Part 2 — Chapter IV.—Of Provincial and Communal Institutions. (continued 6)

Sveriges Historia, 1805-1875 (translated from the Swedish by L. G. Sellstedt), pages 29-31.

See, also, SCANDINAVIAN STATES: A. D. 1810 (page 2831).

SWEDEN: Libraries.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).

—————SWEDEN: End————

{3806}

SWEDENBORG, and the New Church.

"Swedenborg was born in 1688, and died in 1772. The son of a Lutheran Bishop of Sweden, a student at several universities, and an extensive traveler throughout all the principal countries of Europe, he had exceptional opportunities for testing the essential quality of contemporaneous Christianity. … Until he was more than fifty years of age, Swedenborg had written nothing on religious subjects, and apparently given them no special attention. He was principally known, in his own country, as Assessor Extraordinary of the Board of Mines, and an influential member of the Swedish Diet; and not only there, but throughout Europe, as a writer on many branches of science and philosophy. In this field he acquired great distinction; and the number and variety of topics which he treated was remarkable. Geometry and algebra, metallurgy and magnetism, anatomy, physiology, and the relation of the soul to the body were among the subjects which received his attention. There is to be noticed in the general order of his publications a certain gradual, but steady, progression from lower to higher themes,—from a contemplation of the mere external phenomena of nature to a study of their deep and hidden causes. He was always full of devout spiritual aspirations. In all his scientific researches he steadfastly looked through nature up to nature's God. … Maintaining this inflexible belief in God and revelation, and in the essential unity of truth, Swedenborg, in his upward course, at last reached the boundary line between matter and spirit. Then it was that he entered on those remarkable experiences by which, as he affirms, the secrets of the other world were revealed to him. He declares that the eyes of his spirit were opened, and that he had, from that time forward, conscious daily intercourse with spirits and angels. His general teaching on this subject is that the spiritual world is an inner sphere of being,—not material, and in no wise discernible to natural senses, yet none the less real and substantial,—and that it is the ever-present medium of life to man and nature."

J. Reed, Why am I a New Churchman? (North American Review, January, 1887).

"The doctrine of Correspondence is the central idea of Swedenborg's system. Everything visible has belonging to it an appropriate spiritual reality. The history of man is an acted parable; the universe, a temple covered with hieroglyphics. Behmen, from the light which flashes on certain exalted moments, imagines that he receives the key to these hidden significances,—that he can interpret the 'Signatura Rerum.' But he does not see spirits, or talk with angels. According to him, such communications would be less reliable than the intuition he enjoyed. Swedenborg takes opposite ground. 'What I relate,' he would say, 'comes from no such mere inward persuasion. I recount the things I have seen. I do not labour to recall and to express the manifestation made me in some moment of ecstatic exaltation. I write you down a plain statement of journeys and conversations in the spiritual world, which have made the greater part of my daily history for many years together. I take my stand upon experience. I have proceeded by observation and induction as strict as that of any man of science among you. Only it has been given me to enjoy an experience reaching into two worlds—that of spirit, as well as that of matter.' … According to Swedenborg, all the mythology and the symbolisms of ancient times were so many refracted or fragmentary correspondences—relics of that better day when every outward object suggested to man's mind its appropriate divine truth. Such desultory and uncertain links between the seen and the unseen are so many imperfect attempts toward that harmony of the two worlds which he believed himself commissioned to reveal. The happy thoughts of the artist, the imaginative analogies of the poet, are exchanged with Swedenborg for an elaborate system. All the terms and objects in the natural and spiritual worlds are catalogued in pairs."

R. A. Vaughan, Hours with the Mystics, book 12, chapter 1, (volume 2).

"It is more than a century since the foundation of this church [the New-Church] was laid, by the publication of the theological writings of Emanuel Swedenborg. For more than half of that time, individuals and societies have been active in translating them, and in publishing them widely. There have been many preachers of these doctrines, and not a few writers of books and periodicals. The sale of Swedenborg's writings, and of books intended to present the doctrines of the church, has been constant and large. How happens it, under these circumstances, that the growth of this church has been and is so slow, if its doctrines are all that we who hold them suppose them to be? There are many answers to this question. One among them is, that its growth has been greater than is apparent. It is not a sect. Its faith does not consist of a few specific tenets, easily stated and easily received. It is a new way of thinking about God and man, this life and another, and every topic, connected with these. And this new way of thinking has made and is making what may well be called great progress. It may be discerned everywhere, in the science, literature, philosophy, and theology of the times; not prevalent in any of them, but existing, and cognizable by all who are able to appreciate these new truths with their bearings and results. … Let it not be supposed that by the New-Church is meant the organized societies calling themselves by that name. In one sense, that is their name. Swedenborg says there are three essentials of this Church: a belief in the Divinity of the Lord, and in the sanctity of the Scriptures, and a life of charity, which is a life governed by a love of the neighbor. Where these are, there is the Church. Whoever holds these essentials in faith and life is a member of the New-Church, whatever may be his theological name or place. Only in the degree in which he so holds these essentials is anyone a member of that church. Those who, holding or desiring to hold these essentials in faith and life, unite and organize that they may be assisted and may assist each other in so holding them, constitute the visible or professed New-Church. But very false would they be to its doctrines, if they supposed themselves to be exclusively members of that Church, or if they founded their membership upon their profession or external organization. For there is no other true foundation for this membership than every man's own internal reception of the essentials of the Church, and his leading the life which its truths require."

T. Parsons, Outlines of the Religion and Philosophy of Swedenborg, chapter 14, section 5.

ALSO IN: E. Swedenborg, The four leading Doctrines of the New Church.

G. F. E. Le Boys Des Guays, Letters to a Man of the World.

B. F. Barrett, Lectures on the New Dispensation.

SWITZERLAND, Libraries of.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).

{3807}

T.

TAORMINA. TAUROMENION.

About 392 B. C. Dionysios, the tyrant of Syracuse, expelled the Sikels, or natives of Sicily, from one of their towns, Tauromenion (modern Taormina) on the height of Tauros, overlooking the site of the old Greek city of Naxos, which Dionysios had destroyed ten years before. He peopled the town anew with some of his mercenaries; but after his death the scattered Naxians were brought together in it, and made it their home. "The city thus strengthened by new colonists grew and prospered, and became specially remarkable for the wealth of its citizens. Greek Tauromenion ran through the usual course of a Sikeliot city in later times. Settled again by a Roman colony, it lived on till the days of its greatest glory, as the last of Sikeliot cities to hold out for Christ and Cæsar against the assaults of the besieging Saracens. But even that greater memory does not shut out the thoughts of the stirring early days of the city. … The rocks and the heights are there still, and not the rocks and the heights only. There is the wall with the work of the Sikel and the Greek side by side. There is the temple of the Greek changed into the church of the Christian apostle of Sicily. There is the theatre, the work of the Greek enlarged and modified by the Roman; the theatre which, unlike those of Syracuse and Argos, still keeps so large a part of its scena, 'and where we hardly mourn the loss of the rest as we look out on the hills and the sea between its fragments. … The matchless site would be something even without a story, but at Taormina the story is for ever written on the site. On the long ridge of the town, on its walls and gates, on the rocks on which it stands, on the prouder rocks which rise above it, we may truly say that, of all who have assailed or defended the mountain-city, alongside of the names of Ibrahim and of Roger, the first names in the long story of Tauromenion dwell there also."

E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily, chapter 11, section 2 (volume 4).

ALSO IN: The Century, September 1893.

TELEGRAPH, Invention of the Electrical.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION (pages 771-772).

THIRTY YEARS WAR, The effects of.

See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1648; also page 1484.

"TIPPECANOE AND TYLER TOO."

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1840 (page 3377).

—————TOLERATION, Religious: Start————

TOLERATION, Religious: A. D. 1631-1661. Denied in Massachusetts.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1631-1636, to 1656-1661 (pages 2103 to 2109).

TOLERATION, Religious: A. D. 1636. Established by Roger Williams in Rhode Island.

See RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1638-1647 (page 2639).

TOLERATION, Religious: A. D. 1649. Enacted in Maryland.

See MARYLAND: A. D. 1649 (page 2094).

TOLERATION, Religious: A. D. 1689. Partial enactment in England.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1689 (page 909).

TOLERATION, Religious: A. D. 1778. Repeal of Catholic penal laws in England.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1778-1780 (page 936).

TOLERATION, Religious: A. D. 1827-1829. Removal of disabilities from Dissenters and Emancipation of Catholics in England and Ireland.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1827-1828 (page 952); and IRELAND: A. D. 1811-1829 (page 1784).

TOLERATION, Religious: A. D. 1869. Disestablishment of the Irish Church.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1868-1870 (page 969).

TOLERATION, Religious: A. D. 1871. Abolition of religious tests in English Universities.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1871 (page 970).

—————TOLERATION, Religious: End————

TORQUEMADA.

See INQUISITION (page 1751).

TRADE.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE.

TRADE-MARKS, Protection of.

See LAW, EQUITY: A. D. 1875 (page 1994).

TRADES UNIONS.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D: 1720-1800 (page 2933), and after.

TSIAM NATION, The.

See TONKIN (page 3115).

TULANE UNIVERSITY, or University of Louisiana.

"This institution had its origin in certain land grants made by the United States 'for the use of a seminary of learning.' By an act of the General Government passed in 1806 one township of land was granted for the above named purpose, and in 1811 another township was added to this and both were confirmed by an act (of 1824) which also authorized their location. The first movement toward the utilization of these grants was made in 1845, when the following clause was adopted in the amended Constitution: 'A university shall be established in the city of New Orleans. It shall be composed of four faculties, to wit: one of law, one of medicine, one of natural sciences, and one of letters.' … The university was chartered in 1847. … For many years the university received but meagre support from the State. … By the Constitution of 1879 the institution was endowed permanently by authorizing the sum of not more than $10,000 payable annually [for five years] to the university. At the expiration of this period the university was united with the Tulane University (in 1884). Since that time no appropriations have been made by the Legislature."

F. W. Blackmar, History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in the United States (Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1890. number 1), pages 272-273.

TYPHOID FEVER, Appearance of.

See PLAGUE; 18TH CENTURY (page 2543).

U.

"UNCLE TOM'S CABIN," The effect of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1852 (page 3392).

—————-UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: Start————

{3808}

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: Historical Geography.

The historical geography of the United States possesses, in a unique degree, a two-fold character. These divisions of the subject are best described by the words exterior and interior. While such a classification is, of course, inevitable in the history of every nation, the fact remains that, with the United States, these divisions stand in a different relation to each other from any that appear usually in the historical geography of other countries. The difference is chiefly one of relative importance. The internal historical geography of the Old World nations, barring the feudal period, involves so largely questions concerning mere provincial administration that it has no claim, from a geographical standpoint, to an importance equal to the shifting of the great national frontiers. Examples of this are found in the Roman and Byzantine empires, and in the majority of the modern states. In our own case however the order of interest is reversed. Our internal geography has attracted the chief attention of the student, not so much from the greater difficulty of the subject as from its vast importance in the early history of our government. It is not, indeed, too much to say that the organization of the present government under the constitution is an event of scarcely greater importance than the determination of the final policy of the states and the nation concerning the unoccupied western lands. It is this fact alone which gives the higher degree of relative importance to our internal historical geography. The general facts concerning our external geography are quickly told. The outlines of the entire subject are contained in the enumeration of the eight cessions, as follows:

the original territory ceded by Great Britain at the peace of Paris in 1783 (see page 3287);

the Louisiana purchase from France in 1803 (pages 2049, and 3327);

the acquisition of Florida from Spain by the treaty of 1819 (page 1154);

the admission of Texas in 1845 (page 3102);

the undisputed acquisition of the Oregon country by treaty with Great Britain in 1846 (page 2402);

the first Mexican cession by the peace of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 (page 2175);

the second Mexican cession, known as the Gadsden purchase, in 1853 (page 133);

and the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867 (page 30).

The enumeration of these eight acquisitions, all of which, save the final one are shown on the first United States map, affords a complete picture of the successive stages of our territorial growth. The occasion of these different annexations, as well as their exact territorial extent, would involve us in a series of details which are beyond the purpose of the present article. It should be observed, however, that in several cases the map shows the territories in question as finally determined by treaty or survey, rather than their actual extent as understood at the time the annexations were made. This is one of the inevitable disadvantages in the purely cartographic treatment of such a subject. The historical map is compelled from its nature to give a tangible appearance to matters which are often very intangible in fact. In the case, for example, of what we may call the first United States, the country as recognized by the treaty of Paris, the western line of the Mississippi was the only boundary which was not the subject of future discussion. The southern frontier as arranged at Paris was affirmed by treaty with Spain in 1795. On the other side, however, Great Britain retained a number of posts in the Old Northwest up to the Jay treaty of 1794; the boundary between the upper Mississippi and the Lake of the Woods, imperfectly described in the Paris treaty, was not settled until 1818; the line from the intersection of the St. Lawrence to the Sault Ste. Marie was established in 1822 by joint commission under the treaty of Ghent; while the Maine frontier question, the most difficult and obstinate of all our boundary disputes, was not finally settled until the year 1842. The Louisiana purchase of 1803 brought in fresh questions concerning our territorial limits. On three sides, the North, West and Southwest the frontiers of this vast area were undefined. On the northern side the boundary was settled with Great Britain by the treaty of 1818 which carried the line along the forty-ninth parallel to the Rocky Mountains, while the treaty of 1819 with Spain, which ceded Florida to the United States, also defined the limits of Louisiana on the South-West. This line of 1819 has an additional importance, in that it drew the frontier between Spain and the United States along the forty-second parallel to the Pacific coast. The importance of this lay in the fact that it gave us a clear title on the Spanish side to the so-called Oregon country. The exact connection, real or supposed, between this territory and the Louisiana country was for many years one of the disputed points in American historical geography. The belief in this connection, at one time general, undoubtedly had its origin in the undefined character of Louisiana at the time of the purchase, and the fact that our government turned this indefiniteness to its own purpose in advancing its Oregon claims. It is now clear, however, from the evidence of the old maps, the official statement of the limits of the region, of which there is but one in existence (the Crozat grant of 1712) and lastly the understanding of France herself at the time of the cession, that Louisiana did not include in its limits any part of the Pacific watershed. A map published in a subsequent work of the French plenipotentiary placed the western boundary of Louisiana at the one hundred and tenth meridian. A line drawn in this arbitrary fashion and unsanctioned by the terms of the treaty itself may be regarded merely as one of convenience. If this view is correct it is certainly more convenient and, at the same time, more logical, to consider the western boundary as extending to the Rocky Mountain watershed,—a line which would not deviate to any radical extent from the meridian in question. The historical connection however between the Louisiana purchase and our subsequent acquisition of the Oregon country is perfectly clear. The exploration of the latter followed almost immediately but its final annexation was delayed by the opposing claim of Great Britain. In this controversy the claim of the United States was merely relative as opposed to that of England. The just claimant was undoubtedly the king of Spain, whose rights, based on discovery, antedated those of either of the contesting powers. The Spanish title, however, having, as we have seen, been relinquished by the treaty of 1819, the issue between Great Britain and the United States became clearly defined. A joint occupation of the disputed territory by the two powers ensued from 1818 to 1846. In the latter year was negotiated the compromise treaty, which continued our northern line of 1818 on the forty-ninth parallel from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific coast. From the treaty of 1846 we may date the completion of our northern frontier, although the ownership of certain islands between Vancouver and the mainland was not settled until 1872. {3809} A few more years witnessed the completion of our southern frontier, as well. In 1845 Texas was admitted to the Union. The western boundary of the Rio Grande, claimed by the new state under her constitution of 1836, led directly to the war with Mexico, and by that war to the great additional cession at Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. The southern boundary was finally completed by the Gadsden purchase of 1853. Coming now to the study of our internal geography, we find ourselves in contact with what is practically a distinct subject. Here we encounter a whole series of those weighty questions, the solution of which figures so prominently in the early history of the American government. We have already noted that the first western boundary of the United States was placed by the treaty of 1783 at the Mississippi river. But during the Paris negotiations our ally France and quasi ally Spain both opposed this westward extension of our territory and it was long an open question, even after our independence itself was assured, whether we should not be compelled to accept a western boundary on the Appalachian range. Years before the final settlement of the question at Paris, the expectancy of the Mississippi boundary had given rise to questions which caused an undercurrent of dissension between the states during the entire period of the Revolutionary War. In their relation to the western land question, the thirteen original states divide themselves into two classes, the claimant and non-claimant states. In the first class were Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Virginia, the two Carolinas and Georgia; in the second, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland. The claims of the seven first named states covered every inch of our prospective western domain and in the country north of the Ohio, known as the Old Northwest there were opposing claims of two and in some districts of even three states to the same territory. The extent of these claims is indicated on the map of the Federated states in 1783. They rested for the most part upon the royal grants and charters to the colonies, and, in the case of New York, upon the treaties with the Iroquois. Their relative merits where conflicting, or their collective merit as a whole, are questions which we will not attempt to discuss. It is sufficient to observe that if insisted upon in their entirety they would have presented an insuperable obstacle to the formation of an American federate government. In the proceedings of the Continental Congress, as well as in the state legislative bodies, touching this western domain, we may find the germs of nearly all the political and constitutional questions which have made the greater part of our subsequent history. The relative rank and power of the states, the obligation of one state towards another, the individual rights of states as opposed to the collective rights of the Union; all of these questions entered into the great problem which the nation was now called upon to solve. The objections to the western claims by the non-claimant states, though urged with varying degrees of vehemence and accompanied with many widely differing alternatives, may be fairly resolved into the two following contentions: that it was unjust that so vast a domain, whose acquisition at the peace could only be insured through the joint labor of all the states, should thereafter become the property of a certain favored few, and also that the claims if allowed would in the end give the claimant states a preponderating power which would be extremely prejudicial if not dangerous to the others. Of all the non-claimant states, Maryland was the most determined in her opposition, and it is to her that Professor Herbert B. Adams in his monograph on "Maryland's Influence upon Land Cessions to the United States," assigns the chief credit for the final creation of the first national domain (see page 3280). The claim though a just one cannot be asserted without an important qualification. The proposition advanced by Maryland, that a national title to the western lands be asserted by a clause in the Articles of Confederation, was manifestly one to which the claimant states would never give their consent. It was due, however, to the action of Maryland,—which refused for more than three years, from November 1777 to March 1781, to ratify the articles,— that the question was kept open until the claimant states, in order to complete the circle of the Union, found it necessary to adopt the policy of voluntary cessions, suggested by Congress. The history in detail of the several state cessions involves many questions concerning the distribution and sale of public lands which need not concern us. Some of the offers of cession, at first conditional and partial, were made absolute and final, as, one by one, the besetting difficulties were cleared away. The dates of the final cessions by the seven claimant states in order were as follows: New York 1781, Virginia 1783, Massachusetts 1785, Connecticut 1786, South Carolina 1787, North Carolina 1790, Georgia 1802.

Certain land reservations north of the Ohio, as shown on the map of the United States in 1790, were made by both Virginia and Connecticut; but Virginia renounced jurisdiction over these lands in the cession, and Connecticut did likewise in 1800, the two states reserving merely the property rights. The territory south of the Ohio was not included in the Virginia cession of 1783 but the district of Kentucky was made the subject of a second cession in 1789. The completion of this list closed the interesting chapter in our history covered by the state cessions and gave to the United States the sovereignty over its first great western public domain. Before pursuing this subject further, let us see in what relation the cessions stand to the present form of the thirteen original states. Some boundary contentions still remained, but these are not of historic importance. The claim of Massachusetts in what is now "Western New York was settled by joint commission in 1786, while Pennsylvania purchased a tract of land on lake Erie from the general government in 1792. At the present day sixteen states stand upon the territory which remained to the original thirteen, the three additional ones each springing from the partition of one of the older states. In 1790 New York assented to the independence of Vermont, which was admitted to the Union in the following year; in 1820 Maine was separated from Massachusetts and admitted; and finally, in 1862, West Virginia was set off from Virginia and became a state in 1863. We will now resume the subject of the disposition of the western lands. {3810} We have already noted the termination of that stage of their history which involves the territorial claims of individual states. The second stage concerns itself with the evolution of what may be called the American system of territorial government. The first, indeed, had not reached its completion before the second began to receive the greater measure of public attention. The western land cessions to the government were made with the general understanding, tacit in most cases, but in that of Virginia explicitly stated, that the ceded territory should eventually be formed into additional states. The first national domain may therefore be regarded as a district held in trust by the government for a special purpose. This view, which was not only required by the terms of the Virginia cession, but also represented the general sentiment of the time, has formed the basis of our entire subsequent policy in dealing with the national domain,—a policy which has remained unaltered even in the case of the immense territories that afterwards came into the direct possession of the government by treaty with foreign powers. The one question remaining was the erection of the legislative machinery which should provide for the government of the territories during their preparation for statehood. The problem was finally solved by the Ordinance of 1787 for the government of the Northwest territory. This famous ordinance, the first of the long series of acts concerning territorial government, was the last noteworthy piece of legislation under the old Articles of Confederation, and the year which witnessed both the successful inauguration of our territorial policy and the adoption of the new constitution is the most memorable in the entire history of American institutions. The history of the enactment of the Ordinance, for many years veiled in obscurity, has been fully elucidated by the late W. F. Poole (monograph on "The Ordinance of 1787"); the full text is printed in its proper place in this work (page 2380). Many of its provisions, suited only for the special occasion of their use, are now antiquated and obsolete, and neither their letter nor spirit find a place in subsequent territorial legislation. But the fact remains that this act was in a certain sense the great proto-type; it was the first to organize and set in motion the machinery of our territorial policy. A policy that has provided without friction for the tremendous national expansion which has ensued during the present century may justly be regarded as one of the greatest achievements in the political history of the American government. In our own day, when the admission of a new state or the erection of a new territory is regarded as hardly more than a routine event in the working of our political system, it is easy for us to underestimate the vital importance of the first steps which were taken concerning the regulation of the national domain. It was because those steps were to determine in a measure our entire future policy, that the history of the old Continental Congress should form an absorbing theme for every student of our internal geography. It is unnecessary to follow this subject in detail through its later history, which is simply a monotonous record of legislative enactments for the organization of new territories or the admission of new states. The principle had been fully established; the history of the next century, followed step by step, can show very little beyond its consistent application. Political considerations have, it is true, often delayed or prematurely hastened the admission of new states, but there has been one case only where we have been called upon again to face a question similar to that which was solved by the old congress. The circumstances of the admission of the republic of Texas bear no analogy to that of any other state received into the Union since the formation of the government. Here was, not a state created by mere legislative enactment, but an independent foreign sovereignty, admitted to the Union at its own solicitation, bringing with it as a dower a territory immeasurably greater than the national policy had ever before assigned to a single state. Once more therefore we have the old question of a troublesome state sovereignty in immense unoccupied lands. The comparative absence of friction in the solution of this new problem proves again the efficiency of the old policy in dealing with all such questions. No cession of territory was wrung from Texas or in this case even solicited. The state was admitted to the Union in 1845 claiming a continuous western boundary on the Rio Grande. In 1850, after the peace of Guadalupe Hidalgo had determined our boundary on the Mexican side, Texas sold to the General Government, for the sum of $10,000,000, all of her territorial claims north and west of her present boundaries. With some modifications the history of the original cessions repeats itself in this transaction, which was the last occasion of a great transfer of territory to the Union by one of its members. There are many other features in our internal geography, among the most notable the institution of slavery, which would be worthy of attention were the space to permit. In view of this limitation, however, we cannot pursue the subject beyond this general review of its main outlines. There is a dearth of works on American historical geography subsequent to the Declaration of Independence. It is a subject, indeed, which cannot be very satisfactorily studied simply through the literature dealing exclusively with the topic. Of the atlases Professor Albert Bushnell Hart's. "Epoch Maps Illustrating American History" is the best; the most serviceable of the text works is Henry Gannett's pamphlet on "Boundaries of the United States and of the several States and Territories, with a Historical Sketch of the Territorial Changes," published as bulletin Number 13 of the United States Geological Survey. Townsend MacCoun's "Historical Geography of the United States" and the later chapters of Walter B. Scaife's "America, its Geographical History" are also useful. An excellent account of our geographical history during the early years of the Government, covering the period of the state cessions, may be found in B. A. Hinsdale's Old Northwest, with a View of the Thirteen Colonies as constituted by the, Royal Charters." For a more careful study there is of course no substitute for the texts of the grants, charters, treaties and legislative acts of Congress, and the more important of these are freely quoted from in Mr. Gannett's work.

Alan C. Reiley.

UNITED STATES: A. D. 1863. Adoption and Organization of the National Bank System of the United States.

See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1861-1878 (page 2219).

{3811}

UTOPIAS.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS (page 2932).

UZBEGS.

A Turkish branch of the Tatars of Turkestan.

V.

VOLAPUK.

A proposed universal language, invented in 1879 by a Swabian pastor, named Schleyer.

VOLTA, The electrical discoveries of.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: A. D. 1786-1800 (page 771).

W.

WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY.

See EDUCATION (page 743).

WHEATSTONE, Prof., Inventions of.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY (page 773).

{3812}

CHRONOLOGY OF IMPORTANT AND INDICATIVE EVENTS.

TO THE CHRISTIAN ERA. [BEFORE]

B. C. 4777. Beginning of the Egyptian dynasties as given by Manetho, according to the latest computations. [Uncertain date]

2250. Beginning of the reign of Hammurabi, or Chammurabi, the first important king of Babylonia. [Uncertain date]

1500. Independence of Assyria as a kingdom separate from Babylonia, and rise of Nineveh. [Uncertain date]

1330. Beginning of the reign in Egypt of Ramses II., the Sesostris of the Greeks. [Uncertain date]

1260. Death of Ramses II., king of Egypt, and accession of Merneptah or Merenptah, supposed by many writers to be the Pharaoh of the Oppression. [Uncertain date]

1200. Exodus of the Children of Israel from Egypt. [Uncertain date]

1120. Beginning of the reign of Tiglathpileser I., king of Assyria. [Uncertain date]

1000. Beginning of the reign of King David. [Uncertain date]

960. Death of David and beginning of the reign of Solomon. [Uncertain date]

776. Beginning of the Olympiads.

753. The founding of Rome. [Uncertain date]

745. First war between Sparta and Messenia.

734. Founding of Syracuse by Greeks from Corinth.

725. End of first Messenian War. 722. Overthrow of the kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians. Captivity of the Ten Tribes.

685. The second war between Messenia and Sparta.

668. End of the second Messenian war.

640. Birth of Thales. [Uncertain date]

624. Supposed date of the legislation of Draco, at Athens. [Uncertain date] 612. Conspiracy of Cylon at Athens.

608. Accession of Nebuchadnezzar in Babylonia.

606. Destruction of Nineveh and overthrow of the Assyrian empire by the Medes. [Uncertain date]

601. First invasion of Palestine by Nebuchadnezzar.

598. Invasion of Palestine by Nebuchadnezzar.

594. The Constitution of Solon adopted at Athens.

586. Capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. End of the kingdom of Judah and exile of the remnant of the people to Babylon.

560. Tyranny of Pisistratus established at Athens.

551. Birth of Confucius [Uncertain date] (d. 478).

549. Overthrow of the Median monarchy by Cyrus, and founding of the Persian.

546. Overthrow of Crœsus and the kingdom of Lydia by Cyrus, king of Persia.

538. Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus.

529. Death of Cyrus and accession of Cambyses to the throne of Persia.

525. Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, king of Persia. Birth of Æschylus (d. 456).

521. Accession of Darius I., king of Persia.

520. Birth of Pindar. [Uncertain date] 516. Invasion of Scythia by Darius, king of Persia. [Uncertain date]

514. Birth of Themistocles [Uncertain date] (d. 449 [Uncertain date]).

510. Expulsion of the Pisistratids from Athens.

509. Expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome. [Uncertain date] Founding of the Republic (Roman chronology).

508. Political reorganization of Athens by Cleisthenes.

506. Subjection of Macedonia to Persia.

500. Rising of the Greek colonies in Ionia, against the Persians.

495. Birth of Sophocles (d. 405 [Uncertain date]).

493. League of the Romans and Latins.

492. First secession of the Roman Plebs. Creation of the Tribunes of the People.

490. First Persian expedition against Greece. Destruction of Naxos by the Persians. Their overwhelming defeat at Marathon.

489. Condemnation and death of Miltiades at Athens. [Uncertain date]

486. Accession of Xerxes to the throne of Persia.

484. Birth of Herodotus. [Uncertain date]

480. Second Persian invasion of Greece. Thermopylæ. Artemisium. Salamis. Retreat of Xerxes. Carthaginian invasion of Sicily. Battle of Himera. Birth of Euripides. [Uncertain date]

479. Battles of Platæa and Mycale and end of the Persian invasion of Greece.

478. Beginning of the tyranny of Hieron at Syracuse.

477. Formation of the Confederacy of Delos, under Athens.

471. Exile of Themistocles from Athens. Birth of Thucydides (d. 401 [Uncertain date]).

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469. Birth of Socrates [Uncertain date] (d. 399 [Uncertain date]).

466. Naval victory of the Greeks over the Persians at Eurymedon. Outbreak of the Plague at Rome. Revolt of Naxos from the Delian Confederacy. Fall of the tyrants at Syracuse.

465. Murder of Xerxes I., and accession of Artaxerxes I. to the throne of Persia.

464. Great earthquake at Sparta. Rising of the Helots, or beginning of the third Messenian War.

460. Birth of Hippocrates.

458. Commencement of the Long Walls of Athens.

457. Beginning of war of Corinth, Sparta, and Ægina with Athens. Battle of Tanagra.

456. Athenian victory at Œnophyta.

455. End of the third Messenian War.

450. End of war against Athens. Framing of the Twelve Tables of the Roman Law. The Decemvirs at Rome. Birth of Alcibiades [Uncertain date] (d. 404).

447. Defeat of the Athenians by the Bœotians at Coronea.

445. Conclusion of the Thirty Years Peace between Athens and Sparta and their allies. Ascendancy of Pericles at Athens. Peace of Callias between Greece and Persia. Birth of Xenophon. [Uncertain date]

444. Creation of Consular Tribunes at Rome. Exile of Thucydides from Athens.

435. War between Corinth and Corcyra.

432. Complaints against Athens. Peloponnesian Congress at Sparta. Revolt of Potidæa.

431. Beginning of the Peloponnesian War. Invasion of Attica.

430. Second invasion of Attica. The Plague at Athens.

429. Death of Pericles at Athens. Capture of Potidæa. Birth of Plato (d. 347).

427. Destruction of Platæa by the Peloponnesians. Massacre at Corcyra.

425. Surrender of Spartans to the Athenians at Sphacteria. Accession of Xerxes II., king of Persia.

421. Peace of Nicias between Athens and Sparta. End of the first period of the Peloponnesian War.

415. Expedition of the Athenians against Syracuse. Mutilation of the Hermæ at Athens. Accusation and flight of Alcibiades.

413. Disaster to the Athenians before Syracuse. Renewal of the Peloponnesian War.

411. Oligarchical revolution at Athens. The Four Hundred and their fall. Recall of Alcibiades.

409. Carthaginian invasion of Sicily.

406. Victory of the Athenians over the Peloponnesians in the battle of Arginusæ. Execution of the generals at Athens.

405. Defeat of the Athenians at Aigospotamoi. Successful revolt of the Egyptians against the Persians, and independence established.

404. Fall of Athens. End of the Peloponnesian War.

401. Expedition of Cyrus the Younger.

400. Retreat of the Ten Thousand under Xenophon. Birth of Timoleon [Uncertain date] (d. 337).

391). Condemnation and death of Socrates at Athens. War of Sparta with Persia.

395. League of Greek cities against Sparta. The Corinthian War.

390. Rome destroyed by the Gauls.

389. Birth of Æschines [Uncertain date] (d. 314).

387. Peace of Antalcidas between the Greeks and Persians.

385. Birth of Demosthenes [Uncertain date] (d. 322).

384. Birth of Aristotle (d. 322).

383. Betrayal of Thebes to Sparta. War of Syracuse with Carthage.

379. Overthrow of the Olynthian League by Sparta. Deliverance of Thebes.

371. Defeat of Sparta at Leuctra. Ascendancy of Thebes. Arcadian Union.

370. Peloponnesian expedition of Epaminondas.

361. Adoption of the Licinian Laws at Rome.

362. Victory and death of Epaminondas at Mantinea.

359. Accession of Philip to the throne of Macedonia.

357. Outbreak of the Ten Years Sacred War in Greece.

356. Burning of the Temple of Diana at Ephesus. Birth of Alexander the Great (d. 323).

353. Final conquest of Egypt by the Persians.

352. Interference of Philip of Macedonia in the Greek Sacred War. First Philippic of Demosthenes.

343. Deliverance of Syracuse by Timoleon. First Samnite War in Italy.

341. End of first Samnite War.

340. Adoption of the Publilian Laws at Rome.

338. League of Greek cities against Philip of Macedonia. His victory at Chæronea. His domination established. Subjugation of the Latins by Rome.

336. Assassination of Philip of Macedonia, and accession of Alexander the Great.

335. Revolt of Thebes. Alexander's destruction of the city.

334. Alexander's expedition against Persia. His victory at the Granicus.

333. Alexander's victory over the Persians at Issus.

332. Alexander's sieges of Tyre and Gaza. His conquest of Egypt and founding of Alexandria.

331. Alexander's victory at Arbela. Overthrow of the Persian empire.

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330. Alexander's destruction of Persepolis.

326. Alexander in India. Defeat of Porus. Beginning of second Samnite War in Italy.

323. Death of Alexander the Great at Babylon. Partition of his dominion among the generals. Revolt in Greece. The Lamian War.

322. Subjugation of Athens by the Macedonians. Death of Demosthenes.

321. Beginning of the Wars of the Successors of Alexander. Founding of the kingdom of the Ptolemies In Egypt. Defeat of the Romans by the Samnites at the Caudine Forks.

317. Execution of Phocion at Athens.

307. Athens under the rule of Demetrius Poliorcetes.

306. Royal titles assumed by Antigonus (as king of Asia), Ptolemy, in Egypt, Seleucus Nicator, in Syria, Lysimachus, in Thrace, and Cassander, in Macedonia.

305. Siege of Rhodes by Demetrius Poliorcetes.

304. End of the second Samnite War in Italy.

301. Battle of Ipsus. Overthrow and death of Antigonus.

298. Beginning of third Samnite War.

295. Roman defeat of the Gauls at Sentinum.

290. End of the third Samnite War.

287. Birth of Archimedes [Uncertain date] (d. 212).

286. Adoption of the Hortensian Laws at Rome.

280. Invasion of Italy by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. Invasion of Greece by the Gauls. Rise of the Achaian League.

278. Pyrrhus in Sicily, in war against Carthage.

275. Defeat of Pyrrhus at Beneventum.

264. Beginning of the first Punic War between Rome and Carthage.

263. Athens captured by Antigonus Gonatus.

255. Defeat and capture of Regulus in Africa.

250. Founding of the kingdom of Parthia by Arsaces. [Uncertain date]

247. Birth of Hannibal [Uncertain date] (d. 183). 241. End of the first Punic War. Roman conquest of Sicily. Revolt of the Carthaginian mercenaries.

234. Birth of Cato the Elder (d. 149). Birth of Scipio Africanus the Elder [Uncertain date](d. 183).

227. War of Sparta with the Achaian League.

222. Roman conquest of Cisalpine Gaul completed.

221. Battle of Sellasia. Sparta crushed by the king of Macedonia.

218. Beginning of the second Punic War between Rome and Carthage. Hannibal in Italy.

217. Hannibal's defeat of the Romans at the Trasimene Lake. Cœle-Syria and Palestine ceded to Egypt by Antiochus the Great.

216. Great defeat of the Romans by Hannibal at Cannæ.

214. Beginning of war between Rome and Macedonia.

212. Siege and reduction of Syracuse by the Romans.

211. Hannibal at the Roman gates.

210. Ægina taken by the Romans and the inhabitants reduced to slavery.

207. Defeat of Hasdrubal on the Metaurus.

206. Birth of Polybius. [Uncertain date]

205. End of first Macedonian War.

202. Scipio's decisive victory at Zama, in Africa, ending the second Punic War.

201. Subjection of the Jews to the Seleucid monarchy.

200. Roman declaration of war against the king of Macedonia.

197. Decisive Roman victory over the Macedonians at Cynoscephalæ.

196. Freedom of the Greeks proclaimed by the Roman general Flamininus.

195. Birth of Terence [Uncertain date] (d. 158 [Uncertain date]).

191. Romans defeat Antiochus of Syria at Thermopylæ in Greece. Final subjugation of Cisalpine Gaul by the Romans.

190. Decisive defeat of Antiochus at Magnesia, by the Romans. Beginning of Roman conquest in Asia.

189. Fall of the Ætolian League.

185. Birth of Scipio Africanus the Younger (d. 129).

171. The third war between Rome and Macedonia.

168. Roman victory at Pydna; extinction of the Macedonian kingdom. Birth of Tiberius Gracchus [Uncertain date] (d. 133).

167. Revolt of the Jews under Judas Maccabæus, against Antiochus, king of Syria.

165. Judas Maccabæus in Jerusalem; the Temple purified. 161. Defeat and death of Judas Maccabæus.

157. Birth of Marius (d. 86).

149. Opening of the third Punic War between Rome and Carthage.

146. Roman destruction of Carthage and Corinth. Greece absorbed in the dominion of Rome.

138. Birth of Sulla (d. 78).

135. Assassination of Simon Maccabæus; accession of John Hyrcanus to the High Priesthood.

133. Outbreak of the Servile War in Sicily. Attempted reforms and death of Tiberius Gracchus at Rome. Reduction of Numantia.

121. Death of Caius Gracchus at Rome.

111. Beginning of the Jugurthine War between Rome and Numidia.

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106. Birth of Cicero (d. 43). Birth of Pompey the Great (d. 48).

105. Great defeat of the Romans by the Cimbri at Arausio. Royal title taken by Aristobulus in Judea.

104. Ending of the Jugurthine War by Marius.

102. Destruction of the Teutones at Aquæ Sextiæ by the Romans under Marius.

101. Destruction of the Cimbri by Marius.

100. Adoption of the Apuleian Law at Rome. Birth of Julius Cæsar (d. 44).

95. Birth of Lucretius (d. 55).

90. Outbreak of the Social War, or struggle of the Italians.

88. Beginning of the first civil war (Marius and Sulla) at Rome, and of war with Mithridates, king of Pontus. Unsuccessful siege of Rhodes by Mithridates.

87. Campaigns of the Romans under Sulla against Mithridates in Greece. Marian proscriptions at Rome. Birth of Catullus [Uncertain date] (d. 47 [Uncertain date]).

86. Sulla's capture of Athens and victory at Chæronea. Death of Marius. Birth of Sallust (d. 34 [Uncertain date]).

84. End of the first Mithridatic War.

83. Return of Sulla to Italy; burning of the Temple of Jupiter; civil war at Rome.

82. Sulla master of Rome; the Sullan reign of terror.

80. War with Sertorius in Spain.

79. Sulla's resignation of the dictatorship.

78. Death of Sulla.

74. Opening of third Mithridatic War between Rome and the king of Pontus.

73. Rising of the Roman gladiators under Spartacus.

72. Assassination of Sertorius in Spain; Pompey in command.

71. Defeat of the gladiators and death of Spartacus.

70. Consulship of Pompey and Crassus at Rome. Cicero's impeachment of Verres.

61. Pompey's campaign against the pirates of Cilicia.

66. Command of Pompey in the East. Overthrow of Mithridates.

65. Birth of Horace (d. 8).

64. Extinction of the Seleucid kingdom by Pompey.

63. Consulship of Cicero at Rome; Conspiracy of Catiline. Pompey's siege and conquest of Jerusalem; the Asmonean kingdom made tributary to Rome.

60. The first Triumvirate at Rome.

59. Consulship of Cæsar at Rome.

58. Beginning of Cæsar's campaigns in Gaul. Exile of Cicero from Rome.

57. Recall of Cicero.

56. Roman conquest of Aquitaine.

55. Cæsar's first invasion of Britain.

53. Roman war with Parthia; defeat and death of Crassus at Carrhæ.

51. Cæsar's conquest of Gaul completed.

50. Beginning of the second Civil War at Rome; Cæsar's passage of the Rubicon.

49. Cæsar's campaign against the Pompeians in Spain; his conquest of Massilia.

48. Cæsar's victory at Pharsalia; death of Pompey in Egypt; Cæsar in Alexandria.

46. Cæsar's victory at Thapsus; death of Cato.

45. Cæsar's victory in Spain.

44. Assassination of Cæsar at Rome.

43. The second Triumvirate at Rome; murder of Cicero. Birth of Ovid (d. A. D. 18).

42. Battles of Philippi; destruction of the Liberators.

40. Herod proclaimed King of Judea.

37. Conquest of Jerusalem by Herod.

31. War of Antony and Octavius; victory of Octavius at Actium, establishing his supremacy.

30. Death of Antony and Cleopatra; annexation of Egypt to the Roman dominion.

29. Triumph of Octavius celebrated at Rome; title of Imperator given to him; closing of the Temple of Janus.

27. Title of Augustus assumed by Octavius at Rome.

12. Expedition of the Romans under Drusus into Germany.

9. Last German campaign and death of Drusus.

8. First campaign of Tiberius (afterward Roman emperor) in Germany.

4. Probable date of the birth of Jesus. Death of Herod, king of Judea.

CHRISTIAN ERA.

First Century.

1. Beginning of the Christian Era.

4. Campaign of the Emperor Tiberius in Germany.

6. Deposition of the Herodian ethnarch Archelaus; Judea made a district of the Roman prefecture of Syria.

9. Destruction of Varus and his Roman legions by the Germans under Arminius.

14. Death of Augustus; Tiberius made Emperor of Rome. Expedition of Germanicus into Germany.

23. Birth of Pliny the Elder (d. 79).

26. Pontius Pilate, Roman procurator in Judea.

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27. Completion of the Pantheon at Rome.

29. Crucifixion of Jesus. [Uncertain date] Martyrdom of Saint Stephen.

35. Conversion of Saint Paul. [Uncertain date]

37. Death of the Emperor Tiberius. Accession of Caius, called Caligula. Birth of Agricola (d. 93). Birth of Josephus (d. 95 [Uncertain date]).

40. Birth of Martial. [Uncertain date]

41. Murder of the Emperor Caligula; elevation of Claudius to the throne. Restoration of the Herodian kingdom of Judea under Herod Agrippa.

43. Roman invasion of Britain by Aulius Plautius and the Emperor Claudius.

44. Death of Herod Agrippa; extinction of the kingdom of Judea.

50. First missionary journey of Saint Paul. [Uncertain date]

51. Capture of Caractacus, king of the Trinobantes, in Britain. Adoption of Nero by Claudius.

52. Second missionary journey of Saint Paul. [Uncertain date] Birth of Trajan [Uncertain date] (d. 117).

53. Felix, procurator of Judea.

54. Murder of the Emperor Claudius and accession of Nero. Saint Paul at Athens. [Uncertain date]

55. Third missionary journey of Saint Paul. [Uncertain date] Birth of Tacitus. [Uncertain date]

59. Festus made governor of Judea. Arrest of Saint Paul. Murder of Agrippina.

61. Destruction of the Druids of Britain; revolt under Boadicea. Saint Paul in Rome. [Uncertain date]

62. Birth of Pliny the Younger. [Uncertain date]

64. The burning of Rome; first persecution of Christians.

65. Conspiracy of Piso. Execution of Lucan and Seneca by the command of Nero.

66. Revolt of the Jews.

67. Campaign of Vespasian against the insurgent Jews.

68. Suicide of the Emperor Nero; Galba proclaimed Emperor.

69. Murder of Galba; brief reigns of Otho and Vitellius; Vespasian raised to the throne. Revolt of the Batavians under Civilis.

70. Siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus.

78. Beginning of Agricola's campaign in Britain.

79. Death of the Emperor Vespasian and accession of Titus. Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Pestilence in the Roman Empire.

81. Death of the Emperor Titus and accession of Domitian.

96. Murder of the Emperor Domitian; Nerva raised to the throne.

97. Adoption of Trajan by Nerva.

98. Death of the Emperor Nerva and accession of Trajan.

Second Century.

106. Completed Roman conquest of Dacia by Trajan.

115. War of Rome with Parthia. Trajan's conquests in Asia. Martyrdom of St. Ignatius. Great earthquake at Antioch.

116. Rising of the Jews in Cyrene, Cyprus and Egypt.

117. Death of the Emperor Trajan and accession of Hadrian. Relinquishment of Asiatic conquests.

118. Campaign of Hadrian in Mœsia.

119. Hadrian's visit to Britain.

121. Birth of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (d. 180).

131. Birth of Galen.

132. Savage revolt of the Jews, savagely repressed; name of Jerusalem changed to Ælia Capitolina; complete dispersion of the Jews.

138. Death of the Emperor Hadrian and succession of Antoninus Pius.

161. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus made Emperor on the death of Antoninus Pius. Roman war with Parthia begun.

165. End of war between Rome and Parthia. Sack of Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Acquisition of Mesopotamia by Rome.

166. Great plague in the Roman Empire.

167. Beginning of the wars of Rome with the Marcomanni and Quadi.

174. Great victory of Marcus Aurelius over the Quadi.

180. Death of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius; and accession of his Bon Commodus.

186. Birth of Origen [Uncertain date] (d. 253).

192. Murder of the Emperor Commodus (December 31).

193. Pertinax made Emperor, and murdered; sale of the throne of the Roman Empire to Didius Julianus; contest of rivals; accession of Septimius Severus.

198. Siege and capture of the Parthian city Ctesiphon by the Romans.

Third Century.

208. Campaign of Severus against the Caledonians of Britain.

211. Death of the Emperor Severus; accession of his sons, Caracalla and Geta.

212. Murder of Geta by Caracalla.

213. First collision of the Romans with the Alemanni.

215. Massacre at Alexandria commanded by Caracalla.

217. Murder of the Emperor Caracalla; elevation of Macrinus.

218. Overthrow of Macrinus by Elagabalus.

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222. Murder of Elagabalus; Alexander Severus made Emperor.

226. The new monarchy of Persia; fall of the Parthian power; rise of the Sassanidæ.

235. Murder of the Emperor Alexander Severus; accession of Maximin.

237. Fate of the two Gordians at Rome.

238. Overthrow and death of the Emperor Maximin; elevation of the third Gordian.

244. Death of the Emperor Gordian; accession of Philip.

249. Death of the Emperor Philip; accession of Decius.

250. Decian persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. Gothic invasion of Mœsia.

251. Victory of the Goths over the Romans; death of Decius in battle; accession of Gallus to the imperial throne.

253. Murder of the Emperor Gallus; accession of Æmilianus. First appearance of the Franks in the Empire. Murder of Æmilianus and accession of Valerian.

259. Invasion of Gaul and Italy by the Alemanni.

260. Roman war with Persia. Defeat and capture of the Emperor Valerian; accession of Gallienus.

267. Accession of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra.

268. Murder of the Emperor Gallienus; accession of Claudius II. Invasion of Thrace and Macedonia by the Goths checked by Claudius.

270. Death of the Emperor Claudius II.; accession of Aurelian. Dacia yielded to the Goths. Italy invaded by the Alemanni.

273. Defeat and capture of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, by the Emperor Aurelian.

275. Murder of the Emperor Aurelian; accession of Tacitus.

276. Death of the Emperor Tacitus; accession of Probus.

277. Roman repulse of the Franks. Invasion of Germany by Probus.

282. Murder of the Emperor Probus; accession of Carus.

283. War of Rome with Persia. Death of Carus; accession of Numerian.

284. Murder of the Emperor Numerian; accession of Diocletian.

286. Maximian made imperial colleague of Diocletian.

287. Insurrection of the Bagauds in Gaul.

288. Revolt of Carausius in Britain.

292. Galerius and Constantius Chlorus created "Cæsars."

296. Revolt of the African provinces of Rome; siege of Alexandria. Birth of Athanasius [Uncertain date] (d. 373).

297. Roman war with Persia; defeat of Galerius.

298. Victorious peace of Rome with Persia; extension of the Empire.

Fourth Century.

303. Persecution of Christians by the Emperor Diocletian.

305. Abdication of the Emperors Diocletian and Maximian; Galerius and Constantius Chlorus become "Augusti"; Maximin and Severus made "Cæsars."

306. Constantius Chlorus succeeded as "Cæsar" by his son Constantine; beginning of civil war between Constantine and his rivals; defeat of the Salian Franks by Constantine.

312. Conversion of the Emperor Constantine to Christianity.

313. Constantine and Licinius share the Empire. Toleration Edict of Milan.

316. Birth of Saint Martin of Tours (d. 397).

318. Opening of the Arian controversy.

325. First general Council of the Church at Nicæa.

330. Removal of the capital of the Empire from Rome to Byzantium (Constantinople).

337. Death of the Emperor Constantine; partition of the Empire.

340. Beginning of Civil War between the three sons of Constantine.

348. Defeat of the Romans by the Persians at Singara.

353. Constantius sole Emperor. Synod of Aries.

354. Birth of Saint Augustine, bishop of Hippo (d. 430).

355. Julian made Cæsar; his defense of Gaul.

361. Death of the Emperor Constantius and accession of Julian; revival of Paganism.

363. Expedition of Julian into Persia; his retreat and death; accession of Jovian; Christianity again ascendant.

364. Death of the Emperor Jovian; accession of Valentinian I. in the West and of Valens in the East.

365. Great earthquake in the Roman world.

367. First campaigns of Theodosius against the Picts and Scots.

368. Repulse of the Alemanni, from Gaul.

375. Death of Valentinian; accession of Gratian and Valentinian II. in the West.

376. The Visigoths, driven by the Huns, admitted to the Empire.

377. Rising of the Goths in Mœsia and indecisive battle of Ad Salices.

378. Death of the Emperor Valens in battle with the Goths at Adrianople. Invasion of Gaul by the Alemanni and their repulse by Gratian.

379. Theodosius named Emperor in the East by Gratian.

380. Trinitarian edict of Theodosius.

381. Second general council of the Church, at Constantinople.

382. Conclusion of peace with the Goths by the Emperor Theodosius; final settlement of the Goths in Mœsia and Thrace.

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388. Overthrow of the usurper, Maximus. Formal vote of the Senate establishing Christianity in the Roman Empire.

389. Destruction of the Serapeum at Alexandria.

390. Sedition at Thessalonica and massacre ordered by Theodosius.

392. Final suppression of Paganism in the Empire, by law. Murder of Valentinian II., Emperor in the West; usurpation of Eugenius.

394. Overthrow of the usurper Eugenius.

395. Death of the Emperor Theodosius; accession of his sons, Arcadius and Honorius; final division of the Empire. Invasion of Greece by Alaric; capture of Athens.

398. Suppression by Stilicho of Gildo's revolt in Africa.

400. Alaric's invasion of Italy.

Fifth Century.

402. Defeat of Alaric by Stilicho. Birth of Phocion [Uncertain date] (d. 317).

404. Removal of the capital of the Western Empire from Rome to Ravenna. [Uncertain date] Banishment of the Patriarch, John Chrysostom, from Constantinople; burning of the Church of St. Sophia.

406. Barbarian inroad of Radagaisus into Italy. Breaking of the Rhine barrier by German tribes; overwhelming invasion of Gaul by Vandals, Alans, Suevi, and Burgundians.

407. Usurpation of Constantine in Britain and Gaul.

408. Death of the Eastern Emperor, Arcadius, and accession of Theodosius II. Execution of Stilicho at Ravenna; massacre of barbarian hostages in Italy; blockade of Rome by Alaric.

409. Invasion of Spain by the Vandals, Suevi, and Alans.

410. Siege, capture and pillage of Rome by Alaric; his death. Abandonment of Britain by the Empire. The barbarian attack upon Gaul joined by the Franks.

412. Gaul entered by the Visigoths. Cyril made Patriarch of Alexandria.

414. Title of Augusta taken by Pulcheria at Constantinople.

415. Visigothic conquest of Spain begun. Persecution of Jews at Alexandria; death of Hypatia.

418. Founding of the Gothic kingdom of Toulouse in Aquitaine.

420. Death of Saint Jerome, in Palestine.

422. War between Persia and the Eastern Empire; partition of Armenia.

423. Death of Honorius, Emperor in the West; usurpation of John the Notary.

425. Accession of the Western Emperor, Valentinian III., under the regency of Placidia; formal and legal separation of the Eastern and Western Empires.

428. Conquests of the Vandals in Spain. Nestorius made Patriarch of Constantinople.

429. Vandal conquests in Africa begun.

430. Siege of Hippo Regius In Africa; death of Saint Augustine, bishop of Hippo.

431. Third general Council of the Church, held at Ephesus.

433. Beginning of the reign of Attila, king of the Huns. [Uncertain date]

435. Nestorius exiled to the Libyan desert.

439. Carthage taken by the Vandals.

440. Leo the Great elected Pope.

441. Invasion of the Eastern Empire by Attila and the Huns.

443. Conquest and settlement of Savoy by the Burgundians.

446. Thermopylæ passed by the Huns; humiliating purchase of peace with them by the Eastern Emperor.

449. Landing in Britain of the Jutes under Hengist and Horsa. [Uncertain date] Meeting of the so-called Robber Synod at Ephesus.

450. Death of the Eastern Emperor, Theodosius II., and accession of Pulcheria.

451. Great defeat of the Huns at Chalons; retreat of Attila from Gaul. Fourth General Council of the Church, held at Chalcedon.

452. Invasion of Italy by Attila; origin of Venice.

453. Death of Attila; dissolution of his empire. Death of Pulcheria, Empress in the East.

455. Murder of Valentinian III., Emperor in the West; usurpation of Maximus. Rome pillaged by the Vandals. Birth of Theodoric the Great (d. 526).

456. Supremacy of Ricimer, commander of the barbarian mercenaries, in the Western Empire; Avitus deposed.

457. Marjorian, first of the imperial puppets of Ricimer, raised to the throne of the Western Empire. Accession of Leo I., Emperor in the East.

461. Marjorian deposed; Severus made Emperor in the West. Death of Pope Leo the Great and election of Pope Hilarius.

467. Anthemius made Emperor in the West.

472. Siege and storming of Rome by Ricimer; death of Anthemius, and of Ricimer; Olybrius and Glycerius successive emperors.

473. Ostrogothic invasion of Italy diverted to Gaul.

474. Julius Nepos Emperor in the West; accession of Zeno in the Eastern Empire.

475. Romulus Augustulus made Emperor in the West.

476. Romulus Augustulus dethroned by Odoacer; extinction for more than three centuries of the Western line of emperors.

477. Beginning of Saxon conquests in Britain.

480. Birth of Saint Benedict (d. 543).

481. Founding of the Frank kingdom by Clovis.

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483. Election of Pope Felix II.

486. Overthrow of the kingdom of Syagrius, the last Roman sovereignty in Gaul.

488. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, commissioned by the Eastern Emperor to invade Italy.

489. Defeat of Odoacer by Theodoric at Verona.

491. Accession of Anastasius, Emperor in the East. Capture of Anderida by the South Saxons.

492. Election of Pope Gelasius I.

493. Surrender of Odoacer at Ravenna; his murder: Theodoric king of Italy.

494. Landing of Cerdic and his band of Saxons in Britain. [Uncertain date]

496. Defeat of the Alemanni at Tolbiac by Clovis, king of the Franks; baptism of Clovis. Election of Pope Anastasius II.

Sixth Century.

504. Expulsion of the Alemanni from the Middle Rhine by the Franks.

505. Peace between Persia and the Eastern Empire.

501. Overthrow of the Gothic kingdom of Toulouse by Clovis.

511. Death of Clovis; partition of the Frank kingdom among his sons. Monophysite riot at Constantinople.

512. Second Monophysite riot at Constantinople.

515. Publication of the monastic rule of Saint Benedict.

518. Death of the Eastern Emperor, Anastasius, accession of Justin I.

519. Cerdic and Cynric become kings of the West Saxons.

525. Execution of Boethius and Symmachus by Theodoric, king of Italy.

526. Death of Theodoric and accession of Athalaric. Great earthquake at Antioch. War between Persia and the Eastern Empire.

527. Accession of Justinian in the Eastern Empire.

528. Conquest of Thuringia by the Franks.

529. Defeat of the Persians, at Dara, by the Roman general Belisarius. Closing of the schools at Athens. Publication of the Code of Justinian.

531. Accession of Chosroes, or Nushirvan, to the throne of Persia.

532. End of war between Persia and the Eastern Empire. Nika sedition at Constantinople.

533. Overthrow of the Vandal kingdom in Africa by Belisarius. Publication of the Pandects of Justinian.

534. Conquest of the Burgundians by the Franks.

535. Recovery of Sicily from the Goths by Belisarius.

536. Rome taken from the Goths by Belisarius for Justinian.

537. Unsuccessful siege of Rome by the Goths.

539. Destruction of Milan by the Goths. Invasion of Italy by the Franks.

540. Surrender of Ravenna to Belisarius; his removal from command. Invasion of Syria by Chosroes, king of Persia; storming and sacking of Antioch. Formal relinquishment of Gaul to the Franks by Justinian. Vigilius made Pope.

541. Gothic successes under Totila, in Italy. End of the succession of Roman Consuls. Defense of the East by Belisarius.

542. Great Plague in the Roman Empire.

543. Surrender of Naples to Totila. Death of Saint Benedict. Invasion of Spain by the Franks.

544. Belisarius again in command In Italy.

546. Totila's siege, capture and pillage of Rome.

547. The city of Rome totally deserted for six weeks. Founding of the kingdom of Bernicia (afterward included in Northumberland) in England. Subjection of the Bavarians to the Franks.

548. Death of the Eastern Empress, Theodora.

549. Second siege and capture of Rome by Totila. Beginning of the Lazic War.

552. Totila defeated and killed by the imperial army under Narses.

553. End of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy; restoration of the imperial sovereignty. Fifth General Council of the Church, at Constantinople. Establishment of the Exarch at Ravenna, representing the Emperor at Constantinople.

555. Pelagius I. made Pope.

558. Reunion of the Frank empire under Clothaire I.

560. John III. made Pope.

563. Founding of the monastery of Iona, in Scotland, by Saint Columba.

565. Death of Belisarius and of the Eastern Emperor Justinian; accession of Justin II.

566. Conquest of the Gepidæ in Dacia by the Lombards and Avars.

567. Division of the Frank dominion into the three kingdoms of Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy.

568. Invasion of Italy by the Lombards; siege of Pavia.

570. Birth of Mahomet. [Uncertain date]

572. Renewed war of the Eastern Empire with Persia.

573. Murder of Alboin, king of the Lombards. Subjugation of the Suevi by the Visigoths in Spain.

574. Benedict I. made Pope.

578. Accession of the Eastern Emperor Tiberius Constantinus. Pelagius II. made Pope.

582. Accession of Maurice, Emperor in the East.

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588. Kingdom of Northumberland, in England, founded by the union of Bernicia and Deira under Æthelric.

589. Abandonment of Arianism by the Goths in Spain.

590. Gregory the Great elected Pope.

591. Peace between Persia and the Eastern Empire.

597. Mission of Saint Augustine to England. Death of Saint Columba.

Seventh Century.

602. Revolt in Constantinople; fall and death of Maurice; accession of Phocas.

604. Death of Pope Gregory the Great. Death of St. Augustine of Canterbury. [Uncertain date]

608. Invasion of Asia Minor by Chosroes II., king of Persia.

610. Death of the Eastern Emperor Phocas; accession of Heraclius. Venetia ravaged by the A vars.

614. Invasion of Syria by Chosroes II.; capture of Damascus.

615. Capture of Jerusalem by Chosroes; removal of the supposed True Cross.

616. First expulsion of the Jews from Spain. Advance of the Persians to the Bosphorus.

622. The flight of Mahomet from Mecca (the Hegira). Romans under Heraclius victorious over the Persians.

626. Siege of Constantinople by Persians and Avars.

627. Victory of Heraclius over Chosroes of Persia, at Nineveh. Conversion of Northumbria to Christianity.

628. Recovery of Jerusalem and of the supposed True Cross, from the Persians, by Heraclius.

630. Submission of Mecca to the Prophet.

632. Death of Mahomet; Abu Bekr chosen caliph.

634. Death of Abu Bekr; Omar chosen caliph. Battle of Hieromax or Yermuk; Battle of the Bridge. [Uncertain date] Defeat of Heraclius. Compilation and arrangement of the Koran. [Uncertain date]

635. Siege and capture of Damascus by the Mahometans; invasion of Persia; victory at Kadisiyeh. [Uncertain date] Defeat of the Welsh by the English in the battle of the Heavenfield.

636. Mahometan subjugation of Syria; retreat of the Romans.

637. Siege and conquest of Jerusalem by the Moslems; their victories In Persia.

639. Publication of the Ecthesis of Heraclius.

640. Capture of Cæsarea by the Moslems: invasion of Egypt by Amru.

641. Death of the Eastern Emperor Heraclius; three rival emperors; accession of Constans II. Victory at Nehavend and final conquest of Persia by the Mahometans; end of the Sassanian kingdom; capture of Alexandria [Uncertain date]; founding of Cairo.

643. Publication of the Lombard Code of Laws.

644. Assassination of Omar: Othman chosen caliph.

646. Alexandria recovered by the Greeks and lost again.

648. Publication by Constans II. of the edict called "The Type."

649. Mahometan invasion of Cyprus.

650. Conquest of Merv, Balkh, and Herat by the Moslems. [Uncertain date]

652. Conversion of the East Saxons in England.

653. Seizure and banishment of Pope Martin I. by the Emperor Constans II.

656. Murder of Caliph Othman; Ali chosen caliph; rebellion of Moawiyah; civil war; Battle of the Camel.

657. Ali's transfer of the seat of government to Kufa.

658. Syria abandoned to Moawiyah; Egypt in revolt.

661. Assassination of Ali; Moawiyah, first of the Omeyyads, made caliph; Damascus his capital.

663. Visit of the Emperor Constans to Rome.

668. Assassination of Constans at Syracuse [Uncertain date]; accession of Constantine IV. to the throne of the Eastern Empire. Beginning of the siege of Constantinople by the Saracens.

670. The founding of Kairwan, or Kayrawan. [Uncertain date]

673. First Council of the Anglo-Saxon Church, at Hereford. Birth of the Venerable Bede (d. 735).

677. The raising of the siege of Constantinople; treaty of peace. [Uncertain date]

680. Sixth General Council of the Church, at Constantinople; condemnation of the Monothelite heresy. Massacre at Kerbela of Hoseyn, son of Ali, and his followers.

685. Death of the Eastern Emperor, Constantine IV., and accession of Justinian II. The Angles of Northumbria, under King Ecgfrith, defeated by the Picts at Nectansmere.

687. Battle of Testri; victory of Pippin of Heristal over the Neustrians.

695. Fall and banishment of Justinian II.

696. Founding of the bishopric of Salzburg.

697. Election of the first Doge of Venice.

698. Conquest and destruction of Carthage by the Moslems. [Uncertain date]

Eighth Century.

704. Recovery of the throne by the Eastern Emperor Justinian II.

705. Accession of the Caliph Welid.

709. Accession of Roderick to the Gothic throne in Spain.

711. Invasion of Spain by the Arab-Moors. Moslem conquest of Transoxiana and Sardinia. Final fall and death of the Eastern Emperor Justinian II.

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712. Surrender of Toledo to the Moslem invaders of Spain.

717. Elevation of Leo the Isaurian to the throne of the Eastern Empire. Second siege of Constantinople by the Moslems. Great defeat of the Moslems at the Cave of Covadonga in Spain.

718. Victory of Charles Martel at Soissons; his authority acknowledged in both Frankish kingdoms.

719. Mahometan conquest and occupation of Narbonne.

721. Siege of Toulouse; defeat of the Moslems.

725. Mahometan conquests in Septimania.

726. Iconoclastic edicts of Leo the Isaurian; tumult and insurrection in Constantinople.

731. Death of Pope Gregory II.; election of Gregory III.; last confirmation of a Papal election by the Eastern Emperor.

732. Great defeat of the Moslems by the Franks under Charles Martel at Poitiers, or Tours. Council held at Rome by Pope Gregory III.; edict against the Iconoclasts.

733. Practical termination of Byzantine imperial authority.

735. Birth of Alcuin (d. 804).

740. Death of Leo the Isaurian, Emperor in the East; accession of Constantine V.

741. Death of Charles Martel. Death of Pope Gregory III.; election of Zacharias.

742. Birth of Charlemagne (d. 814).

744. Defeat of the Saxons by Carloman; their forced baptism. Death of Liutprand, king of the Lombards.

747. The Plague in Constantinople. Pippin the Short made Mayor in both kingdoms of the Franks.

750. Fall of the Omeyyad dynasty of caliphs and rise of the Abbassides.

751. Extinction of the Exarchate of Ravenna by the Lombards.

752. End of the Merovingian dynasty of Frankish kings; assumption of the crown by Pippin the Short. Death of Pope Zacharias; election of Stephen II.

754. First invasion of Italy by Pippin the Short. Rome assailed by the Lombards.

755. Subjugation of the Lombards by Pippin; his donation of temporalities to the Pope. Martyrdom of Saint Boniface in Germany.

756. Founding of the caliphate of Cordova by Abderrahman.

757. Death of Pope Stephen II.; election of Paul I.

758. Accession of Offa, king of Mercia.

759. Loss of Narbonne, the last foothold of the Mahometans north of the Pyrenees.

763. Founding of the capital of the Eastern Caliphs at Bagdad. [Uncertain date]

767. Death of Pope Paul I.; usurpation of the anti-pope, Constantine.

768. Conquest of Aquitaine by Pippin the Short. Death of Pippin; accession of Charlemagne and Carloman. Deposition of the anti-pope Constantine; election of Pope Stephen III.

771. Death of Carloman, leaving Charlemagne sole king of the Franks.

772. Charlemagne's first wars with the Saxons. Death of Pope Stephen III.; election of Hadrian I.

774. Charlemagne's acquisition of the Lombard kingdom; his enlargement of the donation of temporalities to the Pope. Forgery of the "Donation of Constantine." [Uncertain date]

775. Death of the Eastern Emperor Constantine V.; accession of Leo IV.

778. Charlemagne's invasion of Spain; the "dolorous rout" of Roncesvalles.

780. Death of the Eastern Emperor Leo IV.; accession of Constantine VI.; regency of Irene.

781. Italy and Aquitaine formed into separate kingdoms by Charlemagne.

785. Great struggle of the Saxons against Charlemagne; submission of Wittikind.

786. Accession of Haroun al Raschid in the eastern caliphate.

787. Seventh General Council of the Church (Second Council of Nicæa). First incursions of the Danes in England.

788. Subjugation of the Bavarians by Charlemagne. Death of Abderrahman.

790. Composition of the Caroline books. [Uncertain date]

791. Charlemagne's first campaign against the Avars.

794. Accession of Cenwulf, king of Mercia.

795. Death of Pope Hadrian I.; election of Leo III.

797. Deposition and blinding of the Eastern Emperor Constantine VI., by his mother Irene.

800. Imperial coronation of Charlemagne; revival of the Empire. Accession of Ecgberht, king of Wessex, the first king of all the English.

Ninth Century.

801. Conquest of Barcelona from the Moors by the Franks.

805. Charlemagne's subjugation of the Avars. Creation of the Austrian march.

806. Division of the Empire by Charlemagne between his sons formally planned.

809. Death of the Caliph Haroun al Raschid.

812. Civil war between the sons of the Caliph Haroun al Raschid; siege of Bagdad.

814. Death of Charlemagne, and accession of Louis the Pious, his only surviving son.

816. Death of Pope Leo III.; election of Stephen IV.

817. Partition of the Empire of the Franks by Louis the Pious.

826. Grant of a county between the Rhine and Moselle to Harold, king of Jutland, by the Emperor.

827. Beginning of Moslem conquest of Sicily.

830. First rebellion of the sons of the Emperor Louis the Pious.

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833. Second rebellion of the Emperor's sons; the "Field of Lies"; deposition of the Emperor Louis the Pious. Death of the Caliph Mamun, son of Haroun al Raschid.

834. Restoration of Louis the Pious.

835. Invasion of the Netherlands and sacking of Utrecht by the Northmen.

836. Burning of Antwerp and ravaging of Flanders by the Northmen. Death of Egbert, the first king of all the English.

837. First expedition of the Northmen up the Rhine.

838. Asia Minor invaded by the Caliph Motassem; the Amorian War.

840. Third rebellion of the sons of the Frankish Emperor Louis the Pious; his death; civil war.

841. Expedition of the Northmen up the Seine; their capture of Rouen.

842. The Oath of Strasburg.

843. Conquest by the Mahometans of Messina in Sicily. Partition Treaty of Verdun between the sons of the Emperor Louis the Pious; formation of the realms of Louis the German and Charles the Bald, which grew into the kingdoms of Germany and France.

845. First attack of the Northmen on Paris; their destruction of Hamburg.

846. Rome attacked by the Moslems.

847. Siege and capture of Bordeaux by the Northmen.

849. Birth of Alfred the Great.

852. Revolt against the Moslems in Armenia.

854. Ravages of the Northmen on the Loire checked at Orleans.

855. Death of Lothaire, Emperor of the Franks, and civil war between his sons. First footing of the Danes established in England.

857. Deposition of Ignatius, Patriarch of Constantinople, and elevation of Photius.

860. Discovery of Iceland by the Northmen. [Uncertain date]

861. Formation of the Duchy of France; origin of the House of Capet. Paris surprised by the Northmen.

863. Papal decree against the Eastern Patriarch, Photius. Creation of the County of Flanders by Charles the Bald.

864. Mission of Cyril and Methodius to the Slavonians.

865. First Varangian or Russian attack on Constantinople.

866. Beginning of the permanent conquests of the Danes in England.

871. Moslem fortress of Bari, in southern Italy, surrendered to the Franks and Greeks. Accession of Alfred the Great to the throne of Wessex.

875. Death of Louis II., Emperor of the Franks and king of Italy; imperial coronation of Charles the Bald.

876. The Seine entered by the Northmen under Rollo.

877. Death of the Emperor, Charles the Bald, and accession of Louis the Stammerer. Founding of the kingdom of Provence by Count Boso.

878. Capture by the Moslems of Syracuse in Sicily.

880. Ravages of the Northmen in Germany; battles of the Ardennes and Ebbsdorf. Defeat of the Danes by the English King Alfred at Ethandun; Peace of Wedmore. [Uncertain date]

881. Accession of Charles the Fat, king of Germany and Italy.

884. Temporary reunion of the Empire of the Franks under Charles the Fat.

885. Siege of Paris by the Northmen under Rollo.

887. Deposition of the Emperor, Charles the Fat.

888. Death of Charles the Fat and final disruption of the Empire of the Franks; founding of the kingdom of Transjurane Burgundy. The crown of France in dispute between Eudes, Count of Paris, and the Caroling heir, Charles the Simple.

889. Second siege of Paris by Rollo.

890. Third siege of Paris and siege of Bayeux by Rollo.

891. Defeat of the Danes at Louvain by King Arnulf.

894. Arnulf of Germany made Emperor.

895. Rome taken by the Emperor Arnulf.

898. Death of Eudes, leaving Charles the Simple sole king of France.

899. Death of the Emperor Arnulf; accession of Louis the Child to the German throne.

900. Italy ravaged in the north by the Hungarians.

Tenth Century.

901. Death of the English king, Alfred the Great, and accession of his son, Edward the Elder. Founding of the Samanide dynasty in Khorassan.

904. Sergius III. made Pope; beginning of the rule of the courtesans at Rome.

909. Founding of the Fatimite caliphate in Africa.

910. Founding of the monastery of Clugny in France.

911. Death of the Emperor Louis the Child, extinguishing the Carolingian dynasty in Germany, and election of Conrad the Franconian. Defeat of the Northmen at Chartres in France; cession of Normandy to Rollo.

912. Baptism of the Norman Duke Rollo.

914. Elevation of John X. to the papal throne by the courtesan, Theodora. [Uncertain date]

916. Imperial coronation in Italy of Berengar.

919. Election of the Saxon Duke, Henry the Fowler, to the kingship of Germany. Establishment of the Danish kingdom of Dublin.

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923. The crown of France disputed with Charles the Simple by Rudolph, of Burgundy.

924. Devastation of Germany by the Hungarians; truce agreed upon for nine years. Lapse of the imperial title on the death of Berengar. Commendation of Scotland to the West Saxon king.

925. Death of the English king, Edward the Elder, and accession of his son Ethelstan.

928. Overthrow and imprisonment of Pope John X. by the courtesan Marozia. [Uncertain date]

929. Death of Charles the Simple in France.

931. John XI., son of the courtesan Marozia, made Pope. [Uncertain date]

932. Domination of Rome by the Pope's brother, Alberic.

936. Election of Otho, called the Great, to the throne of Germany. Death of Rudolph of Burgundy and restoration of the Carolingians to the French throne.

937. Ethelstan's defeat of Danes, Britons and Scots at the battle of Brunnaburgh. Invasion of France by the Hungarians.

940. Death of the English king, Ethelstan, and accession of his brother Edmund.

946. Death of the English king, Edmund, and accession of his brother Edred.

951. First expedition of Otho the Great into Italy; founding of the Holy Roman Empire (afterwards so called).

954. Death of Alberic, tyrant of Rome, his son, Octavian, succeeding him. Death of the Carolingian king of France, Louis IV., called" d'Outremer"; accession of Lothaire.

955. Germany invaded by the Hungarians; their decisive defeat on the Lech. Death of the English king, Edred, and accession of his nephew, Edwig.

956. Assumption of the Papal throne by Octavian, as John XII.

957. Revolt against the English king Edwig; division of the kingdom with his brother Edgar. [Uncertain date]

959. Death of Edwig and accession of Edgar; Abbot Dunstan made Archbishop of Canterbury.

961. The crown of Italy taken by Otho the Great, of Germany.

962. Imperial coronation of Otho the Great at Rome; revival of the Western Empire.

963. Expulsion and deposition of Pope John XII.; election of Leo VIII.

964. Expulsion of Pope Leo VIII.; return and death of John XII.; siege and capture of Rome by the Emperor.

965. Death of Pope Leo VIII.; election, expulsion, and forcible restoration of John XIII.

967. Conquest of Egypt by the Fatimite caliph. [Uncertain date]

969. Murder of the Eastern Emperor Nicephorus Phocas by John Zimisces, his successor.

972. Marriage of Otho, the Western Emperor's son, to the Byzantine princess, Theophano. Death of Pope John XIII., and election of Pope Benedict VI.

973. Death of the Emperor Otho the Great; accession of Otho II.

974. Murder of Pope Benedict VI.

975. Election of Pope Benedict VII. Death of the English king Edgar; accession of his son Edward the Martyr.

979. Death of Edward the Martyr; accession of Ethelred the Unready. [Uncertain date]

983. Death of the Emperor Otho II.; accession of Otho III. to the German throne, under the regency of his mother, Theophano. Death of Pope Benedict VII. First visit of Erik the Red to Greenland.

984. Election of Pope John XIV.

985. Murder of Pope John XIV.; election of Pope John XV.

986. Death of Lothaire, king of France; accession of his son Louis V.

987. Death of Louis V., the last of the Carolingian kings; election of Hugh Capet.

988. Death of Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury. Cherson acquired by the Romans.

991. Invasion of England by Vikings from Norway; battle of Maldon.

996. Death of Hugh Capet, king of France; accession of his son, Robert II. Death of Pope John XV.; election of Gregory V. Imperial coronation of Otho III.

997. Insurrection of peasants in Normandy. Rebellion of Crescentius in Rome; expulsion of the Pope.

998. Overthrow of Crescentius at Rome. Excommunication of King Robert of France.

999. Gerbert raised by the Emperor to the Papal chair, as Sylvester II.

1000. Expectations of the end of the world. Pilgrimages of the Emperor Otho. Royal title conferred on Duke Stephen of Hungary, by the Pope. Christianity formally adopted in Iceland.

Eleventh Century.

1002. Massacre of Danes in England on St. Brice's Day. Death of the Emperor Otto III., and election of Henry II.

1003. Invasion of England by Sweyn of Denmark.

1005. Birth of Lanfranc [Uncertain date] (d. 1089).

1013. Flight to Normandy of the English king, Ethelred. The West and North of England submissive to Sweyn. Imperial coronation of Henry II.

1014. Death of Sweyn. Return of Ethelred to England; his war with Sweyn's son Canute. Defeat of the Danes at the battle of Clontarf in Ireland; death of King Brian.

1016. Death of the English kings, Ethelred and his son, Edmund Ironside. Submission of the kingdom to Canute, king of Denmark.

1017. The Saracens driven from Sardinia by the Pisans and Genoese.

1024. Death of the Emperor Henry II., and election of Conrad II.

1027. Imperial coronation of Conrad II.

1031. End of the Ommeyyad caliphate of Cordova, in Spain. Death of Robert II., king of France; accession of Henry I.

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1033. Birth of Saint Anselm. [Uncertain date] (d. 1109).

1035. Death of Canute, king of England and Denmark, and accession of his son Harold. Creation of the kingdom of Aragon in Spain.

1039. Death of Conrad II., and election of Henry III., king of Germany. Murder of Duncan, king of Scotland, by his successor, Macbeth.

1040. Death of Harold, king of England, and accession of Hardicanute.

1042. Death of Hardicanute, and end of Danish rule in England. Accession of Edward the Confessor.

1044. Sale of the papal see by Benedict IX. to Gregory VI.

1046. Three rival popes suppressed by the Emperor Henry III. Election of Pope Clement II. Imperial coronation of Henry III.

1049. Election of Pope Leo IX. The monk Hildebrand made Administrator of the Patrimony of St. Peter.

1051. Exile of Earl Godwine of Wessex. Visit of William of Normandy to England.

1052. Return of Earl Godwine to England.

1053. Defeat of Pope Leo IX. by the Guiscards. The Norman conquests in southern Italy conferred on them as a fief of the Church. Death of Earl Godwine.

1054. Death of Pope Leo IX. Final separation of the Eastern and Western Churches.

1055. Election of Pope Victor II.

1056. Death of the Emperor Henry III. Election of Henry IV., king of Germany, under the regency of his mother.

1060. Death of Henry I., king of France; accession of Philip I.

1066. Invasion of England by the Norwegian king, Harold Hardrada, and Tostig, the English king Harold's brother; their defeat at Stamford Bridge. Invasion of England by William, duke of Normandy; defeat of the English at Senlac or Hastings; death of Harold, last of the Saxon kings.

1071. Final overthrow of the English at Ely. The Norman conquest of England completed.

1073. Election of Hildebrand (Gregory VII.) to the papal throne.

1075. Synod of Pope Gregory and its decrees against clerical incontinence, and decrees against simony. Beginning of strife between the Pope and Henry IV. Great defeat of the Saxons, by Henry IV., at Langensalza.

1076. Council at Worms, called by Henry IV. of Germany, which pronounces the deposition of the Pope. Excommunication of Henry by Pope Gregory VII. Jerusalem captured by the Seljuk Turks.

1077. Humiliation of Henry IV. before Pope Gregory at Canossa; election of the anti-king Rudolph. Donation of the Countess Matilda to the Holy See. Accession of Ladislaus (called Saint), king of Hungary.

1078. Building of the Great or White Tower at London. [Uncertain date]

1079. Birth of Abelard (d. 1142).

1080. Renewal of the Pope's ban against Henry IV. Defeat and death of his rival Rudolph. Election of the anti-pope, Clement III.

1081. Unsuccessful attacks on the city of Rome by Henry IV. Invasion of Greece by the Norman duke, Robert Guiscard. Constantinople sacked by the army of Alexius Comnenus; coronation of Alexius.

1084. Henry IV. in Rome. Seating of the anti-pope, Clement III. Imperial coronation of Henry IV. Sack and burning of Rome by the Normans under Robert Guiscard. Founding of the Carthusian Order by Saint Bruno.

1085. Death of Pope Gregory VII. in exile at Salerno. Death of Robert Guiscard.

1086. Completion in England of King William's Domesday Survey and Domesday Book.

1087. Death of William the Conqueror; accession of William Rufus to the English throne.

1091. Rebellion of Conrad, eldest son of the German emperor, Henry IV. Birth of Saint Bernard (d. 1153).

1094. The Council of Clermont. Address of Pope Urban II.

1095. Death of (Saint) Ladislaus of Hungary.

1096. Movement of the first armies of the Crusades; massacre of Jews in Europe.

1099. Coronation of Henry v., second son of the emperor, as King of the Romans. Recovery of the Holy City by the Crusaders; founding of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem.

1100. Death of William Rufus, king of England, and accession of Henry I.

Twelfth Century.

1101. Disastrous crusading expeditions from Italy, France and Germany. Agreement between King Henry I. of England and his brother Robert.

1104. Rebellion against the Emperor, Henry IV., headed by his son.

1135. Imprisonment and abdication of the Emperor, Henry IV.

1106. English conquest of Normandy; defeat and capture of Duke Robert. Death of the Emperor, Henry IV.

1108. Death of Philip I., king of France, and accession of Louis VI. (the Fat).

1109. Death of Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury.

1110. Expedition of Henry V. to Italy.

1111. Insurrection at Rome; attack on the Germans; imperial coronation of Henry V. Concession of the right of investiture by the Pope.

1112. Repudiation of the Pope's concession and renewal of the War of Investitures.

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1115. Death of the Countess Matilda of Tuscany: her vast possessions bequeathed to the Church.

1118. Death of Pope Pascal II. Election of Pope Gelasius II. and the anti-pope Gregory VIII. Founding of the Order of the Templars.

1119. Battle of Noyon, in Normandy. Death of Pope Gelasius II. and election of Callistus II.

1120. The sinking of "the White Ship"; drowning of the English King Henry's son.

1121. Condemnation of Abelard in France.

1122. Settlement of the question of investitures; Concordat of Worms.

1123. First Lateran Council of the Church.

1124. Death of Pope Callistus II. and election of Honorius II.

1125. Death of the Emperor Henry V. and election of Lothaire, of Saxony, to the German throne. Opening of the strife between Guelfs and Hohenstaufens or Ghibellines.

1130. Death of Pope Honorius II.; election of Innocent II., and the anti-pope, Anacletus II.

1131. Birth of Maimonides [Uncertain date] (d. 1201 [Uncertain date]).

1133. Coronation of the Emperor Lothaire at Rome.

1135. Death of Henry I., king of England; civil war between Stephen and Matilda.

1136. Progress of the Emperor Lothaire through the peninsula of Italy; submission of the cities.

1137. Death of the Emperor Lothaire. Death of Louis VI. of France and accession of Louis VII.; his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine. Birth of Saladin (d. 1193).

1138. Election in Germany of Conrad of Hohenstaufen. Second invasion of England by David of Scotland. Battle of the Standard.

1139. Banishment from Italy of Arnold of Brescia. Defeat of the Moors in Portugal by Affonso Henriques, at the battle of Orik or Ourique. Second Lateran Council of the Church.

1140. Siege of Weimsberg. First use of the party names, Welf or Guelf and Waiblingen or Ghibelline. Portugal separated from Castile, and made a separate kingdom.

1142. Death of Abelard at Clugny.

1143. Death of Pope Innocent III. Election of Celestine II.

1144. Turkish capture of Edessa. Jerusalem threatened. Appeal to Europe. Death of Pope Celestine II. Election of Lucius II.

1145. Death in battle of Pope Lucius II. and election of Eugenius II. Establishment of the republic of Arnold of Brescia at Rome.

1146. Massacre of Jews by Crusaders and mobs in Germany. Sack of Thebes and Corinth by the Norman King Roger of Sicily.

1147. The Second Crusade, from France and Germany. Lisbon taken from the Moors and made the capital of Portugal. Founding of Moscow.

1148. Unsuccessful siege of Damascus by the Crusaders.

1152. Death of the Emperor Conrad of Hohenstaufen and election of Frederick I. (Barbarossa). Marriage of Prince Henry, afterward Henry II. of England, to Eleanor of Aquitaine.

1153. Death of Pope Eugenius III. and election of Anastasius IV.

1154. Death of Stephen, king of England, and accession of Henry II. First expedition of Frederick Barbarossa into Italy. Death of Pope Anastasius IV. and election of Hadrian IV. Ireland granted to the English crown by Pope Hadrian IV.

1155. Overthrow of the republic of Arnold of Brescia at Rome; his death. Tumult at the imperial coronation of Frederick Barbarossa.

1158. Second expedition of Frederick Barbarossa into Italy. Siege of Milan.

1159. Death of Pope Hadrian IV.; election of Alexander III. and the anti-pope Victor IV.

1162. Thomas Becket made Archbishop of Canterbury. Destruction of Milan by Frederick Barbarossa. Birth of Genghis Khan [Uncertain date] (d. 1227).

1163. Third visitation of Frederick Barbarossa to Italy.

1164. Enactment of the Constitutions of Clarendon in England. Death of the anti-pope Victor IV. and election of the anti-pope Pascal III.

1166. The Assize of Clarendon in England. Fourth Italian expedition of Frederick Barbarossa.

1167. Formation of the League of Lombardy; rebuilding of Milan. Storming of Rome by Frederick Barbarossa; seating of the anti-pope Pascal.

1168. Death of the anti-pope Pascal III. and election of the anti-pope Callistus III.

1169. Beginning of Strongbow's conquest of Ireland.

1170. Murder of Archbishop Thomas Becket in England. Birth of Saint Dominic (d. 1221).

1174. Invasion of England by King William of Scotland. His defeat and capture. Last visitation of Italy by Frederick Barbarossa. The leaning tower of Pisa commenced.

1175. Anglo-Norman conquest of Ireland completed; limits of the English pale defined.

1176. Defeat of Frederick Barbarossa by the Lombard League at Legnano.

1177. The peace of Venice; submission of the Emperor to the Pope, Alexander III.

1179. Submission of the anti-pope, Callistus III., to Pope Alexander III. Third Lateran Council of the Church.

1180. Death of Louis VII., king of France, and accession of Philip Augustus. Sentence against Henry the Lion in Germany.

1181. Death of Pope Alexander III. and election of Lucius III.

1182. Birth of Saint Francis of Assisi (d. 1226).

1183. Peace of Constance between Germany and Italy. Independence of the Lombard Republics.

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1184. Birth of Saadi [Uncertain date] (d. 1291).

1185. Death of Pope Lucius III. and election of Urban III.

1187. Saladin's victory at Tiberias; recovery of Jerusalem by the Moslems. Death of Pope Urban III.; election and death of Gregory VIII.; election of Clement III. End of the Ghaznavide dynasty in Afghanistan.

1188. Imposition of the Tithe of Saladin in England.

1189. Death of King Henry II. of England and accession of Richard I. (Cœur de Lion). Crusade of King Richard of England, Philip Augustus of France, and Frederick Barbarossa of Germany. Massacre of Jews in England.

1190. Death, by drowning, of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, in Asia Minor; accession of Henry VI., king of Germany.

1191. Death of Pope Clement III. and election of Celestine III. Imperial coronation of the Emperor Henry VI.

1192. Captivity of King Richard of England.

1195. Birth of Matthew Paris [Uncertain date] (d. 1259).

1196. Crusade of German barons to the Holy Land.

1199. Death of King Richard I. of England; accession of John.

Thirteenth Century.

1201. Crusade to the Holy Land urged by Pope Innocent III. Institution of the Order of the Sword for crusading against the heathen of the Baltic region. Cession to the Papacy by the Emperor, Otho IV., of all the territory claimed by Innocent III. as constituting the States of the Church. Chartering of the University of Paris by Philip Augustus.

1202. The Crusaders at Venice; their bargain with the Venetians and attack on Zara.

1203. Attack on Constantinople by the Crusaders and Venetians.

1204. Capture and pillage of Constantinople by the Crusaders and Venetians; creation of the Latin Empire of Romania and election of Baldwin of Flanders to the throne. Loss of Normandy by King John of England. Founding of the Monastery of Port Royal.

1205. Genghis Khan proclaimed by a great assembly Khakan or Emperor of Tartary.

1206. Founding of the Greek empire of Nicæa by Theodore Lascaris.

1209. First crusade against the Albigenses, instigated by Pope Innocent III. Imperial coronation of Otho IV. at Rome.

1210. Second crusade against the Albigenses. Founding of the Franciscan Order of Friars.

1212. Children's Crusade from France and Germany. Great defeat of the Moors by the Christians on Las Navas de Tolosa, in Spain.

1213. Subjugation of the Albigenses by Simon de Montfort, who receives the principality of Toulouse. Submission of John of England to the Pope as a vassal.

1214. Battle of Bouvines, in Flanders; defeat of the English king, John, and the German king and emperor Otho IV., by Philip Augustus of France. Birth of Roger Bacon (d. 1292).

1215. The Great Charter extorted from King John by the barons of England. Founding of the Dominican Order of Friars. Beginning, in Florence, of the fierce quarrel of Guelfs and Ghibellines.

1216. Election of Pope Honorius III. Crusade to the Holy Land led by King Andrew of Hungary. Death of King John of England and accession of Henry III.

1217. Revolt of the Toulousans; death of Simon de Montfort.

1218. Death of the Emperor Otho IV. Attack of the Crusaders on Egypt; siege of Damietta.

1220. Imperial coronation of Frederick II., the Hohenstaufen. Evacuation of Egypt by the Crusaders. Destruction of Bokhara by Genghis Khan.

1222. The charter called the Golden Bull conferred on Hungary by King Andrew.

1223. Death of Philip Augustus, king of France, and accession of Louis VIII.

1224. Birth of Sire de Joinville (d. 1317).

1226. Renewed crusade against the Albigenses; invasion of Languedoc by the French king, Louis VIII., after buying the rights of Simon de Montfort's son. Death of Louis VIII. and accession in France of Louis IX. (Saint Louis) under the regency of Blanche of Castile.