Part 2 — CHAPTER IV. Concerning the infallible teaching of the Roman Pontiff: (continued 81)

Popular Account of Parliamentary Procedure, page 18.

ALSO IN: E. Porritt, The Englishman at Home, page 198, and appendix K.

WHISKY INSURRECTION, The.

See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1794.

WHISKY RING, The.

The Whisky Ring, so called, brought to light in the United States in 1875, "was an association, or series of associations, of distillers and Federal officials for the purpose of defrauding the Government of a large amount of the tax imposed on distilled spirits, and, further, of employing a part of the proceeds in political corruption. On the trial of the indictments a number of Federal officers were convicted."

A. Johnston, History of American Politics, chapter 23.

ALSO IN: The Whisky Frauds: Testimony Taken (44th Congress, 1st Session, H. R. Mis. Doc's, Number 186, volume 9).

WHITE BOYS.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1760-1798.

WHITE CAMELLIA, Knights of the.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1866-1871.

WHITE CASTLE OF MEMPHIS, The.

See ATHENS: B. C. 460-449.

WHITE CITY, The.

See BELGRADE.

WHITE COCKADE, The.

"This is the badge at the same time of the House of Stuart and of the House of Bourbon."

E. E. Morris, The Early Hanoverians, page 138.

WHITE COMPANY, The.

See ITALY: A. D. 1343-1393.

WHITE CROSS, Order of the.

An order founded by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, 1814.

WHITE EAGLE, Order of the.

A Polish order of knighthood, instituted in 1325 by Ladislaus IV., and revived by Augustus in 1705.

WHITE FRIARS.

See CARMELITE FRIARS.

WHITE GUELFS (Bianchi).

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1295-1300, and 1301-1313.

WHITE HOODS OF FRANCE.

"The Caputiati, or Capuchons, or White Hoods, [was] a sect originating with a wood-cutter of Auvergne, by name Durand, about the year 1182. Their primary object was the maintenance of peace, and the extermination of the disbanded soldiery, whom the English kings had spread over the south of France, and [who] were now ravaging the country under the name of Routiers or Cotereaux. The members of this religious association were bound by no vow, and made no profession of any particular faith; they were only distinguished by the white head-gear that gave them their name, and wore a little leaden image of the Virgin on their breast. They found favour at first with the bishops, especially in Burgundy and the Berri, and were even, from the best political causes, countenanced by Philip Augustus. They thus rose to such a degree of power that on the 20th of July, 1183, they surrounded a body of 7,000 of the marauding party, and suffered not one man to escape. They were, however, soon intoxicated with success, and threw out some hints about restoring the primæval liberty of mortals and universal equality; thereby incurring the displeasure of Hugo Bishop of Auxerre, who took arms against them, and put an end to the sect by the might of the sword in 1186."

L. Mariotti, Frà Dolcino and his times, chapter 1.

WHITE HOODS OF GHENT, The.

See FLANDERS: A. D. 1379-1381.

WHITE HOUSE, The.

The plain white freestone mansion at Washington in which the President of the United States resides during his term of office is officially styled the "Executive Mansion," but is popularly known as the White House. "It was designed by James Hoban in 1792. The corner-stone was laid on October 13, 1792, and its construction went on side by side with that of the Capitol. … President John Adams and his wife, on arriving … in November, 1800, found it habitable, although but six of its rooms were furnished. … In his design Hoban copied closely the plan of a notable Dublin palace, the seat of the Dukes of Leinster."

C. B. Todd, The Story of Washington, page 264.

ALSO IN: M. Clemmer, Ten Years in Washington, chapter 19.

WHITE HUNS, The.

See HUNS, WHITE.

WHITE MONKS.

See CISTERCIAN ORDER.

WHITE MOUNTAIN, Battle of the (1620).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1620.

WHITE OAK ROAD, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (MARCH-APRIL: VIRGINIA).

WHITE OAK SWAMP, Retreat through.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JUNE-JULY: VIRGINIA).

WHITE PENITENTS, WHITE COMPANIES.

"The end of the 14th century witnessed a profound outburst of popular devotion. The miserable condition of the Church, distracted by schism, and the disturbed state of every country in Europe, awoke a spirit of penitence and contrition at the prospect of another great Jubilee, and the opening of a new century. {3653} Bands of penitents wandered from place to place, clad in white garments; their faces, except the eyes, were covered with hoods, and on their backs they wore a red cross. They walked two and two, in solemn procession, old and young, men and women together, singing hymns of penitence, amongst which the sad strains of the 'Stabat Mater' held the chief place. At times they paused and flung themselves on the ground, exclaiming 'Mercy,' or 'Peace,' and continued in silent prayer. All was done with order and decorum; the processions generally lasted for nine days, and the penitents during this time fasted rigorously. The movement seems to have originated in Provence, but rapidly spread through Italy. Enemies were reconciled, restitution was made for wrongs, the churches were crowded wherever the penitents, or 'Bianchi' ['White Penitents,' 'White Companies,' 'Whitemen' are various English forms of the name] as they were called from their dress, made their appearance. The inhabitants of one city made a pilgrimage to another and stirred up their devotion. The people of Modena went to Bologna; the Bolognese suspended all business for nine days, and walked to Imola, whence the contagion rapidly spread southwards. For the last three months of 1399 this enthusiasm lasted, and wrought marked results upon morals and religion for a time. Yet enthusiasm tended to create imposture."

M. Creighton, History of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation, volume 1, pages 145-146.

ALSO IN: T. A. Trollope, History of the Commonwealth of Florence, volume 2, page 297.

See, also, FLAGELLANTS.

WHITE PLAINS, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).

WHITE RUSSIA.

See RUSSIA, GREAT, &c.

WHITE SEA, The.

See ÆGEAN.

WHITE SHIP, The sinking of the.

William, the only legitimate son of Henry I. of England, accompanied his father on a visit to Normandy (A. D. 1120). "When they were about to return by the port of Barfleur, a Norman captain, Thomas Fitz-Stephen, appeared and claimed the right of taking them in his ship, on the ground that his father had been captain of the 'Mora,' in which the Conqueror crossed to invade England. The king did not care to alter his own arrangements, but agreed that his son should sail in the 'Blanche Nef' [the White Ship] with Fitz-Stephen. William Ætheling, as the English called him, was accompanied by a large train of unruly courtiers, who amused themselves by making the sailors drink hard before they started, and dismissed the priests who came to bless the voyage with a chorus of scoffing laughter. It was evening before they left the shore, and there was no moon; a few of the more prudent quitted the ship, but there remained nearly 300—a dangerous freight for a small vessel. However, fifty rowers flushed with wine made good way in the waters; but the helmsman was less fit for his work, and the vessel struck suddenly on a sunk rock, the Raz de Catteville. The water rushed in, but there was time to lower a boat, which put off with the prince. When in safety, he heard the cries of his sister, the countess of Perche, and returned to save her. A crowd of desperate men leaped into the boat; it was swamped, and all perished."

C. H. Pearson, History of England during the Early and Middle Ages, volume 1, page 445.

WHITE TERROR, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794-1795 (JULY-APRIL).

WHITE TOWER, The.

See TOWER OF LONDON.

WHITE TOWN, The.

See ROCHELLE.

WHITE VALLEY, Battle of the (1476).

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: 14-18TH CENTURIES.

WHITNEY, Eli, and the invention of the cotton-gin.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1793 WHITNEY'S COTTON-GIN; and 1818-1821.

WICHITAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

WIDE AWAKES.

In the American presidential canvass of 1860, there were organized among the supporters of Abraham Lincoln numerous companies of young Republicans who undertook the parades and torchlight processions of the campaign in a systematic and disciplined way that was then quite new. They were simply uniformed in glazed-cloth caps and capes and took the name of Wide Awakes.

WIGHT, Isle of: Conquest by the Jutes.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 449-473.

WIGHT, Isle of: A. D. 1545. Occupation by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1532-1547.

WILDCAT BANKS.

"During Jackson's struggle with the Bank of the United States [see UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1833-1836, and 1835-1837] many new banks had been formed in various States, generally with little or no capital to pay the notes which they issued. They bought large quantities of cheaply printed bills. As these bills had cost them very little, they could afford to offer a higher price in paper money for lands in distant States and Territories than others could afford to offer in gold and silver. Having bought the lands for this worthless money, the wildcat bankers sold them for good money, hoping that their own bills would not soon find their way back for payment. If they were disappointed in this hope, the bank 'failed,' and the managers started a new one."

A. Johnston, History of the United States for Schools, section 496.

See, also: MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1837-1841.

WILDERNESS, Hooker's Campaign in the.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (APRIL-MAY: VIRGINIA).

WILDERNESS, Battle of the.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY: VIRGINIA) GRANT'S MOVEMENT.

WILHELMINA, Queen of the Netherlands, A. D. 1890-.

WILKES, John, The case of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1762-1764; and 1768-1774.

WILKINSON, General James, and Aaron Burr.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1806-1807.

Command on the Northern frontier.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1813 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER).

WILLIAM (of Holland), King of Germany: A. D. 1254-1256.

William (called The Silent), Prince of Orange, Count of Nassau, Stadtholder of the United Provinces, 1558-1584.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1555-1559, to 1581-1584.

William I., German Emperor, 1870-1888; King of Prussia, 1861-1888.

William I. (called The Conqueror), King of England (and Duke of Normandy), 1066-1087.

William I., King of Naples and Sicily, 1154-1166.

William I., King of the Netherlands, 1815-1840.

William II., German Emperor and King of Prussia, 1888-.

William II. (called Rufus or The Red), King of

{3654}

England, 1087-1100.

William II., King of Naples and Sicily, 1166-1189.

William II., King of the Netherlands, 1840-1849.

William II., Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of the United Provinces, 1647-1650.

William III., King of Naples and Sicily, 1194.

William III., King of the Netherlands, 1849-1890.

William III., Prince of Orange and Stadtholder of the United Provinces, A. D. 1672-1702; King of England (with Queen Mary, his Wife), 1689-1702.

William IV., King of England, 1830-1837.

William IV. (called The Lion), King of Scotland, 1165-1214.

WILLIAM HENRY, Fort: A. D. 1757. The French capture and the massacre of prisoners.

See CANADA: A. D. 1756-1757.

WILLIAMS, Roger, Founder of Rhode Island and Apostle of Religious Liberty.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1636; and RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1631-1636, to 1683.

WILLIAMS COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: AMERICA: A. D. 1793.

WILLIAMSBURG, Canada, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1813 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER).

WILLIAMSBURG, Virginia, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MAY: VIRGINIA).

WILLOWS, Battle of the.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 378.

WILMINGTON, Delaware: A. D. 1638. The founding of the city.

See DELAWARE: A. D. 1638-1640.

WILMINGTON, Delaware: A. D. 1865. Occupied by the National forces.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (FEBRUARY-MARCH: NORTH CAROLINA).

WILMOT PROVISO, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1845-1846.

WILSON, James, and the framing of the Federal Constitution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787.

WILSON TARIFF ACT, The.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION (UNITED STATES): A. D. 1894.

WILSON'S CREEK, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JULY-SEPTEMBER: MISSOURI).

WILSON'S RAID.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (APRIL-MAY).

WILZEN, WELATABIANS, The.

"The Wilzen, as the Franks called them, or the Welatabians, as they called themselves, were perhaps the most powerful of the Sclavonian tribes, and at [the time of Charlemagne] occupied the southern coast of the Baltic; their immediate neighbors were the Abodrites, old allies of the Franks, whom they harassed by continual raids." Charlemagne led an expedition into the country of the Wilzen in 789 and subdued them.

J. I. Mombert, History of Charles the Great, book 2, chapter 4.

WIMPFEN, Battle of (1622).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1621-1623.

WINCEBY FIGHT (1643).

The sharp encounter known as Winceby Fight, in the English civil war, was one of Cromwell's successes, which drove the royalist forces out of the Lincolnshire country, and compelled the Marquis of Newcastle, who was besieging Hull, to abandon the siege. "Cromwell himself was nearer death in this action than ever in any other; the victory, too, made its due figure, and 'appeared in the world.' Winceby, a small upland hamlet, in the Wolds, not among the Fens, of Lincolnshire, is some five miles west of Horncastle. The confused memory of this Fight is still fresh there." The Fight occurred October 10, 1643.

T. Carlyle, Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, letter 18 (volume 1).

See HULL.

WINCHESTER, General: Defeat at the Raisin.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812-1813 HARRISON'S NORTHWESTERN CAMPAIGN.

WINCHESTER, England: Origin of.

"There can be little doubt that a town, of greater or less importance, has existed since the earliest dawn of English history on the same place where stands the Winchester of to-day. … If the first founders of the ancient city were Celtic Britons, covering with their rude dwellings the summit and sides of S. Catherine's Hill they were certainly conquered by the Belgæ, also probably of Celtic origin, who, crossing over from Gaul, established themselves in a large district of southern England. But whether in their time Winchester was called Caer Gwent is doubtful; very probably it was simply Gwin or Gwent, the white place. … But as there is no question of the Roman occupation of Britain, first by Julius Cæsar, later on by Claudius and Vespasian, so we know that the settlement on the Itchen was turned into Venta Belgarum, and S. Catherine's Hill converted into a Roman camp. … Venta, as well as many other towns, was completely Romanised. … But the time arrived when Rome could no longer defend herself at home, and was thus forced to leave Britain to contend with the wild Northmen who had already begun their inroads. The Britons implored their former masters to come back and help them, but in vain. … We know how Vortigern, chief among the southern British kings, invited the Saxon adventurers to help him against the Picts and Scots, who encroached more and more in Britain. … In 495 (as we learn from the Brito-Welsh Chronicle), there · came two ealdormen to Britain, Cerdic and Cymric,' who landed at Hamble Creek, and eventually, after many battles much extolled in the Saxon Chronicle, became kings of the West Saxons. Cerdic is said to have been crowned in Venta, to have slaughtered most of the inhabitants and all the priests, and to have converted the cathedral into a heathen temple. … The name Venta now becomes Wintana, with the affix of 'ceaster,' Saxon for fortified place."

A. R. R. Bramston and A. C. Leroy, Historic Winchester, chapter I.

See, also, VENTA.

WINCHESTER, Virginia: A. D. 1862. Defeat of General Banks. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA).

WINCHESTER, Virginia: A. D. 1864. Sheridan's victory.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (AUGUST-OCTOBER: VIRGINIA).

WINCHESTER SCHOOL.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.—ENGLAND.

WINDSOR CASTLE: Rebuilt by Edward III.

See GARTER, KNIGHTS OF THE.

WINDWARD ISLANDS, The.

See WEST INDIES.

WINEDI.

See VENEDI.

{3655}

WINGFIELD, Battle of.

Fought, A. D. 655, between King Oswin of Northumberland and King Penda of Mercia, the latter being defeated and slain.

WINKELRIED, Arnold von, at the battle of Sempach.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1386-1388.

WINNEBAGOES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

WINSLOW, Edward, and the Plymouth colony.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D.1623-1629 (PLYMOUTH), and after.

WINTHROP, John, and the colony of Massachusetts Bay.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1629-1630, and after.

WINTHROP, John, Jr., and the founding of Connecticut.

See CONNECTICUT: A. D. 1634-1637.

WINTHROP, Theodore: Death at Big Bethel.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JUNE: VIRGINIA).

WIPPED'S-FLEET, Battle of.

The decisive battle fought, A. D. 465, between the Jutes under Hengest and the Britons, which settled the conquest of Kent by the former.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 449-473.

WISBY, Its Code of Maritime Laws.

See HANSA TOWNS.

WISBY: A. D. 1361. Taken and plundered by the Danes.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES: A. D. 1018-1397.

—————WISCONSIN: Start————

WISCONSIN: The aboriginal inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:: SIOUAN FAMILY.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1634-1673. Visited by Nicolet, and traversed by Marquette and Joliet.

See CANADA: A. D. 1634-1673.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1763. Cession to Great Britain.

See SEVEN YEARS WAR: THE TREATIES.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1763. The King's proclamation excluding settlers.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1763.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1774. Embraced in the Province of Quebec.

See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1784. Included in the proposed states of Sylvania, Michigania and Assenisipia.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1784.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1785. Partially covered by the western land claims of Massachusetts, ceded to the United States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1787. The Ordinance for the Government of the Northwest Territory. Perpetual exclusion of Slavery.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1787.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1805-1848. Territorial vicissitudes. Admission into the Union as a State.

From 1805 to 1809, Wisconsin formed a part of Indiana Territory. From 1809 to 1818 her territory was embraced In the Territory of Illinois, excepting a small projection at the northeast which was left out of the described boundaries and belonged nowhere. When Illinois became a State, in 1818, and her present boundaries were established, an the country north of them was joined to Michigan Territory. In 1834 that huge Territory was still further enlarged by the temporary addition to it of a great area west of the Mississippi, embracing the present states of Iowa, Minnesota and part of Dakota. It was an unwieldy and impracticable territorial organization, and movements to divide it, which had been on foot long before this last enlargement, soon attained success. In 1836, the year before Michigan became a State, with her present limits, the remaining Territory was organized under the name of Wisconsin. Two years later, "by act of June 12, 1838, congress still further contracted the limits of Wisconsin by creating from its trans-Mississippi tract the Territory of Iowa. This, however, was in accordance with the original design when the country beyond the Mississippi was attached to Michigan Territory for purposes of temporary government, so no objection was entertained to this arrangement on the part of Wisconsin. The establishment of Iowa had reduced Wisconsin to her present limits, except that she still held, as her western boundary, the Mississippi river to its source, and a line drawn due north therefrom to the international boundary. In this condition Wisconsin remained until the act of congress approved August 6, 1846, enabling her people to form a state constitution. … Wisconsin was admitted into the Union, by act approved May 29, 1848, with her present limits."

R. G. Thwaites, The Boundaries of Wisconsin (Wisconsin State Historical Society Collections, volume 11, pages 455-468).

ALSO IN: B. A. Hinsdale, The Old Northwest, chapter 17.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1832. The Black Hawk War.

See ILLINOIS: A. D. 1832.

WISCONSIN: A. D. 1854. Early formation of the Republican Party.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1854-1855.

—————WISCONSIN: End————

WISCONSIN, University of.

"In 1838, two years after organization as a Territory, Wisconsin petitioned Congress for aid to establish a university. The request was granted, the usual seventy-two sections of land were set aside for this object, and the Territorial Legislature at once passed a law establishing the University of the Territory of Wisconsin. The organization of a board of trustees was, however, the only other action which took place previous to the adoption of the State Constitution In 1848; this provided for the establishment of a State university 'at or near the seat of government,' and stated, emphatically, that the lands granted for a university should constitute a perpetual fund, the income of which should be devoted to the support of this institution. This declaration was apparently to little purpose, as the State has treated these domains as granted absolutely, and not as held in trust. There is probably no worse example of mismanaged public educational funds on record than is to be found in connection with this institution. … The entire sum realized from the 46,080 acres was only 'about $150,000.' The University of Wisconsin was established in 1850 on the basis of the funds thus secured, but even while passing laws for the sale of the university lands the Legislature realized that the income would be insufficient to support the institution, and they therefore petitioned Congress for seventy-two additional sections in lieu of the saline lands granted to the State in 1848 but never located. Congress granted this petition in 1854. … An opportunity to atone for past errors was now afforded the Legislature. It began to be realized, after it was too late to enact suitable laws to remedy the evil, that the best lands had been sold at a disadvantage. {3656} It was felt that, whereas the policy pursued had benefited the State at large, it was not faithful to the increase of the seminary fund. … After fully examining the claims of the regents and the condition of the university in 1872 for four years, this body granted $10,000 annually, to atone for the injustice done by the State in selecting for an endowment unproductive lands."

F. W. Blackmar, History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in the United States (Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1890, number 1), pages 250-251.

WISHOSKAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: WISHOSKAN FAMILY.

WISIGOTHS.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS).

WISMAR.

See HANSA TOWNS.

WITCHCRAFT, Salem.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1692; and 1692-1693.

WITE-THEOW.

See THEOW.

WITENAGEMOT, The.

"The Witenagemot or assembly of the wise. This [in old English history] is the supreme council of the nation, whether the nation be Kent or Mercia as in the earlier, or the whole gens Anglorum et Saxonum, as in the later history. The character of the national council testifies to its history as a later development than the lower courts, and as a consequence of the institution of royalty. The folkmoot or popular assembly of the shire is a representative body to a certain extent: it is attended by the representatives of the hundreds and townships, and has a representative body of witnesses to give validity to the acts that are executed in it. … The council of the aggregated state is not a folkmoot but a witenagemot. … On great occasions … we must understand the witenagemot to have been attended by a concourse of people whose voices could be raised in applause or in resistance to the proposals of the chiefs. But that such gatherings shared in any way the constitutional powers of the witan, that they were organised in any way corresponding to the machinery of the folkmoot, that they had any representative character in the modern sense, as having full powers to act on behalf of constituents, that they shared the judicial work, or except by applause and hooting influenced in any way the decision of the chiefs, there is no evidence whatever. … The members of the assembly were the wise men, the sapientes, witan; the king, sometimes accompanied by his wife and sons; the bishops of the kingdom, the ealdormen of the shires or provinces, and a number of the king's friends and dependents. … The number of the witan was thus never very large."

W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 6, sections 51-52 (volume 1).

The constitution and powers of the witenagemot are very fully discussed by Mr. Kemble, who gives also a list of the recorded witenagemots, with comments on the business transacted in them.

J. M. Kemble, The Saxons in England, book 2, chapter 6 (volume 2).

ALSO IN: R. Gneist, The English Parliament.

See, also, PARLIAMENT, THE ENGLISH: EARLY STAGES OF ITS EVOLUTION; and ENGLAND: A. D. 958.

WITIGIS, King of the Ostrogoths.

See ROME: A. D. 535-553.

WITT, John De, The administration and the murder of.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1647-1650; 1651-1660, to 1672-1674.

WITTELSBACH, The House of.

See BAVARIA: A. D. 1180-1356.

WITTENBERG, Luther at.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1017, and after.

WITTENBERG UNIVERSITY.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: GERMANY.

WITTENWEIHER, Battle of (1638).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

WITTSTOCK, Battle of (1636).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

WITUMKAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

WIZA.

See THRACIANS.

WOCCONS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

WOIPPY, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

WOIWODES, VOIVODES, WAIWODES.

See POLAND: A. D. 1078-1652; and BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: A. D. 1341-1356 (SERVIA).

WOLFE, General, Victory and death of.

See CANADA: A. D. 1759.

WOLFENBÜTTEL, Duchy of.

See SAXONY: A. D. 1178-1183.

WOLSEY, The ministry and fall of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1513-1529; and 1527-1534.

WOMAN ORDER, General Butler's.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MAY-DECEMBER: LOUISIANA).

—————WOMAN'S RIGHTS: Start————

WOMAN'S RIGHTS. WOMAN SUFFRAGE: A. D. 1790-1849. The pioneer advocates.

"In 1790, Mary Wollstonecraft's 'Vindication of the Rights of Women,' published in London, attracted much attention from liberal minds. She examined the position of woman in the light of existing civilizations, and demanded for her the widest opportunities of education, industry, political knowledge, and the right of representation. … Following her, came Jane Marcet, Eliza Lynn, and Harriet Martineau—each of whom in the early part of the 19th century exerted a decided influence upon the political thought of England. … Frances Wright, a person of extraordinary powers of mind, born in Dundee, Scotland, in 1797, was the first woman who gave lectures on political subjects in America. When sixteen years of age she heard of the existence of a country in which freedom for the people had been proclaimed; she was filled with joy and a determination to visit the American Republic where the foundations of justice, liberty, and equality had been so securely laid. In 1820 she came here, traveling extensively North and South. She was at that time but twenty-two years of age. … Upon her second visit she made this country her home for several years. Her radical ideas on theology, slavery, and the social degradation of woman, now generally accepted by the best minds of the age, were then denounced by both press and pulpit, and maintained by her at the risk of her life. … In 1832, Lydia Maria Child published her 'History of Woman,' which was the first American storehouse of information upon the whole question, and undoubtedly increased the agitation. In 1836, Ernestine L. Rose, a Polish lady—banished from her native country by the Austrian tyrant, Francis Joseph, for her love of liberty—came to America, lecturing in the large cities North and South upon the 'Science of Government.' She advocated the enfranchisement of woman. Her beauty, wit, and eloquence drew crowded houses. {3657} About this period Judge Hurlbut, of New York, a leading member of the Bar, wrote a vigorous work on 'Human Rights,' in which he advocated political equality for women. This work attracted the attention of many legal minds throughout that State. In the winter of 1836, a bill was introduced into the New York Legislature by Judge Hertell, to secure to married women their rights of property. This bill was drawn up under the direction of Honorable John Savage, Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court, and Honorable John C. Spencer, one of the revisers of the statutes of New York. It was in furtherance of this bill that Ernestine L. Rose and Paulina Wright at that early day circulated petitions. The very few names they secured show the hopeless apathy and ignorance of the women as to their own rights. As similar bills were pending in New York until finally passed in 1848, a great educational work was accomplished in the constant discussion of the topics involved. During the winters of 1844-5-6, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, living in Albany, made the acquaintance of Judge Hurlbut and a large circle of lawyers and legislators, and, while exerting herself to strengthen their convictions in favor of the pending bill, she resolved at no distant day to call a convention for a full and free discussion of woman's rights and wrongs. … In 1840, Margaret Fuller published an essay in the Dial, entitled 'The Great Lawsuit, or Man vs. Woman: Woman vs. Man.' In this essay she demanded perfect equality for woman, in education, industry, and politics. It attracted great attention and was afterward expanded into a work entitled 'Woman in the Nineteenth Century.' … In the State of New York, in 1845, Reverend Samuel J. May preached a sermon at Syracuse, upon 'The Rights and Conditions of Women,' in which he sustained their right to take part in political life, saying women need not expect 'to have their wrongs fully redressed, until they themselves have a voice and a hand in the enactment and administration of the laws.' … In 1849, Lucretia Mott published a discourse on woman, delivered in the Assembly Building, Philadelphia, in answer to a Lyceum lecture which Richard H. Dana, of Boston, was giving in many of the chief cities, ridiculing the idea of political equality for woman. … It was her early labors in the temperance cause that first roused Susan B. Anthony to a realizing sense of woman's social, civil, and political degradation, and thus secured her life-long labors for the enfranchisement of woman. In 1847 she made her first speech at a public meeting of the Daughters of Temperance in Canajoharie, New York. The same year Antoinette L. Brown, then a student at Oberlin College, Ohio, the first institution that made the experiment of co-education, delivered her first speech on temperance in several places in Ohio, and on Woman's Rights, in the Baptist church at Henrietta, New York. Lucy Stone, a graduate of Oberlin, made her first speech on Woman's Rights the same year in her brother's church at Brookfield, Massachusetts. Nor were the women of Europe inactive."

E. C. Stanton, S. B. Anthony, and M. J. Gage, editors, History of Woman Suffrage, chapter 1.

WOMAN'S RIGHTS: A. D. 1804-1891. The higher Education of women in America.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: REFORMS &C.: A. D. 1804-1891.

WOMAN'S RIGHTS: A. D. 1839-1848. Legal emancipation of women in the United States.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1839-1848.

WOMAN'S RIGHTS: A. D. 1840-1890. The organized agitation.

"In 1840 a 'World's Antislavery Convention' was held in London, and all Antislavery organizations throughout the world were invited to join in it, through their delegates. Several American societies accepted the invitation, and elected delegates, six or eight of whom were women, Lucretia Mott and Mrs. Wendell Phillips among them. The excitement caused by their presence in London was intense, for the English Abolitionists were very conservative, and never dreamed of inviting women to sit in their Convention. And these women who had come among them had rent the American Anti-slavery Societies in twain, had been denounced from the pulpit, anathematized by the press, and mobbed by the riffraff of the streets. … A long and acrimonious debate followed on the admission of the women. … When the vote was taken, the women delegates were excluded by a large majority. William Lloyd Garrison did not arrive in London until after the rejection of the women. When he was informed of the decision of the Convention he refused to take his seat with the delegates. And throughout the ten days' sessions he maintained absolute silence, remaining in the gallery as a spectator. … The London Convention marked the beginning of a new era in the woman's cause. Hitherto, the agitation of the question of woman's equal rights had been incidental to the prosecution of other work. Now the time had come when a movement was needed to present the claims of woman in a direct and forcible manner, and to take issue with the legal and social order which denied her the rights of human beings, and held her in everlasting subjection. At the close of the exasperating and insulting debates of the 'World's Antislavery Convention,' Lucretia Mott and Mrs. Elizabeth Cady Stanton agreed to hold a Woman's Rights Convention on their return to America, and to begin in earnest the education of the people on the question of woman's enfranchisement. Mrs. Stanton had attended the Convention as a bride, her husband having been chosen a delegate. Accordingly the first Woman's Rights Convention of the world was called at Seneca Falls, New York, on the 19th and 20th of July, 1848. It was attended by crowds of men and women, and the deepest interest was manifested in the proceedings. 'Demand the uttermost,' said Daniel O'Connell, 'and you will get something.' The leaders in the new movement, Lucretia Mott and Mrs. Stanton, with their husbands, and Frederick Douglass, acted on this advice. They demanded in unambiguous terms all that the most radical friends of women have ever claimed. … The Convention adjourned to meet in Rochester, New York, August 2, 1848. … A third Convention was held at Salem, Ohio, in 1850; a fourth in Akron, Ohio, in 1851; a fifth in Massillon, Ohio, in 1852; another at Ravenna, Ohio, in 1853, and others rapidly followed. The advocates of woman suffrage increased in number and ability. Superior women, whose names have become historic, espoused the cause—Frances D. Gage, Hannah Tracy Cutler, Jane G. Swisshelm, Caroline M. Severance, Celia C. Burr, who later be·came Mrs. C. C. Burleigh, Josephine S. Griffing, Antoinette L. Brown, Lucy Stone, Susan B. Anthony, Paulina W. Davis, Caroline H. Dall, Elizabeth Oakes Smith, Ernestine L. Rose, Mrs. C. H. Nichols, Dr. Harriot K. Hunt; the roll-call was a brilliant one, representing an unusual versatility of culture and ability. {3658} The First National Woman Suffrage Convention was held in Worcester, Massachusetts, October 23 and 24, 1850. It was more carefully planned than any that had yet been held. Nine States were represented. The arrangements were perfect—the addresses and papers were of the highest character—the audiences were at a white heat of enthusiasm. The number of cultivated people who espoused the new gospel for women was increased by the names of Ralph Waldo Emerson, Theodore Parker, Bronson and Abby May Alcott, Thomas W. Higginson, William I. Bowditch, Samuel E. and Harriet W. Sewall, Henry Ward Beecher, Henry B. Blackwell, Ednah D. Cheney, Honorable John Neal, Reverend William H. Channing, and Wendell Phillips. … A dozen years were spent in severe pioneer work and then came the four years Civil War. All reformatory work was temporarily suspended, for the nation then passed through a crucial experience, and the issue of the fratricidal conflict was national life or national death. The transition of the country from peace to the tumult and waste of war was appalling and swift, but the regeneration of its women kept pace with it. … The development of those years, and the impetus they gave to women, which has not yet spent itself, has been wonderfully manifested since that time. … It has been since the war, and as the result of the great quickening of women which it occasioned, that women have organized missionary, philanthropic, temperance, educational, and political organizations, on a scale of great magnitude. … In 1869, two great National organizations were formed. One styled itself 'The National Woman Suffrage Association,' and the other was christened 'The American Woman Suffrage Association.' The first established its headquarters in New York, and published a weekly paper, 'The Revolution,' which was ably edited by Mrs. Stanton and Miss Anthony. 'The American' made its home in Boston, and founded 'The Woman's Journal,' which was edited by Mrs. Mary A. Livermore, Mrs. Julia Ward Howe, Mrs. Lucy Stone, William Lloyd Garrison and Thomas W. Higginson. … After twenty years of separate activities, a union of the two national organizations was effected in 1890, under the composite title of 'The National American Woman Suffrage Association.'"

M. A. Livermore, Woman in the State (Woman's Work in America, chapter 10).

WOMAN'S RIGHTS: A. D. 1842-1892. Women in the Medical profession.

"The first advocate for women medical students, Miss Elizabeth Blackwell, after many years of struggle obtained entrance into the medical faculty of Geneva in 1842; in 1847 she received her doctor's degree, and went to England, Germany, and finally to Paris, to complete her studies. Her example fired others. In that same year a medical college for women was founded in Boston, in 1850 a similar one in Philadelphia, one in New York in 1868, and in Chicago in 1870. Soon after, the greater number of universities in America were thrown open to women, and by this their studies were largely extended. The difficulties proved far greater in Europe. The universities of Zurich in 1864, and of Berne in 1872, were the first to receive lady students for the study of medicine. In 1868 the Medical Faculty of Paris, chiefly through the intervention of the Empress Eugenie, first admitted lady students to follow the medical course. In Italy, in 1876, they obtained equal success; in Russia, an ukase of the Czar Alexander II., of November 2nd, 1872, conferred upon ladies the right to attend the medical courses in the Medico-Chirurgical Academy of St. Petersburg, but this permission was subsequently withdrawn on political grounds, on the accession of a new government. In 1874 the first school of medicine for women was started in London; in 1876 they were admitted to the study of medicine in Dublin. In Germany and Austro-Hungary women are not allowed to enter the universities, although ladies' associations have obtained thousands of signatures to petition both parliaments on the subject. From statistical sources, we learn that there are seventy lady doctors in practice in London, five in Edinburgh, and two in Dublin. Seven hundred lady doctors practise in Russia, of whom fifty-four are the heads of clinical schools and laboratories. In Italy, at the same time, there were only six. Spain has but two qualified lady doctors. Roumania, also, has two. Sweden, Norway, and Belgium have likewise comparatively few. In Berlin there are Dr. Franziska Tiburtius and Dr. Lehmus (who founded a poly-clinical school which is increasing year by year), Dr. Margaret Mengarin-Traube and Fraulein Kuhnow. In Austria, Dr. Rosa Kerschbaumer is the sole possessor of Government authority to practise her profession. In India, where native religion forbids their women calling in men doctors, there has been a strong movement in favour of ladies, and they have now one hundred lady doctors, three of whom are at the head of the three most important hospitals. The largest number of women practising medicine is in America."

A. Crepaz, The Emancipation of Women, pages 99-103.

"The medical faculty of the University of Paris opened its doors to women in 1868, but at first only a very few availed themselves of the privileges thus offered. In 1878 the number in attendance was 32; during the next ten years (1878-1888) it increased to 114, and is at present 183, of whom the great majority (167) are Russians. The remainder are Poles, Rumanians, Servians, Greeks, and Scotch, and only one German."

The Nation, February 14, 1895.

WOMAN'S RIGHTS: A. D. 1865-1883. The higher Education of Women in England.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: REFORMS &c.: A. D. 1865-1883.

WOMAN'S RIGHTS: A. D. 1869-1894. Progress in Europe and America.

A certain number of the English cities "occupy a privileged position, under the title of 'municipal boroughs.' These alone are municipal corporations, enjoying a considerable degree of autonomy by virtue of charters of incorporation granted in the pleasure of the crown. … The other cities have as such no legal existence: they are simply geographical units. In past times the privilege of incorporation was often granted to wretched little hamlets. But whether they were once of consequence or not, the municipal corporations degenerated everywhere into corrupt oligarchies. The municipal reform of 1835 destroyed these hereditary cliques and extended the municipal franchise to all the inhabitants who paid the poor tax as occupants of realty. {3659} But in doing this … it was expressly provided in the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 that the electoral franchise in the municipal boroughs should belong to male persons only. Before long the unorganized condition of the larger towns that were not municipal boroughs received the attention of Parliament. It did not grant them communal autonomy,—there could be no question of that,—but conceded special powers to establish sanitary systems and to undertake works of public utility such as lighting, paving, sewerage, etc. The special acts passed for these purposes from time to time, as the necessity for them arose, were consolidated and made general in two statutes: the Public Health Act of 1848, for a class of towns designated as 'local government districts,' and the Commissioners' Clauses Act of 1847, for the cities described as 'improvement commissions districts.' These acts gave to these urban agglomerations an incipient municipal organization, by establishing boards of health in some, and in others commissions to direct the public works. In both these classes of 'nascent, half-developed municipalities,' which had scarcely emerged from the parochial phase of local self-government, the authorities—i. e. the members of the boards of health and the commissioners—were elected, as in the parishes, by the rate-payers without distinction of sex. As these cities enlarged and developed, they were admitted to the honor of municipal incorporation. But since the Municipal Corporations Act limited the franchise to men, it resulted that while the city which was promoted to the rank of municipal borough saw its rights increased, a part of its inhabitants—the women—saw theirs suppressed. This anomaly gave the advocates of woman suffrage a chance to demand that the ballot be granted to women in the municipal boroughs. In 1869 Mr. Jacob Bright introduced such a measure in the House of Commons, and it was adopted almost without discussion. … But when the English legislator placed the administration of the 'nascent, half-developed municipalities'—which were only temporarily such and which might become cities of the first rank—on the same plane, as far as the suffrage of women was concerned, with the government of the parishes, he substituted a fluctuating for a permanent test, and as a result wiped out his own line of demarcation. When this fact was brought out, Parliament could not but recognize and bow to it. This recognition was decisive: it resulted in the overthrow of the electoral barriers against women in the entire domain of local self-government. The clause which, upon the proposal of Mr. Jacob Bright, was inserted in section 9 of the municipal act of 1869, found its way into the revised municipal act of 1882. Section 63 of this latter act reads: 'For all purposes connected with and having reference to the right to vote at municipal elections, words importing in this act the masculine gender include women.' This clause gave women the ballot in the municipal boroughs, but did not make them eligible to office. And as the general qualification for municipal suffrage is the occupancy by the elector in his own name of a house subject to the poor tax, the law includes independent women only, not married women. … When in 1881 the municipal suffrage was extended to women in Scotland, the question whether the separated woman could vote was decided in her favor. But of course this does not change the position of married women in England. A year after the introduction of the municipal suffrage of women they obtained (in 1870) the school vote also, in connection with the establishment of the existing system of primary instruction. … It still remained for women to make their way into the local government of the county; but county government, although representative, was not elective. In 1888 county councils were established, chosen by the ratepayers. The analogy of the municipal councils demanded that women should be included among the electors of the new local assemblies. Accordingly the Local Government Act of 1888 admits women to the electorate in England, and the act of 1889 gives them the same right in Scotland. … In Sweden local self-government is exercised in first instance, in the city and country communes, by the tax-payers in general assembly, or town meeting, where their votes are reckoned in proportion to the taxes paid, according to a graded scale, just as in the English vestries. In the cities with a population above 3,000 the taxpayers elect a communal council. … In the full assemblies of the communes that have no councils, and in the elections at which councillors are chosen, unmarried women have the same right of participation as men. … The next higher instance of local self-government consists of provincial councils (landstings). All the municipal electors, women not excepted, vote for the members of these councils. … In Norway women have no share in local government, except in the school administration. … In Denmark women are entirely excluded from local government; but they have been admitted to it in one Danish dependency—Iceland. … Finland, which was attached to Sweden for centuries before it fell under the sway of Russia, is still influenced by the movement of legislation in the former mother-country. … The law of February 6, 1865, concerning the rural communes, admitted women to communal rights under almost the same conditions as in Sweden. … The law of April 14, 1856, concerning the organization of the rural communes in the six eastern provinces of the kingdom of Prussia (section 6), as well as the analogous law of March 19, 1856, for the province of Westphalia (section 15), provide that persons of female sex who possess real property carrying with it the right to vote shall be represented—the married women by their husbands, the single women by electors of the male sex. A similar provision was adopted for the province of Schleswig-Holstein, after its annexation by Prussia (law of September 22, 1867, section 11). But in the Rhine province, where the administrative and the private law still show deep traces of the French influence, women are expressly excluded from the communal franchise. … In Saxony women are admitted to the communal vote in the country districts on the same terms as men. … Eligibility to communal office is denied to women in all the countries enumerated above. In Austria, as one consequence of the revolutionary movement of 1848, the legislator endeavored to infuse fresh life into the localities by giving a liberal organization to the rural communes. The law of 1849 granted communal rights to all persons paying taxes on realty and industrial enterprises, and also to various classes of 'capacities'—ministers of religion, university graduates, school principals and teachers of the higher grades, etc. {3660} Among the electors of the first and most important group, based wholly upon property, were included women, minors, soldiers in active service and some other classes of persons who, as a rule, were excluded from suffrage, on condition that their votes be cast through representatives. … The Russian village community, the mir, which has come down across the centuries into our own time with very few changes in its primitive organization, is a typical example of rudimentary local self-government, where all who have an interest, not excepting the women, have a right to be heard in the common assemblies. … In the Dominion of Canada local suffrage has only recently been granted to women. The first law regulating this matter was passed in the province of Ontario (Upper Canada) in 1884. This law has served as an example, and in part also as a model, for the other provinces. The electoral rights granted to women by the legislation of the province of Ontario may be grouped under four heads: (a) participation in municipal elections, (b) participation in municipal referenda, (c) participation in school-board elections, and (d) eligibility to office. All unmarried women and widows twenty-one years of age, subjects of her Majesty and paying municipal taxes on real property or income, may vote in municipal elections. … Finally, all taxpayers resident in the school district are recognized by the laws of 1885 and 1887 as eligible to the office of school trustee. … Female suffrage does not exist in the great French-speaking province of Quebec (Lower Canada), in New Brunswick or in Prince Edward Island. … In almost all the continental [Australasian] colonies the municipal suffrage rests upon the same basis as does the parish franchise of the mother-country, i. e. the possession or occupation of real property. … [In the United States] several States have granted to women simply the right of being elected to school offices, provided always that they possess the qualifications prescribed for men. The question is thus decided in California, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Pennsylvania and Rhode Island. … At the present time the system of granting to women both rights—eligibility and suffrage—in school matters has been adopted in the following states besides Massachusetts: Colorado, North and South Dakota, Idaho, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Vermont, Washington and Wisconsin and the territory of Arizona. Of course to this list must be added Wyoming, where women vote at all elections, and Kansas, where they possess complete local suffrage. Finally, Kentucky and Nebraska admit women only to the school franchise, and that only under special conditions."

M. Ostrogorski, Local Woman Suffrage (Political Science Quarterly, December, 1891).

"In three Territories … the right of voting at legislative elections was given by the legislature of the Territory, and in one of these, Wyoming, it was retained when the Territory received Statehood in 1890. In Utah it was abolished by a Federal statute, because thought to be exercised by the Mormon wives at the bidding of their polygamous husbands, and thus to strengthen the polygamic party. In Washington Territory the law which conferred it in 1883 was declared invalid by the courts in 1887, because its nature had not been properly described in the title, was re-enacted immediately afterwards, and was in 1888 again declared invalid by the United States Territorial Court, on the ground that the Act of Congress organizing the Territorial legislature did not empower it to extend the suffrage to women. In enacting their State Constitution (1889) the people of Washington pronounced against female suffrage by a majority of two to one; and a good authority declared to me that most of the women were well pleased to lose the privilege. In 1893 the legislature of Colorado submitted to the voters (in virtue of a provision in the Constitution) a law extending full franchise for all purposes to women, and it was carried by a majority of 6,347. … In Michigan in 1893, women received the suffrage in all municipal elections. In Michigan, however, the law has since been declared unconstitutional. … In Connecticut, the latest State which has extended school suffrage to women (1893), it would appear that the women have not, so far, shown much eagerness to be registered. However, while the advanced women leaders and Prohibitionists started a campaign among the women voters, the husbands and brothers of conservative proclivities urged their wives and sisters to register, and not without success. In Wyoming (while it was still a Territory) women served as jurors for some months till the judges discovered that they were not entitled by law to do so, and in Washington (while a Territory) they served from 1884 to 1887, when the legislature, in regranting the right of voting, omitted to grant the duty or privilege of jury service. … As respects the suffrage in Wyoming, the evidence I have collected privately is conflicting. … No opposition was offered in the Convention of 1889, which drafted the present Constitution, to the enactment of woman suffrage for all purposes. The opinion of the people at large was not duly ascertained, because the question was not separately submitted to them at the polls, but there can be little doubt that it would have been favourable. … The whole proceedings of the Convention of 1889 leave the impression that the equal suffrage in force since 1869 had worked fairly, and the summing up of the case by a thoughtful and dispassionate British observer (Mr. H. Plunkett) is to the same effect."

J. Bryce, The American Commonwealth (3d edition), chapter 96 (volume 2).

"No complete and reliable statistics have ever been obtained of the number of women who register and vote on school questions. This varies greatly in different localities, and in the same localities in different years. With women, as with men, the questions connected with the schools do not suffice to bring out many voters as a rule. Those few who have voted hitherto have been of more than average character and ability, and influenced wholly by public spirit. But comparatively few, even of suffragists, have as yet availed themselves of the privilege. To secure any general participation of women in elections, a wider range of subjects must be thrown open to them. Wherever, as in Kansas, party issues and moral questions are involved, the women show a greater interest. In several States, as in Kansas, Iowa, and Rhode Island, prohibition amendments are said to have been carried by the efforts of women-workers at the polls, although not themselves voters."

The Nation, April 28, 1887, page 362.

{3661}

WOOL, General John E.: In the war of 1812.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).

WOOD'S HALFPENCE.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1722-1724.

WOOLLY-HEADS, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1850.

WOOLSACK, The.

"Perhaps you have noticed, when paying a visit to the House of Lords in holiday time, a comfortable kind of ottoman in front of the throne. This is the Woolsack, the seat of the Lord Chancellor [who presides in the House of Lords]. In the reign of Elizabeth an Act of Parliament was passed to prevent the exportation of wool, and to keep in mind this source of our national wealth, woolsacks were placed in the House of Lords, whereon the judges sat."

A. C. Ewald, The Crown and its Advisers, lecture 3.

WORCESTER, Marquis of, The inventions of.

See STEAM ENGINE.

WORCESTER, Battle of.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1651 (AUGUST).

WORDE, Wynkyn de, The Press of.

See PRINTING &c.: A. D. 1476-1491.

WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, The.

See CHICAGO: A. D. 1892-1893.

WORLD'S FAIR, The First.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1851.

WORMS.

"Worms (Wormatia) (Borbetomagus), situated on the left bank of the Rhine, existed long before the Roman conquest, and is supposed to have been founded by the Celts, under the name of Borbetomagus. … In the 4th and 5th centuries it was a flourishing town in the possession of the Burgundians. Under their King Gundahar, the vicinity of Worms was the scene of the popular legend handed down in the romantic poem known as the Nibelungen-lied. In 496, by the victory of Tolbiacum, it formed a part of the empire of Clovis."

W. J. Wyatt, History of Prussia, volume 2, page 447.

WORMS: A. D.406. Destruction by the Germans.

See GAUL: A. D. 406-409.

WORMS: A. D. 1521. The Imperial Diet. Luther's summons and appearance.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1521-1522.

WORMS: A. D. 1713. Taken by the French.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

WORMS: A. D. 1743. Treaty between Austria, Sardinia and England.

See ITALY: A. D. 1743; and AUSTRIA: A. D. 1743-1744.

WORMS: A. D. 1792. Occupied by the French Revolutionary Army.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1792 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER).

WORMS, Concordat of(1122).

See PAPACY: A. D. 1056-1122.

WÖRTH, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (JULY-AUGUST).

WRANGLERS, Senior.

At Oxford and Cambridge Universities, "by a strange relic of the logical and disputatory studies of the Middle Ages, the candidates for University honors maintained in public some mathematical thesis, about which they disputed in Latin, never, as it may be supposed, of the best. To keep up the illusion of the monkish time, and the seven liberal arts, a little metaphysics and a good deal of theology were thrown in at the time of the examination; but the real business of the 'schools' at Cambridge was mathematics. The disputing, however, was so important a part of the performances that the first division of those to whom were awarded honors were called by distinction,'the wranglers'; and the head man—the proud recipient of all the glory which at the end of a four years' course the ancient University showered on the son she possessed most distinguished in her favorite studies—was called the senior wrangler. In process of time, the disputations and Latin were all done away with. An examination from printed papers was made the test. Yet, still, every year, at the end of the arduous eight days' trial, the undergraduate who takes his bachelor's degree in virtue of passing the best examination in mathematics, is called the senior wrangler; and attains the proudest position that Cambridge has to bestow."

W. Everett, On the Cam, lecture 2.

WRIT OF HABEAS CORPUS. WRIT OF MAINPRISE. WRIT DE HOMINE REPLEGIANDO.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1679.

WRITS OF ASSISTANCE.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1761; and MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1761.

WROXETER, Origin of.

See URICONIUM.

—————WÜRTEMBERG: Start————

WÜRTEMBERG: Early Suevic population.

See SUEVI.

WÜRTEMBERG: Founding of the Dukedom.

"Conrad of Beutelsbach, the first of this family that appears upon record, got the County of Würtemberg from the Emperor Henry IV. in 1103, and was succeeded by his son Ulrick I. as Count of Würtemberg, in 1120. Henry, the fourteenth in lineal descent from Ulrick, was made Duke of Würtemberg in 1519. Frederick II., and eighth Duke of Würtemberg, succeeded his father in 1797, and was proclaimed King of Würtemberg in 1805."

Sir A. Halliday, Annals of the House of Hanover, volume 1, page 430.

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1801-1803. Acquisition of territory under the Treaty of Luneville.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1805-1806. Aggrandized by Napoleon. Created a Kingdom. Joined to the Confederation of the Rhine.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1805-1806; and 1806 (JANUARY-AUGUST).

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1809. Incorporation of the rights and revenues of the Teutonic Order with the Kingdom.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1813. Abandonment of the Rhenish Confederacy and the French Alliance.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1816. Accession to the Holy Alliance.

See HOLY ALLIANCE.

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1866. The Seven Weeks War. Indemnity to Prussia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.

WÜRTEMBERG: A. D. 1870-1871. Treaty of union with the Germanic Confederation, soon transformed into the German Empire.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1870 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER); and 1871.

—————WÜRTEMBERG: End————

WÜRTZBURG, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER).

WUZEER, VIZIR.

See OUDE; and VIZIR.

WYANDOT CONSTITUTION, The.

See KANSAS: A. D. 1854-1859.

WYANDOTS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: HURONS OR WYANDOTS.

{3662}

WYAT'S INSURRECTION.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1554.

WYCLIF'S REFORMATION.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1360-1414; BOHEMIA: A. D. 1405-1415, and BEGUINES.

WYOMING: The Name.

"Wyoming is a corruption of the name given to the locality by the Indians. They called it 'Maughwauwame.' The word is compounded of 'maughwau,' large, and 'wame,' plains. The name, then, signifies 'The Large Plains.' The Delawares pronounced the first syllable short, and the German missionaries, in order to come as near as possible to the Indian pronunciation wrote the name M'chweuwami. The early settlers, finding it difficult to pronounce the word correctly, spoke it Wauwaumie, then Wiawumie, then Wiomic, and, finally, Wyoming,"

G. Peck, Wyoming: Its History &c., chapter 1.

WYOMING (State): A. D. 1803. Eastern portion embraced in the Louisiana Purchase.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

WYOMING (State): A. D. 1890. Admission to the Union as a State.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: 1889-1890.

WYOMING (Valley): A. D. 1753-1799. Connecticut claims and settlements. The Pennamite and Yankee War.

See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1753-1799.

WYOMING (Valley): A. D. 1755. The Grasshopper War of the Delaware and Shawanese tribes of American Indians.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SHAWANESE.

WYOMING (Valley): A. D. 1778. The Tory and Indian invasion and massacre. Its misrepresentation by historians and poets.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778 (JULY).

X.

X, Y, Z, CORRESPONDENCE, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1797-1799.

XENOPHON'S RETREAT.

See PERSIA: B. C. 401-400.

XERES DE LA FRONTERA, Battle of (A. D. 711).

See SPAIN: A. D. 711-713.

XERXES.

See PERSIA: B. C, 486-405, and GREECE: B. C. 480-479.

Y.

YAKOOB BEG, The Dominion of.

The Chinese obtained possession of Kashgar or Chinese Turkestan (see TURKESTAN) about 1760, and held it for a century, overcoming much revolt during the last forty years of that period. In 1862, the revolt assumed a more formidable character than it had borne before. Its beginning was among a neighboring people called, variously, the Tungani, Dungani, or Dungans. These were "a Mahomedan people settled in the north-west province of Kansuh and in a portion of Shensi. Many of them had migrated westward at the time of the wars of Keen Lung, and had colonized various parts of the Chinese conquests. During a century this movement westward had continued, and in 1862 the Tungani represented the majority of the population, not only in parts of Kansuh, but also in the country to the west, as far as Ili and the city of Turfan. Although Mahomedans, they had acted as the soldiers of the Chinese. They had won their battles, laid down their roads, and held the Tartar population in check. From the Tungani the Chinese never for an instant expected danger. They were certainly heretics; but then they were part and parcel of themselves in every other respect. They hated the Khokandians and the people of Kashgar with a hatred that was more bitter than that they bore to the Khitay or Buddhist Chinese. In all essentials the Tungani were treated exactly like the most favoured children of the empire. … The only cause that it is possible to assign for their rebellion is that vague one of the religious revival which was then manifesting itself among the Mahomedans all over the world. But whatever the cause, the consequences were clear enough. In 1862 a riot occurred at a village in Kansuh. Order was restored with some small loss of life; and the momentary alarm which had been caused by it passed away. The alarm was, however, only too well founded. A few weeks afterwards a more serious riot took place at the town of Houchow or Salara. This was the signal for the rising of the Tungani in all directions. The unanimity shown by the various Tungani settlements proved that there had been a preconcerted arrangement amongst them; but the Chinese had known nothing of it. … The few Imperial troops remaining in the province of Kansuh were unable to withstand the desperate and unanimous assault of the Mahomedans. They were swept out of existence, and with them the larger portion of the Khitay population as well. The Mahomedan priests took the lead in this revolt, and the atrocities which they and their followers enacted were of the most horrible and blood-thirsty character. The butchery of tens of thousands of their Buddhist subjects in Kansuh appealed loudly to the Chinese Government for revenge; and it was not long before their troops restored Kansuh to its allegiance. Those of the Tungani who were captured were given over to the executioner. But a large number escaped, fleeing westward to those cities beyond the desert, where other Mussulmans had imitated, with like success, the deeds of their kinsmen in Kansuh. … No sooner then did the tidings of the events in Kansuh reach Hamil and Barkul, Turfan and Manas, than risings at once took place against the Khitay. In all cases the movement was successful. The Manchus were deposed: the 'mollahs' were set up in their stead. After a short interval the other cities of Karashar, Kucha, and Aksu, followed the example, with an identical result. The Tungan revolt proper had then reached its limit. … The communications between Pekin and Jungaria were cut, and a hostile territory of nearly 2,000 miles intervened. To restore those communications, to reduce that hostile country, would demand a war of several campaigns; and China was not in a condition to make the slightest effort. All that her statesmen could hope for was, that she would not go irretrievably to pieces. {3663} The Tungani flourished on the misfortunes of the empire. … During some months after the first successes of the Tungani, the people of Kuldja and Kashgaria remained quiet, for the prestige of China's power was still great. But when it became evident to all, that communication was hopelessly cut off between the Chinese garrisons and the base of their strength in China, both the Tungan element and the native population began to see that their masters were ill able to hold their own against a popular rising. This opinion gained ground daily, and at last the whole population rose against the Chinese and massacred them. … But no sooner had the Chinese been overthrown, than the victors, the Tungani and the Tarantchis, began to quarrel with each other. Up to the month of January, 1865, the rising had been carried out in a very irregular and indefinite manner. … It was essentially a blind and reckless rising, urged on by religious antipathy; and, successful as it was, it owed all its triumphs to the embarrassments of China. The misfortunes of the Chinese attracted the attention of all those who felt an interest in the progress of events in Kashgaria. Prominent among these was a brother of Wali Khan, Buzurg Khan [heir of the former rulers, the exiled Khojas], who resolved to avail himself of the opportunity afforded by the civil war for making a bold attempt to regain the place of his ancestors. Among his followers was Mahomed Yakoob, a Khokandian soldier of fortune, already known to fame in the desultory wars and feuds of which Central Asia had been the arena. His previous career had marked him out pre-eminently as a leader of men, and he now sought in Eastern Turkestan that sphere of which Russian conquests had deprived him in its Western region. There is little to surprise us in the fact that, having won his battles, Yakoob deposed and imprisoned his master Buzurg. In several campaigns between 1867 and 1873 he bent back the Tungani from his confines, and established an independent government in the vast region from the Pamir to beyond Turfan, and from Khoten and the Karakoram to the Tian Shan. He treated on terms of dignity with the Czar, and also with the Government of India. He received English envoys and Russian ambassadors, and his palace was filled with presents from London and St. Petersburg. … Urged on by some vague ambition, he made war upon the Tungani, when every dictate of prudence pointed to an alliance with them. He destroyed his only possible allies, and in destroying them he weakened himself both directly and indirectly. In the autumn of 1876 Yakoob Beg had indeed pushed forward so far to the east that he fancied he held Barkul and Hamil in his grasp; and the next spring would probably have witnessed a further advance upon these cities had not fate willed it otherwise. With the capture of the small village of Chightam, in 92° E. longitude, Yakoob's triumphs closed. Thus far his career had been successful; it may then be said to have reached its limit. In the autumn of 1876, the arrival of a Chinese army on his eastern frontier changed the current of his thoughts. … From November, 1876, until March, 1877, the Chinese generals were engaged in massing their troops on the northern side of the Tian Shan range. … Yakoob's principal object was to defend the Devan pass against the Chinese; but, while they attacked it in front, another army under General Chang Yao was approaching from Hamil. Thus outflanked, Yakoob's army retreated precipitately upon Turfan, where he was defeated, and again a second time at Toksoun, west of that town. The Chinese then halted. They had, practically speaking, destroyed Yakoob's powers of defence. That prince retreated to the town of Korla, where he was either assassinated or poisoned early in the month of May. … Korla was occupied on the 9th of October without resistance; and towards the end of the same month, Kucha, once an important city, surrendered. The later stages of the war were marked by the capture of the towns of Aksu, Ush Turfan, and Kashgar. With the fall of the capital, on the 17th of December, 1877, the fighting ceased. The Chinese authority was promptly established in the country as far south as Yarkand, and after a brief interval in Khoten."

D. C. Boulger, Central Asian Questions, chapter 12.

YALE COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: AMERICA: A. D. 1701-1717.

YAMASIS AND YAMACRAWS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

YAMCO, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

YANACONAS. MAMACONAS.

"The Yanaconas were a class existing [in Peru] in the time of the Incas, who were in an exceptional position. They were domiciled in the houses of their masters, who found them in food and clothing, paid their tribute, and gave them a piece of land to cultivate in exchange for their services. But to prevent this from degenerating into slavery, a decree of 1601 ordered that they should be free to leave their masters and take service elsewhere on the same conditions." The Mamaconas of Peru were a class of domestic servants.

C. R. Markham, Colonial History of South America, (Narrative and Critical History of America, volume 8, page 296).

YANAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: YANAN FAMILY.

YANKEE: Origin of the term.

"The first name given by the Indians to the Europeans who landed in Virginia was 'Wapsid Lenape' (white people); when, however, afterwards, they began to commit murders on the red men, whom they pierced with swords, they gave to the Virginians the name 'Mechanschican' (long knives), to distinguish them from others of the same colour. In New England they at first endeavoured to imitate the sound of the national name of the English, which they pronounced 'Yengees.'" After about the middle of the Revolutionary War the Indians applied the name "Yengees" exclusively to the people of New England, "who, indeed, appeared to have adopted it, and were, as they still are, generally through the country called 'Yankees,' which is evidently the same name with a trifling alteration. They say they know the 'Yengees,' and can distinguish them by their dress and personal appearance, and that they were considered as less cruel than the Virginians or 'long knives.' The proper English they [for 'they' read 'the Chippeways and some other nations.'—Editor's foot-note] call 'Saggenash.'"

J. Heckewelder, History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations (Pennsylvania Historical Society Memoirs, volume 12) pages 142-143.

{3664}

"The origin of this term [Yankees]. so frequently employed by way of reproach to the New England people, is said to be as follows. A farmer, by name Jonathan Hastings, of Cambridge, about the year 1713, used it as a cant, favorite word, to express excellency when applied to any thing; as a Yankee good horse, Yankee cider, &c., meaning an excellent horse and excellent cider. The students at college, having frequent intercourse with Mr. Hastings, and hearing him employ the term on all occasions, adopted it themselves, and gave him the name of Yankee Jonathan; this soon became a cant word among the collegians to express a weak, simple, awkward person, and from college it was carried and circulated through the country, till, from its currency in New England, it was at length taken up and unjustly applied to the New Englanders in common, as a term of reproach: It was in consequence of this that a particular song, called 'Yankee doodle,' was composed in derision of those scornfully called Yankees."

J. Thatcher, Military Journal during the Revolutionary War, page 19.

"Dr. William Gordon, in his History of the American War, edition 1789, volume i., pages 324,325, says it was a favourite cant word in Cambridge, Massachusets, as early as 1713, and that it meant 'excellent.' … Cf. Lowland Sc. 'yankie,' a sharp, clever, forward woman; 'yanker,' an agile girl, an incessant speaker; 'yanker,' a smart stroke, a great falsehood; 'yank,' a sudden and severe blow, a sharp stroke; 'yanking,' active, pushing (Jamieson). … If Dr. Gordon's view be right, the word 'yankee' may be identified with the Sc. 'yankie,' as above; and all the Scotch words appear to be of Scandinavian origin, due, ultimately Icel. 'jaga,' to move about. … The fundamental idea is that of 'quick motion'; see 'yacht.' But the word cannot be said to be solved."

W. W. Skeat, Etymological Dictionary.

"The best authorities on the subject now agree upon the derivation of this term from the imperfect effort made by the Northern Indians to pronounce the word 'English.'"

M. Schele de Vere, Americanisms, page 22.

ALSO IN: Notes and Queries, series 1, volume 6, page 57.

YANKTONS. The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

YARD-LAND.

An ancient holding of land in England equivalent to the virgate.

See HIDE OF LAND; and MANORS.

YATASSEES. The.

See TEXAS: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

YEAR BOOKS, English.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1307-1509.

YEAR OF ANARCHY, The.

See ATHENS: B. C. 404-403.

YEAR OF METON, The.

See METON, THE YEAR OF.

YELLOW FEVER, Appearance of.

See PLAGUE: 18TH CENTURY.

YELLOW FORD, Battle of the (1598).

See IRELAND: A. D. 1559-1603.

YELLOW TAVERN, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY: VIRGINIA) SHERIDAN'S RAID.

YELLOWS (of Venezuela) The.

See VENEZUELA: A. D. 1829-1886.

YEMAMA, Battle of.

See ACRABA.

YENIKALE, Attack on (1855).

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1854-1856.

YEOMEN.

"A 'yeoman' is defined by Sir Thomas Smith (Rep. Anglor. lib. 1. c. 24) as he whom our law calls 'legalem hominem,' a free-born man that may dispend of his own free land in yearly revenues to the sum of forty shillings. But it had also a more general application, denoting like 'valet' a higher kind of service, which still survives in the current phrase to do 'yeoman's service.' In the household of the mediæval knight or baron the younger sons of yeomen would form a large proportion of the servitors, and share with the younger sons of knight or squire the common name of 'valetti.' The yeomen too who lived on their own land, but wore the 'livery of company' of some baron or lesser territorial magnate, would also be his 'valets.' The mediæval 'yeoman' was the tenant of land in free socage. The extent of his holding might be large or small."

T. P. Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History, page 343, foot-note.

"At the period when the higher gentry began to absorb what remained of the feudal nobility, and established themselves definitely as an upper class, the small landowners—freeholders holding estates of inheritance or for life—long leaseholders and the larger copyholders made corresponding progress, and the yeomen (the common term applied to all of them) began in their turn to fill the position and take the rank of an agricultural middle class. The reign of Henry VI. had marked the zenith of their influence; they had by that time fully realized the fact of their existence as a body. The inferior limit of their class was approximately determined by the electoral qualification of the forty-shilling freeholder (under the Act of 1430), or by the £4 qualification for the office of juror. The superior limit was marked from a legal point of view by the property qualification of a magistrate, but socially there was not on this side any definite boundary line. In 1446 it was considered necessary to forbid the county electors to return 'valetti,' that is yeomen, to the House of Commons, a proof that custom and opinion left to themselves did not look upon the higher section of their class as unworthy of a seat in Parliament, an honour originally confined to the knights. Fortescue testifies almost with triumph to the fact that in no country of Europe were yeomen so numerous as in England."

E. Boutmy, The English Constitution, part 2, chapter 4.

In later English use the word "yeoman" has signified "a man of small estate in land, not ranking among the gentry."

YEOMEN OF THE GUARD.

"This corps was instituted by Henry VII. in 1485. It now consists of 100 men, six of whom are called Yeomen Hangers, and two Yeomen Bed-goers; the first attending to the hangings and tapestries of the royal apartments, and the second taking charge of all beds during any royal removals. The yeomen of the guard carry up the royal dinner, and are popularly designated as 'beef-eaters, 'respecting the origin of which name some differences of opinion exist, for many maintain that they never had any duties connected with the royal beaufet. A yeoman usher and a party of yeomen attend in the great chamber of the palace on drawing-room and levee days, to keep the passage clear."

C. R. Dodd, Manual of Dignities, part 2, section 1.

YERMOUK, Battle of (A. D. 636).

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 632-639.

YEZID I., Caliph, A. D. 679-683.

Yezid II., Caliph, 720-724.

Yezid III., Caliph, 744.

YNCAS, INCAS.

See PERU.

{3665}

YNGAVI, Battle of (1841).

See PERU: A. D. 1826-1876.

YORK: The Roman capital of Britain.

See EBORACUM.

YORK: The capital of Deira and Northumbria.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 547-633.

YORK: A. D. 1189. Massacre of Jews.

See JEWS: A. D. 1189.

YORK: A. D. 1644.

Parliamentary siege raised by Prince Rupert.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1644 (JANUARY-JULY).

YORK, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1777. The American Congress in session.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1777 (JANUARY-DECEMBER).

YORKINOS, The.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1822-1828.

YORKISTS.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1455-1471.

YORKTOWN: A. D. 1781. Surrender of Cornwallis and his army to Washington.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781 (MAY-OCTOBER).

YORKTOWN: A. D. 1862. McClellan's siege.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MARCH-MAY: VIRGINIA).

YOUNG, Brigham, and the Mormons.

See MORMONISM: A. D. 1830-1846, 1846-1847; and UTAH: A. D. 1849-1850, and 1857-1859.

YOUNG IRELAND MOVEMENT, The.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1841-1848.

YOUNG ITALY.

See ITALY: A. D. 1831-1848.

YPRES: A. D. 1383. Unsuccessful but destructive siege by the English.

See FLANDERS: A. D. 1383.

YPRES: A. D. 1648. Taken by the French.

See NETHERLANDS (SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1647-1648.

YPRES: A. D.1659. Restored to Spain.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

YPRES: A. D. 1679. Ceded to France.

See NIMEGUEN, THE PEACE OF.

YPRES: A. D. 1713. Ceded to Holland.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1713-1715.

YPRES: A. D. 1744-1748. Taken by the French and restored to Austria.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1743-1744; and AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: THE CONGRESS.

YPRES: A. D. 1794. Siege and capture by the French.

See FRANCE; A. D. 1794 (MARCH-JULY).

YUCATAN: The aboriginal inhabitants, their civilization and its monuments.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MAYAS, and QUICHES; also MEXICO, ANCIENT.

YUCATAN: Discovery. Disputed origin of the name.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1517-1518.

YUCHI.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: UCHEAN FAMILY.

YUGUARZONGO, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

YUKIAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: YUKIAN FAMILY.

YUMAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: YUMAN FAMILY.

YUMAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: APACHE GROUP.

YUNCAS, The.

See PERU: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

YUNGAY, Battle of (1839).

See PERU: A. D. 1826-1876.

YUROKS, EUROCS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MODOCS.

Z.

ZAB, Battle of the (A. D. 750).

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 715-750.

ZACHARIAS, Pope, A. D. 741-752.

ZAGONARA, Battle of (1424).

See ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.

ZAHARA: A. D. 1476. Surprise, capture and massacre by the Moors.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1476-1492.

ZALACCA, Battle of (1086).

See ALMORAVIDES; and PORTUGAL: EARLY HISTORY.

ZAMA, Battle of (B. C. 202).

See PUNIC WARS: THE SECOND.

ZAMBESIA.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1885-1893.

ZAMINDARS, OR ZEMINDARS.

See TALUKDARS; also INDIA: A. D. 1785-1793.

ZAMZUMMITES, The.

See JEWS: EARLY HEBREW HISTORY.

ZANCLE.

See MESSENE IN SICILY, FOUNDING OF.

ZANZIBAR: A. D. 1885-1886. Seizure of territory by Germany.

See AFRICA: A. D. 1884-1891.

ZAPORO, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

ZAPOTECS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ZAPOTECS, etc.

ZARA: A. D. 1203. Capture and Destruction.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1201-1203.

ZARAGOSSA.

See SARAGOSSA.

ZARAKA, The.

See SARANGIANS.

ZARANGIANS, The.

See SARANGIANS.

ZARATHUSTRA, ZOROASTER.

See ZOROASTRIANS.

ZEA.

See PIRÆUS.

ZEALOTS, The.

A party among the Jews which forced on the great struggle of that people with the Roman power,—the struggle which ended in the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. A party of ardent patriots in its origin, and embracing the flower of the nation, it degenerated, by enlistment of the passions of the populace, into a fierce, violent, desperate faction, which Ewald (History of Israel, book 7) compares to that of the Jacobins of the French Revolution.

Josephus, The Jewish War.

ZEEWAND.

See WAMPUM.

ZEGRIS, The.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1238-1273; and 1476-1492.

ZELA, Battle of (B. C. 47).

See ROME: B. C. 47-46.

ZEMINDARS, ZAMINDARS.

See TALUKDARS; also INDIA: A. D. 1785-1793.

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ZEMSTVO, The.

"The Zemstvo (in Russia] is a kind of local administration which supplements the action of the rural communes [see MIR], and takes cognizance of those higher public wants which individual communes cannot possibly satisfy. Its principal duties are to keep the roads and bridges in proper repair, to provide means of conveyance for the rural police and other officials, to elect the justices of peace, to look after primary education and sanitary affairs, to watch the state of the crops and take measures against approaching famine, and in short to undertake, within certain clearly-defined limits, whatever seems likely to increase the material and moral well-being of the population. In form the institution is parliamentary—that is to say, it consists of an assembly of deputies which meets at least once a year, and of a permanent executive bureau elected by the assembly from among its members. … Once every three years the deputies are elected in certain fixed proportions by the landed proprietors, the rural communes, and the municipal corporations. Every province (guberniya) and each of the districts (uyezdi) into which the province is subdivided has such an assembly and such a bureau."

D. M. Wallace, Russia, chapter 14.

ZENDAVESTA, The.

See ZOROASTRIANS.

ZENDECAN, Battle of (1038).

See TURKS: A. D. 999-1183.

ZENGER'S TRIAL.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1720-1734.

ZENO, Roman Emperor (Eastern). A. D. 474-491.

ZENOBIA, The Empire of.

See PALMYRA.

ZENTA, Battle of (1697).

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1683-1699.

ZEPHATHAH, Battle of.

Fought by Asa, king of Judah, with Zerah the Ethiopian, whom he defeated.

2 Chronicles, xiv. 9-15.

ZEUGITÆ, The.

See ATHENS: B. C. 594.

ZEUGMA.

See APAMEA.

ZIELA, Battle of.

A battle fought in the Mithridatic War, B. C. 67, in which the Romans were badly defeated by the Pontic king.

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 2.

ZIGANI. ZIGEUNER. ZINCALI. ZINGARRI.

See GYPSIES.

ZINGIS KHAN, The conquests of.

See MONGOLS: A. D. 1153-1227; and INDIA: A. D. 977-1290.

ZINGLINS.

See HAYTI: A. D. 1804-1880.

ZINZENDORF, Count, and the Moravian Brethren.

See MORAVIAN OR BOHEMIAN BRETHREN.

ZION.

See JERUSALEM: CONQUEST AND OCCUPATION BY DAVID.

ZNAIM, Armistice of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

ZOAN. TANIS. SAN.

These are the names which, at different periods, have been given to an ancient city near the northeastern borders of Egypt, the ruins of which have been identified and are being explored, on the east bank of the canal that was formerly the Tanitic branch of the Nile. Both in Egyptian history and Biblical history Zoan was an important place. "The whole period of the Hebrew sojourn is closely interwoven with the history of Zoan. Here ruled the king in whose name Egypt was governed by the Hebrew, who was no less than regent; here ruled those who still favoured the people of Israel. Under the great Oppression, Zoan was a royal residence."

R. S. Poole, Cities of Egypt, chapter 5.

ALSO IN: W. M. F. Petrie, Tanis (2d Mem., Egypt Expl. Fund).

See, also, JEWS: THE CHILDREN OF ISRAEL IN EGYPT.

ZOBAH, Kingdom of.

A kingdom of brief importance, extending from the Orontes to the Euphrates, which appears among the allies of the Ammonites, in their war with David King of Israel.

H. Ewald, Lectures on the History of Israel, volume 3, pages 150-152.

ZOE AND THEODORA, Empresses in the East (Byzantine, or Greek). A. D. 1042.

ZOHAR, The.

See CABALA.

ZOHARITES, The.

A singular Jewish sect which sprang up in Poland during the seventeenth century, taking its name from the Zohar, one of the books of the Cabala, on which it founded its faith.

H. H. Milman, History of the Jews. book 28.

ZOLLPARLAMENT, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866-1870.

ZOLLVEREIN, The German.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION AND CONVENTIONS (GERMANY): A. D. 1833. Also (in Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1815-1848.

ZOQUES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ZAPOTECS. etc.

ZORNDORF, Battle or.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1758.

ZOROASTRIANS. MAGIANS. PARSEES.

"The Iranians were in ancient times the dominant race throughout the entire tract lying between the Suliman mountains and the Pamir steppe on the one hand, and the great Mesopotamian valley on the other. … At a time which it is difficult to date, but which those best skilled in Iranian antiquities are inclined to place before the birth of Moses, there grew up, in the region whereof we are speaking, a form of religion marked by very special and unusual features. … Ancient tradition associates this religion with the name of Zoroaster. Zoroaster, or Zarathrustra, according to the native spelling, was, by one account, a Median king who conquered Babylon about B. C. 2458. By another, which is more probable, and which rests, moreover, on better authority, he was a Bactrian, who, at a date not quite so remote, came forward in the broad plain of the middle Oxus to instil into the minds of his countrymen the doctrines and precepts of a new religion. … His religion gradually spread from 'happy Bactra,' 'Bactra of the lofty banner,' first to the neighbouring countries, and then to all the numerous tribes of the Iranians, until at last it became the established religion of the mighty empire of Persia, which, in the middle of the 6th century before our era, established itself on the ruins of the Assyrian and Babylonian kingdoms, and shortly afterwards overran and subdued the ancient monarchy of the Pharaohs. In Persia it maintained its ground, despite the shocks of Grecian and Parthian conquest, until Mohammedan intolerance drove it out at the point of the sword, and forced it to seek a refuge further east, in the peninsula of Hindustan. Here it still continues, in Guzerat and in Bombay, the creed of that ingenious and intelligent people known to Anglo-Indians—and may we not say to Englishmen generally?—as Parsees [see PARSEES]. The religion of the Parsees is contained in a volume of some size, which has received the name of 'the Zendavesta.' … 'Anquetil Duperron introduced the sacred book of the Parsees to the knowledge of Europeans under this name; and the word thus introduced can scarcely be now displaced. {3667} Otherwise, 'Avesta-Zend' might be recommended as the more proper title. 'Avesta' means 'text,' and Zend means 'comment.' 'Avesta u Zend,' or 'Text and Comment,' is the proper title, which is then contracted into 'Avesta-Zend.' … Subjected for the last fifty years to the searching analysis of first-rate orientalists—Burnouf, Westergaard, Brockhaus, Spiegel, Haug, Windischmann, Hübschmann,—this work has been found to belong in its various parts to very different dates, and to admit of being so dissected as to reveal to us, not only what are the tenets of the modern Parsees, but what was the earliest form of that religion whereof theirs is the remote and degenerate descendant. Signs of a great antiquity are found to attach to the language of certain rhythmical compositions called Gâthâs or hymns; and the religious ideas contained in these are found to be at once harmonious, and also of a simpler and more primitive character than those contained in the rest of the volume. From the Gâthâs chiefly, but also to some extent from other, apparently very ancient, portions of the Zendavesta, the characteristics of the early Iranian religion have been drawn out by various scholars, particularly by Dr. Martin Haug. … The most striking feature of the religion, and that which is generally allowed to be its leading characteristic, is the assertion of Dualism. By Dualism we mean the belief in two original uncreated principles, a principle of good and a principle of evil. … Both principles were real persons, possessed of will, intelligence, power, consciousness, and other personal qualities. To the one they gave the name of Ahura-Mazda, to the other that of Angro-Mainyus. … The names themselves sufficiently indicated to those who first used them the nature of the two beings. Ahura-Mazda was the 'all-bountiful, all-wise, living being' or 'spirit,' who stood at the head of all that was good and lovely, beautiful and delightful. Angro-Mainyus was the 'dark and gloomy intelligence' that had from the first been Ahura-Mazda's enemy, and was bent on thwarting and vexing him. And with these fundamental notions agreed all that the sacred books taught concerning either being. … The two great beings who thus divided between them the empire of the universe were neither of them content to be solitary. Each had called into existence a number of inferior spirits, who acknowledged their sovereignty, fought on their side, and sought to execute their behests. At the head of the good spirits subject to Ahura-Mazda stood a band of six dignified with the title of Amesha-Spentas, or 'Immortal Holy Ones.' … In direct antithesis to these stood the band, likewise one of six, which formed the council and chief support of Angro-Mainyus. … Besides these leading spirits there was marshalled on either side an innumerable host of lesser and subordinate ones, called respectively 'ahuras' and 'devas,' who constituted the armies or attendants of the two great powers, and were employed by them to work out their purposes. The leader of the angelic hosts, or 'ahuras' was a glorious being, called Sraosha or Serosh—'the good, tall, fair Serosh,' who stood in the Zoroastrian system where Michael the Archangel stands in the Christian. … Neither Ahura-Mazda nor the Amesha-Spentas were represented by the early Iranians under any material forms. The Zoroastrian system was markedly anti-idolatrous: and the utmost that was allowed the worshipper was an emblematic representation of the Supreme Being by means of a winged circle, with which was occasionally combined an incomplete human figure, robed and wearing a tiara. … The position of man in the cosmic scheme was determined by the fact that he was among the creations of Ahura-Mazda. Formed and placed on earth by the Good Being, he was bound to render him implicit obedience, and to oppose to the utmost Angro-Mainyus and his creatures. His duties might be summed up under the four heads of piety, purity, industry, and veracity. Piety was to be shown by an acknowledgment of Ahura-Mazda as the One True God, by a reverential regard for the Amesha-Spentas and the Izeds, or lower angels, by the frequent offering of prayers, praises, and thanksgivings, the recitation of hymns, the occasional sacrifice of animals, and the performance from time to time of a curious ceremony known as that of the Haoma or Homa [see SOMA.—HAOMA). … The purity required of the Iranians was inward as well as outward. … The duty of veracity was inculcated perhaps more strenuously than any other. … If it be asked what opinions were entertained by the Zoroastrians concerning man's ultimate destiny, the answer would seem to be, that they were devout and earnest believers in the immortality of the soul, and a conscious future existence. … The religion of the early Iranians became corrupted after a time by an admixture of foreign superstitions. The followers of Zoroaster, as they spread themselves from their original seat upon the Oxus over the regions lying south and south-west of the Caspian Sea, were brought into contact with a form of faith considerably different from that to which they had previously been attached, yet well adapted for blending with it. This was Magism, or the worship of the elements [see MAGIANS). The early inhabitants of Armenia, Cappadocia, and the Zagros mountain-range, had, under circumstances that are unknown to us, developed this form of religion, and had associated with its tenets a priest-caste. … The four elements, fire, air, earth, and water, were recognised as the only proper objects of human reverence. … When the Zoroastrians came into contact with Magism, it impressed them favourably. … The result was that, without giving up any part of their previous creed, the Iranians adopted and added on to it an the principal points of the Magian belief, and all the more remarkable of the Magian religious usages. This religious fusion seems first to have taken place in Media. The Magi became a Median tribe, and were adopted as the priest-caste of the "Median nation." This "produced an amalgam that has shown a surprising vitality, having lasted above 2,000 years—from the time of Xerxes, the son of Darius Hystaspis (B. C. 485-465) to the present day."

G. Rawlinson, Religions of the Ancient World, chapter 3.

"As the doctrines of Zoroaster bear in several points such a striking resemblance to those of Christianity, it is a question of grave importance to ascertain the age in which he lived. … Since there can be no doubt that … we must assign to Zarathustra Spitama a date prior to the Median conquest of Babylon by a Zoroastrian priest king, the only question remaining to be solved is, whether he lived only a short time, or long, before that event. {3668} I am inclined to believe that he lived only about 100 or 200 years before that time, and that the conquest of Babylon was one of the last consequences of the great religious enthusiasm kindled by him. He preached, like Moses, war and destruction to all idolaters and wicked men. … According to this investigation we cannot assign to Zarathustra Spitama a later date than about 2300 B. C. Thus he lived not only before Moses, but even, perhaps, before Abraham. … He was the first prophet of truth who appeared in the world, and kindled a fire which thousands of years could not entirely extinguish."

M. Haug, Lectures on an Original Speech of Zoroaster (Yasna 45), pages 17, 26.

M. Haug, Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings and Religion of the Parsees.

"Prof. Darmesteter has published a new translation [of the Zend Avesta] with a most ably written introduction, in which he maintains the thesis that not a line of our Avesta text is older than the time of Alexander's conquest, while the greater part belongs to a much later date. We may briefly remind our readers that, according to the traditional view, the old Zoroastrian books, which belong to the times of the Achæmenidæ, were destroyed at the Macedonian conquest, but that portions were preserved by the people, who retained the old faith, during the long period of the Arsacidan rule, though the Court favoured Greek civilization. … According to this view, we still possess the genuine remains of the old pre-Alexandrine literature, mutilated and corrupted during the period of Arsacidan indifference, but yet, so far as they go, a faithful representative of the sacred text of the Achæmenian time. … Professor Darmesteter, on the contrary, maintains that all our texts are post-Alexandrine in form and in substance. Some may belong to the 1st century B. C. or A. D., and some, as the legislative parts of the Vendidad, may be founded on older texts now lost; but a large portion was composed by the priests of Ardashir's Court in the 3d century. The Gâthâs, which till now have been generally considered as the ancient nucleus of the whole system and ascribed to Zoroaster himself, are, in the Professor's opinion, certainly modern, and are relegated to the 1st century of our era."