Part 2 — CHAPTER IV. Concerning the infallible teaching of the Roman Pontiff: (continued 22)

See DECLARATION OF PARIS.

S. Walpole, History of England from 1815, chapter 24.

ALSO IN: E. Hertslet, The Map of Europe by Treaty, volume 2, documents 263-272.

RUSSIA: A. D. 1855. Accession of Alexander II.

RUSSIA: A. D. 1859. Improved treatment of the Jews.

See JEWS: A. D. 1727-1880.

RUSSIA: A. D. 1859-1876. Conquests in Central Asia. Subjugation of Bokhara, Khiva and Khokand.

"The original cause of Russia's appearance in Central Asia or Turkestan may be considered either the turbulence of the Kirghiz tribes, or the ambitions and clearly defined policy of Peter the Great. … Although the Czarina Anne received in 1734 the formal surrender of all the Kirghiz hordes, it was not until the present century had far advanced that the Russian Government could so much as flatter itself that it had effectually coerced them. … When the Kirghiz were subjugated Russia found no difficulty in reaching the lower course of the Jaxartes, on which [in 1849] … she established her advanced post at Kazala, or Fort No. 1. With her ultimate task thus simplified, nothing but the Crimean War prevented Russia's immediate advance up the Jaxartes into Turkestan. … The conquest of the Khanate of Turkestan began with the siege and capture of the forts Chulak Kurgan and Yani Kurgan in 1859; its successful progress was shown by the fall of the fortified towns of Turkestan and Auliata in 1864; and it was brought to a conclusion with the storming of Tashkent in 1865. The conquest of this Khanate, which had been united early in the century with that of Khokand, was thus speedily achieved, and this rapid and remarkable triumph is identified with the name of General Tchernaieff."

D. C. Boulger, Central Asian Questions, chapter 1.

"Khudayar Khan, the ruler of Khokand, a noted coward even in Central Asia, had soon lost his spirits, and implored Muzaffar-ed-din-Khan for assistance. Bokhara, reputed at that time the very stronghold of moral and material strength in Central Asia, was soon at hand with an army outnumbering the Russian adventurers ten or fifteen times; an army in name only, but consisting chiefly of a rabble, ill-armed, and devoid of any military qualities. By dint of preponderating numbers, the Bokhariots succeeded so far as to inflict a loss upon the daring Russian general at Irdjar, who, constrained to retreat upon Tashkend, was at once deposed by his superiors in St. Petersburg, and, instead of praises being bestowed upon him for the capture of Tashkend, he had to feel the weight of Russian ingratitude. His successor, General Romanovsky, played the part of a consolidator and a preparer, and as soon as this duty was fulfilled he likewise was superseded by General Kauffmann, a German from the Baltic Russian provinces, uniting the qualities of his predecessors in one person, and doing accordingly the work entrusted to him with pluck and luck in a comparatively short time. In 1868 the Yaxartes valley, together with Samarkand, the former capital of Timur, fell into the hands of Russia, and General Kauffmann would have proceeded to Bokhara, and even farther, if Muzaffar-ed-din-Khan … had not voluntarily submitted and begged for peace. At the treaty of Serpul, the Emir was granted the free possession of the country which was left to him, beginning beyond Kermineh, as far as Tchardjui in the south. … Of course the Emir had to pledge himself to be a true and faithful ally of Russia. He had to pay the heavy war indemnity. … he had to place his sons under the tutorship of the Czar in order to be brought up at St. Petersburg. … and ultimately he had to cede three points on his southern frontier—namely, Djam, Kerki, and Tchardjui. … Scarcely five years had elapsed when Russia … cast her eyes beyond the Oxus upon the Khan of Khiva. … A plea for a 'casus belli' was soon unearthed. … The Russian preparations of war had been ready for a long time, provisions were previously secured on different points, and General Kauffmann, notoriously fond of theatrical pageantries, marched through the most perilous route across bottomless sands from the banks of the Yaxartes to the Oxus [1873]. … {2782} Without fighting a single battle, the whole country on the Lower Oxus was conquered. Russia again showed herself magnanimous by replacing the young Khan upon the paternal throne, after having taken away from him the whole country on the right bank of the Oxus, and imposed upon his neck the burden of a war indemnity which will weigh him down as long as he lives, and cripple even his successors, if any such are to come after him. Three more years passed, when Russia … again began to extend the limits of her possessions in the Yaxartes Valley towards the East. In July, 1876, one of the famous Russian embassies of amity was casually (?) present at the Court of Khudayar Khan at Khokand, when suddenly a rebellion broke out, endangering not only the lives of the Russian embassy but also of the allied ruler. No wonder, therefore, that Russia had to take care of the friend in distress. An army was despatched to Khokand, the rebellion was quelled, and, as a natural consequence, the whole Khanate incorporated into the dominions of the Czar. The Khokandians, especially one portion of them called the Kiptchaks, did not surrender so easily as their brethren in Bokhara and Khiva. The struggle between the conquerer and the native people was a bloody and protracted one; and the butchery at Namangan, an engagement in which the afterwards famous General Skobeleff won his spurs, surpasses all the accounts hitherto given of Russian cruelty. Similar scenes occurred in Endidjan and other places, until the power of the Kiptchaks, noted for their bravery all over Central Asia, was broken, and 'peace,' a pendant to the famous tableau of Vereshtchagin, 'Peace at Shipka,' prevailed throughout the valleys of Ferghana, enabling the Russian eagle to spread his wings undisturbedly over the whole of Central Asia, beginning from the Caspian Sea in the west to the Issyk Kul in the east, and from Siberia to the Turkoman sands in the south."

A. Vambéry, The Coming Struggle for India, chapter 2.

ALSO IN: F. von Hellwald, The Russians in Central Asia, chapters 7-11.

J. Hutton, Central Asia, chapters 12 and 18.

RUSSIA: A. D. 1860-1880. The rise, spread and character of Nihilism.

See NIHILISM.

RUSSIA: A. D. 1861. Emancipation of serfs.

See SLAVERY, MEDIÆVAL AND MODERN: RUSSIAN SERFDOM.

RUSSIA: A. D. 1864. Organization of Public Instruction.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.—RUSSIA.

RUSSIA: A. D. 1867. Sale of Alaska to the United States.

See ALASKA: A. D. 1867.

RUSSIA: A. D. 1869·1881. Advance in Central Asia from the Caspian. Capture of Geok Tepe. Subjugation of the Turkomans. Occupation of Merv.

"Down to 1869 the Russian advance into Central Asia was conducted from Orenburg and the various military posts of Western Siberia. Year by year the frontier was pushed to the southward, and the map of the Asiatic possessions of Russia required frequent revision. The long chain of the Altai Mountains passed into the control of the Czar; the Aral Sea became a Russian lake; and vast territories with a sparse population were brought under Russian rule. … The Turcoman country extends westward as far as the Caspian Sea. To put a stop to the organized thieving of the Turcomans, and more especially to increase the extent of territory under their control, and open the land route to India, the Russians occupied the eastern shore of the Caspian in 1869. A military expedition was landed at Krasnovodsk, where it built a fort, and took permanent possession of the country in the name of the Czar. Points on the eastern coast of the Caspian had been occupied during the time of Peter the Great, and again during the reign of Nicholas I., but the occupation of the region was only temporary. The force which established itself at Krasnovodsk consisted of a few companies of infantry, two sotnias of Cossacks, and half a dozen pieces of artillery. Three men who afterwards obtained considerable prominence in the affairs of Central Asia, and one of whom gained a world-wide reputation as a soldier, were attached to this expedition. The last was Skobeleff, the hero of Plevna and the Russo-Turkish campaign of 1877-78. The others were Stolietoff' and Grodekoff. … The Yomut Turcomans in the Caspian region made no resistance; they are far less warlike than the Tekke Turcomans farther to the east, who afterwards became the defenders of Geok Tepe. … From 1869 to 1873 there were numerous skirmishes and reconnoitrings, during which the steppes were pretty well explored as far as Kizil-Arvat. General Stolietoff' was in command until 1872, when he was succeeded by Colonel Markusoff, who pushed his explorations to the wells of Igdy, then bending to the southwest, he passed Kizil·Arvat on his return to Krasnovodsk. There appeared to be no obstacle to a Russian advance into the heart of the country. But when General Lomakin was ordered there during the years between 1873 and 1879, he found that beyond Kizil-Arvat were the Tekke Turcomans, who seemed determined to make a decided opposition to the Muscovite designs. … He advanced with 4,000 men and reached Geok Tepe without resistance, but no sooner was he in front of it than the Turcomans fell upon him. He was severely defeated and made a hasty retreat to Krasnovodsk with the remnant of his army. General Tergukasoff was next appointed to the command, but when he saw the difficulties confronting him he resigned. He was succeeded by General Petrussovitch under the chief command of Skobeleff. Thus from Stolietoff to Skobeleff there were no fewer than seven generals who had tried to conquer the Tekke Turcomans. Skobeleff, seeing the vast difficulties of the situation, matured a skilful and scientific plan of operations, for which he obtained the imperial sanction. … Skobeleff's first work [1880] was to secure a safe transport, establish a regular line of steamers across the Caspian, to build suitable docks, secure 20,000 camels, and build a railway from Michaelovsk to Kizil-Arvat. Michaelovsk is a small bay near Krasnovodsk and better suited as a harbor than the latter place. Skobeleff's first reconnoitring convinced him that Geok Tepe could only be taken by a regular siege. … Geok Tepe, sometimes called Goek Tepe ('The Green Hills'), is situated on the Akhal oasis, in the Turcoman steppes, 387 versts (250 miles), east of the Caspian Sea. The chain of hills called the Kopet·Dag, lies south and southwest of Geok Tepe, and on the other side it touches the sandy desert of Kara Kum, with the hill of Geok on the east. The Turcomans, or rather the Tekke Turcomans, who held it are the most numerous of the nomad tribes in that region. {2783} They are reported to count about 100,000 kibitkas, or tents; reckoning 5 persons to a kibitka, this would give them a strength of half a million. Their great strength in numbers and their fighting abilities enabled them to choose their position and settle on the most fertile oases along the northern border of Persia for centuries. These oases have been renowned for their productiveness, and in consequence of the abundance of food, the Tekkes were a powerful race of men, and were feared throughout all that part of Asia. … The fortress of Geok Tepe at the time of the Russian advance consisted of walls of mud 12 or 15 feet high towards the north and west, and 6 or 8 feet thick. In front of these walls was a ditch, 6 feet deep, supplied by a running stream, and behind the walls was a raised platform for the defenders. The space between the first and second interior wall was from 50 to 60 feet wide, and occupied by the kibitkas of the Tekke Turcomans and their families. The second wall was exactly like the outer one." The Russian siege was opened at the beginning of the year 1881. "The first parallel, within 800 yards of the walls, was successfully cut by January 4th. From that date it was a regular siege, interrupted occasionally by sallies of the Tekkes within the fort or attacks by those outside. In one of these fights General Petrussovitch was killed. The besieging army was about 10,000 strong, while the besieged were from 30,000, to 40,000. … Throughout the siege the Turcomans made frequent sallies and there was almost continuous fighting. Sometimes the Turcomans drove the Russians from the outposts, and if they had been as well armed as their besiegers it is highly probable that Skobeleff would have fared no better than did Lomakin in his disastrous campaign. … The storming columns were ordered to be ready for work on January 24th. … At 7 o'clock in the morning of the 24th, Gaidaroff advanced to attack the first fortification on the south front, supported by 36 guns. The wall had already been half crumbled down by an explosion of powder and completely broken by the firing of a dynamite mine. At 11.20 the assault took place, and during the action the mine on the east front was exploded. It was laid with 125 cwt: of gunpowder, and in its explosion completely buried hundreds of Tekkes. … About 1.30 P. M. Gaidaroff carried the southwestern part of the walls, and a battle raged in the interior. Half an hour later the Russians were in possession of Denghil-Tepe, the hill redoubt commanding the fortress of Geok Tepe. The Tekkes then seemed to be panic-stricken, and took to flight leaving their families and all their goods behind. … The ditches to Geok Tepe were filled with corpses, and there were 4, 000 dead in the interior of the fortress. The loss of the enemy was enormous. In the pursuit the Russians are said to have cut down no less than 8,000 fugitives. The total loss of the Tekkes during the siege, capture, and pursuit was estimated at 40,000. … Skobeleff pushed on in pursuit as far as Askabad, the capital of the Akhal Tekkes, 27 miles east of Geok Tepe, and from Askabad he sent Kuropatkin with a reconnoitring column half-way across the desert to Merv. Skobeleff wanted to capture Merv; but … he did not feel strong enough to make the attempt. Kuropatkin was recalled to Askabad, which remained the frontier post of the Russians for several months, until circumstances favored the advance upon Sarakhs and the Tejend, and the subsequent swoop upon Merv, with its bloodless capture [February, 1884]. The siege and capture of Geok Tepe was the most important victory ever achieved by the Russians in Central Asia. It opened the way for the Russian advance to the frontier of India, and carried the boundaries of the empire southward to those of Persia. In the interest of humanity, it was of the greatest importance, as it broke up the system of man-stealing and its attendant cruelties, which the Turcomans had practised for centuries. The people of Northern Persia no longer live in constant terror of Turcoman raids; the slave markets of Central Asia are closed, and doubtless forever."

T. W. Knox, Decisive Battles since Waterloo, chapter 22.

"There is a vast tract of country in Central Asia that offers great possibilities for settlement. Eastern Afghan, and Western Turkestan, with an area of 1,500,000 square miles, have a population which certainly does not exceed 15,000,000, or ten to the square mile. Were they peopled as the Baltic provinces of Russia are—no very extreme supposition—they would support 90,000,000. It is conceivable that something like this may be realized at no very distant date, when railroads are carried across China, and when water—the great want of Turkestan—is provided for by a system of canalisation and artesian wells. Meanwhile it is important to observe that whatever benefit is derived from an increase of population in these regions will mostly fall to China. That empire possesses the better two-thirds of Turkestan, and can pour in the surplus of a population of 400,000,000. Russia can only contribute the surplus of a population of about 100,000,000; and though the Russian is a fearless and good colonist, there are so many spaces in Russia in Europe to be filled up, so many growing towns that need workmen, so many counter-attractions in the gold bearing districts of Siberia, that the work of peopling the outlying dependencies of the empire is likely to be very gradual. Indeed it is reported that Russia is encouraging Chinese colonists to settle in the parts about Merv."

C. H. Pearson, National Life and Character, pages 43-44.

ALSO IN: General Skobeleff, Siege and Assault of Denghil-Tépé (Geok-Tépé): Official Report.

C. Marvin, The Russians at the Gates of Herat, chapter 1-2.

RUSSIA: A. D. 1877-1878. Successful war with Turkey. Siege and reduction of Plevna. Threatening advance towards Constantinople.- Treaty of San Stefano. Congress and Treaty of Berlin.

See TURKS: A. D. 1861-1877; 1877-1878; and 1878.

RUSSIA: A. D. 1878-1880. Movements in Afghanistan.

See AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1869-1881.

{2784}

RUSSIA: A. D. 1879-1881. Nihilist attempts against the life of the Czar Alexander II. His assassination.

In November, 1879, "the Czar paid his annual visit to the memorial church at Sevastopol, when a requiem was celebrated, and he left the Crimea on November 30. The following evening, as his train was entering Moscow, followed by another carrying his baggage, an explosion took place under the baggage train from a mine of dynamite below the rails, which destroyed one carriage, and threw seven more off the line: He was informed of the cause of the noise he had just heard, as he stepped on to the platform at Moscow, and it proved to be another Nihilist outrage [see NIHILISM], designed chiefly by an ex-Jew, who escaped to France, and by Sophia Perovsky, who was afterwards concerned in the Emperor's death. A similar mine, of which the wire was accidentally cut by a passing cart before the train arrived, had been laid further south at Alexandrovsk; and another nearer to Odessa was discovered in time by the officials, who reversed the usual position of the Imperial trains, thereby probably saving the Czar's life. He telegraphed the same night to the Empress at Cannes that he had arrived safely at Moscow, but did not mention his escape, which she learned from the newspapers, and from her attendants. In her weak, nervous state, it is not surprising that the effect was most injurious. … Another plot was discovered to blow up the landing stage at Odessa when the Emperor embarked for Yalta on his way from Warsaw in September; but the arrest of the conspirators frustrated a scheme by which hundreds as well as the sovereign might have perished. … The Revolutionary Committee put forth a circular acknowledging their part in the explosion, and calling on the people to aid them against the Czar. … A formal sentence of death was forwarded to him at Livadia by the Revolutionary Committee in the autumn of 1879; and December 1 was evidently selected for the Moscow attempt, being the anniversary of the death of Alexander I.; therefore a fatal day for monarchs in the eyes of the Nihilists. The Empress continued very ill, and her desire to return to Russia increased. At last it was decided to gratify her, as her case was pronounced hopeless. … The Emperor joined her in the train three stations before she arrived at St. Petersburg, and drove alone with her in the closed carriage, in which she was removed from the station to the Winter Palace. Only a fortnight later [February 17, 1880], a diabolical attempt was made to destroy the whole Imperial family. The hours when they assembled in the dining-room were well known. … The Empress was confined to her room, only kept alive by an artificial atmosphere being preserved in her apartment, which was next to the dining-room. Her only surviving brother, Prince Alexander of Hesse-Darmstadt, had arrived the same evening on a visit, and his letter to his wife on the occasion describes the result of the plot: … 'We were proceeding through a large corridor to His Majesty's rooms, when suddenly a fearful thundering was heard. The flooring was raised as if by an earthquake, the gas lamps were extinguished, and we were left in total darkness. At the same time a horrible dust and the smell of gunpowder or dynamite filled the corridor. Some one shouted to us that the chandelier had fallen down in the saloon where the table was laid for the dinner of the Imperial family. I hastened thither with the Czarovitz and the Grand-Duke Vladimir, while Count Adlerberg, in doubt as to what might happen next, held back the Emperor. We found all the windows broken, and the walls in ruins. A mine had exploded under the room. The dinner was delayed for half an hour by my arrival, and it was owing to this that the Imperial family had not yet assembled in the dining-hall.' One of the Princes remarked that it was a gas explosion; but the Emperor, who fully retained his composure, said, 'O no, I know what it is;' and it was subsequently stated that for several weeks past he had found a sealed black-bordered letter on his table every morning, always containing the same threat, that he should not survive the 2nd of March, the twenty-fifth anniversary of his accession. His first care was to see that his daughter was safe, and he then asked her to go to the Empress, and prevent her from being alarmed, while he personally inspected the scene of the catastrophe. General Todleben was of opinion that 144 lbs. of dynamite must have been used; and one of the cooks —a foreigner—and another official disappeared; but none of those concerned in the plot was arrested at that time. Subsequent information showed that the explosion was intended for the 2nd of March, but hastened on account of the arrest of some one acquainted with the plot. It was caused by machinery placed in the flue, and set for 6 P. M. It killed and wounded two servants and thirty-three brave soldiers of the Finnish Guard, who were assembled in the hall under the dining-room and above the flue where the dynamite was laid. … The Russian and foreign newspapers teemed with advice to the Emperor to grant a constitution, or abdicate in order to save his life; and it is reported that in a Council of his Ministers and relations he offered to hand over the sceptre at once to his eldest son, if they agreed that it would be best for their own safety, and for Russia; but that he was earnestly requested to continue in power. However this might be, he took an extraordinary and decisive step. He appointed an Armenian, General Melikof, a man of 56 years of age, distinguished in the war with Turkey, and subsequently as Governor of Charkof, to be the temporary dictator of the Empire, with almost absolute powers, and over the six Governors-General who in 1879 were established throughout Russia. The Commission was for six months. … The explosion in the Winter Palace caused the greatest panic in St. Petersburg, and people would no longer take tickets for the opera, till they ascertained that the Emperor was not likely to be there. … The sad condition of the Empress, who lingered, hardly conscious, between life and death, the incessant Nihilist circulars which day after day were found among his clothes, or on his writing table, with the real attempts made to poison him in letters and other ways, and of assassins to penetrate into the Palace under the guise of sweeps, petitioners, fire-lighters, and guards, the danger to which his nearest relations were exposed, and the precautions which he looked upon as a humiliation that were taken to ensure his safety, added to the cares of Empire, must have rendered his [the Emperor's] existence hardly tolerable. It is not surprising that at last he desired to be left to take his chance. … He was again seen driving in the streets in an open droschky, with only his coachman and one Cossack. … In May the Court usually repaired to Gateschina for the summer manœuvres of the troops. … The Empress, having somewhat rallied, desired to go as usual to Gateschina. … But early in the morning of June 3, she passed quietly away in her sleep. … {2785} It has been since ascertained that the Nihilists had planned to blow up the bridge over which the funeral procession must pass, so as to destroy all the mourners, including the foreign princes, the Imperial hearse, and the numerous guards and attendants; but a tremendous storm of rain and wind on the previous night and morning, which raised the Neva to a level with its banks, and threatened to postpone the ceremony, prevented the last measures being taken to secure the success of the plot. … On March 2, the Emperor, as usual, attended the Requiem Mass for his father, and the service to celebrate his own accession to the throne. During the last week of his life, he lived in comparative retirement, as it was Lent, and he was preparing for the Holy Communion, which he received with his sons on the morning of Saturday, March 12. At 12 that day, Melikof came to tell him of the capture of one of the Nihilists concerned in the explosion in the Winter Palace. This man refused to answer any questions, except that his capture would not prevent the Emperor's certain assassination, and that his Majesty would never see another Easter. Both Melikof and the Czarovitz begged the Emperor in vain not to attend the parade the next day. … After the Parade [Sunday, March 13, 1881] the Emperor drove with his brother Michael to the Michael Palace, the abode of their cousin, the widowed Grand-Duchess Catherine; and, leaving his brother there, he set off about two o'clock by the shortest way to the Winter Palace, along the side of the Catherine Canal. There, in the part where the road runs between the Summer Garden and the Canal, a bombshell was hurled under the Imperial carriage, and exploded in a shower of snow, throwing down two of the horses of the escort, tearing off the back of the carriage, and breaking the glass, upsetting two lamp-posts, and wounding one of the Cossacks, and a baker's boy who was passing with a basket on his head. As soon as he saw the two victims lying on the pavement, the Emperor called to the coachman to stop, but the last only drove on faster, having received private orders from the Emperor's family to waive all ceremony, and to prevent his master from going into dangerous situations, or among crowds. However, the Emperor pulled the cord round the coachman's arm till he stopped; and then, in spite of the man's request to let himself be driven straight home, got out to speak to the sufferers, and to give orders for their prompt removal to the hospital, as the thermometer was below zero. … The Emperor gave his directions, and seeing the man who had thrown the bomb in the grasp of two soldiers, though still struggling to point a revolver at his sovereign, he asked his name, on which the aid-de-camp replied: 'He calls himself Griaznof, and says he is a workman.' The Emperor made one or two more remarks, and then turned to go back to his carriage. It was observed he was deadly pale, and walked very slowly; and as splashes of blood were found in the carriage, it was afterwards supposed that he had already received slight wounds. Several men had been placed at different points of the road with explosive bombs, and hearing the first explosion, two of these hurried up to see the effect. One of them flung a bomb at the Emperor's feet when he had gone a few paces towards his carriage, and it exploded, blowing off one leg, and shattering the other to the top of the thigh, besides mortally wounding the assassin himself, who fell with a shriek to the ground, and injuring twenty foot passengers. The other accomplice, according to his own evidence, put down his bomb, and instinctively ran forward to help the Emperor, who did not utter a sound, though his lips moved as if in prayer. He was supporting himself with his back against a buttress by grasping the rails on the canal. His helmet was blown off, his clothes torn to rags, and his orders scattered about on the snow, while the windows of houses 150 yards distant were broken by the explosion, which raised a column of smoke and snow, and was heard even at the Anitchkof Palace. … Besides his shattered limbs, the Emperor had a frightful gash in the abdomen, his left eyelid was burnt, and his sight gone, his right hand was crushed, and the rings broken. … The Emperor expired from loss of blood at five-and-twenty minutes to four. … More than twenty persons were killed and injured by the two bombs."

C. Joyneville, Life of Alexander II., chapter 13.

ALSO IN: Annual Register, 1879-1881.

RUSSIA: A. D. 1881. Accession of Alexander III.

RUSSIA: A. D. 1881-1894. Character and reign of Alexander III. Persecution of Jews and unorthodox Christians. Hostility to western civilization.

"According to an apparently authentic report in the Cracow paper 'Czas,' confirmed by later publications, the Emperor Alexander II. had signed the very morning of the day on which he was murdered a Ukase addressed to the Senate, by which a committee was to be appointed for realising Count Loris Melikow's project of a general representative assembly composed of delegates from the provincial assemblies. On March 20th Alexander III. convoked a grand council of the principal dignitaries, asking their opinion on Loris Melikow's proposal. A lively discussion took place, of which the 'Czas' gives a detailed account. … The Emperor, thanking the members, said that the majority had declared for the convening of an assembly elected by the nation for discussing the affairs of the State, adding, 'I share this opinion of the majority, and wish that the reform Ukase shall be published as under the patronage of my father, to whom the initiative of this reform is due.' The Ukase, however, was not published, Podobenoszew and Ignatiew having succeeded in discrediting it in the eyes of the Czar, asserting that it would only create excitement and increase the existing fermentation. On May 13th a manifesto appeared, in which the Czar declared his will 'to keep firmly the reins in obedience to the voice of God, and, in the belief in the force and truth of autocratic power, to fortify that power and to guard it against all encroachments.' A few days later Count Ignatiew, the head of the Slavophil party, was appointed Minister of the Interior, and by-and-by the other more liberal Ministers of Alexander II. disappeared. By far the most important personage under the present government is Podobenoszew, High Procurator of the Holy Synod, an office equivalent to a Minister of Public Worship for the State Church. Laborious and of unblemished integrity, this man is a fanatic by conviction. Under Alexander II., who was too much of a European to like him, he had but a secondary position, but under his pupil, the present Emperor, he has become all-powerful, the more so because his orthodoxy wears the national garb, and he insists that the break-down of the Nicolas I. system was only caused through governing with Ministers of German origin. {2786} He is seconded by Count Tolstoi, the Minister of Internal Affairs (who replaced the more liberal Saburow), to whom belong the questions concerning the foreign, i. e., non-orthodox, confessions. These two, supported by the Minister of Justice, Manasseïn, have enacted persecutions against Catholics, Uniates, Protestants, and Jews [see JEWS: 19TH CENTURY], which seem incredible in our age, but which are well attested. Thousands of persons who have committed no wrong other than that of being faithful to their inherited creed have been driven from their homes, and exiled to Siberia, or to distant regions without any means of livelihood. As regards Catholics, these measures are principally directed against the clergy; but the Uniates, i. e., the Catholics who have the Slav liturgy, are unsparingly deported if they refuse to have their children baptised by an orthodox Pope, and this is done with men, women, and children, peasants and merchants. Twenty thousand Uniates alone have been removed from the western provinces to Szaratow. Those who remain at home have Cossacks quartered upon them, and all sorts of compulsory means are used to stamp out this sect. … It is pretty certain that Alexander III. is ignorant of the atrocities committed in his name, for he is not a man to sanction deliberate injustice or to tolerate persons of manifest impurity in important offices. Though the Czar insists upon having personally honest Ministers, mere honesty is not sufficient for governing a great empire. Truth does not penetrate to the ear of the autocrat; the Russian Press does not reflect public opinion with its currents, but is simply the speaking-tube of the reigning coterie, which has suppressed all papers opposed to it, while the foreign Press is only allowed to enter mutilated by the censorship. Some people have, indeed, the privilege to read foreign papers in their original shape, but the Autocrat of All the Russias does not belong to them. … The Emperor is peaceful and will not hear of war: he has, in fact, submitted to many humiliations arising from Russia's conduct towards Bulgaria. … With all this, however, he is surrounded by Panslavists and allows them to carry on an underground warfare against the Balkan States. … He is strongly opposed to all Western ideas of civilisation, very irritable, and unflinching in his personal dislikes, as he has shown in the case of Prince Alexander of Battenberg; and, with his narrow views, he is unable to calculate the bearing of his words and actions, which often amount to direct provocation against his neighbours. If, nevertheless, tolerable relations with England, Austria, and Germany have been maintained, this is for the most part the merit of M. de Giers, the Foreign Secretary, an unpretending, cautious, and personally reliable man of business, whose influence with the Czar lies in the cleverness with which he appears not to exercise any."

Professor Geffcken, Russia under Alexander III. (New Review, September, 1891).

ALSO IN: H. von Samson-Himmelstierna, Russia under Alexander III.

RUSSIA: A. D. 1894. Death of Alexander III. Accession of Nicholas II.

The Czar Alexander III. died on the 1st of November, 1894, at Livadia, and the accession of his eldest son, who ascends the throne as Nicholas II., was officially proclaimed at St. Petersburg on the following day. The new autocrat was born in 1868. He is to wed the Princess Alix of Hesse Darmstadt.

—————RUSSIA: End————

RUSSIA, Great, Little, White, and Black.

"Little Russia consists of the governments of Podolia, Volhynia, Kief, Tchernigof, Poltava, and Kharkof. … To protect Poland from Tartar raids, the Polish king entrusted to the keeping of the Cossacks the whole south-east frontier of Poland, the former Grand Duchy of Kief, which acquired the name of Ukraine, 'borderland,' and also of Little Russia, in contradistinction to the Grand Duchy of Moscow or Great Russia. …

See COSSACKS.

The provinces of Moghilef, Minsk, and Vitebsk are popularly known by the name of White Russia. … The peaceful, industrious, good tempered White Russians are descendants of the old Slav race of the Krevitchi. … The name of 'the land of the Krevitchi,' by which White Russia was called in the 11th century, died out on the rise of the Principalities of Polotsk, Misteslavsk, and Minsk, which belonged first to Kief, next to Lithuania, and later still to Poland."

H. M. Chester, Russia, Past and Present, pages 225. 228, 270-271.

"The epithet of 'White,' applied also to the Muscovite Russians in the sense of 'free,' at the time when they were rescued from the Tatar yoke, has been the special designation of the Russians of the Upper Dnieper only since the end of the 14th century. At first applied by the Poles to all the Lithuanian possessions torn from the Muscovites, it was afterwards used in a more restricted sense. Catherine II. gave the name of White Russia to the present provinces of Vitebsk and Moghilov, and Nicholas abolished the expression altogether, since when it has lost all its political significance, while preserving its ethnical value. … The term 'White' is generally supposed to refer to the colour of their dress in contradistinction to the 'Black Russians,' between the Pripet and Niemen, who form the ethnical transition from the Little to the White Russians. … The terms Little Russia (Malo-Russia, Lesser Russia), Ukrania, Ruthenia, have never had any definite limits, constantly shifting with the vicissitudes of history, and even with the administrative divisions. … The name itself of Little Russia appears for the first time in the Byzantine chronicles of the 13th century in association with Galicia and Volhynia, after which it was extended to the Middle Dnieper, or Kiyovia. In the same way Ukrania—that is 'Frontier'—was first applied to Podolia to distinguish it from Galicia, and afterwards to the southern provinces of the Lithuanian state, between the Bug and Dnieper."

É. Reclus, The Earth and its Inhabitants: Europe, volume 5. pages 282-290.

RUSSIAN AMERICA.

See ALASKA.

RUSTCHUK, Battle of (1594).

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: 14-18TH CENTURIES (ROUMANIA, ETC.).

RUTENI, The.

The Ruteni were a Gallic tribe, who bordered on the Roman Gallia Provincia, between the Cevennes and the Cadurci occupying the district of France called Rouergue before the Revolution.

G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 4, chapter 17.

RUTENNU, The.

See ROTENNU.

{2787}

RÜTLI, GRÜTLI, The Meadow of.

See SWITZERLAND: THE THREE FOREST CANTONS.

RUTULIANS, The.

See LATIUM.

RUTUPIÆ.

The principal Kentish seaport of Roman Britain; now Richborough. It was celebrated for its oysters.

T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5.

ALSO IN: C. Roach Smith, Antiquities of Richborough.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 449-473.

RUWARD OF BRABANT.

"This office was one of great historical dignity, but somewhat anomalous in its functions. … A Ruward was not exactly dictator, although his authority was universal. He was not exactly protector, nor governor, nor stadholder. His functions … were commonly conferred on the natural heir to the sovereignty—therefore more lofty than those of ordinary stadholders."

J. L. Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic; part 5, chapter 4.

RYE-HOUSE PLOT, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1681-1683.

RYOTS OF BENGAL, The.

See INDIA: A. D. 1785-1793.

RYSWICK, The Peace of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1695-1696; and 1697.

S

SAARBRÜCK, OR SAARBRÜCKEN: United to France (1680).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1679-1681.

SAARBRÜCK, OR SAARBRÜCKEN, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (JULY-AUGUST).

SABÆANS, The.

See ARABIA: ANCIENT SUCCESSION AND FUSION OF RACES.

SABANA DE LA CRUZ, Battle of (1859).

See VENEZUELA: A. D. 1829-1886.

SABBATHAISTS.

A Jewish sect, believers in the Messianic pretensions of one Sabbathai Sevi, of Smyrna, who made an extraordinary commotion in the Jewish world about the middle of the 17th century, and who finally embraced Mahometanism.

H. H. Milman, History of the Jews, book 28.

SABELLIANS, The.

See SABINES; also, ITALY: ANCIENT.

SABELLIANS, The sect of the.

See NOËTIANS.

SABINE CROSS ROADS, OR MANSFIELD, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MARCH-MAY: LOUISIANA).

SABINE WARS, The.

The Roman historians—Dionysius, Plutarch, Livy, and others— gave credit to traditions of a long and dangerous war, or series of wars, with the Sabines, following the expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome and the founding of the Republic. But modern skeptical criticism has left little ground for any part of the story of these wars. It seems to have been derived from the chronicles of an ancient family, the Valerian family, and, as a recent writer has said, it is suspicious that "a Valerius never holds a magistracy but there is a Sabine war." Ihne conjectures that some annalist of the Valerian family used the term Sabine in relating the wars of the Romans with the Latins, and with the Tarquins, struggling to regain their lost throne, and that this gave a start to the whole fictitious narrative of Sabine wars.

W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 1, chapter 12.

SABINE WOMEN, The Rape of the.

See ROME: B. C. 753-510.

SABINES, OR SABELLIANS, The.

"The greatest of the Italian nations was the Sabellian. Under this name we include the Sabines, who are said by tradition to have been the progenitors of the whole race, the Samnites, the Picenians, Vestinians, Marsians, Marrucinians, Pelignians, and Frentanians. This race seems to have been naturally given to a pastoral life, and therefore fixed their early settlements in the upland valleys of the Apennines. Pushing gradually along this central range, they penetrated downwards towards the Gulf of Tarentum; and as their population became too dense to find support in their native hills, bands of warrior youths issued forth to settle in the richer plains below. Thus they mingled with the Opican and Pelasgian races of the south, and formed new tribes known by the names of Apulians, Lucanians, and Campanians. These more recent tribes, in turn, threatened the Greek colonies on the coast. … It is certain that the nation we call Roman was more than half Sabellian. Traditional history … attributes the conquest of Rome to a Sabine tribe. Some of her kings were Sabine; the name borne by her citizens was Sabine; her religion was Sabine; most of her institutions in war and peace were Sabine; and therefore it may be concluded that the language of the Roman people differed from that of Latium Proper by its Sabine elements, though this difference died out again as the Latin communities were gradually absorbed into the territory of Rome.'

H. G. Liddell, History of Rome, introduction, section 2.

See, also, ITALY, ANCIENT; and LATIUM.

SABINIAN, Pope, A. D. 604-606.

SABRINA.

The ancient name of the Severn river.

SAC AND SOC.

A term used in early English and Norman times to signify grants of jurisdiction to individual land-owners. The manorial court-leets were the products of these grants.

W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 7, section 73.

See, also, MANORS.

SAC, OR SAUK, INDIANS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and SACS, FOXES, ETC.

SACÆ, The.

"The Sacæ were neighbours of the Hyrcanians, the Parthians, and the Bactrians in the steppes of the Oxus. Herodotus tells us that the Sacæ were a nation of the tribe of the Scyths, and that their proper name was Amyrgians; the Persians called all the Scythians Sacæ."

M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 8, chapter 2 (volume 5).

See, also, SCYTHIANS.

SACERDOTES.

These were the public priests of the ancient Romans, who performed the 'sacra publica' or religious rites for the people, at public expense.

E. Guhl and W. Koner. Life of the Greeks and Romans, section 103.

SACHEM. SAGAMORE.

"Each totem of the Lenape [or Delaware Indians of North America] recognized a chieftain, called sachem, 'sakima,' a word found in most Algonkin dialects, with slight variations (Chip., 'ogima,' Cree, 'okimaw, Pequot, 'sachimma '), and derived from a root 'ŏki,' signifying above in space, and, by a transfer frequent in all languages, above in power. … {2789} It appears from Mr. Morgan's inquiries, that at present and of later years, 'the office of sachem is hereditary in the gens, but elective among its members.' Loskiel, however, writing on the excellent authority of Zeisberger, states explicitly that the chief of each totem was selected and inaugurated by those of the remaining two. By common and ancient consent, the chief selected from the Turtle totem was head chief of the whole Lenape nation. The chieftains were the 'peace chiefs.' They could neither go to war themselves, nor send nor receive the war belt—the ominous string of dark wampum, which indicated that the tempest of strife was to be let loose. … War was declared by the people at the instigation of the 'war captains,' valorous braves of any birth or family who had distinguished themselves by personal prowess."

D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and their Legends, chapter 3.

"At the institution of the League [of the Iroquois] fifty permanent sachemships were created, with appropriate names; and in the sachems who held these titles were vested the supreme powers of the confederacy. … The sachems themselves were equal in rank and authority, and instead of holding separate territorial jurisdictions, their powers were joint, and coextensive with the League. As a safeguard against contention and fraud, each sachem was 'raised up' and invested with his title by a council of all the sachems, with suitable forms and ceremonies. … The sachemships were distributed unequally between the five nations, but without thereby giving to either a preponderance of political power. Nine of them were assigned to the Mohawk nation, nine to the Oneida, fourteen to the Onondaga, ten to the Cayuga and eight to the Seneca. The sachems united formed the Council of the League, the ruling body, in which resided the executive, legislative and judicial authority."

L. H. Morgan, The League of the Iroquois, book 1, chapter 3.

"The New England Indians had functionaries; … the higher class known as sachems, the subordinate, or those of inferior note or smaller jurisdiction, as sagamores. … This is the distinction commonly made (Hutchinson, Massachusetts, I. 410). But Williamson Maine, I. 494) reverses it; Dudley (Letter to the Countess of Lincoln) says, 'Sagamore, so are the kings with us called, as they are sachems southward' (that is, in Plymouth); and Gookin (Massachusetts Historical Collection., 1. 154) speaks of the two titles of office as equivalent."

J. G. Palfrey, History of New England, volume 1, chapter 1, and foot-note.

SACHEVERELL, Henry: Impeachment of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1710-1712.

SACKETT'S HARBOR: Naval headquarters in the war of 1812.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).

SÄCKINGEN: Capture by Duke Bernhard (1637).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

SACRAMENTARIANS.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1528-1531.

SACRED BAND OF CARTHAGE.

See CARTHAGE, THE DOMINION OF.

SACRED BAND OF THEBES.

See THEBES, GREECE: B. C. 378.

SACRED MONTH OF THE CHARTISTS, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1838-1842.

SACRED MOUNT AT ROME, The.

See ROME: B. C. 494-492.

SACRED PROMONTORY, The.

The southwestern extremity of Spain—Cape St. Vincent—was anciently called the Sacred Promontory, and supposed by early geographers to be the extreme western point of the known world.

E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, chapter 28, part 1 (volume 2).

SACRED ROADS IN GREECE.

"After the chariot races came into vogue [at the sacred festivals and games] these equally necessitated good carriage roads, which it was not easy to make in a rocky locality like Delphi. Thus arose the sacred roads, along which the gods themselves were said to have first passed, as Apollo once came through pathless tracks to Delphi. … Hence the art of road-making and of building bridges, which deprived the wild mountain streams of their dangers, took its first origin from the national sanctuaries, especially from those of Apollo. While the foot-paths led across the mountain ridges, the carriage-roads followed the ravines which the water had formed. The rocky surface was leveled, and ruts hollowed out which, carefully smoothed, served as tracks in which the wheels rolled on without obstruction. This style of roads made it necessary, in order to a more extended intercourse, to establish an equal gauge, since otherwise the festive as well as the racing chariots would have been prevented from visiting the various sanctuaries. And since as a matter of fact, as far as the influence of Delphi extended in the Peloponnesus and in central Greece, the same gauge of 5 ft. 4 in. demonstrably prevailed, not merely the extension, but also the equalization, of the net-work of Greek roads took its origin from Delphi."

E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 2, chapter 4.

SACRED TRUCE, The.

See OLYMPIC GAMES.

—————SACRED WAR: Start————

SACRED WAR, The First.

See ATHENS: B. C. 610-586, and DELPHI.

SACRED WAR: The Second.

The Phocians, B. C. 449, counting on the support of Athens, whose allies they were, undertook to acquire possession of the sacred and wealthy city of Delphi. The Spartans sent an army to the defense of the sanctuary and expelled them;· whereupon the Athenians sent another and restored them.

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 45.

SACRED WAR: The Ten Years.

See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.

—————SACRED WAR: End————

SACRED WAY AT ATHENS.

The road which led from the great gate of Athens called Dipylum straight to Eleusis, along which the festive processions moved, was called the Sacred Way.

W. M. Leake, Topography of Athens, section 2.

SACRED WAY AT ROME, The.

See VIA SACRA.

SACRIPORTUS, Battle of (B. C. 83).

See ROME: B. C. 88-78.

{2789}

SADDUCEES, The.

"There is a tradition that the name of Sadducee was derived from Zadok, a disciple of Antigonus of Socko. But the statement is not earlier than the seventh century after the Christian Era, and the person seems too obscure to have originated so widespread a title. It has been also ingeniously conjectured that the name, as belonging to the whole priestly class, is derived from the famous high priest of the time of Solomon. But of this there is no trace in history or tradition. It is more probable that, as the Pharisees derived their name from the virtue of Isolation (pharishah) from the Gentile world on which they most prided themselves, so the Sadducees derived theirs from their own special virtue of Righteousness (zadikah), that is, the fulfillment of the Law, with which, as its guardians and representatives of the law, they were specially concerned. The Sadducees—whatever be the derivation of the word—were less of a sect than a class."

Dean Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, lecture 49.

"At the time when we first meet with them [the Sadducees] in history, that is to say, under Jonathan the Asmonean [B. C. 159-144—see JEWS: B. C. 166-40], they were, though in a modified form, the heirs and successors of the Hellenists [see JEWS: B. C. 332-167]. … Hellenism was conquered under the Asmoneans, and beaten out of the field, and a new gush of Jewish patriotism and zeal for the law had taken its place. The Sadducees, who from the first appear as a school suited for the times, including the rich and educated statesmen, adopted the prevailing tone among the people. They took part in the services and sacrifices of the temple, practised circumcision, observed the Sabbath, and so professed to be real Jews and followers of the law, but the law rightly understood, and restored to its simple text and literal sense. They repudiated, they said, the authority of the new teachers of the law (now the Pharisees), and of the body of tradition with which they had encircled the law. In this tradition they of course included all that was burdensome to themselves. … The peculiar doctrines of the Sadducees obviously arose from the workings of the Epicurean philosophy, which had found special acceptance in Syria. They admitted indeed the creation, as it seems, but denied all continuous operation of God in the world. … The Sadducees proved they were real followers of Epicurus, by denying the life of the soul after death. The soul, they said, passes away with the body. … The mass of the people stood aloof from the Sadducees, whom they regarded with mistrust and aversion."

J. J. I. Döllinger, The Gentile and the Jew in the Courts of the Temple of Christ, volume 2, page 302-303.

ALSO IN: E. Schürer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ, section 26 (division 2, volume 2).

SADOWA, OR KÖNIGGRÄTZ, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.

SAFFARY DYNASTY, The.

See SAMANIDES.

SAGAMORE.

See SACHEM.

SAGAMOSO, Battle of (1819).

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1810-1819.

SAGARTIANS, The.

A nomadic people, described by Herodotus, who wandered on the western borders of the great Iranian desert—the desert region of modern Persia.

SAGAS.

See NORMANS.—NORTHMEN: A. D. 860-1100.

SAGGENASH, The.

See YANKEE.

SAGUENAY.

See CANADA: NAMES.

SAGUNTUM, Capture of, by Hannibal.

See PUNIC WAR, THE SECOND.

SAHAPTINS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: NEZ PERCÉS.

SAHAY, Battle of.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1742 (JUNE-DECEMBER).

SAILOR'S CREEK, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (APRIL: VIRGINIA).

SAIM.

See TIMAR.

SAINT ALBANS (England). Origin of.

See VERULAMIUM.

SAINT ALBANS (England): A. D. 1455-1461. Battles of York and Lancaster.

The town of St. Albans, in England, was the scene of two battles in the lamentable Wars of the Roses. The first collision of the long conflict between Lancaster and York occurred in its streets on the 23d of May, 1455, when King Henry VI. was taken prisoner by the Duke of York and 5,000 to 8,000 of his supporters were slain. Six years later, on the 17th of February, 1461, the contending forces met again in the streets of St. Albans with a different result. The Yorkists were put to flight by the Lancastrians under Queen Margaret.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1455-1471.

SAINT ALBANS CONFEDERATE RAID.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (OCTOBER) THE ST. ALBANS RAID.

SAINT ALBANS FENIAN RAID.

See CANADA: A. D. 1866-1871.

SAINT ANDREW, The Russian order of.

An order of knighthood instituted in 1698 by Peter the Great.

SAINT ANDREW, The Scottish order of.

"To keep pace with other sovereigns, who affected forming orders of knighthood, in which they themselves should preside, like Arthur at his round table, or Charlemagne among his paladins, James [IV. of Scotland, A. D. 1488-1513] established the order of Saint Andrew, assuming the badge of the thistle, which since that time has been the national emblem of Scotland."

Sir W. Scott, History of Scotland, chapter 21.

SAINT ANDREWS, Siege of the Castle of.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1546.

SAINT ANGELO, Castle.

See CASTLE ST. ANGELO.

SAINT AUGUSTINE, Canons of.

See AUSTIN CANONS.

—————SAINT AUGUSTINE, Florida: Start————

SAINT AUGUSTINE, Florida: A. D. 1565. Founded by the Spaniards.

See FLORIDA: A. D. 1565.

SAINT AUGUSTINE, Florida: A. D. 1701. Attack from South Carolina.

See SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1701-1706.

SAINT AUGUSTINE, Florida: A. D. 1740. Unsuccessful attack by the English of Georgia and Carolina.

See GEORGIA: A. D. 1738-1743.

SAINT AUGUSTINE, Florida: A. D. 1862. Temporary occupation by Union forces.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (FEBRUARY-APRIL: GEORGIA-FLORIDA).

—————SAINT AUGUSTINE, Florida: End————

SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY, The Massacre of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1572 (AUGUST).

SAINT BRICE'S DAY, The Massacre of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 979-1016.

SAINT CHRISTOPHER, The Island: Ceded to England (1713).

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

{2790}

SAINT CLAIR, General Arthur. Campaign against the Indians, and defeat.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1790-1795.

SAINT CLOUD DECREE, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1806-1810.

SAINT DENIS (France), Battle of (1567).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1563-1570.

SAINT DENIS (Belgium), Battle of (1678).

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674-1678.

SAINT DIDIER, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).

SAINT DOMINGO, OR HAYTI, The Island.

See HAYTI.

SAINT DOMINGO, The Republic.

See HAYTI: A. D. 1804-1880.

SAINT GEORGE, Bank of.

See MONEY AND BANKING: GENOA; also GENOA: A. D. 1407-1448.

SAINT GEORGE, The order of.

Founded by Catherine II. of Russia in 1769.

SAINT GERMAIN-EN-LAYE, Peace of (1570).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1563-1570.

SAINT GERMAINS, The French court.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1647-1648.

SAINT GERMAINS, The Jacobite court.

When James II., driven from England by the Revolution of 1688, took refuge in France, he was received with great hospitality by Louis XIV., who assigned to the exiled king the palace of Saint-Germains for his residence, with a pension or allowance which enabled him to maintain a regal court of imposing splendor. "There was scarcely in all Europe a residence more enviably situated than that which the generous Lewis had assigned to his suppliants. The woods were magnificent, the air clear and salubrious, the prospects extensive and cheerful. No charm of rural life was wanting; and the towers of the greatest city of the Continent were visible in the distance. The royal apartments were richly adorned with tapestry and marquetry, vases of silver, and mirrors in gilded frames. A pension of more than 40,000 pounds sterling was annually paid to James from the French treasury. He had a guard of honour composed of some of the finest soldiers in Europe. … But over the mansion and the domain brooded a constant gloom, the effect, partly of bitter regrets and of deferred hopes, but chiefly of the abject superstition which had taken complete possession of his own mind, and which was affected by all those who aspired to his favour. His palace wore the aspect of a monastery. … Thirty or forty ecclesiastics were lodged in the building; and their apartments were eyed with envy by noblemen and gentlemen who had followed the fortunes of their Sovereign, and who thought it hard that, when there was so much room under his roof, they should be forced to sleep in the garrets of the neighbouring town. … All the saints of the royal household were praying for each other and backbiting each other from morning to night."

Lord Macaulay, History of England, chapter 20 (volume 4).

SAINT GOTHARD, Battle of (1664).

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1660-1664.

SAINT GREGORY, Order of.

Instituted in 1831 by Pope Gregory XVI.

SAINT HELENA, Napoleon's captivity at.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1815 (JUNE-AUGUST).

SAINT ILDEFONSO, Treaty of.

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777; and LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

SAINT ILDEFONSO, University of.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

SAINT JAGO, Knights of the order of.

See CALATRAVA.

SAINT JAMES, The Palace and Court of.

"Of the British Monarchy the official and diplomatic seat is St. James', a dingy and shabby pile of brick, which by its meanness, compared with the Tuileries and Versailles, aptly symbolizes the relation of the power which built it to that of the Monarchy of Louis XIV. … At St. James' are still held the Levees. But those rooms having been found too small for the prodigiously increasing crowds of ladies, foreign and colonial, who pant, by passing under the eye of Royalty, to obtain the baptism of fashion, the Drawing-Rooms are now held in Buckingham Palace. … The modern town residence of Royalty, Buckingham Palace, is large without being magnificent, and devoid of interest of any kind, historical or architectural."

Goldwin Smith, A Trip to England, page 54.

SAINT JAMES OF COMPOSTELLA, Knights of.

See CALATRAVA.

SAINT JEAN D'ACRE.

See ACRE.

SAINT JOHN, Knights of; or Hospitallers.

See HOSPITALLERS.

SAINT JOHN OF THE LATERAN, Order of.

An order of knighthood instituted in 1560 by Pope Pius IV.

SAINT JUST, and the French Revolutionary Committee of Public Safety.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JUNE-OCTOBER), to 1794 (JULY).

SAINT LAWRENCE: Discovery and naming of the River by Jacques Cartier.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1534-1535.

SAINT LAZARUS, Knights of.

"Some historians of the order of St. Lazarus have traced its origin to a supposed association of Christians in the first century against the persecution of their Jewish and Pagan enemies. This account is fabulous. It appears certain, however, that in very early times Christian charity founded establishments for the sick. … Lazarus became their tutelary saint and the buildings were styled Lazarettos. One of those hospitals was in existence at Jerusalem at the time of the first crusade. It was a religious order, as well as a charitable institution, and followed the rule of St. Augustin. For purposes of defence against the Muselman tyrants, the members of the society became soldiers, and insensibly they formed themselves into distinct bodies of those who attended the sick, and those who mingled with the world. The cure of lepers was their first object, and they not only received lepers into their order, for the benefit of charity, but their grand master was always to be a man who was afflicted with the disorder, the removal whereof formed the purpose of their institution. The cavaliers who were not lepers, and were in a condition to bear arms, were the allies of the Christian kings of Palestine. … The habits of those knights is not known; it only appears that the crosses on their breasts were always green, in opposition to those of the knights of St. John, which were white, and the red crosses of the Templars. … But neither the names nor the exploits of the knights of St. Lazarus often appear in the history of the Crusades."

C. Mills, History of the Crusades, chapter 8, with foot-notes.

{2791}

SAINT LEGER'S EXPEDITION.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1777 (JULY-OCTOBER).

SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI: A. D. 1764. The founding of the city.

"St. Louis had arisen out of the transfer of the east bank of the Mississippi to Great Britain.

See SEVEN YEARS WAR: THE TREATIES.

Rather than live as aliens, under English laws, many French settlers went with Pierre Laclede, across the Mississippi, to a place already nicknamed by them Pain Court, where, in February, 1764, they founded a new town with the name of St. Louis, in honor of Louis XV. These people were mostly French Canadians."

S. A. Drake, The Making of the Great West, page 179.

See, also, ILLINOIS: A. D. 1765.

SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI: A. D. 1861. Events at the outbreak of the rebellion. The capture of Camp Jackson.

See MISSOURI: A. D. 1861 (FEBRUARY-JULY).

SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI: A. D. 1864. General Price's attempt against.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MARCH-OCTOBER: ARKANSAS-MISSOURI).

SAINT LOUIS, The Order of.

An order of knighthood instituted in 1693 by Louis XIV. of France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1693 (JULY).

SAINT MAHÉ, Battle of.

A fierce naval fight, April 24, 1293, off St. Mahé, on the coast of Brittany, between English and French fleets, both of which were put afloat without open authority from their respective governments. The French were beaten with a loss of 8,000 men and 180 ships.

C. H. Pearson, History of England during the Early and Middle Ages, volume 2, chapter 13.

SAINT MALO: Abortive English expeditions against.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1758 (JUNE-AUGUST).

SAINT MARK, The winged lion of.

See LION OF ST. MARK, and VENICE: A. D. 829.

SAINT MARKS, Jackson's capture of.

See FLORIDA: A. D. 1816-1818.

SAINT MICHAEL, Knights of the Order of, in France.

"Louis XI. [of France] determined on instituting an order of chivalry himself. It was to be select in its membership, limited in its number, generous in its professions, and he fondly hoped the Garter and Fleece would soon sink into insignificance compared to the Order of Saint Michael. The first brethren were named from the highest families in France; the remaining great feudatories, who had preserved some relics of their hereditary independence, were fixed upon to wear this mark of the suzerain's friendship. But when they came to read the oaths of admission, they found that the Order of St. Michael was in reality a bond of stronger obligation than the feudal laws had ever enjoined. It was a solemn association for the prevention of disobedience to the sovereign. … The brotherhood of noble knights sank, in the degrading treatment of its founder, into a confederation of spies."

J. White, History of France, chapter 7.

SAINT MICHAEL, Knights of the Order of, in Portugal.

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1095-1325.

SAINT MICHAEL AND SAINT GEORGE, The Order of.

A British Order of Knighthood, founded in 1818, "for the purpose of bestowing marks of Royal favour on the most meritorious of the Ionians [then under the protection of Great Britain] and Maltese, as well as on British subjects who may have served with distinction in the Ionian Isles or the Mediterranean Sea."

Sir B. Burke, Book of the Orders of Knighthood, page 107.

SAINT OMER: A. D. 1638. Unsuccessful siege by the French.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1635-1638.

SAINT OMER: A. D. 1677. Taken by Louis XIV.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674-1678.

SAINT OMER: A. D. 1679. Ceded to France.

See NIMEGUEN, THE PEACE OF.

SAINT PATRICK, The order of.

An order of knighthood instituted in 1783 by George III. of England.

SAINT PAUL, Republic of.

See BRAZIL: A. D. 1531-1641.

SAINT PAUL'S SCHOOL.

See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE: ENGLAND.

SAINT PETER'S CHURCH AT ROME.

"The first church which existed on or near the site of the present building was the oratory founded in A. D. 90, by Anacletus, bishop of Rome, who is said to have been ordained by St. Peter himself, and who thus marked the spot where many Christian martyrs had suffered in the circus of Nero, and where St. Peter was buried after his crucifixion. In 306 Constantine the Great yielded to the request of Pope Sylvester, and began the erection of a basilica on this spot, labouring with his own hands at the work. … Of the old basilica, the crypt is now the only remnant. … Its destruction was first planned by Nicholas V. (1450), but was not carried out till the time of Julius II., who in 1506 began the new St. Peter's from designs of Bramante. … The next Pope, Leo X., obtained a design for a church in the form of a Latin cross from Raphael, which was changed, after his death (on account of expense) to a Greek cross, by Baldassare Peruzzi, who only lived to complete the tribune. Paul III. (1534) employed Antonio di Sangallo as an architect, who returned to the design of a Latin cross, but died before he could carry out any of his intentions. Giulio Romano succeeded him and died also. Then the pope, 'being inspired by God,' says Vasari, sent for Michael Angelo, then in his seventy-second year, who continued the work under Julius III., returning to the plan of a Greek cross, enlarging the tribune and transepts, and beginning the dome on a new plan, which he said would 'raise the Pantheon in the air.' … The present dome is due to Giacomo della Porta, who brought the great work to a conclusion in 1590, under Sixtus V. … The church was dedicated by Urban VIII., November 18th, 1626; the colonnade added by Alexander VII., 1667, the sacristy by Pius VI., in 1780. The building of the present St. Peter's extended altogether over 176 years, and its expenses were so great that Julius II. and Leo X. were obliged to meet them by the sale of indulgences, which led to the Reformation. The expense of the main building alone has been estimated at £10,000,000. The annual expense of repairs is £6,300."

A. J. C. Hare, Walks in Rome, chapter 15.

ALSO IN: H. Grimm, Life of Michael Angelo, chapters 15-16.

{2792}

SAINT PETERSBURG: The founding of the city.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1703-1718.

SAINT PRIVAT, OR GRAVELOTTE, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (JULY-AUGUST).

SAINT QUENTIN: Origin of the town.

See BELGÆ.

SAINT QUENTIN, Battle and siege of (1557).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1547-1559.

Battle of (1871).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870-1871.

SAINT SEBASTIAN, Siege and capture of (1813).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1812-1814.

SAINT STEPHEN, The Apostolic order.

This, the Hungarian national order of knighthood, was founded by Maria Theresa, on the day (May 5, 1764) when the Archduke, afterwards the Emperor Joseph II., was crowned King of Rome.

SAINT STEPHEN, The Crown of. The crown of Hungary.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 972-1114.

SAINT STEPHEN'S CHAPEL. The Chamber of the House of Commons.

See WESTMINSTER PALACE.

SAINT THOMAS OF ACRE, The Knights of.

"This was a little body of men who had formed themselves into a semi-religious order on the model of the Hospitallers. In the third Crusade, one William, an English priest, chaplain to Ralph de Diceto, Dean of S. Paul's, had devoted himself to the work of burying the dead at Acre, as the Hospitallers had given themselves at first to the work of tending the sick. He had built himself a little chapel there, and bought ground for a cemetery; like a thorough Londoner of the period, he had called it after S. Thomas the Martyr; and, somehow or other, as his design was better known, the family of the martyr seem to have approved of it; the brother-in-law and sister of Becket became founders and benefactors, and a Hospital of S. Thomas the Martyr of Canterbury, of Acre, was built in London itself on the site of the house where the martyr was born. … They [the knights] had their proper dress and cross: according to Favin their habit was white, and the cross a full red cross charged with a white scallop; but the existing cartulary of the order describes the habit simply as a mantle with a cross of red and white. … The Chronicle of the Teutonic knights, in relating the capture of Acre, places the knights of S. Thomas at the head of the 5,000 soldiers whom the king of England had sent to Palestine, and Herman Corner, who however wrote a century later, mentions them amongst the defenders of Acre. We know from their cartulary that they had lands in Yorkshire, Middlesex, Surrey, and Ireland."

W. Stubbs, Seventeen Lectures on the Study of Medieval and Modern History, lecture 8.

SAINT VALERY.

The port, at the mouth of the Somme, from which the fleet of William the Conqueror sailed for England, September 27, A. D. 1066.

SAINT VINCENT, Naval battle of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1797.

SAINTONGE, Origin of the name of.

See PICTONES.

SAIONES.

"The Saiones were apparently a class of men peculiar to the Ostrogothic monarchy [of Theodoric, in Italy]. More honoured than the Roman lictor (who was but a menial servant of the magistrate), but hardly perhaps rising to the dignity of a sheriff or a marshal, they were, so to speak, the arms by which Royalty executed its will. If the Goths had to be summoned to battle with the Franks, a Saio carried round the stirring call to arms. If a Prætorian Prefect was abusing his power to take away his neighbour's lands by violence, a Saio was sent to remind him that under Theodoric not even Prætorian Prefects should be allowed to transgress the law. … The Saiones seem to have stood in a special relation to the King. They are generally called 'our Saiones,' sometimes 'our brave Saiones,' and the official virtue which is always credited to them (like the 'Sublimity' or the 'Magnificence' of more important personages) is 'Your Devotion.' One duty which was frequently entrusted to the Saio was the 'tuitio' of some wealthy and unwarlike Roman. It often happened that such a person, unable to protect himself against the rude assaults of sturdy Gothic neighbours, appealed to the King for protection. … The chief visible sign of the King's protection, and the most effective guarantee of its efficiency, was the stout Gothic soldier who as Saio was quartered in the wealthy Roman's house."

T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, book 4, chapter 7 (volume 3).

SAJO, Battle of the (1241).

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1114-1301.

SAKKARAH, Necropolis of.

The most ancient and important cemetery of Memphis, Egypt.

A. Mariette, Monuments of Upper Egypt, page 86.

SAKKARAH, Tablet of.

An important list of Egyptian kings, found by M. Mariette and now preserved in the Museum of Cairo.

F. Lenormant, Manual of Ancient History of the East, book 3, chapter 1 (volume 1).

SALADIN: The Empire of.

Among the revolutions which attended the breaking up of the empire of the Seljuk Turks was one that brought about the rise to power in Syria and Mesopotamia of a vigorous and capable soldier named Zenghi or Zengui. Zenghi and his son Noureddin acquired a wide dominion, with its capital, as it enlarged, shifting from Mossoul to Aleppo, from Aleppo to Damascus, and they were the first formidable enemies with whom the Christians of the Crusade settlements in Syria had to contend. The dynasty of sultans which they founded was one of those called Atabecks, or Atabegs, signifying "governors of the prince." Having found an opportunity (A. D. 1162-1168) to interfere in the affairs of Egypt, where the Fatimite caliphs were still nominally reigning, Noureddin sent thither one of his most trusted officers, Shiracouh, or Shirkoh, a Koord, and Shiracouh's nephew, Saladin,—then a young man, much addicted to elegant society and the life of pleasure, at Damascus. Shiracouh established his master's authority in Egypt—still leaving the puppet caliph of the Fatimites on his throne—and he was succeeded by Saladin, as the representative of the sultan Noureddin, and grand vizier of the caliph. But in 1171, the latter, being on his death-bed, was quietly deposed and the sovereignty of the Abbaside caliph of Bagdad was proclaimed. "This great 'coup d'etat,' which won Egypt over to the Orthodox Mohammedan sect, and ultimately enabled Saladin to grasp the independent sovereignty of the country, was effected, as an Arab historian quaintly observes, 'so quietly, that not a brace of goats butted over it.'" {2793} Saladin had now developed great talents as a ruler, and great ambitions, as well. On the death of Nouraddin, in 1174, he was prepared to seize the sultan's throne, and succeeded, after a short period of civil war, in making himself master of the whole Atabeg dominion. From that he went on to the conquest of Jerusalem, and the expulsion of the Christians from all Palestine, except Tyre and a small strip of coast. By his defense of that conquest against the crusaders of the Third Crusade, and by the decided superiority of character which he evinced, compared with his Christian antagonists, Richard Cœur de Lion and the rest, Saladin acquired surpassing renown in the western world and became a great figure in history. He died at Damascus, in March, 1193, in his fifty-seventh year. The dynasty which he founded was called the Ayoubite (or Aiyubite) dynasty, from the name of Saladin's father, Ayoub (Job), a native Koord of Davin.

W. Besant and E. H. Palmer, Jerusalem, chapter 16.

"Saladin gave no directions respecting the order of succession, and by this want of foresight prepared the ruin of his empire. One of his sons, Alaziz, who commanded in Egypt, caused himself to be proclaimed sultan of Cairo; another took possession of the sovereignty of Aleppo, and a third of the principality of Amath. Malek-Adel [called Seïf Eddin, the Sword of Religion, by which latter name, in the corrupted form Saphadin, he was known commonly to the crusaders], the brother of Saladin, assumed the throne of Mesopotamia and the countries in the neighbourhood of the Euphrates. The principal emirs, and all the princes of the race of the Ayoubites, made themselves masters of the cities and provinces of which they held the command. Afdhal [Almelek Alafdhal], eldest son of Saladin, was proclaimed sultan of Damascus. Master of Syria, and of the capital of a vast empire, sovereign of Jerusalem and Palestine, he appeared to have preserved something of the power of his father; but all fell into disorder and confusion." After some years of disorder and of war between the brothers, Malek Adel, or Saphadin, the more capable uncle of the young princes, gathered the reins of power into his hands and reunited most of the provinces of Saladin's empire. On his death, in 1217, the divisions and the disorder reappeared. The Ayoubite dynasty, however, held the throne at Cairo (to the dominion of which Palestine belonged) until 1250, when the last of the line was killed by his Mamelukes. The lesser princes of the divided empire were swept away soon after by the Mongol invasion.

J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, books 9, 12-14.

See, also, JERUSALEM: A. D. 1149-1187.

SALADIN, The Tithe of.

"In England and in France, in order to defray expenses [of the Third Crusade], a tax called the Tithe of Saladin, consisting of a tenth part of all their goods, was levied on every person who did not take the Cross. … In every parish the Tithe of Saladin was raised in the presence of a priest, a Templar, a Hospitaller, a king's man, a baron's man and clerk, and a bishop's clerk."

W. Besant and E. H. Palmer, Jerusalem, chapter 15.

SALADO, OR GUADACELITO, Battle of (1340).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1273-1460.

SALAMANCA, Battle of.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-AUGUST).

SALAMANCA, University of.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

SALAMIS, Cyprus, Battle of (B. C. 449).

See ATHENS: B. C. 460-449.

Battle of (B. C. 306).

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 310-301.

SALAMIS, Greece: B. C. 610-600. War of Athens and Megara for possession of the island.

See ATHENS: B. C. 610-586.

SALAMIS, Greece: B. C. 480. Great battle between Greeks and Persians.

See GREECE: B. C. 480.

SALANKAMENT, Battle of (1691).

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1683-1699.

SALCES, OR SALSAS: A. D. 1639-1640. Siege and capture by the French. Recovery by the Spaniards.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1637-1640.

SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1628. The first settlement.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1623-1629 THE DORCHESTER COMPANY.

SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1631-1636. Ministry and banishment of Roger Williams.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1636.

SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1692. The Witchcraft madness.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1692; and 1692-1693.

SALERNO, Principality of.

See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 800-1016.

SALERNO, School of Medicine.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 12-17TH CENTURIES.

SALIAN FRANKS, The.

See FRANKS: ORIGIN, ETC.

—————SALIC LAW: Start————

SALIC LAW, The.

"A greatly exaggerated importance has been attributed to the Salic Law. You are acquainted with the reason of this error; you know that at the accession of Philippe-le-Long, and during the struggle of Philippe· de-Valois and Edward III. for the crown of France, the Salic law was invoked in order to prevent the succession of women, and that, from that time, it has been celebrated by a crowd of writers as the first source of our public law, as a law always in vigor, as the fundamental law of monarchy. Those who have been the most free from this illusion, as, for example, Montesquieu, have yet experienced, to some degree, its influence, and have spoken of the Salic law with a respect which it is assuredly difficult to feel towards it when we attribute to it only the place that it really holds in our history. … I pray you to recall that which I have already told you touching the double origin and the incoherence of the barbarous laws; they were, at once, anterior and posterior to the invasion; at once, German and Germano-Roman: they belonged to two different conditions of society. This character has influenced all the controversies of which the Salic law has been the object; it has given rise to two hypotheses: according to one, this law was compiled in Germany, upon the right bank of the Rhine, long before the conquest, and in the language of the Franks. … According to the other hypothesis, the Salic law was, on the contrary, compiled after the conquest, upon the left bank of the Rhine, in Belgium or in Gaul, perhaps in the seventh century, and in Latin. … I believe, however, that the traditions which, through so many contradictions and fables, appear in the prefaces and epilogues annexed to the law, … indicate that, from the eighth century, it was a general belief, a popular tradition, that the customs of the Salian Franks were anciently collected. … {2794} We are not obliged to believe that the Salic law, such as we have it, is of a very remote date, nor that it was compiled as recounted, nor even that it was ever written in the German language; but that it was connected with customs collected and transmitted from generation to generation, when the Franks lived about the mouth of the Rhine, and modified, extended, explained, reduced into law, at various times, from that epoch down to the end of the eighth century—this, I think, is the reasonable result to which this discussion should lead. … At the first aspect it is impossible not to be struck with the apparent utter chaos of the law. It treats of all things—of political law, of civil law, of criminal law, of civil procedure, of criminal procedure, of rural jurisdiction, all mixed up together without any distinction or classification. … When we examine this law more closely, we perceive that it is essentially a penal regulation. … I say nothing of the fragments of political law, civil law, or civil procedure, which are found dispersed through it, nor even of that famous article which orders that 'Salic land shall not fall to woman; and that the inheritance shall devolve exclusively on the males.' No person is now ignorant of its true meaning. … When, in the fourteenth century, they invoked the Salic law, in order to regulate the succession to the crown, it had certainly been a long time since it had been spoken of, except in remembrance, and upon some great occasion."

F. Guizot, History of Civilization, volume 2 (France, volume 1), lecture 9.

ALSO IN: W. C. Perry, The Franks, chapter 10.

E. F. Henderson, Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages, book 2, number 1.

SALIC LAW: Applied to the regal succession in France.

Louis X., surnamed Hutin, king of France, died in 1316, leaving a daughter, Jeanne, and his queen with child. The late king's brother, Philip the Long, became regent; but when the queen bore a son and the child died, this Philip "hastened to Rheims, filled the Cathedral with his own followers, and compelled the archbishop to consecrate him King [Philip V.]. Thence he returned to Paris, assembled the citizens, and, in the presence of a great concourse of barons and notables of the realm, declared that no female could succeed to the crown of France. Thus began the so-called Salic Law of France, through the determined violence of an unscrupulous man. The lawyers round the throne, seeking to give to the act of might the sanction of right, bethought them of that passage in the law of the Salian Franks which declares 'That no part or heritage of Salic land can fall to a woman'; and it is from this that the law obtained the name of 'the Salic Law.'"

G. W. Kitchin, History of France, volume 1, book 3, chapter 11, sections 1-2.

"In this contest [after the death of Louis X., as mentioned above], every way memorable, but especially on account of that which sprung out of it, the exclusion of females from the throne of France was first publicly discussed. … It may be fairly inferred that the Salic law, as it was called, was not so fixed a principle at that time as has been contended. But however this may be, it received at the accession of Philip the Long a sanction which subsequent events more thoroughly confirmed. Philip himself leaving only three daughters, his brother Charles [IV.] mounted the throne; and upon his death the rule was so unquestionably established, that his only daughter was excluded by the count of Valois, grandson of Philip the Bold. This prince first took the regency, the queen-dowager being pregnant, and, upon her giving birth to a daughter, was crowned king [Philip of Valois]. No competitor or opponent appeared in France; but one more formidable than any whom France could have produced was awaiting the occasion to prosecute his imagined right with all the resources of valour and genius, and to carry desolation over that great kingdom with as little scruple as if he was preferring a suit before a civil tribunal." This was King Edward III. of England, whose mother Isabel was the sister of the last three French kings, and who claimed through her a right to the French crown.

H. Hallam, The Middle Age, chapter 1, part 1.

See, also, FRANCE: A. D. 1328-1339.

SALICE, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JANUARY-JUNE).

SALICES, Ad, Battle of.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 378.

SALINÆ.

A Roman town in Britain, celebrated for its salt-works and salt-baths. Its site is occupied by modern Droitwich.

T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5.

SALINAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SALINAN FAMILY.

SALISBURY, Gemot of.

William the Conqueror, while establishing feudalism in England, "broke into its 'most essential attribute, the exclusive dependence of a vassal upon his lord,' by requiring in accordance with the old English practice, that all landowners, mesne tenants as well as tenants-in-chief, should take the oath of fealty to the King. This was formally decreed at the celebrated Gemot held on Salisbury Plain, on the 1st of August, 1086, at which the Witan and all the landowners of substance in England whose vassals soever they were, attended, to the number, it is reported, of 60,000. The statute, as soon as passed, was carried into immediate effect."

T. P. Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History, page 55.

SALISBURY MINISTRIES, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1885; 1885-1886; and 1892-1893.

SALISHAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: FLATHEADS.

SALLUVIANS.

See SALYES.

SALON, Origin of the French.

See RAMBOUILLET, HÔTEL DE.

SALONA, Ancient.

"Amidst the decay of the empire in the third century Dalmatia suffered comparatively little; indeed, Salonae probably only reached at that time its greatest prosperity. This, it is true, was occasioned partly by the fact that the regenerator of the Roman state, the emperor Diocletian, was by birth a Dalmatian, and allowed his efforts, aimed at the decapitalising of Rome, to redound chiefly to the benefit of the capital of his native land; he built alongside of it the huge palace from which the modern capital of the province takes the name Spalato, within which it has for the most part found a place, and the temples of which now serve it as cathedral and as baptistery. Diocletian, however, did not make Salonae a great city for the first time, but, because it was such, chose it for his private residence; commerce, navigation, and trade must at that time in these waters have been concentrated chiefly at Aquileia and at Salonae, and the city must have been one of the most populous and opulent towns of the west."

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 8, chapter 6.

ALSO IN; E. A. Freeman, Subject and Neighbor Lands of Venice.

T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria, chapters 1-2 and 10-12 (volumes 1-2).

{2795}

SALONICA.

The modern name of ancient Thessalonica.

See THESSALONICA.

SALONIKI, The kingdom of.

The kingdom obtained by Boniface, Marquis of Montferrat, in the partition of the Byzantine Empire after its conquest by the Crusaders, A. D. 1204, comprised the province of Macedonia, with Thessalonica for its capital, and was called the kingdom of Saloniki. Its duration was brief. In 1222 the neighboring Greek despot of Epirus took Thessalonica and conquered the whole kingdom. He then assumed the title of emperor of Thessalonica, in rivalry with the Greek emperors of Nicæa and Trebizond. The title of king of Saloniki was cherished by the family of Montferrat for some generations; but those who claimed it never made good their title by possession of the kingdom.

G. Finlay, History of Greece from the Conquest by the Crusaders, chapter 5.

See, also, BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D. 1204-1205.

SALOPIAN WARE.

Pottery manufactured by the Romans in Britain from the clay of the Severn valley. Two sorts are found in considerable abundance—one white, the other a light red color.

L. Jewitt, Grave-Mounds, page 164.

SALSBACH, Death of Turenne at (1675).

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674-1678.

SALT, French tax on.

See TAILLE AND GABELLE.

SALT LAKE CITY: The founding of (1847).

See MORMONS: A. D. 1846-1848.

SALYES, SALLUVIANS.

The Salyes or Saluvii or Salluvians, named Salvii Yalli in Livy's Epitome, "were Ligurians or a mixed race of Celts and Ligurians. They perhaps occupied part of the coast east of Massilia: they certainly extended inland behind that town to the Rhone on the west and to the north as far as the river Druentia (Durance). They occupied the wide plain which you may see from the highest point of the great amphitheatre of Arelate (Arles) stretching east from Tarascon and the Rhone as far as the eye can reach." The Salyes were dangerous to Massilia and in 125 B. C. the latter appealed to the Romans, as allies. The latter responded promptly and sent Flaccus, one of the consuls, to deal with the Salyes. He defeated them; but in two or three years they were again in arms, and consul C. Sextius Calvinius was sent against them. "The Salyes were again defeated and their chief city taken, but it is uncertain whether this capital was Arelate (ArIes) or the place afterwards named Aquae Sextiae (Aix). … The Roman general found in this arid country a pleasant valley well supplied with water from the surrounding hills, and here he established the colony named Aquae Sextiae." The chiefs of the conquered Salyes took refuge with the Allobroges, and that led to the subjugation of the latter (see ALLOBROGES).

G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 1, chapters 17 and 21.

SALZBURG, Origin of.

"The foundation of a colony [by Hadrian] at Juvavium, or Salzburg, which received the name of Forum Hadriani, attests the vigilance which directed his view from the Rhine to the Salza, and the taste, I would willingly add, which selected for a town to bear his name the most enchanting site in central Europe."

C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 66.

SALZBURGERS, The.

See GEORGIA: A. D. 1734.

SALZWEDEL.

See BRANDENBURG.

SAM ADAMS REGIMENTS, The.

See BOSTON: A. D. 1770.

SAMANA, The proposed cession of.

See HAYTI: A. D. 1804-1880.

SAMANIDES OR SAMANIANS, The.

"As the vigour of the Khalifate began to pass away, and effeminate luxury crept imperceptibly into the palaces of Baghdad, the distant lieutenants gradually aspired to independence. At length, in 868 A. D., one Ya' kub-bin-Lais, the son of a brasier in Sistan, rose in rebellion, subdued Balkh, Kabul, and Fars, but died on his march to Baghdad. In former days he would have been treated as an audacious rebel against the authority of the Vicar of God; now the degenerate Khalifah appointed his brother 'Amr his lieutenant on the death of Ya' kub [A. D. 877], and allowed him to govern Fars, as the founder of the Saffary, or Brasier, dynasty. Ever fearful of the power of 'Amr, the Khalifah at length instigated a Tatar lord, named Isma'il Samany, to raise an army against the Saffaris, in Khurasan. 'Amr marched against him, and crossed the Oxus, but he was entirely defeated; and laughed heartily at a dog, who ran away with the little pot that was preparing the humble meal of the fallen king. That morning it had taken thirty camels to carry his kitchen retinue. 'Amr was sent to Baghdad, and put to death in 901 A. D. Isma'il, who traced his descent from a Persian noble who had rebelled against Khusru Parviz, now founded the Samany [or Samanide] dynasty, which ruled over Khurasan and the north of Persia, with their capital at Bukhara. The Dailamy [or Dilemite or Bouide] dynasty ruled in Fars and the south of Persia during the same period. To the Samanians Persia owes the restoration of its nationality, which had been oppressed and trodden under foot by the Arabian conquerors." The Samanide dynasty was overthrown in 998 by the founder of the Gaznevide Empire, which succeeded.

C. R. Markham, General Sketch of the History of Persia, chapter 6.

ALSO IN; Sir J. Malcolm, History of Persia, volume 1, chapter 6

See, also, TURKS: A. D. 999-1183.

SAMARAH, Battle of.

This was the battle in which the Roman emperor Julian was killed (June 26, A. D. 363), during the retreat from his ill·starred expedition beyond the Tigris, against the Persians.

G. Rawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy, chapter 10.

—————SAMARCAND: Start————

SAMARCAND.

Ancient Maracanda, the capital city of Sogdiana.

See SOGDIANA; and BOKHARA.

SAMARCAND: 6th Century. Taken from the White Huns by the Turks.

See TURKS: 6TH CENTURY.

SAMARCAND: A. D. 1209-1220. Capital of the Khuarezmian empire.

See KHUAREZM.

{2796}

SAMARCAND: A. D. 1221. Conquest and destruction by Jingis Khan.

When Jingis Khan, the Mongol conqueror and devastator of Central Asia, invaded the Khahrezmian Empire, Samarkand was its capital and its most important city. "The fugitive Khahrezmian prince had left behind him for the defence 110,000 men—i. e., 60,000 Turks and 50,000 Tadjiks—with twenty elephants." But the Turkish mercenaries deserted in a body and the town was surrendered after a siege of three days. "The flourishing city of Samarkand and the fortress were laid even with the ground; and the inhabitants; stripped of all they possessed, shared the fate of their brethren of Bokhara. Those who had contrived to escape were lured back by false promises; all capable of bearing arms were compulsorily enrolled in the Mongolian army; the artistic gardeners of the place were sent off to the far East, where they were wanted to adorn the future Mongolo-Chinese capital with pleasure-grounds, after the fashion of those of Samarkand, and the celebrated artisans, especially the silk and cotton weavers, were either distributed as clever and useful slaves amongst the wives and relations of Djenghiz, or else carried with him to Khorasan. A few were sent as slaves to his sons Tchagatai and Oktai, who were then marching on Khahrezm. This was the end, in the year 618 (1221), of Samarkand, which Arabian geographers have described as the most brilliant and most flourishing spot on the face of the earth."

A. Vámbéry, History of Bokhara, chapter 8.

"Samarkand was not only the capital of Trans-Oxiana, but also one of the greatest entrepots of commerce in the world. Three miles in circumference, it was surrounded with a wall having castles at intervals, and pierced by twelve iron gates."

H. H. Howorth, History of the Mongols, part 1, page 79.

SAMARCAND: A. D. 1371-1405. The capital of Timour.

See TIMOUR, THE CONQUESTS OF.

SAMARCAND: A. D. 1868. Seizure by the Russians.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1859-1876.

—————SAMARCAND: End————

SAMARIA. SAMARITANS: Early history. The Kingdom of Israel. Overthrow by the Assyrians.

See JEWS: KINGDOMS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH.

SAMARITANS: Repopulation of the city and district by the Assyrian conqueror.

After the capture of the city of Samaria (B. C. 722) and the deportation of a large part of its inhabitants by the Assyrian conqueror (see as above), "these districts remained for many years in a condition of such desolation that they were overrun with wild beasts. In the meantime King Asarhaddon, whom we suppose to be Asarhaddon II., having reduced afresh several refractory towns about twenty years after the death of Sennacherib, and wishing to inflict on their inhabitants the favourite punishment of his predecessors, transported large bodies of their heathen populations into these deserted regions. … A great number of the settlers in Samaria, the former capital, appear to have come from the Babylonian city of Cuthah, from which arose the name of Cutheans, often applied in derision to the Samaritans by the later Jews. Other settlers were sent from Babylon itself," and "from the cities on the west of the Euphrates, Hamath, Ivah, and Sepharvaim."

H. Ewald, History of Israel, volume 4, pages 215-216.

SAMARIA: After the Exile.

In the second and third generations after the return of the Judæans from exile, there began to be connections formed by marriage with the neighboring peoples. These peoples, "particularly the Samaritans, had given up idolatry, and were longing earnestly and truly to take part in the divine service at Jerusalem. They were, in fact, proselytes to the religion of Judæa; and were they always to be sternly repulsed? The principal Judæan families determined to admit the foreigners into the community, and the high priest of that time, either Jehoiakim or his son Eliashib, was ready to carry these wishes into effect. Marriages were therefore contracted with the Samaritans and other neighbouring people." But when Ezra and his party came from Babylon (B. C. 459-458) bringing an access of religious zeal and narrower interpretations of the law, these marriages were condemned, and those who had contracted them were forced to repudiate their foreign wives and the children borne by such. This cruelly fanatical action changed the friendly feeling of the Samaritans to hatred. Their leader, Sanballat, was a man of power, and he began against the restored Judæans a war which drove them from Jerusalem. It was not until Nehemiah came from Susa, with the authority of King Artaxerxes to rebuild the walls, that they recovered the city. "The strict observance of the Law enjoined by Ezra was followed out by Nehemiah; he strengthened the wall of separation between Judæans and Gentiles so securely that it was almost impossible to break through it." Sanballat, whose son-in-law, a priest, had been exiled on account of his Samaritan marriage, now "cunningly conceived the plan of undermining the Judæan community, by the help of its own members. How would it be were he to raise a temple to the God of Israel, in rivalry to the one which held sway in Jerusalem?" He executed his plan and the Samaritan temple was raised on Mount Gerizim. Thus "the Samaritans had their temple, around which they gathered; they had priests from the house of Aaron; they compared Mount Gerizim … to Mount Moriah; they drew the inference from the Book of the Law that God had designed Mount Gerizim as a site for a sanctuary, and they proudly called themselves Israelites. Sanballat and his followers being intent upon attracting a great many Judæans to their community, tempted them with the offer of houses and land, and in every way helped to support them. Those who had been guilty of crime and who feared punishment, were received with open arms by the Samaritans. Out of such elements a new semi-Judæan community or sect was formed. Their home was in the somewhat limited district of Samaria, the centre of which was either the city that gave its name to the province or the town of Shechem. The members of the new community became an active, vigorous, intelligent people, as if Sanballat, the founder, had breathed his spirit into them. … They actually tried to argue away the right of the Judæans to exist as a community. They declared that they alone were the descendants of Israel, and they denied the sanctity of Jerusalem and its Temple, affirming that everything achieved by the Judæan people was a debasement of the old Israelite character. … Upon the Judæan side, the hatred against their Samaritan neighbours was equally great. … The enmity between Jerusalem and Samaria that existed in the time of the two kingdoms blazed out anew; it no longer bore a political character, but one of a religious tendency."