Part 2 — CHAPTER IV. Concerning the infallible teaching of the Roman Pontiff: (continued 82)

The Athenæum, June 30, 1894

ALSO IN: W. Geiger, Civilization of the Eastern Iranians.

W. Geiger, and F. von Spiegel, The Age of the Avesta.

D. F. Karaka, History of the Parsis.

S. Johnson, Oriental Religions: Persia.

ZOTTS.

See GYPSIES.

ZOUAVES, The.

During the wars of the French in Algeria, there arose a body of soldiers "who, both in the campaign in Algeria and in the contest in the Crimea, have acquired the very highest renown. The name of the Zouaves will never be forgotten as long as the story of the siege of Sebastopol endures. … They were originally intended to be regiments composed of Frenchmen who had settled in Algeria, or their descendants; but the intermixture of foreigners in their ranks ere long became so considerable, that when they were transported to the shores of the Crimea, though the majority were French, they were rather an aggregate of the 'Dare-devils' of all nations. In their ranks at Sebastopol were some that held Oxford degrees, many those of Göttingen and Paris, crowds who had been ruined at the gaming-table, not a few who had fled from justice, or sought escape from the consequences of an amorous adventure. Yet had this motley crowd, composed of the most daring and reckless of all nations, become, in the rude school of the wars in Algeria, an incomparable body of soldiers, second to none in the world in every military duty, perhaps superior to any in the vehemence and rush of an assault."

Sir A. Alison, History of Europe, 1815-1852, chapter 45.

ZÜLPICH, Battle of (A. D. 496).

See ALEMANNI: A. D. 496-504; also FRANKS: A. D. 481-511.

ZULUS, AMAZULU. The Zulu War.

See SOUTH AFRICA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS: and SOUTH AFRICA, A. D. 1877-1879.

ZUÑI.

See AMERICA, PREHISTORIC; also AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ZUÑIAN FAMILY, and PUEBLOS.

ZURICH: A. D. 1519-1524. Beginning of the Swiss Reformation, under Zwingli.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1519-1524; and SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1528-1531.

ZURICH: A. D. 1799. Battle of French and Russians. Carnage in the city.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (AUGUST-DECEMBER).

ZURICH, Treaty of (1859).

See ITALY: A. D. 1859-1861.

ZUTPHEN: A. D. 1572. Massacre by the Spaniards.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1572-1573.

ZUTPHEN: A. D. 1586. Battle of English and Spaniards. Death of Sir Philip Sidney.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1585-1586.

ZUTPHEN: A. D. 1591. Capture by Prince Maurice.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1588-1593.

ZUYDERZEE, Naval battle on the (1573).

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1573-1574.

ZWINGLI, and the Swiss Reformation.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1519-1524; and SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1528-1531.

ZYP, Battle of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER).

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SUPPLEMENT.

This Supplement contains:

1. Some passages translated from German and French writings, touching matters less competently treated in the body of the work, where the compilation is restricted to "the literature of history in the English language," either originally or in published translations.

2. Some postscripts on recent events, and some excerpts from recent books.

3. Treatment of some topics that were omitted from their places in the body of the work, either intentionally or by accident, and which it seems best to include.

4. Some cross-references needed to complete the subject-indexing of the work throughout.

5. A complete series of chronological tables, by centuries.

6. A series of dynastic genealogies, in a form different from the usual plan of their construction, and which, it is hoped, may be found more easily intelligible.

7. Select bibliographies, partly annotated, of several of the more important fields of history.

8. A full list of the works quoted from in this compilation of "History for Ready Reference and Topical Reading," with the names of the publishers.

The selections and translations from the German, excepting Bismarck's speeches, have been made by Ernest F. Henderson, A. M., Ph. D., author of "A History of Germany in the Middle Ages." Mr. Henderson has also prepared and annotated the bibliography of German and French writings.

————— A ————

ABELARD AND THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL (page 692).

ABHORRERS.

Charles II. and his court, in England, were troubled about 1680 with numerous petitions for the calling of parliament. "As the king found no law by which he could punish those importunate, and, as he deemed them, undutiful solicitations, he was obliged to encounter them by popular applications of a contrary tendency. Wherever the church and court party prevailed, addresses were framed, containing expressions of the highest regard to his majesty, the most entire acquiescence in his wisdom, the most dutiful submission to his prerogative, and the deepest abhorrence of those who endeavoured to encroach upon it, by prescribing to him any time for assembling the parliament. Thus the nation came to be distinguished into 'petitioners' and 'abhorrers.'"

D. Hume, History of England, chapter 68.

ACCAD. ACCADIANS.

See SEMITES: PRIMITIVE BABYLONIA (page 2888).

ADAIS.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ADAIS (page 77).

ADAMS, John Quincy. His defense of the right of petition.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1842 (page 3378).

ADELBERT COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION (page 743).

ADMIRALTY LAW, History of.

See LAW (page 1955).

ADVENTURERS, Merchant.

See MERCHANT ADVENTURERS (page 2153).

—————AFRICA: Start————

AFRICA. A chronological record of European Exploration, Missionary Settlement, Colonization and Occupation.

AFRICA: 1415. Conquest of Ceuta by the Portuguese.

AFRICA: 1434-1461. Portuguese explorations down the western coast, from Cape Bojador to Cape Mesurado, in Liberia, under the direction of Prince Henry, called the Navigator.

AFRICA: 1442. First African slaves brought into Europe by one of the ships of the Portuguese-Prince Henry.

AFRICA: 1471-1482. Portuguese explorations carried beyond the Guinea Coast, and to the Gold Coast, where the first settlement was established, at El Mina.

AFRICA: 1482. Discovery of the mouth of the Zaire or Congo by the Portuguese explorer, Diogo Cao, or Diego Cam.

AFRICA: 1485-1596. Establishment of Roman Catholic missions on the western coast, and creation, by Pope Clement VIII., of the diocese of Mbazi (San Salvador), embracing Congo, Angola and Benguela.

AFRICA: 1486. Unconscious rounding of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz.

AFRICA: 1490-1527. Visit to Abyssinia of Pedro da Covilhão, or Covilham, the Portuguese explorer.

AFRICA: 1497. Voyage of Vasco da Gama round the Cape of Good Hope to India.

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AFRICA: 1505-1508. Portuguese settlements and fortified stations' established on the eastern coast, from Sofala to Zanzibar.

AFRICA: 1506. Discovery of Madagascar by the Portuguese.

AFRICA: 1520-1527. Portuguese embassy to Abyssinia, narrated by Father Alvarez.

AFRICA: 1552-1553. Beginning of English voyages to the Guinea and Gold Coasts.

AFRICA: 1560. French trading to the Senegal and Gambia begun.

AFRICA: 1562. First slave-trading voyage of Sir John Hawkins to the Guinea Coast.

AFRICA: 1569. Expedition of Barreto up the Zambesi from its mouth to Sena and beyond.

AFRICA: 1578. Founding of St. Paul de Loando, the capital of the Portuguese possessions on the west coast.

AFRICA: 1582 (about). Founding of the French post, St. Louis, at the mouth of the Senegal.

AFRICA: 1588. First (English) African Company chartered by Queen Elizabeth.

AFRICA: 1595. Opening of trade on the western coast by the Dutch.

AFRICA: 1618-1621. Exploration of the River Gambia by George Thompson and Captain Richard Jobson, for the Royal Niger Company of England.

AFRICA: 1625. Jesuit mission of Father Lobo and his companions to Abyssinia.

AFRICA: 1637. Visit of Claude Jannequin, Sieur de Rochfort, to the River Senegal.

AFRICA: 1644. Fort Dauphin founded by the French in the island of Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1652. Dutch settlement at the Cape of Good Hope.

AFRICA: 1662. British African Company chartered by Charles II. and fort built on the Gambia.

AFRICA: 1664-1684. Wars of France with the Algerines.

AFRICA: 1681-1683. Brandenburg African Company formed by "the Great Elector"; settlements established and trade opened on the western coast.

AFRICA: 1694-1724. Explorations of the River Senegal and interior by André Brue, the French governor, for the Royal Senegal Company.

AFRICA: 1698. Arab conquests from the Portuguese on the eastern coast, breaking their ascendancy.

AFRICA: 1702-1717. Captivity of Robert Drury in Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1723. Exploration of the Gambia by Captain Bartholomew Stibbs, for the English Royal African Company.

AFRICA: 1736. Moravian Mission planted on the Gold Coast.

AFRICA: 1737. Moravian Mission planted by George Schmidt among the Hottentots; suppressed by the Dutch government in 1744, and revived in 1792.

AFRICA: 1754. Substantial beginning of the domination in Madagascar of the Hovas, a people of Malay origin.

AFRICA: 1758. British conquest of the French establishments on the Senegal.

AFRICA: 1761-1762. Dutch expedition from Cape Colony beyond the Orange River into Namaqualand.

AFRICA: 1768-1763. Journey of James Bruce to the fountains of the Blue Nile in Abyssinia.

AFRICA: 1774. Founding of a French colony in Madagascar by Count Benyowsky.

AFRICA: 1775-1776. Explorations of Andrew Sparrman from Cape Town to Great Fish River.

AFRICA: 1778. Cession by Portugal to Spain of the island of Fernando Po.

AFRICA: 1779. Recovery of Senegal from the English by the French.

AFRICA: 1781-1785. Travels of M. Le Vaillant from the Cape of Good Hope into the interior of South Africa, among the Hottentots and Kafirs.

AFRICA: 1787. Founding of the English settlement for freed slaves at Sierra Leone.

AFRICA: 1788. Formation of the African Association in England, under the presidency of Sir Joseph Banks, for systematic exploration in the interest of geographical science.

AFRICA: 1789-1794. Fruitless attempts by agents of the African Association to reach the Niger and Timbuctoo from the west coast and from the Nile.

AFRICA: 1795. The Cape Colony taken from the Dutch by the English.

AFRICA: 1795-1797. The first exploring journey of Mungo Park, in the service of the African Association, from the Gambia, penetrating to the Niger, at Sego.

AFRICA: 1798. Mission of Dr. John Vanderkemp to the Kafirs, with the support of the London Missionary Society.

AFRICA: 1798. Journey of the Portuguese Dr. Lacerda from the Lower Zambesi to the kingdom of Cazembe, on Lake Moero.

AFRICA: 1800. Unsuccessful attempts of the Dutch Missionary Society in Cape Town among the Bechuanas.

AFRICA: 1801-1805. War of the United States with the pirates of Tripoli.

AFRICA: 1802-1806. Restoration of Cape Colony to the Dutch and its reconquest by the English.

AFRICA: 1802-1811. Journey of the Pombeiros, Baptista and Jose (negroes) across the continent from Angola to Tete, on the Zambesi River.

AFRICA: 1804. Founding of the Church of England Mission in Sierra Leone.

AFRICA: 1805. Second expedition of Mungo Park from the Gambia to the Niger, from which he never returned.

AFRICA: 1805. Travels of Dr. Lichtenstein in Bechuanaland.

AFRICA: 1806. Missionary journey of Christian and William Albrecht beyond the Orange River.

AFRICA: 1809. Second conquest of Senegal by the English.

AFRICA: 1810. Missions in Great Namaqualand and Damaraland begun by the London Missionary Society.

AFRICA: 1812. Exploration of the Orange River and the headwaters of the Limpopo by Campbell, the missionary.

AFRICA: 1812-1815. Journey of Burckhardt under the auspices of the African Association, up the Nile, through Nubia, to Berbera, Shendy, and Suakin; thence through Jidda to Mecca, in the character of a Mussulman.

AFRICA: 1815. Senegal restored to France by the Treaty of Paris.

AFRICA: 1815. War of the United States with the piratical Algerines.

AFRICA: 1815. Shipwreck and enslavement of Captain James Riley in Morocco.

AFRICA: 1816. Bombardment of Algiers by a British fleet under Lord Exmouth.

AFRICA: 1816-1818. Fatal and fruitless attempts of Tuckey, Peddie, Campbell, Gray and Dochard to explore the lower course and determine the outlet of the Niger.

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AFRICA: 1818. Mission in Madagascar undertaken by the London Missionary Society.

AFRICA: 1818. Beginning, on the Orange River, of the missionary labors of Robert Moffat in South Africa.

AFRICA: 1818. Exploration of the sources of the Gambia by Gaspard Mollien, from Fort St. Louis, at the mouth of the Senegal.

AFRICA: 1818-1820. Exploration of Fezzan to Its southern limit, from Tripoli, by Captain Lyon.

AFRICA: 1820. First Wesleyan Mission founded in Kafirland.

AFRICA: 1820. Treaty abolishing the slave-trade in Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1821. Mission-work in Kaffraria undertaken by the Glasgow Missionary Society.

AFRICA: 1822. Founding of the republic of Liberia by the American Colonization Society.

AFRICA: 1822. Official journey of Lieutenant Laing from Sierra Leone in the "Timannee, Kooranko and Soolima" countries.

AFRICA: 1822-1825. Expedition of Captain Clapperton, Dr. Oudney, and Colonel Denham, from Tripoli to Lake Tchad and beyond.

AFRICA: 1825-1826. Expedition of Major Laing, in the service of the British Government, from Tripoli, through the desert, to Timbuctoo, which he reached, and where he remained for a month. Two days after leaving the city he was murdered.

AFRICA: 1825-1827. Expedition of Captain Clapperton from the Bight of Benin to Sokoto.

AFRICA: 1827. Moravian Mission settled in the Tambookie territory, South Africa.

AFRICA: 1827. Journey of Linant de Bellefonds, for the African Association, up the White Nile to 18° 6' north latitude.

AFRICA: 1827-1828. Journey of Caillé from a point on the west coast, between Sierra Leone and the Gambia, to Jenna and Timbuctoo; thence to Fez and Tangier.

AFRICA: 1828. Undertakings of the Basle Missionary Society on the Gold Coast.

AFRICA: 1830-1831. Exploration of the Niger to the sea by Richard and John Lender, solving the question as to its mouth.

AFRICA: 1830-1846. French conquest and subjugation of Algiers.

AFRICA: 1831. Portuguese mission of Major Monteiro and Captain Gamitto to the court of Muata Cazembe.

AFRICA: 1831. Absorption of the African Association by the Royal Geographical Society of London.

AFRICA: 1832-1834. First commercial exploration of the lower Niger, from its mouth, by Macgregor Laird, with two steamers.

AFRICA: 1833. Mission in Basutoland established by the Evangelical Missionary Society of Paris.

AFRICA: 1834. Beginning of missionary labors under the American Board of Missions in South Africa.

AFRICA: 1834. Mission founded at Cape Palmas on the western coast, by the American Board for Foreign Missions.

AFRICA: 1834. The Great Trek of the Dutch Boers from Cape Colony and their founding of the republic of Natal.

AFRICA: 1835. Mission among the Zulus established by the American Board of Foreign Missions.

AFRICA: 1835-1849. Persecution of Christians in Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1836-1837. Explorations of Captain Sir James E. Alexander in the countries of the Great Namaquas, the Bushmen and the Hill Damaras.

AFRICA: 1839-1811. Egyptian expeditions sent by Mehemet Ali up the White Nile to latitude 6° 35' North; accompanied and narrated in part by Ferdinand Werne.

AFRICA: 1839-1843. Missionary residence of Dr. Krapf in the kingdom of Shoa, in the Ethiopian highlands.

AFRICA: 1840. Arrival of Dr. Livingstone in South Africa as a missionary.

AFRICA: 1841. Expedition of Captains Trotter and Allen, sent by the British Government to treat with tribes on the Niger for the opening of commerce and the suppression of the slave trade.

AFRICA: 1842. Travels of Dr. Charles Johnston in Southern Abyssinia.

AFRICA: 1842. Gaboon Mission, on the western coast near the equator, founded by the American Board of Foreign Missions.

AFRICA: 1842. The Rhenish Mission established by German missionaries at Bethanien in Namaqualand.

AFRICA: 1842. Wesleyan and Norwegian Missions opened in Natal.

AFRICA: 1842-1862. French occupation of territory on the Gaboon and the Ogowé.

AFRICA: 1843. British annexation of Natal, and migration of the Boers to found the Orange Free State.

AFRICA: 1843. Exploration of the Senegal and the Falémé by Huard-Bessinières and Raffenel.

AFRICA: 1843-1845. Travels and residence of Mr. Parkyns in Abyssinia.

AFRICA: 1843-1848. Hunting journeys of Gordon Cumming in South Africa.

AFRICA: 1844. Mission founded by Dr. Krapf at Mombassa, on the Zanzibar coast.

AFRICA: 1845. Duncan's journey for the Royal Geographical Society from Whydah, via Abome, to Adofudia.

AFRICA: 1845. Mission to the Cameroons established by the Baptist Missionary Society of England.

AFRICA: 1846. Unsuccessful attempt of Raffenel to cross Africa from Senegal to the Nile, through the Sudan.

AFRICA: 1846. Mission of Samuel Crowther (afterwards Bishop of the Niger), a native and a liberated slave, to the Yoruba country.

AFRICA: 1846. Mission on Old Calabar River founded by the United Presbyterian Church in Jamaica.

AFRICA: 1847-1849. Interior explorations of the German missionaries Dr. Krapf and Mr. Rebmann, from Mombassa on the Zanzibar coast.

AFRICA: 1848. Founding of the Transvaal Republic by the Boers.

AFRICA: 1849. Missionary journey of David Livingstone northward from the country of the Bechuanas, and his discovery of Lake Ngami.

AFRICA: 1849-1851. Journey of Ladislaus Magyar from Benguela to the kingdoms of Bihe and Moluwa on the interior table-land, and across the upper end of the Zambesi valley.

AFRICA: 1850. Sale of Danish forts at Quetta, Adds, and Fingo, on the western coast, to Great Britain.

AFRICA: 1850-1851. Travels of Andersson and Galton from Walfish Bay to Ovampo-land and Lake Ngami.

AFRICA: 1850-1855. Travels of Dr. Barth from Tripoli to Lake Tchad, Sokoto and the Upper Niger to Timbuctoo, where he was detained for nine months.

AFRICA: 1851. Discovery of the Zambesi by Dr. Livingstone.

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AFRICA: 1852-1863. Hunting and trading journeys of Mr. Chapman in South Africa, between Natal and Walfish Bay and to Lake Ngami and the Zambesi.

AFRICA: 1853. Founding of the Diocese of Natal by the English Church and appointment of Dr. Colenso to be its bishop.

AFRICA: 1853-1856. Journey of Dr. Livingstone from Linyanti, the Makololo capital, up the Zambesi and across to the western coast, at St. Paul de Loando, thence returning entirely across the continent, down the Zambesi to Quilimane at its mouth, discovering the Victoria Falls on his way.

AFRICA: 1853-1858. Ivory-seeking expeditions of John Petherick, up the Bahr-el-Ghazel.

AFRICA: 1853-1859. Roman Catholic mission established at Gondokoro, on the Upper Nile.

AFRICA: 1854. Exploration of the Somali country—the "eastern horn of Africa"—by Captains Burton and Speke.

AFRICA: 1855. Beginning of attempts by the French governor of Senegal, General Faidherbe, to carry the flag of France into the Western Sudan.

AFRICA: 1856-1859. Journeys of Du Chaillu in the western equatorial regions, on the Gaboon and the Ogobai.

AFRICA: 1857-1858. Expedition of Captains Burton and Speke, from Zanzibar, through Uzaramo, Usagara, Ugogo, and Unyamwezi, to Ujiji, on Lake Tanganyika—making the first European discovery of the lake; returning to Kazé, and thence continued by Speke alone, during Burton's illness, to the discovery of Lake Victoria Nyanza.

AFRICA: 1858. Journey of Andersson from Walfish Bay to the Okavango River.

AFRICA: 1858. English mission station founded at Victoria on the Cameroons coast.

AFRICA: 1858-1863. Expedition of Dr. Livingstone, in the service of the British Government, exploring the Shiré and the Rovuma, and discovering and exploring Lake Nyassa—said, however, to have been known previously to the Portuguese.

AFRICA: 1860-1861. Journey of Baron von Decken from Mombassa on the Zanzibar coast, to Kilimanjaro mountain.

AFRICA: 1860-1862. Return of Speke, with Captain Grant, from Zanzibar to Lake Victoria Nyanza, visiting Karagwe, and Uganda, and reaching the outlet of the Nile; thence through Unyoro to Gondokoro, and homeward by the Nile.

AFRICA: 1861. Establishment of the Universities Mission by Bishop Mackenzie on the Upper Shiré.

AFRICA: 1861-1862. English acquisition of the town and kingdom of Lagos on the Bight of Benin by cession from the native ruler.

AFRICA: 1861-1862. Sir Samuel Baker's exploration of the Abyssinian tributaries of the Nile.

AFRICA: 1861-1862. Journey of Captain Burton from Lagos, on the western coast, to Abeokuta, the capital of the Akus, in Yoruba, and to the Camaroons Mountains.

AFRICA: 1861-1862. Journey of Mr. Baines from Walfish Bay to Lake Ngami and Victoria Falls.

AFRICA: 1862. Resumption of the Christian Mission in Madagascar, long suppressed.

AFRICA: 1862-1867. Travels of Dr. Rohlfs in Morocco, Algeria and Tunis, and exploring journey from the Gulf of the Syrtes to the Gulf of Guinea.

AFRICA: 1863. Travels of Winwood Reade on the western coast.

AFRICA: 1863. Incorporation of a large part of Kaffraria with Cape Colony.

AFRICA: 1863. Second visit of Du Chaillu to the western equatorial region and journey to Ashangoland.

AFRICA: 1863-1864. Official mission of Captain Burton to the King of Dahomey.

AFRICA: 1863-1864. Exploration of the Bahr-el-Ghazel from Khartoum by the wealthy Dutch heiress, Miss Tinné, and her party.

AFRICA: 1863-1865. Expedition by Sir Samuel Baker and his wife up the White Nile from Khartoum, resulting in the discovery of Lake Albert Nyanza, as one of its sources.

AFRICA: 1864. Mission of Lieutenant mage and Dr. Quintin, sent by General Faidherbe from Senegal to the king of Segou, in the Sudan.

AFRICA: 1866. Founding of a Norwegian mission in Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1866-1873. Last journey of Dr. Livingstone, from the Rovuma River, on the eastern coast, to Lake Nyassa; thence to Lake Tanganyika, Lake Moero, Lake Bangweolo, and the Lualaba River, which he suspected of flowing into the Albert Nyanza, and being the ultimate fountain head of the Nile. In November, 1871, Livingstone was found at Ujiji, on Lake Tanganyika, by Henry M. Stanley, lender of an expedition sent in search of him. Declining to quit the country with Stanley, and pursuing his exploration of the Lualaba, Livingstone died May 1, 1873, on Lake Bangweolo.

AFRICA: 1867. Mission founded in Madagascar by the Society of Friends.

AFRICA: 1867-1868. British expedition to Abyssinia for the rescue of captives; overthrow and death of King Theodore.

AFRICA: 1868. British annexation of Basutoland in South Africa.

AFRICA: 1869. Christianity established as the state religion in Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1869. Fatal expedition of Miss Tinné from Tripoli into the desert, where she was murdered by her own escort.

AFRICA: 1869-1871. Explorations of Dr. Schweinfurth between the Bahr-el-Ghazel and the Upper Congo, discovering the Wellé River.

AFRICA: 1869-1873. Expedition of Dr. Nachtigal from Tripoli through Kuka, Tibesti, Borku, Wadai, Darfur, and Kordofan, to the Nile.

AFRICA: 1870-1873. Official expedition of Sir Samuel Baker, in the service of the Khedive of Egypt, Ismail Pasha, to annex Gondokoro, then named Ismalia, and to suppress the slave-trade in the Egyptian Sudan, or Equatoria.

AFRICA: 1871. Transfer of the rights of Holland on the Gold Coast to Great Britain.

AFRICA: 1871. Annexation of Griqualand West to Cape Colony.

AFRICA: 1871. Scientific tour of Sir Joseph D. Hooker and Mr. Ball in Morocco and the Great Atlas.

AFRICA: 1871. Missionary journey of Mr. Charles New in the Masai country and ascent of Mount Kilimanjaro.

AFRICA: 1871-1880. Hunting journeys of Mr. Selous in South Africa, beyond the Zambesi.

AFRICA: 1872-1875. Travels of the naturalist, Reinhold Buchholz, on the Guinea coast.

AFRICA: 1872-1879. Trave]s of Dr. Holub between the South African diamond fields and the Zambesi.

AFRICA: 1873-1875. Expedition of Captain V. L. Cameron, from Zanzibar to Lake Tanganyika, and exploration of the Lake; thence to Nyangwe on the Lnalaba, and thence across the continent, through Ulunda, to the Portuguese settlement at Benguela, on the Atlantic coast.

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AFRICA: 1873-1875. Travels of the naturalist, Frank Oates, from Cape Colony to the Victoria Falls.

AFRICA: 1873-1876. Explorations of Güsfeldt, Falkenstein and Pechuel-Loesche, under the auspices of the German African Association, from the Loango coast, north of the Congo.

AFRICA: 1874. British expedition against the Ashantees, destroying their principal town Coomassie.

AFRICA: 1874. Mission of Colonel Chaillé-Long from General Gordon, at Gondokoro, on the Nile, to M'tesé, king of Uganda, discovering Lake Ibrahim on his return, and completing the work of Speke and Baker, in the continuous tracing of the course of the Nile from the Victoria Nyanza.

AFRICA: 1874-1875. Expedition of Colonel C. Chaillé-Long to Lake Victoria Nyanza and the Makraka Niam-Niam country, in the Egyptian service.

AFRICA: 1874-1876. First administration of General Gordon, commissioned by the Khedive as Governor of Equatoria.

AFRICA: 1874-1876. Occupation and exploration of Darfur and Kordofan by the Egyptians, under Colonels Purdy, Mason, Prout and Colston.

AFRICA: 1874-1877. Expedition of Henry M. Stanley, fitted out by the proprietors of the New York Herald and the London Daily Telegraph, which crossed the continent from Zanzibar to the mouth of the Congo River; making a prolonged stay in the empire of Uganda and acquiring much knowledge of it; circumnavigating Lakes Victoria and Tanganyika, and exploring the then mysterious great Congo River throughout its length.

AFRICA: 1874-1877. Explorations of Dr. Junker in Upper Nubia and in the basin of the Bahr-el-Ghazel.

AFRICA: 1875. Expedition of Dr. Pogge, for the German African Association, from the west coast, south of the Congo, in the Congo basin, penetrating to Kawende, beyond the Ruru or Lulua River, capital of the Muata Yanvo, who rules a kingdom as large as Germany.

AFRICA: 1875. Expedition of Colonel Chaillé-Long into the country of the Makraka Niam-Niams.

AFRICA: 1875. Founding by Scottish subscribers of the mission station called Livingstonia, at Cape Maclear, on the southern shores of Lake Nyassa; headquarters of the mission removed in 1881 to Bandawé, on the same lake.

AFRICA: 1875. Mission founded at Blantyre, in the highlands above the Shiré, by the Established Church of Scotland.

AFRICA: 1875-1876. Seizure of Berbera and the region of the Juba River, on the Somali Coast, by Colonel Chaillé-Long, for the Khedive of Egypt, and their speedy evacuation, on the remonstrance of England.

AFRICA: 1876. Conference at Brussels and formation of the International African Association, under the presidency of the king of the Belgians, for the exploration and civilization of Africa.

AFRICA: 1876. Voyage of Romolo Gessi around Lake Albert Nyanza.

AFRICA: 1876. Mission in Uganda established by the Church Missionary Society of England.

AFRICA: 1876-1878. Scientific explorations of Dr. Schweinfurth in the Arabian Desert between the Nile and the Red Sea.

AFRICA: 1876-1880. Explorations and French annexations by Svorgnan de Brazza between the Ogowé and the Congo.

AFRICA: 1877. The Livingstone Inland Mission, for Christian work in the Congo valley, established by the East London Institute for Home and Foreign Missions.

AFRICA: 1877-1879. Second administration of General Gordon, as Governor-General of the Sudan, Darfur and the Equatorial Provinces.

AFRICA: 1877-1879. War of the British in South Africa with the Zulus, and practical subjugation of that nation.

AFRICA: 1877-1879. Journey of Serpa Pinto across the continent from Benguela via the Zambesi.

AFRICA: 1877-1880. Explorations of the Portuguese officers, Capello and Ivens, in western and central Africa, from Benguela to the territory of Yacca, for the survey of the river Cuango in its relations to the hydrographic basins of the Congo and the Zambesi.

AFRICA: 1878. Founding in Glasgow of the African Lakes Company, or "The Livingstone Central Africa Company," for trade on Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika; by which company the "Stevenson Road" was subsequently built between the two lakes above named.

AFRICA: 1878. Walfish Bay and fifteen miles around it (on the western coast, in Namaqualand) declared British territory.

AFRICA: 1878. Journey of Paul Soleillet from Saint-Louis to Segou.

AFRICA: 1878-1880. Royal Geographical Society's East Central African expedition, under Joseph Thomson, to the Central African lakes, Tanganyika, Nyassa and Leopold, from Zanzibar.

AFRICA: 1879. Establishment, by the Belgian International Society, of a station at Karema, on the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1879. Formation of the International Congo Association and the engagement of Mr. Stanley in its service.

AFRICA: 1879. Missionary expeditions to the Upper Congo region by the Livingstone Inland Mission and the Baptist Missionary Society.

AFRICA: 1879. Journey of Mr. Stewart, of the Livingstonia Mission, on Lake Nyassa, from that lake to Lake Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1879. Discovery of the sources of the Niger, in the hills about 200 miles east of Freetown, the capital of Sierra Leone, by the French explorers, Zweifel and Moustier.

AFRICA: 1879-1880. Journey of Dr. Oskar Lenz, under the auspices of the German African Society, from Morocco to Timbuctoo, and thence to the Atlantic coast in Senegambia. The fact that the Sahara is generally above the sea-level, and cannot therefore be flooded, was determined by Dr. Lenz.

AFRICA: 1879-1881. Expedition of Dr. Buchner from Loanda to Kawende and the kingdom of the Muata Yanvo, where six months were spent in vain efforts to procure permission to proceed further into the interior.

AFRICA: 1880. Mission established by the American Board of Foreign Missions in "the region of Bihé and the Coanza," or Quanza, south of the Congo.

AFRICA: 1880-1881. War of the British with the Boers of the Transvaal.

AFRICA: 1880-1881. Official mission of the German explorer, Gerhard Rohlfs, accompanied by Dr. Stecker, to Abyssinia.

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AFRICA: 1880-1884. Campaigns of Colonel Borgnis-Desbordes in Upper Senegal, capturing Bamakou and extending French supremacy to the Niger.

AFRICA: 1880-1884. German East African Expedition, under Kaiser, Böhm, and Reichard, to explore, in the Congo Basin, the region between the Lualaba and the Luapula.

AFRICA: 1880-1886. Explorations of Dr. Junker in the country of the Niam-Niam, seeking to determine the course and the outlet of the great river Wellé, and his journey from the Equatorial Province held by Emin Pasha against the Mahdl, through Unyoro and Uganda, to Zanzibar.

AFRICA: 1880-1889. Journey of Captain Casati, as correspondent of the Italian geographical review, "L' Exploratore," from Suakin, on the Red Sea, into the district of the Mombuttu, west of Lake Albert, and the country of the Niam-Niam; in which travels he was arrested by the revolt of the Mahdi and forced to remain with Emin Pasha until rescued with the latter by Stanley, in 1889.

AFRICA: 1881. French Protectorate extended over Tunis.

AFRICA: 1881. Portuguese expedition of Captain Andrada from Senna on the Zambesi River to the old gold mines of Manica.

AFRICA: 1881. Journey of F. L. and W. D. James from Suakin, on the Red Sea, through the Base country, in the Egyptian Sudan.

AFRICA: 1881. Founding of a mission on the Congo, at Stanley Pool, by the Baptist Missionary Society of England.

AFRICA: 1881-1884. Expedition of Dr. Pogge and Lieutenant Wissmann to Nyangwe on the Lualaba, from which point Lieutenant Wissmann pursued the journey to Zanzibar, crossing the continent, while Dr. Pogge, returning, died soon after his arrival at St. Paul de Loanda.

AFRICA: 1881-1885. Revolt of the Mahdl in the Sudan; the mission of General Gordon to Khartoum to effect the evacuation of the country; his beleaguerment there by the Mahdists; the unsuccessful expedition from England to rescue him; the fall of the city and his death.

AFRICA: 1881-1887. French protectorate established over territory on the Upper Niger and Upper Senegal.

AFRICA: 1882. Italian occupation of Abyssinian territory on the Bay of Assab.

AFRICA: 1882. Formation in England of the National African Company for the development of trade in the region of the Niger.

AFRICA: 1882. Missionary visit to the Masal people by Mr. J. T. Last.

AFRICA: 1882-1883. German scientific expedition, under Dr. Böhm and Herr Reichard, to Lakes Tanganyika and Moero.

AFRICA: 1882-1883. Journey of Mr. H. H. Johnston on the Congo.

AFRICA: 1882-1885. Mr. Stutfield's travels through Morocco.

AFRICA: 1883. German acquisition of territory on Angra Pequeña Bay, in Great Namaqualand.

AFRICA: 1883. Exploration of Masailand by Dr. Fischer, under the auspices of the Hamburg Geographical Society.

AFRICA: 1883. Explorations of Lieutenant Giraud in East Central Africa, descending for some distance the Luapula, which flows out of Lake Bangweolo, but driven back by hostile natives.

AFRICA: 1883. Geological and botanical investigation of the basins of Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika, by Mr. Henry Drummond, for the African Lakes Company.

AFRICA: 1883. Journey of Mr. O'Neill to Lake Shirwa and the sources of the Lujenda.

AFRICA: 1883. Journey of Mr. Révoil in the South Somali country to the Upper Jub.

AFRICA: 1883-1884. Explorations of Mr. Joseph Thomson from Mombassa, through Masailand, to the northeast corner of the Victoria Nyanza, under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society.

AFRICA: 1883-1885. War of the French with the Hovas of Madagascar, resulting in the establishment of a French Protectorate over the island.

AFRICA: 1883-1885. Exploration of Lieutenant Giraud in the lake region—Lake Nyassa to Lake Bangweolo, Lake Moero and Lake Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1883-1886. Austrian expedition, under Dr. Holub, from Cape Colony, through the Boer states, Bechuanaland and Matabeleland to the Zambesi, and beyond, to the borders of the Mashukulumbe territory, where the party was attacked, plundered, and driven back.

AFRICA: 1884. Annexation by Germany of the whole western coast (except Walfish Bay) between the Portuguese Possessions and those of the British in South Africa.

AFRICA: 1884. German occupation of territory on the Cameroons River, under treaties with the native chiefs. English treaties securing contiguous territory to and including the delta of the Niger.

AFRICA: 1884. German Protectorate over Togoland on the Gold Coast declared.

AFRICA: 1884. Expedition of Dr. Peters, representing the Society of German Colonization, to the coast region of Zanzibar, and his negotiation of treaties with ten native chiefs, ceding the sovereignty of their dominions.

AFRICA: 1884. Crown colony of British Bechuanaland acquired by convention with the South African Republic.

AFRICA: 1884. Portuguese Government expedition, under Major Carvalho, from Loanda to the Central African potentate called the Muata Yanvo.

AFRICA: 1884. Exploration of the Benué and the whole region of the Adamawa, by Herr Flegel, for the German African Society.

AFRICA: 1884. Scientific expedition of Mr. H. H. Johnston to Kilimanjaro mountain, sent by the British Association for the Advancement of Science and the Royal Society.

AFRICA: 1884. Discovery of the M'bangi or Ubangi River (afterwards identified with the Wellé—see below, 1887), by Captain Hansens and Lieutenant Van Gèle.

AFRICA: 1884. Exploration of Reichard in the southeastern part of the Congo State.

AFRICA: 1884-1885. The Berlin Conference of Powers, held to determine the limits of territory conceded to the International Congo Association; to establish freedom of trade within that territory, and to formulate rules for regulating in future the acquisition of African territory.

AFRICA: 1884-1885. Journey of Mr. Walter M. Kerr from Cape Colony, across the Zambesi, to Lake Nyassa, and down the Shiré River to the coast.

AFRICA: 1884-1885. Travels of Mr. F. L. James and party in the Somali country.

AFRICA: 1884-1887. Exploration by Dr. Schinz of the newly acquired German territories in southwest Africa.

AFRICA: 1885. Transfer of the rights of the Society of German Colonization to the German East Africa Company, and extension of imperial protection to the territories claimed by the Company. German acquisition of Witu, north of Zanzibar.

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AFRICA: 1885. Agreement between Germany and France, defining their respective spheres of influence on the Bight or Biafra, on the slave coast and in Senegambia.

AFRICA: 1885. Transformation of the Congo Association into the Independent State of the Congo, with King Leopold of Belgium as its sovereign.

AFRICA: 1885. British Protectorate extended to the Zambesi, over the country west of the Portuguese province of Sofala, to the 20th degree of east longitude.

AFRICA: 1885. British Protectorate extended over the remainder of Bechuanaland.

AFRICA: 1885. Italian occupation of Massowa, on the Red Sea.

AFRICA: 1885. Mission of Mr. Joseph Thomson, for the National African Company, up the Niger, to Sokoto and Gando, securing treaties with the sultans under which the company acquired paramount rights.

AFRICA: 1885-1888. Mission of M. Borelli to the kingdom of Shoa (Southern Ethiopia) and south of it.

AFRICA: 1885-1889. When, after the fall of Khartoum and the death of General Gordon, in 1885, the Sudan was abandoned to the Mahdi and the fanatical Mohammedans of the interior, Dr. Edward Schnitzer, better known as Emin Pasha, who had been in command, under Gordon, of the province of the Equator, extending up to Lake Albert, was cut off for six years from communication with the civilized world. In 1887 an expedition to rescue him and his command was sent out under Henry M. Stanley. It entered the continent from the west, made its way up the Congo and the Aruwimi to Yambuya; thence through the unexplored region to Lake Albert Nyanza and into communication with Emin Pasha; then returning to Yambuya for the rearguard which had been left there; again traversing the savage land to Lake Albert, and passing from there, with Emin and his companions, by way of Lake Albert Edward Nyanza (then ascertained to be the ultimate reservoir of the Nile system) around the southern extremity of the Victoria Nyanza, to Zanzibar, which was reached at the end of 1889.

AFRICA: 1886. Settlement between Great Britain and Germany of the coast territory to be left under the sovereignty of the Sultan of Zanzibar, and of the "spheres of influence" to be appropriated respectively by themselves, between the lakes and the eastern coast, north of the Portuguese possessions.

AFRICA: 1886. Agreement between France and Portugal defining limits of territory in Senegambia and at the mouth of the Congo.

AFRICA: 1886. Transformation of the National African Company into the British Royal Niger Company, with a charter giving powers of administration over a large domain on the River Niger.

AFRICA: 1886. Mission station founded by Mr. Arnot at Bunkeya, in the southeastern part of the Congo State.

AFRICA: 1886-1887. Journey of Lieutenant Wissmann across the continent, from Luluaburg, a station of the Congo Association, in the dominion of Muata Yanvo, to Nyangwe, on the Lualaba, and thence to Zanzibar.

AFRICA: 1886-1889. Expeditions of Dr. Zintgraff in the Cameroons interior and to the Benue, for the bringing of the country under German influence.

AFRICA: 1887. Annexation of Zululand, partly to the Transvaal, or South African Republic, and the remainder to the British possessions.

AFRICA: 1887. French gunboats launched on the Upper Niger, making a reconnoissance nearly to Timbuctoo.

AFRICA: 1887. Identity of the Wellé River with the M'bangi or Ubangi established by Captain Van Gèle and Lieutenant Liénart.

AFRICA: 1887. First ascent of Kilimanjaro by Dr. Hans Meyer.

AFRICA: 1887-1889. Exploration by Captain Ringer of the region between the great bend of the Niger and the countries of the Gold Coast.

AFRICA: 1887-1890. Expedition of Count Teleki through Masailand, having for its most important result the discovery of the Basso-Narok, or Black Lake, to which the discoverer gave the name of Lake Rudolf, and Lake Stefanie.

AFRICA: 1888. Chartering of the Imperial British East Africa Company, under concessions granted by the sultan of Zanzibar and by native chiefs, with powers of administration over a region defined ultimately as extending from the river Umba northward to the river Jub, and inland to and across Lake Victoria near its middle to the eastern boundary of the Congo Free State.

AFRICA: 1888. British supremacy over Matabeleland secured by treaty with its King Lobengula.

AFRICA: 1888. British Protectorate extended over Amatongaland.

AFRICA: 1888. Ascent of Mt. Kilimanjaro by Mr. Ehlers and Dr. Abbott; also by Dr. Hans Meyer.

AFRICA: 1888. Travels of Joseph Thomson in the Atlas and southern Morocco.

AFRICA: 1889. Royal charter granted to the British South Africa Company, with rights and powers in the region called Zambesia north of British Bechuanaland and the South African Republic, and between the Portuguese territory on the east and the German territory on the west.

AFRICA: 1889. Will of King Leopold, making Belgium heir to the sovereign rights of the Congo Free State.

AFRICA: 1889. Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia acknowledged by the Negus.

AFRICA: 1889. Portuguese Roman Catholic Mission established on the south shore of Lake Nyassa. Portuguese exploration under Serpa Pinto in the Lake Nyassa region, with designs of occupancy frustrated by the British.

AFRICA: 1889. Journey of M. Crampel from the Ogowé to the Likuala tributary of the Congo, and return directly westward to the coast.

AFRICA: 1889. Dr. Wolf's exploration of the southeast Niger basin, where be met his death.

AFRICA: 1889. Major Macdonald's exploration of the Benue, sometimes called the Tchadda (a branch of the Niger), and of its tributary the Kebbi.

AFRICA: 1889. Journey of Mr. H. H. Johnston north of Lake Nyassa and to Lake Leopold.

AFRICA: 1889. Journey of Mr. Sharpe through the country lying between the Shiré and Loangwa Rivers.

AFRICA: 1889. Mr. Pigott's journey to the Upper Tana, in the service of the Imperial British East Africa Company.

AFRICA: 1889-1890. British Protectorate declared over Nyassaland and the Shiré Highlands.

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AFRICA: 1889-1890. Italian Protectorate established over territory on the eastern (oceanic) Somali coast, from the Gulf of Aden to the Jub River.

AFRICA: 1889-1890. Imperial British East Africa Company's expedition, under Jackson and Gedge, for the exploring of a new road to the Victoria Nyanza and Uganda.

AFRICA: 1889-1890. Captain Lugard's exploration of the river Sabakhi for the Imperial British East Africa Company.

AFRICA: 1889-1890. Journey of Lieutenant Morgen from the Cameroons, on the western coast to the Benue.

AFRICA: 1889-1890. French explorations in Madagascar by Dr. Catat and MM. Maistre and Foucart.

AFRICA: 1890. Anglo-German Convention, defining boundaries of the territories and "spheres of influence" respectively claimed by the two powers; Germany withdrawing from Vitu, and from all the eastern mainland coast north of the river Tana, and conceding a British Protectorate over Zanzibar, in exchange for the island of Heligoland in the North Sea.

AFRICA: 1890. French "sphere of influence" extending over the Sahara and the Sudan, from Algeria to Lake Tchad and to Say on the Niger, recognized by Great Britain.

AFRICA: 1890. Exploration of the river Sangha, an important northern tributary of the Congo, by M. Cholet.

AFRICA: 1890. Exploring journey of M. Hodister, agent of the Upper Congo Company, up the Lomami river and across country to the Lualaba, at Nyangwe.

AFRICA: 1890. Journey of Mr. Garrett in the interior of Sierra Leone to the upper waters of the Niger.

AFRICA: 1890. Journey of Dr. Fleck from the western coast across the Kalihari to Lake Ngami.

AFRICA: 1890-1891. Italian possessions in the Red Sea united in the colony of Eritrea.

AFRICA: 1890-1891. Mission of Captain Lugard to Uganda and signature of a treaty by its king acknowledging the supremacy of the British East Africa Company.

AFRICA: 1890-1891. Exploration by M. Paul Crampel of the central region between the French territories on the Congo and Lake Tchad, ending in the murder of M. Crampel and several of his companions.

AFRICA: 1890-1891. Journey of Mr. Sharpe from Mandala, in the Shiré Highlands, to Garenganze, the empire founded by an African adventurer, Mshidi, in the Katanga copper country, between Lake Moero and the Luapula river on the east, and the Lualaba on the west.

AFRICA: 1890-1891. Journey of Lieutenant Mizon from the Niger to the Congo.

AFRICA: 1890-1891. Journey of Captain Becker from Yambuya, on the Aruwimi, north-northwest to the Wellé.

AFRICA: 1890-1892. Italian explorations in the Somali countries by Signor Robecchi, Lieutenant Baudi di Vesme, Prince Ruspoli, and Captains Bottego and Grixoni.

AFRICA: 1890-1893. Expedition of Dr. Stuhlmann, with Emin Pasha, from Bagamoyo, via the Victoria Nyanza and the Albert Edward, to the plateau west of the Albert Nyanza. From this point Dr. Stuhlmann returned, while Emin pursued his way, intending it is said, to reach Kibonge, on the right bank of the Congo, south of Stanley Falls. He was murdered at Kinena, 150 miles northeast of Kibonge, by the order of an Arab chief.

AFRICA: 1891. Extension of the British Protectorate of Lagos over the neighboring districts of Addo, Igbessa, and Ilaro, which form the western boundary of Yoruba.

AFRICA: 1891. Treaty between Great Britain and Portugal defining their possessions; conceding to the former an interior extension of her South African dominion up to the southern boundary of the Congo Free State, and securing to the latter defined territories on the Lower Zambesi, the Lower Shiré, and the Nyassa, as well as the large block of her possessions on the western coast.

AFRICA: 1891. Convention between Portugal and the Congo Free State for the division of the disputed district of Lunda.

AFRICA: 1891. Convention of the Congo Free State with the Katanga Company, an international syndicate, giving the Company preferential rights over reputed mines in Katanga and Urua, with a third of the public domain, provided it established an effective occupation within three years.

AFRICA: 1891. French annexation of the Gold Coast between Liberia and the Grand Bassam.

AFRICA: 1891. Opening of the Royal Trans-African Railway, in West Africa, from Loanda to Ambaca, 140 miles.

AFRICA: 1891. Survey of a railway route from the eastern coast to Victoria Lake by the Imperial British East Africa Company.

AFRICA: 1891. Exploration of the Jub River, in the Somali country, by Commander Dundas.

AFRICA: 1891. Exploration by Captain Dundas, from the eastern coast, up the river Tana to Mount Kenia.

AFRICA: 1891. Mr. Bent's exploration of the ruined cities of Mashonaland.

AFRICA: 1891. Journey of M. Maistre from the Congo to the Shari.

AFRICA: 1891. Journeys of Captain Gallwey in the Benin country, West Africa.

AFRICA: 1891. Mission established by the Berlin Missionary Society in the Konde country, at the northern end of Lake Nyassa.

AFRICA: 1891-1892. Incorporation of the African Lakes Company with the British South Africa Company. Organization of the administration of Northern Zambesia and Nyassaland.

AFRICA: 1891-1892. Expedition of the Katanga Company, under Captain Stairs, from Bagamoyo to Lake Tanganyika, thence through the country at the head of the most southern affluents of the Congo, the Lualaba and the Luapula.

AFRICA: 1891-1892. Belgian expeditions under Captain Bia and others to explore the southeastern portion of the Congo Basin, on behalf of the Katanga Company, resulting in the determination of the fact that the Lukuga River is an outlet of Lake Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1891-1892. Journey of Dr. James Johnston across the continent, from Benguela to the mouth of the Zambesi, through Bihe, Ganguela, Barotse, the Kalihari Desert, Mashonaland, Manica, Gorongoza, Nyassa, and the Shiré Highlands.

AFRICA: 1891-1892. Expedition of Mr. Joseph Thomson, for the British South Africa Company, from Kilimane or Quillimane on the eastern coast to Lake Bangweolo.

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AFRICA: 1891-1892. Journey of Captain Monteil from the Niger to Lake Tchad and across the Sahara to Tripoli.

AFRICA: 1891-1892. Exploration by Lieutenant Chaltin of the river Lulu, and the country between the Aruwimi and the Welle Makua rivers, in the Congo State.

AFRICA: 1891-1893. Journey of Dr. Oscar Baumann from Tanga, a port on the eastern coast, in the northern part of the German Protectorate; passing to the south of Kilimanjaro, discovering two lakes between that mountain and the Victoria Nyanza; exploring the southeastern shores of the Victoria, traversing the Shashi countries lying east of the lake, and the Urundi country between the Victoria and Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1891-1894. Expedition under the command of Captain Van Kerckhoven and M. de la Kéthulle de Ryhove, fitted out by the Congo Free State, for the subjugation of the Arabs, the suppression of the slave trade and the exploration of the country, throughout the region of the Wellé or Ubangi Uellé and to the Nile.

AFRICA: 1892. Decision of the Imperial British East Africa Company to withdraw from Uganda.

AFRICA: 1892. Practical conquest of Dahomey by the French, General Dodds taking possession of the capital November 16.

AFRICA: 1892. Journey of M. Méry in the Sahara to the south of Wargla, resulting in a report favorable to the construction of a railway to tap the Central Sudan.

AFRICA: 1892. French expedition under Captain Binger to explore the southern Sudan and to act conjointly with British officials in determining the boundary between French and English possessions.

AFRICA: 1892. Journey of Mr. Sharpe from the Shiré River to Lake Moero or Mweru and the Upper Luapula.

AFRICA: 1892-1893. Construction of a line of telegraph by the British South African Company, from Cape Colony, through Mashonaland, to Fort Salisbury, with projected extension across the Zambesi and by the side of Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika to Uganda,—and ultimately down the valley of the Nile.

AFRICA: 1892-1893. French scientific mission, under M. Dècle, from Cape Town to the sources of the Nile.

AFRICA: 1892-1893. Italian explorations, under Captain Bòttego and Prince Ruspoli, in the upper basin of the River Jub.

AFRICA: 1893. Brussels Antislavery Conference, ratified in its action by the Powers.

AFRICA: 1893. Official mission of Sir Gerald Porter to Uganda, sent by the British Government to report as to the expediency of the withdrawal of British authority from that country.

AFRICA: 1893. Scientific expedition of Mr. Scott-Elliot to Uganda.

AFRICA: 1893. Scientific expedition of Dr. Gregory, of the British Museum, from Mombassa, on the eastern coast, through Masailand to Mount Kenia.

AFRICA: 1893. Journey of Mr. Bent to Aksum, in Abyssinia, the ancient capital and sacred city of the Ethiopians.

AFRICA: 1893. Journey of M. Foureau in the Sahara, crossing the plateau of Tademait from north to south.

AFRICA: 1893-1894. German scientific survey of Mount Kilimanjaro, under Drs. Lent and Volkens.

AFRICA: 1893-1894. Expedition of Mr. Astor Chanler and Lieutenant von Höhnel from Witu, on the eastern coast, to the Jombini Range and among the Rendile.

AFRICA: 1893-1894. Explorations of Baron von Uechtritz and Dr. Passarge on the Benue.

AFRICA: 1893-1894. Journey of Baron von Schele from the eastern coast to Lake Nyassa, and thence by a direct route to Kihsa.

AFRICA: 1893-1894. Journey of Count von Götzen across the continent, from Dar-es-Salaam, on the eastern coast, to the Lower Congo.

AFRICA: 1894. Treaty between Great Britain and the Congo Free State, securing to the former a strip of land on the west side of the Nile between the Albert Nyanza and 10° north latitude, and to the latter the large Bahr-el-Ghazel region, westward. This convention gave offense to France, and that country immediately exacted from the Congo Free State a treaty stipulating that the latter shall not occupy or exercise political influence in a region which covers most of the territory assigned to it by the treaty with Great Britain.

AFRICA: 1894. Franco-German Treaty, determining the boundary line of the Cameroons, or Kamerun.

AFRICA: 1894. Treaty concluded by Captain Lugard, November 10, at Nikki, in Borgu, confirming the rights claimed by the Royal Niger Company over Borgu, and placing that country under British protection.

AFRICA: 1894. Agreement between the British South Africa Company and the Government of Great Britain, signed November 24, 1894, transferring to the direct administration of the Company the Protectorate of Nyassaland, thereby extending its domain to the south end of Lake Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1894. Renewed war of France with the Hovas of Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1894. Expedition of Dr. Donaldson Smith from the Somali coast, aiming to reach Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie, but stopped and turned back by the Abyssinians, in December.

AFRICA: 1894. Visit of Mr. Cecil Rhodes to England to arrange financially for the extension of the Cape railway system northwards from Mafeking into Matabeleland.

AFRICA: 1894. Completed conquest of Dahomey by the French; capture of the deposed king, January 25, and his deportation to exile in Martinique. Decree of the French Government, June 22, directing the administrative organization of the "colony of Dahomey and Dependencies"; with a ministerial order of the same date which divides the new conquest into "Territoirés annexés; Territoirés protégés; Territoirés d'action politique."

AFRICA: 1894. Occupation of Timbuctoo by a French force.

AFRICA: 1894. Journey of Count von Götzen across the continent, from the eastern coast, through Ruanda and the Great Forest to and along the Lowa, an eastern tributary of the Congo, reaching the Lower Congo in December.

AFRICA: 1894. Exploration of the Upper Congo and the Lukuga by Mr. R. Dorsey Mohun, American Agent on the Congo, and Dr. Hinde.

AFRICA: 1894. Scientific to the Zambesi and Lake Tanganyika.

AFRICA: 1894-1895. War of the Italians in their colony of Eritrea with both the Abyssinians and the Mahdists. Italian occupation of Kassala as a base of operations against the Mahdists.

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AFRICA: 1895. Franco-British agreement, signed January 21, 1895, respecting the "Hinterland" of Sierra Leone, which secures to France the Upper Niger basin.

AFRICA: 1895. Convention between Belgium and France signed February 5, recognizing a right of pre-emption on the part of the latter, with regard to the Congo State, in case Belgium should at any time renounce the sovereignty which King Leopold desires to transfer to it.

AFRICA: 1895. Russian scientific expedition to Abyssinia, under Lieutenant Leontieff.

—————AFRICA: End————

AKKADIANS, ACCADIANS.

See SEMITES: PRIMITIVE BABYLONIA (page 2888).

ALEXANDRIA: Early Christian Church.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100, and 100-312 (pages 43 and 445).

ALEXANDRIA: Library.

See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2003).

AMANA COMMUNITY, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1843-1874 (page 2945).

—————AMERICA: Start————

AMERICA: The discoverers of the Northern Continent. Mr. Harrisse's conclusions.

"The main points attained in this elaborate survey of all the facts and documents known can be recapitulated as follows,—perhaps with less assurance than a desire to be succinct may undesignedly impart to our expressions:

1. The discovery of the continent of North America, and the first landing on its east coast were accomplished not by Sebastian Cabot, but by his father John, in 1497, under the auspices of King Henry VII.

2. The first landfall was not Cape Breton Island, as is stated in the planisphere made by Sebastian Cabot in 1544, but eight or ten degrees further north, on the coast of Labrador; which was then ranged by John Cabot, probably as far as Cape Chudley.

3. This fact was tacitly acknowledged by all pilots and cosmographers throughout the first half of the 16th century; and the knowledge of it originated with Sebastian Cabot himself, whatever may have been afterwards his contrary statements in that respect.

4. The voyage of 1498, also accomplished under the British flag, was likewise carried out by John Cabot personally. The landfall on that occasion must be placed south of the first; and the exploration embraced the northeast coast of the present United States, as far as Florida.

5. In the vicinity of the Floridian east coast, John Cabot, or one of his lieutenants, was detected by some Spanish vessel, in 1498 or 1499.

6. The English continued in 1501, 1502, 1504, and afterwards, to send ships to Newfound·land, chiefly for the purpose of fisheries. …

7. The Portuguese mariners who lived in the Azores were the first who probed the Atlantic in search of oceanic islands and continents. Their objective, after the discovery achieved by Christopher Columbus, was the north-east coast of the New World.

8. The earliest authentic records of Lusitanian transatlantic expeditions begin only with Gaspar Corte-Real, who made three, and not two voyages only; all to the same regions, as follows: The first voyage of that navigator was undertaken previous to May, 1500, in the direction of Greenland and Newfoundland, and proved an absolute failure. The second voyage lasted from the early part of the summer of 1500 until the autumn of that year, and embraced the east coast of Newfoundland, from its northernmost point down to Cape Race. The third expedition set out from Lisbon early In the spring of 1501. It was composed of three vessels. One of these returned to port On the 8th or 9th of October, the second on the 11th following. As to the third, which was under the Immediate command of Gaspar Corte-Real, it was ice-bound or shipwrecked, we do not know when nor where, but probably in Hudson Bay, during the winter of 1501-1502. The country visited during the first part of the expedition seems to have been the northern extremity of Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador.

9. The expedition of Miguel Corte-Real in search of his brother, sailed May 10, 1502, and was also lost. …

10. Portugal continued to send ships to the fishing banks; and the region south of Newfoundland was explored, particularly by João Alvares Fagundes before 1521. …

11. The assertion that already in the time of Christopher Columbus navigators and geographers believed in the existence of a continent interposed between the West Indies and Asia, and which was not Cathay, stands uncontroverted either by contemporary authorities, or by the early Spanish charts. Nay, it is corroborated by that class of proofs.

12. The absolute insularity of Cuba was an acknowledged fact years before the periplus made by Sebastian de Ocampo, in 1508.

13. The mainland of the New World was believed to be a continent distinct from Cathay and from India the moment navigators commenced to search after a strait leading from the Atlantic Ocean to the Asiatic seas.

14. The idea that America was a mere prolongation of Asia ceased therefore to be entertained almost immediately after the discovery of its east coast; by John Cabot in 1497; by Americus Vespuccius, before 1501; by Gaspar Corte-Real, before 1502.

15. Christopher Columbus himself soon ceased to think that he had discovered Cathay, or the Asiatic coast.

16. So early as October, 1501, the notion prevailed in Europe that from Circulus articus to Pollus Antarticus, the newly discovered land formed a single coast line belonging to a separate continent."

H. Harrisse, Discovery of North America, part 1, book 8, chapter 5.

AMERICA: The alleged first voyage of Vespucius.

In the first volume of this work (page 52) the argument in support of the disputed claim for Amerigo Vespucci, or Vespucius, that he made a voyage in 1497-8 during which he coasted the American continent from Honduras to Cape Hatteras, is given in an excerpt from Dr. Fiske's "Discovery of America." The following, from a paper by Mr. Clements R. Markham, read before the Royal Geographical Society in June, 1892, presents, in part, the counter argument: "Vespucci's account of his alleged first voyage is briefly as follows. He says that he went to Spain to engage in mercantile pursuits, but that after some years he resolved to see the world and its marvels. King Ferdinand having ordered four ships to go forth and make discoveries to the westward, Vespucci was chosen by His Highness to go in the fleet, to assist in the work of discovery. They sailed from Cadiz on May 10th, 1497, and reached Grand Canary, which, he says, is in 27° 30' North, and 280 leagues from Lisbon. {3679} There they remained eight days, and then sailed for thirty-seven (twenty-seven, Latin version) days on a W. S. W. course ('Ponente pigliando una quarta di libeccio'), reaching land when they were nearly 1,000 leagues from Grand Canary. For they found, by their instruments, that they were in 16° North latitude and 75° West longitude. Vespucci then gives a long account of the natives. After some days they came to a village built over the water, like Venice, about forty-four houses resting on very thick poles. Sailing along the land for 80 leagues, they came to another people, speaking a different language, where Vespucci saw an iguana being roasted, which he describes. He made an excursion inland for 18 leagues, and found the country very populous. This place was on the Tropic of Cancer, where the latitude is 23° North. The province is called 'Parias' (Latin version), 'Lariab' (Italian version). Thence they sailed, always in sight of the land, on a Northwest course ('verso el maestrale') for 870 leagues, having intercourse with many tribes, and finding some gold. When they had been absent thirteen months the ships begun to leak, and required caulking, so they entered the best harbour in the world, where there were many friendly people. Here they refitted, and remained for thirty-seven days. They then sailed eastward for seven days, and carne to some islands 100 leagues off the mainland, inhabited by fierce people called 'Iti.' They had encounters with the natives, when one of their men was killed and twenty-two were wounded. They then sailed for Spain with 222 slaves, arriving at Cadiz on October 15th, 1498, where they sold their slaves, and were well received. This is the story of Vespucci. It has been considered to be a fabrication from that time to this, for the following reasons. Vespucci was at Seville or San Lucar, as a provision merchant, from the middle of April, 1497, to the end of May, 1498, as is shown by the official records, examined by Muñoz, of expenses incurred in fitting out the ships for western expeditions. Moreover, no expedition for discovery was despatched by order of King Ferdinand in 1497; and there is no allusion to any such expedition in any contemporary record. The internal evidence against the truth of the story is even stronger. Vespucci says that he sailed West South West for nearly 1,000 leagues from Grand Canary. This would have taken him to the Gulf of Paria, which is rather more than 900 leagues West South West from Grand Canary. It would never have taken him near the land at 16° North. Even with a course direct for that point, instead of a West North West course, and disregarding intervening land, the distance he gives would leave him 930 miles short of the alleged position. No actual navigator would have made such a blunder. He evidently quoted the dead reckoning from Ojeda's voyage, and invented the latitude at random. It is useless for the defenders of Vespucci to refer to the faulty reckonings of those days, and to pilots thinking they were near the Canaries when they were off the Azores. This is a different matter. It is the case of a man alleging that he has fixed his position by observations, and giving a dead reckoning nearly a thousand miles out, in the belief that it would bring him to the same point. It is fudging, but the fudging of a man ignorant of a pilot's business. His statement that he went Northwest for 870 leagues (2,610 miles) from a position in latitude 23° North, is still more preposterous. Such a course and distance would have taken him right across the continent to somewhere in British Columbia. The chief incidents in the voyage are those of the Ojeda voyage in 1499. There is the village built on piles called Little Venice. There is the best harbour in the world, which was the Gulf of Cariaco, where Ojeda refitted. There was the encounter with natives, in which one Spaniard was killed and 22 were wounded. These numbers are convincing evidence. … Vespucci does not mention the commanders of the expedition, nor any Spanish name whatever, and only gives two names of places, namely, 'Parias' or 'Lariab,' and 'Iti,' both imaginary. Humboldt was aware of the proofs that Vespucci could not have been absent from Spain in 1497-98, and that the incidents of his alleged first voyage belonged to that of Ojeda; but he was reluctant to believe in actual fraud. He therefore suggested that there were misprints with regard to the dates; that the first voyage of Vespucci was that of Ojeda; and that the Florentine merchant returned home from Española in time to join the voyage of Pinzon in 1500, which was the second voyage. But no one was allowed to land from Ojeda's ships at Española, and the dates are too detailed, and occur too clearly in both versions, to admit of the wholesale alterations demanded by this theory. The Baron Varnhagen, in his defences of Vespucci, published in 1865 at Lima, and in 1869 at Vienna, takes a bolder course. He adopts the whole of the statements of Vespucci as perfectly true, including the dates; but his defence does not amount to much. He was evidently unaware of the extent of the error in Vespucci's reckoning, and did not realise the inevitable inference. He got over the Little Venice difficulty by suggesting that there were many other villages built on piles, and that there might have been one on the coast of Tabasco. That is true. There was also the old Quebec hotel in Portsmouth Harbour; but this is not the point, and he failed to see where the difficulty lies. The Little Venice was a discovery in Ojeda's voyage when Vespucci was present. Its recurrence here, and its omission in the version of Ojeda's voyage by Vespucci, are the suspicious points which Varnhagen fails to explain away. Of the words 'Parias' and 'Lariab' in the two versions, Varnhagen prefers the latter. It is quite impossible to tell which form, or whether either, was in the original manuscript. Although there is no such place as 'Lariab,' yet a Mexican author, named Orozco, said that some of the names of places near Tampico, where the Huasteca language is spoken, ended in 'ab.' This is a point, so far as it goes—which is not very far. Even the voyage of 870 leagues Northwest from latitude 23°, does not daunt the Baron. He ignores Vespucci's course, and takes him a marvellous voyage round the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the peninsula of Florida, to Cape Hatteras, where he certainly does not find the best harbour in the world. Thence Vespucci is taken to Bermuda, identified as 'Iti,' and so home. It is well known that Bermuda was uninhabited before its settlement by Europeans, and that there were no signs of previous inhabitants; while the 'Iti' of Vespucci was densely peopled with fierce savages. But this is ignored by Varnhagen. {3680} It would certainly have been a most extraordinary voyage, and it is still more extraordinary, that though the secret must have been known to many people at the time, it should have been inviolably kept without any object in such secrecy, and that the discoveries should have appeared on no map and in no narrative. Yet Vespucci's story, though a bold flight, bears no comparison with the grandeur of Varnhagen's conception of it."

C. R. Markham, Fourth Centenary of his Discovery, note 2 (Royal Geographical Society, Proceedings, 1892, September).

AMERICA: Monetary effects of the discovery of America.

See MONEY AND BANKING: 16-17TH CENTURIES (page 2208).

—————AMERICA: End————

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Iroquois Confederacy. Hiawatha the founder.

See IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY (page 1802).

AMERICAN COLONIAL TRADE.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MODERN.

AMERICAN LIBRARIES.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2017, and after).

AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2021).

AMHERST COLLEGE, The founding of.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 733).

AMPERE'S ELECTRO-MAGNETIC DISCOVERIES.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: A. D. 1820-1825 (page 772).

[Transcriber's note: For a detailed look at electrical theory of 1892.]

AMSTERDAM, The founding of the Bank of.

See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2208).

ANÆSTHETICS, The discovery of.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 19TH CENTURY (page 2143).

ANARCHISM AND NIHILISM.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1839-1894; and 1860-1870 (pages 2941 and 2948).

ANDORRA.

"The pastoral and picturesque valley of Andorra, a jumble of hills, enclosed on all sides by the Pyrenean spurs, extends about 7 L. long by 6 broad, and is bounded by the French and Spanish ridges, by Puigcerdá to the South and East, by the Comté de Foix (départ. de l'Ariège) to the North, and by the Corregimiento of Talaru to the West. Watered by the Balira [or Valira], Ordino, and Os, it is one of the wildest districts of the Spanish Pyrenees, abounding in timber, which is floated down the Balira and Segre to Tortosa. The name Andorra is derived from the Arabic Aldarra, 'a place thick with trees,' among which is found the Cabra Montaraz, with bears, boars, and wolves."

R. Ford, Handbook for Travellers in Spain, part 1, section 6.

"The republic of Andorra is said to owe its existence to a defeat of the Saracens by Charlemagne or Louis le Débonnaire, but in reality up to the French Revolution the valley enjoyed no sovereign rights whatever. It was a barony of the Counts of Urgel and of Aragon. In 1278 it was decided that Andorra should be held jointly by the Bishops of Urgel and the Counts of Foix. In 1793 the French republic declined to receive the customary tribute, and in 1810 the Spanish Cortes abolished the feudal regime. Andorra thus became an independent state. The inhabitants, however, continue to govern themselves in accordance with old feudal customs, which are not at all reconcilable with the principles of modern republics. The land belongs to a few families. There is a law of entail, and younger brothers become the servants of the head of the family, whose hospitality they enjoy only on condition of their working for him. The tithes were only abolished in 1842. The 'liberty' of these mountaineers consists merely in exemption from the Spanish conscription and impunity in smuggling; and, to increase their revenues, they have recently established a gambling-table. Their legitimate business consists in cattle-breeding, and there are a few forges and a woollen factory. The republic of Andorra recognises two suzerains, viz. the Bishop of Urgel, who receives an annual tribute of £25, and the French Government, to whom double that sum is paid. Spain and France are represented by two provosts, the commandant of Séo de Urgel exercising the functions of viceroy. The provosts command the militia and appoint the bailiffs, or judges. They, together with a judge of appeal, alternately appointed by France and Spain, and two 'rahonadores,' or defenders of Andorran privileges, form the Cortes. Each parish is governed by a consul, a vice-consul, and twelve councillors elected by the heads of families. A General Council, of which the consuls and delegates of the parishes are members, meets at the village of Andorra. But in spite of these fictions Andorra is an integral part of Spain, and the carabineers never hesitate to cross the frontiers of this sham republic. By language, manners, and customs the Andorrans are Catalans. Exemption from war has enabled them to grow comparatively rich."

E. Reclus, The Earth and its Inhabitants: Europe, Spain, section 6.

ANN ARBOR, University at.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 732).

ANNAM.

See TONKIN (page 3114).

ANSELM: Dispute with William Rufus.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1087-1135 (page 796).

ANTIOCH, The early Christian Church in.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 435).

ANTIOCH COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION (page 744).

ANTI-SEMITE MOVEMENT, The.

See JEWS: 19TH CENTURY (page 1931).

APOSTLES, Missionary labors of the.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 433).

ARABS: Ancient and Mediæval Commerce.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE.

ARABS: Medical Science.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 7-11TH CENTURIES (page 2129).

—————ARCTIC EXPLORATION: Start————

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: A Chronological Record.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1500-1502. Discovery and exploration of the coast of Labrador and the entrance of Hudson Strait by the Cortereals.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1553. Voyage of Willoughby and Chancellor from London, in search of a northeast passage to India. Chancellor reached Archangel on the White Sea, and opened trade with Russia, while Willoughby perished with all his crew.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1556. Exploring voyage of Stephen Burroughs to the northeast, approaching Nova Zembla.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1576-1578. Voyages of Frobisher to the coast of Labrador and the entrance to Davis Strait, discovering the bay which bears his name, and which he supposed to be a strait leading to Cathay; afterwards entering Hudson Strait.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1580. Northeastern voyage of Pet and Jackman, passing Nova Zembla.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1585-1587. Three voyages of John Davis from Dartmouth, in search of a northwestern passage to India, entering the strait between Greenland and Baffinland which bears his name and exploring it to the 72nd degree north latitude.

{3681}

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1594-1595. Dutch expeditions (the first and second under Barentz) to the northeast, passing to the north of Nova Zembla, or Novaya Zem]ya, but making no progress beyond it.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1596-1597. Third voyage of Barentz, when he discovered and coasted Spitzbergen, wintered in Nova Zembla with his crew, lost his ship in the ice, and perished, with one third of his men, in undertaking to reach the coast of Lapland in open boats.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1602. Exploration for a northwest passage by Captain George Weymouth, for the Muscovy Company and the Levant Company, resulting in nothing but a visitation of the entrance to Hudson Strait.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1607. Polar voyage of Henry Hudson, for the Muscovy Company of London, attaining the northern coast of Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1608. Voyage of Henry Hudson to Nova Zembla for the Muscovy Company.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1610. Voyage of Henry Hudson, in English employ, to seek the northwest passage, being the voyage in which he passed through the Strait and entered the great Bay to which his name has been given, and in which he perished at the hands of a mutinous crew.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1612-1614. Exploration of Hudson Bay by Captains Button, Bylot, and Baffin, practically discovering its true character and shaking the previous theory of its connection with the Pacific Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1614. Exploring expedition of the Muscovy Company to the Greenland coast, under Robert Fotherby, with William Baffin for pilot, making its way to latitude 80°.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1616. Voyage into the northwest made by Captain Baffin with Captain Bylot, which resulted in the discovery of Baffin Bay, Smith Sound, Jones Sound, and Lancaster Sound.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1619-1620. Voyage of Jens Munk, sent by the King of Denmark to seck the northwest passage; wintering in Hudson Bay, and losing there all but two of his crew, with whom he succeeded in making the voyage home.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1632. Voyages of Captains Fox and James into Hudson Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1670. Grant and charter to the Hudson Bay Company, by King Charles II. of England, conferring on the Company possession and government of the whole watershed of the Bay, and naming the country Prince Rupert Land.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1616. Voyage of Captain John Wood to Nova Zembla, seeking the northeastern passage.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1728. Exploration of the northern coasts of Kamtschatka by the Russian Captain Vitus Behring, and discovery of the Strait which bears his name.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1741. Exploration of northern channels of Hudson Bay by Captain Middleton.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1743. Offer of £20,000 by the British Parliament for the discovery of a northwest passage to the Pacific.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1746. Further exploration of northern channels of Hudson Bay by Captains Moor and Smith.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1753-1754. Attempted exploration of Hudson Bay by the colonial Captain Swaine, sent out from Philadelphia, chiefly through the exertions of Dr. Franklin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1765. Russian expedition of Captain Tchitschakoff, attempting to reach the Pacific from Archangel.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1768-1769. Exploration of Nova Zembla by a Russian officer, Lieutenant Rosmyssloff.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1769-1770. Exploring journey of Samuel Hearne, for the Hudson Bay Company, from Churchill, its most northern post, to Coppermine River and down the river to the Polar Sea.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1773. Voyage of Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, toward the North Pole, reaching the northeastern extremity of Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1779. Exploration of the Arctic coast, east and west of Behring Strait, by Captain Cook, in his last voyage.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1789. Exploring journey of Alexander Mackenzie, for the Northwest Company, and discovery of the great river flowing into the Polar Sea, which bears his name.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1806. Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby to latitude 81° 30' and longitude 19° east.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1818. Unsatisfactory voyage of Commander John Ross to Baffin Bay and into Lancaster Sound.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1818. Voyage of Captain Buchan towards the North Pole, reaching the northern part of Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1820. First voyage of Lieutenant Parry, exploring for a northwest passage, through Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, Lancaster Sound, and Barrow Strait, to Melville Island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1822. Journey of Captain (afterwards Sir John) Franklin, Dr. Richardson, and Captain (afterwards Sir George) Back, from Fort York, on the western coast of Hudson Bay, by the way of Lake Athabasca, Great Slave Lake, and Coppermine River, to Coronation Gulf, opening into the Arctic Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1824. Russian expeditions for the survey of Nova Zembla.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1820-1824. Russian surveys of the Siberian Polar region by Wrangel and Anjou.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1821-1823. Second voyage of Captain Parry, exploring for a northwest passage to the Pacific Ocean, through Hudson Strait and Fox Channel, discovering the Fury-and-Hecla Strait, the northern outlet of the Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1821-1824. Russian surveying expedition to Nova Zembla, under Lieutenant Lutke.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1822. Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby to the eastern coast of Greenland, which was considerably traced and mapped by him.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1822-1823. Scientific expedition of Captain Sabine, with Commander Clavering, to Spitzbergen and the eastern coast of Greenland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1824-1825. Third voyage of Captain Parry, exploring for a northwest passage, by way of Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, and Lancaster Sound, to Prince Regent Inlet, where one of his ships was wrecked.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1825-1827. Second journey of Franklin, Richardson, and Back, from Canada to the Arctic Ocean; Franklin and Back by the Mackenzie River and westward along the coast to longitude 149° 37'; Richardson by the Mackenzie River and the Arctic coast eastward to Coppermine River.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1826. Voyage of Captain Beechey through Behring Strait and eastward along the Arctic coast as far as Point Barrow.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1827. Fourth voyage of Captain Parry, attempting to reach the North Pole, by ship to Spitzbergen and by boats to 82° 45' north latitude.

{3682}

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1829-1833. Expedition under Captain Ross, fitted out by Mr. Felix Booth, to seek a northwest passage, resulting in the discovery of the position of the north magnetic pole, southwest of Boothia, not far from which Ross' ship was ice-bound for three years. Abandoning the vessel at last, the explorers made their way to Baffin Bay and were rescued by a whale-ship.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1833-1835. Journey of Captain Back from Canada, via Great Slave Lake, to the river which he discovered and which bears his name, flowing to the Polar Sea.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1836-1837. Voyage of Captain Back for surveying the straits and channels in the northern extremity of Hudson Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1837-1839. Expeditions of Dease and Simpson, in the service of the Hudson Bay Company, determining the Arctic coast line as far east as Boothia.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1845. Departure from England of the government expedition under Sir John Franklin, in two bomb-vessels, the Erebus and the Terror, which entered Baffin Bay in July and were never seen afterward.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848. Expedition of Sir John Richardson and Mr. John Rae down the Mackenzie River, searching for traces of Sir John Franklin and his crews.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848-1849. Expedition under Sir James Clarke Ross to Baffin Bay and westward as far as Leopold Island, searching for Sir John Franklin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848-1851. Searching expedition of the Herald and the Plover, under Captain Kellett and Commander Moore, through Behring Strait and westward to Coppermine River, learning nothing of the fate of the Franklin party.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850. Searching expedition sent out by Lady Franklin, under Captain Forsyth, for the examination of Prince Regent Inlet.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851. United States Grinnell Expedition, sent to assist the search for Sir John Franklin and his crew, consisting of two ships, the Advance and the Rescue, furnished by Mr. Henry Grinnell and officered and manned by the U. S. Government, Lieutenant De Haven commanding and Dr. Kane surgeon. Frozen into the ice in Wellington Channel, in September, 1850, the vessels drifted helplessly northward until Grinnell Land was seen and named, then southward and westward until the next June, when they escaped in Baffin Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851. Franklin search expedition, sent out by the British Government, under Captain Penny, who explored Wellington Channel and Cornwallis Island by sledge journeys.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851. Discovery of traces of Franklin and his men at Cape Riley and Beechey Island, by Captain Ommaney and Captain Austin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1852. Franklin search expedition under Captain Collinson, through Behring Strait and eastward into Prince of Wales Strait, sending sledge parties to Melville Island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1854. Franklin search expedition under Captain McClure, through Behring Strait and westward, between Banks Land and Prince Albert Land, attaining a point within 25 miles of Melville Sound, already reached from the East; thus demonstrating the existence of a northwest passage, though not accomplishing the navigation of it. McClure received knighthood, and a reward of £10,000 was distributed to the officers and crew of the expedition.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1851. Expedition of Dr. Rae, sent by the British Government to descend the Coppermine River and search the southern coast of Wollaston Land, which he did, exploring farther along the coast of the continent eastward to a point opposite King William's Land.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1851-1852. Franklin search expedition sent out by Lady Franklin under Captain Kennedy, for a further examination of Prince Regent Inlet and the surrounding region.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1852-1854. Franklin search expedition of five ships sent out by the British Government under Sir Edward Belcher, with Captains McClintock, Kellett, and Sherard Osborn under his command. Belcher and Osborn, going up Wellington Channel to Northumberland Sound, were frozen fast; McClintock and Kellett experienced the same misfortune near Melville Island, where they had received Captain McClure and his crew, escaping from their abandoned ship. Finally all the ships of Belcher's fleet except one were abandoned. One, the Resolute, drifted out into Davis Strait in 1855, was rescued, bought by the United States Government and presented to Queen Victoria.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1853-1854. Hudson Bay Company expedition by Dr. Rae, to Repulse Bay and Pelly Bay, on the Gulf of Boothia, where Dr. Rae found Eskimos in possession of articles which had belonged to Sir John Franklin, and his men, and was told that in the winter of 1850 they saw white men near King William's Land, traveling southward, dragging sledges and a boat, and, afterwards saw dead bodies and graves on the mainland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1853-1855. Grinnell expedition, under Dr. Kane, proceeding straight northward through Baffin Bay, Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel, nearly to the 79th degree of latitude, where the vessel was locked in ice and remained fast until abandoned in the spring of 1855, the party escaping to Greenland and being rescued by an expedition under Lieutenant Hartstein which the American Government had sent to their relief.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1855. Cruise of the U. S. ship Vincennes, Lieutenant John Rodgers commanding, in the Arctic Sea, via Behring Strait to Wrangel Land.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1855. Expedition of Mr. Anderson, of the Hudson Bay Company, down the Great Fish River to Point Ogle at its mouth, seeking traces of the party of Sir John Franklin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1857-1859. Search expedition sent out by Lady Franklin, under Captain McClintock, which became ice-bound in Melville Bay, August, 1857, and drifted helplessly for eight months, over 1,200 miles; escaped from the ice in April, 1858; refitted in Greenland and returned into Prince Regent Inlet, whence Captain McClintock searched the neighboring regions by sledge journeys, discovering, at last, In King William's Land, not only remains but records of the lost explorers, learning that they were caught in the ice somewhere in or about Peel Sound, September, 1846; that Sir John Franklin died on the 11th of the following June; that the ships were deserted on the 22d of April, 1848, on the northwest coast of King William's Land, and that the survivors, 105 in number, set out for Back or Great Fish River. They perished probably one by one on the way.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1860-1861. Expedition of Dr. Hayes to Smith Sound; wintering on the Greenland side at latitude 78° 17'; crossing the Sound with sledges and tracing Grinnell Land to about 82° 45'.

{3683}

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1860-1862. Expedition of Captain Hall on the whaling ship George Henry, and discovery of relics of Frobisher.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1864-1869. Residence of Captain Hall among the Eskimos on the north side of Hudson Strait and search for further relics of the Franklin expedition.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1867. Tracing of the southern coast of Wrangel Land by Captains Long and Raynor, of the whaling ships Nile and Reindeer.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1867. Transfer of the territory, privileges and rights of the Hudson Bay Company to the Dominion of Canada.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1868. Swedish Polar expedition, directed by Professor Nordenskiöld, attaining latitude 81° 42', on the 18th meridian of east longitude.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1869. Yacht voyage of Dr. Hayes to the Greenland coasts.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1869-1870. German Polar expedition, under Captain Koldewey, one vessel of which was crushed, the crew escaping to an ice floe and drifting 1,100 miles, reaching finally a Danish settlement on the Greenland coast, while the other explored the east coast of Greenland to latitude 77°.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1871-1872. Voyage of the steamer Polaris, fitted out by the U. S. Government, under Captain Hall; passing from Baffin Bay, through Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel, into what Kane and Hayes had supposed to be open sea, but which proved to be the widening of a strait, called Robeson Strait by Captain Hall, thus going beyond the most northerly point that had previously been reached in Arctic exploration. Wintering in latitude 81° 38' (where Captain Hall died), the Polaris was turned homeward the following August. During a storm, when the ship was threatened with destruction by the ice, seventeen of her crew and party were left helplessly on a floe, which drifted with them for 1,500 miles, until they were rescued by a passing vessel. Those on the Polaris fared little better. Forced to run their sinking ship ashore, they wintered in huts and made their way south in the spring, until they met whale-ships which took them on board.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1872-1874. Austro-Hungarian expedition, under Captain Weyprecht and Lieutenant Payer, seeking the northeast passage, with the result of discovering and naming Franz Josef Land, Crown Prince Rudolf Land and Petermann Land, the latter (seen, not visited) estimated to be beyond latitude 83°. The explorers were obliged to abandon their ice-locked steamer, and make their way by sledges and boats to Nova Zembla, where they were picked up.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1875. Voyage of Captain Young, attempting to navigate the northwest passage through Lancaster Sound, Barrow Strait and Peel Strait, but being turned back by ice in the latter.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1875-1876. English expedition under Captain Nares, in the Alert, and the Discovery, attaining by ship the high latitude of 82° 27', in Smith Sound, and advancing by sledges to 83° 20' 26", while exploring the northern shore of Grinnell Land and the northwest coast of Greenland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1876-1878. Norwegian North-Atlantic expedition, for a scientific exploration of the sea between Norway, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Jan Mayen, and Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878. Discovery of the island named "Einsamkeit," in latitude 77° 40' North and longitude 860 East, by Captain Johannesen, of the Norwegian schooner Nordland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878-1879. Final achievement of the long-sought, often attempted northeast passage, from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, by the Swedish geographer and explorer, Baron Nordenskiöld, on the steamer Vega, which made the voyage from Gothenburg to Yokohama, Japan, through the Arctic Sea, coasting the Russian and Siberian shores.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878-1883. Six annual expeditions to the Arctic Seas of the ship Willem Barentz, sent out by the Dutch Arctic Committee.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879. Cruise of Sir Henry Gore-Booth and Captain Markham, R. N., in the cutter Isbjorn to Nova Zembla and in Barentz Sea and the Kara Sea.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879-1880. Journey of Lieutenant Schwatka from Hudson Bay to King William Island, and exploration of the western and southern shores of the latter, searching for the journals and logs of the Franklin expedition.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879-1882. Polar voyage of the Jeannette, fitted out by the proprietor of the New York Herald and commanded by Commander De Long, United States Navy. The course taken by the Jeannette was through Behring Strait towards Wrangel Land, and then northerly, until she became ice-bound when she drifted helplessly for nearly two years, only to be crushed at last. The officers and crew escaped in three boats, one of which was lost in a storm; the occupants of the other two boats reached different mouths of the river Lena. One of these two boats, commanded by Engineer Melville, was fortunate enough to find a settlement and obtain speedy relief. The other, which contained commander De Long, landed in a region of desolation, and all but two of its occupants perished of starvation and cold.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1880-1882. First and second cruises of the United States Revenue Steamer Corwin in the Arctic Ocean, via Behring Strait, to Wrangel Land seeking information concerning the Jeannette and searching for two missing whaling ships.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1880-1882. Two voyages of Mr. Leigh Smith to Franz Josef Land, in his yacht Eira, in the first of which a considerable exploration of the southern coast was made, while the second resulted in the loss of the ship and a perilous escape of the party in boats to Nova Zembla, where they were rescued.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881. Expedition of the steamer Rodgers to search for the missing explorers of the Jeannette; entering the Arctic Sea through Behring Strait, but abruptly stopped by the burning of the Rodgers, on the 30th of November, in St. Lawrence Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881. Cruise of the United States Alliance, Commander Wadleigh, via Spitzbergen, to 79° 3' 36" north latitude, searching for the Jeannette.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881-1884. International undertaking of expeditions to establish Arctic stations for simultaneous meteorological and magnetic observations: by the United States at Smith Sound and Point Barrow; by Great Britain at Fort Rae; by Russia at the mouth of the Lena and in Nova Zembla; by Denmark at Godhaab, in Greenland; by Holland at Dickson's Haven, near the mouth of the Yenisei; by Germany in Cumberland Sound, Davis Strait; by Austro-Hungary on Jan Mayen Island; by Sweden at Mussel Bay in Spitzbergen. The United States expedition to Smith Sound, under Lieutenant Greeley, established its station on Discovery Bay. Exploring parties sent out attained the highest latitude ever reached, namely 83° 24'. After remaining two winters and failing to receive expected supplies, which had been intercepted by the ice, Greeley and his men, twenty-five in number, started southward, and all but seven perished on the way. The survivors were rescued, in the last stages of starvation, by a vessel sent to their relief under Captain Schley, United States Navy.

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ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1882-1883. Danish Arctic expedition of the Dijmphna, under Lieutenant Hovgaard; finding the Varna of the Dutch Meteorological Expedition beset in the ice at 69° 42' North latitude and 64° 45' East longitude; both vessels becoming frozen in together and drifting for nearly twelve months, being carried to 71° North; the Dijmphna taking the crew of the Varna, which succumbed to the ice pressure and went down; the Danish ship finally being liberated, August 1, 1893, and regaining Vardo, Norway, in October of that year.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883. Expedition of Lieutenant Ray, United States Navy, from Point Barrow, on the Arctic Ocean, to Meade River.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883. Expedition of Baron Nordenskiöld to Greenland, making important explorations in the interior, but failing to find the temperate central valleys which the Baron's theoretical studies had led him to expect.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883-1885. East Greenland expedition of Captain Holm and Lieutenant Garde, surveying and mapping the coast from 59° 49' to 68° 45' North latitude, and studying its geology, meteorology and natural history.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1884. Second cruise of the U. S. Revenue Marine Steamer Corwin in the Arctic Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1886. Reconnoissance of the Greenland inland ice by Civil Engineer R. E. Peary, United States Navy, "to gain a practical knowledge of the obstacles and ice conditions of the interior," and "to put to the test of actual use certain methods and details of equipment."

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1888. Journey of Dr. Nansen across South Greenland, from the icebound eastern coasts to the Danish settlements on the western.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890. Swedish expedition to Spitzbergen, under G. Nordenskiöld and Baron Klinkowström.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890. Danish scientific explorations in North and South Greenland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890. Russian exploration of the Malo-Zemelskaya, or Timanskaya tundra, in the far north of European Russia, on the Arctic Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1892. Expedition of Lieutenant Peary, United States Navy, with a party of seven persons, including Mrs. Peary, establishing headquarters on McCormick Bay, on the north side of Murchison Sound, north west Greenland; thence making sledge journeys to the northeastern coast of Greenland, at Independence Bay and northward from it to latitude 82°, and following the coast southward to Cape Bismarck. The surveys of Lieutenant Peary have gone far toward proving Greenland to be an island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1892. Danish East Greenland expedition of Lieutenant Ryder, wintering on Denmark Island in Scoresby's Sound, from which boat journeys were made and the interior ramifications of the Sound surveyed and mapped.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1893. Expeditions of Dr. Drygalski to Greenland for the study of the movement of the great glaciers.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1892. Swedish expedition of Bjorling and Kallstenius, the last records of which were found on one of the Cary Islands, in Baffin Bay, in the autumn of 1892.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1892. French expedition under M. Ribot to explore the islands of Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893. Expedition of Dr. Nansen, who sailed June 24, in the Fram from Christiania, for the New Siberian Islands, thence aiming to enter a current which flows, in Dr. Nansen's belief, across the Arctic region to Greenland, touching the North Pole, or nearly, in its course.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893. Russian expedition, under Baron Toll, to the New Siberian Islands and the Siberian Arctic coasts.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893. Danish expedition to Greenland, under Lieutenant Garde, for a geographical survey of the coast and study of the inland ice.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893-1894. Expedition of Lieutenant Peary and party (Mrs. Peary again of the number), landing in Bowdoin Bay, Inglefield Gulf, north of McCormick Harbor, in August, 1893; attempting in the following March a sledge journey with dogs to Independence Bay, but compelled to turn back when no more than a quarter of the distance had been traversed. An auxiliary expedition brought back most of the party to Philadelphia in September, 1894; but Lieutenant Peary with two men remained in Greenland to continue explorations.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893-1894. Scientific journey of Mr. Frank Russell, under the auspices of the State University of Iowa, from Lake Winnipeg to the mouth of Mackenzie River and to Herschel Island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1894. Expedition of Mr. Walter Wellman, an American journalist, purposing to reach Spitzbergen via Norway, and to advance thence towards the Pole, with aluminum boats, weighing only 400 pounds each, and provided with runners for use on the ice. The party left Tromsoë May 1, but were arrested before the end of the month by the crushing of their vessel in the ice at Walden. They were picked up and brought back to Norway.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1894. Departure of what is known as the Jackson-Harmsworth North Polar Expedition, which sailed from Greenhithe, in England, July 11, under the command of Mr. F. G. Jackson, Mr. Harmsworth equipping the expedition at his personal cost. Its plan is to make Franz Josef Land a base of operations from which to advance carefully and persistently towards the Pole.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1895. Preparations of Herr Julius von Payer, the explorer of Franz Josef Land, for an artistic and scientific expedition to the east coast of Greenland, in which he will be accompanied by landscape and animal painters, photographers, and savants.

—————ARCTIC EXPLORATION: End————

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, The Constitution of.

See CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC (page 511).

ARMENIA, Atrocities in.

See TURKS: A. D. 1895 (page 3157).

ARYAN NATIONS OF EUROPE.

See EUROPE (page 990, and after).

ASCHAM, Roger, and "The Scholemaster."

See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE (page 708).

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ASCLEPIADÆ, The.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE, GREEK (page 2124).

ASIA MINOR, Missionary journeys of St. Paul in.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 436).

ASOKA, and the rise of Buddhism.

See INDIA: B. C. 312 (page 1704).

ASSIGNATS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1789-1796 (page 2212).

ASSYRIAN EDUCATION, Ancient.

See EDUCATION, ANCIENT (page 674).

ASSYRIAN LIBRARIES.

See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2000).

ASSYRIAN MONEY AND BANKING.

See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2199).

ATHENS: Outline sketch of ancient history.

See EUROPE (pages 992-996).

ATLANTIC CABLE, The laying of the.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: A. D. 1854-1866 (page 776).

ATTAINDER. BILL OF ATTAINDER.

"An attainder ('attinctura') is a degradation or public dishonouring, which draws after it corruption of blood. It is the consequence of any condemnation to death, and induces the disherison of the heirs of the condemned person, which can only be removed by means of parliament. A bill of attainder, or of pains and penalties, inflicts the consequences of a penal sentence on any state criminal. … By the instrumentality of such bill the penalties of high treason are generally imposed. Penalties may, however, be imposed at pleasure, either in accordance with, or in contravention of, the common law. No other court of law can protect a person condemned in such manner. The first bill of the kind occurred under Edward IV., when the commons had to confirm the statute condemning Clarence to death. This convenient method of getting rid of disagreeable opponents was in high favour during the reign of Henry VIII. The bills of pains and penalties were hurried through the parliament, and the parties accused were not even put upon their trial. Thus were the illustrious Sir Thomas More and Bishop Fisher, for misprision of treason, without regular trial, without examination of witnesses, or hearing the accused in their self-defence, legally consigned to the scaffold. Anne Boleyn was formally tried for high treason by the house of peers; but the head of Catharine Howard was disposed of by a simple bill of attainder. This was the first case in which the offence charged was created by the very bill against which the pretended criminal was held to have offended. Under Philip and Mary the benefit of clergy was, by means of a bill, withheld from a certain Rufford. What had been an instrument of kingly despotism, under Tudor sway, was converted, under the Stuarts, into a parliamentary engine against the crown. The points of indictment against Strafford were so weak that the lords were for acquitting him. Thereupon, Sir Arthur Haselrig introduced a bill of attainder in the commons. The staunch friends of freedom, such as Pym and Hampden, did not support this measure; but yet it passed through the commons with only 59 dissentient voices. After the 35 peers opposed to the trial of Strafford had withdrawn, the terror-stricken lords accepted the bill by 26 against 19 votes. … This parliamentary administration of justice has by no means been relinquished. A bill of attainder may refer simply to a concrete case, and contrive penalties for acts which are not specially punishable by statute, whereas an impeachment applies to some violation of recognized legal principles, and is a solemn indictment preferred by the commons to the house of lords."