of Semipelagianism. To Sixtus III, from 432 to 440, the metropolitans, Helladius of Tarsus, and Eutherius of Tyana, appealed, when they were threatened with deposition at the peace between St. Cyril and John of Antioch. Leo the Great, from 440 to 461, is the first pope of whom we possess a collection of writings: they consist of 96 discourses on festivals, and 141 epistles. By his high and well-merited authority, he saved Rome, in 452, from the devastation of the Huns; and induced Attila, named 'the scourge of God,' to desist from his invasion of Italy [see HUNS: A. D. 452]. Again, when, in 457 [455], the Vandal king Geiserich entered Rome [see ROME: A. D. 455], the Romans were indebted to the eloquent persuasions of their holy bishop for the preservation, at least, of their lives."

J. J. I. Döllinger, History of the Church, volume 2, pages 213-215.

"For many centuries the bishops of Rome had been comparatively obscure persons: indeed, Leo was the first really great man who occupied the see, but he occupied it under circumstances which tended without exception to put power in his hand. … Circumstances were thrusting greatness upon the see of St. Peter: the glory of the Empire was passing into her hands, the distracted Churches of Spain and Africa, harassed and torn in pieces by barbarian hordes and wearied with heresies, were in no position to assert independence in any matter, and were only too glad to look to any centre whence a measure of organization and of strength seemed to radiate; and the popes had not been slow in rising to welcome and promote the greatness with which the current and tendency of the age was investing them. Their rule seems to have been, more than anything else, to make the largest claim, and enforce as much of it as they could, but the theory of papal power was still indeterminate, vague, unfixed. She was Patriarch of the West —what rights did that give her? … Was her claim … a claim of jurisdiction merely, or did she hold herself forth as a doctrinal authority in a sense in which other bishops were not? In this respect, again, the claim into which Leo entered was indefinite and unformulated. … The Imperial instincts of old Rome are dominant in him, all that sense of discipline, order, government—all the hatred of uniformity, individuality, eccentricity. These are the elements which make up Leo's mind. He is above all things a governor and an administrator. He has got a law of ecclesiastical discipline, a supreme canon of dogmatic truth, and these are his instruments to subdue the troubled world. … The rule which governed Leo's conduct as pope was a very simple one, it was to take every opportunity which offered itself for asserting and enforcing the authority of his see: he was not troubled with historical or scriptural doubts or scruples which might cast a shadow of indecision, 'the pale cast of thought,' on his resolutions and actions. To him the papal authority had come down as the great inheritance of his position; it was identified in his mind with the order, the authority, the discipline, the orthodoxy which he loved so dearly; it suited exactly his Imperial ambition, in a word, his 'Roman' disposition and character, and he took it as his single great weapon against heresy and social confusion."

C. Gore, Leo the Great, chapters 6 and 7.

PAPACY: A. D. 461-604. The succession of Popes from Leo the Great to Gregory the Great.

The successor of Leo the Great, "the Sardinian Hilarius, from 461 to 468, had been one of his legates at the council of Ephesus in 449. … The zeal of Simplicius, from 468 to 483, was called into action chiefly by the confusion occasioned in the east by the Monophysites. The same may be said of Felix II (or III) from 483 to 492, in whose election the prefect Basilius concurred, as plenipotentiary of king Odoacer. Gelasius I, from 492 to 496, and Anastasius II, laboured, but in vain, in endeavouring to heal the schism, formed by Acacius, at Constantinople. This schism occasioned a division in Rome at the election of a new pontiff. The senator Festus had promised the emperor that he would enforce the reception of the Henoticon at Rome; and by means of corruption established against the deacon Symmachus, who had in his favour the majority of voices, a powerful party, which chose Laurence as antipope. Again was a double election the cause of bloody strife in the streets of Rome, until the Arian king, Theodoric, at Ravenna, declared for Symmachus, who gave to his rival the bishopric of Luceria. … More tranquil was the pontificate of the succeeding pope, Hormisdas, from 514 to 523, and made illustrious by the restoration of peace, in 519, in the eastern Church.

John I died at Ravenna, in 519, in prison, into which he was cast by the suspicious Theodoric, after his return from Constantinople.

Felix III (or IV) from 526 to 530, was chosen by the Romans, at the command of the king. At short intervals, followed Boniface II, from 530 to 532; and John II, from 533 to 535.

Agapite I went, at the desire of the Gothic king, Theodatus, to obtain peace from the emperor, to Constantinople, where he died in 536.

Sylverius died, in 540, during his second exile, on the island of Palmaria. … Vigilius, who was ordained in 537, and who became lawful pope in 540, was compelled to remain in the east, from 546 to 554, sometimes a prisoner in Constantinople, and sometimes in exile. He died at Syracuse, on his return to Rome, in 555. Pelagius I, from 555 to 560, found difficulty in obtaining an acknowledgement of his election, as, by his condemnation of the three articles, he was considered in the west as a traitor to the council of Chalcedon, and because there existed a suspicion that he was accessory to the death of Vigilius.

John III, from 560 to 573, beheld the commencement of the Lombard dominion in Italy.

Benedict I, from 574 to 578, and Pelagius II, from 578 to 590, ruled the Church during the melancholy times of the Lombard devastations. One of the most splendid appearances in the series of the Roman pontiffs was that of Gregory the Great, from 590 to 604."

J. J. I. Döllinger, History of the Church, volume 2, pages 213-217.

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"Pope Pelagius died on the 8th of February, 590. The people of Rome … were at this time in the utmost straits. Italy lay prostrate and miserable under the Lombard invasion; the invaders now threatened Rome itself, and its inhabitants trembled; famine and pestilence within the city produced a climax of distress; an overflow of the Tiber at the time aggravated the general alarm and misery; Gregory himself, in one of his letters, compares Rome at this time to an old and shattered ship, letting in the waves on all sides, tossed by a daily storm, its planks rotten and sounding of wreck. In this state of things all men's thoughts at once turned to Gregory. The pope was at this period the virtual ruler of Rome, and the greatest power in Italy; and they must have Gregory as their pope; for, if anyone could save them, it was he. His abilities in public affairs had been proved; all Rome knew his character and attainments; he had now the further reputation of eminent saintliness. He was evidently the one man for the post; and accordingly he was unanimously elected by clergy, senate, and people. But he shrank from the proffered dignity. There was one way by which he might possibly escape it. No election of a pope could at this time take effect without the emperor's confirmation, and an embassy had to be sent to Constantinople to obtain it. Gregory therefore sent at the same time a letter to the emperor (Mauricius, who had succeeded Tiberius in 582), imploring him to withhold his confirmation; but it was intercepted by the prefect of the city, and another from the clergy, senate, and people sent in its place, entreating approval of their choice. … At length the imperial confirmation of his election arrived. He still refused; fled from the city in disguise, eluding the guards set to watch the gates, and hid himself in a forest cave. Pursued and discovered by means, it is said, of a supernatural light, he was brought back in triumph, conducted to the church of St. Peter, and at once ordained on the 3rd of September, 590. … Having been once placed in the high position he so little coveted, he rose to it at once, and fulfilled its multifarious duties with remarkable zeal and ability. His comprehensive policy, and his grasp of great issues, are not more remarkable than the minuteness of the details, in secular as well as religious matters, to which he was able to give his personal care. And this is the more striking in combination with the fact that, as many parts of his writings show, he remained all the time a monk at heart, thoroughly imbued with both the ascetic principles and the narrow credulity of contemporary monasticism. His private life, too, was still in a measure monastic: the monastic simplicity of his episcopal attire is noticed by his biographer; he lived with his clergy under strict rule, and in 595 issued a synodal decree substituting clergy for the boys and secular persons who had formerly waited on the pope in his chamber."

J. Barmby, Gregory the Great, chapter 2.

"Of the immense energy shown by St. Gregory in the exercise of his Principate, of the immense influence wielded by him both in the East and in the West, of the acknowledgment of his Principate by the answers which emperor and patriarch made to his demands and rebukes, we possess an imperishable record in the fourteen books of his letters which have been preserved to us. They are somewhat more than 850 in number. They range over every subject, and are addressed to every sort of person. If he rebukes the ambition of a patriarch, and complains of an emperor's unjust law, he cares also that the tenants on the vast estates of the Church which his officers superintend at a distance should not be in any way harshly treated. … The range of his letters is so great, their detail so minute, that they illuminate his time and enable us to form a mental picture, and follow faithfully that pontificate of fourteen years, incessantly interrupted by cares and anxieties for the preservation of his city, yet watching the beginnings and strengthening the polity of the western nations, and counterworking the advances of the eastern despotism. The divine order of greatness is, we know, to do and to teach. Few, indeed, have carried it out on so great a scale as St. Gregory. The mass of his writing preserved to us exceeds the mass preserved to us from all his predecessors together, even including St. Leo, who with him shares the name of Great, and whose sphere of action the mind compares with his. If he became to all succeeding times an image of the great sacerdotal life in his own person, so all ages studied in his words the pastoral care, joining him with St. Gregory of Nazianzum and St. Chrysostom. The man who closed his life at sixty-four, worn out, not with age, but with labour and bodily pains, stands, beside the learning of St. Jerome, the perfect episcopal life and statesmanship of St. Ambrose, the overpowering genius of St. Augustine, as the fourth doctor of the western Church, while he surpasses them all in that his doctorship was seated on St. Peter's throne. If he closes the line of Fathers, he begins the period when the Church, failing to preserve a rotten empire in political existence, creates new nations; nay, his own hand has laid for them their foundation-stones."

T. W. Allies, The Holy See and the Wandering of the Nations, from St. Leo I. to St. Gregory I., pages 309-335.

See, also, ROME: A. D. 590-640.

PAPACY: A. D. 604-731.

The succession of Popes. Sabinian, A. D. 604-606; Boniface III., 607; Boniface IV., 608-615; Deusdedit, 615-618; Boniface V., 619-625; Honorius I., 625-638; Severinus, 640; John IV., 640-642; Theodore I., 642-649; Martin I., 649-655; Eugenius I., 655-657; Vitalian, 657-672; Adeodatus II., 672-676; Donus I., 676-678; Agatho, 678-682; Leo II., 682-683; Benedict II., 684-685; John V., 685-686; Canon, 686-687; Sergius I.,687-701; John VI., 701-705; John VII., 705-707; Sisinnius, 708; Constantine, 708-715; Gregory II., 715-731.

PAPACY: A. D. 728-774. Rise of the Papal Sovereignty at Rome.