Part 2 — Chapter III. (These four articles abrogated by the four articles following them, 118-122.) Article 118. The Federal Constitution may at any time be amended. (continued 11)

R. H. Quick, Essays on Educational Reformers, chapter 8.

EDUCATION: A. D. 1804-1891. Co-education and the Higher Education of Women in the United States.

"When to a few daring minds the conviction came that education was a right of personality rather than of sex, and when there was added to this growing sentiment the pressing demand for educated women as teachers and as leaders in philanthropy, the simplest means of equipping women with the needful preparation was found in the existing schools and colleges. … In nearly every State west of the Alleghanies, 'Universities' had been founded by the voluntary tax of the whole population. Connected with all the more powerful religious denominations were schools and colleges which called upon their adherents for gifts and students. These democratic institutions had the vigor of youth, and were ambitious and struggling. 'Why,' asked the practical men of affairs who controlled them, 'should not our daughters go on with our sons from the public schools to the university which we are sacrificing to equip and maintain?' It is not strange that with this and much more practical reasoning of a similar kind, co-education was established in some colleges at their beginning, in others after debate, and by a radical change in policy. When once the chivalrous desire was aroused to give girls as good an education as their brothers, Western men carried out the principle unflinchingly. From the kindergarten to the preparation for the doctorate of philosophy, educational opportunities are now practically alike for men and women. The total number of colleges of arts and sciences empowered by law to give degrees, reporting to Washington in 1888, was three hundred and eighty-nine. Of these, two hundred and thirty-seven, or nearly two-thirds, were co-educational. Among them are nearly all the State universities, and nearly all the colleges under the patronage of the Protestant sects. Hitherto I have spoken as if co-education were a Western movement; and in the West it certainly has had greater currency than elsewhere. But it originated, at least so far as concerns superior secondary training, in Massachusetts. Bradford Academy, chartered in 1804, is the oldest incorporated institution in the country to which boys and girls were from the first admitted; but it closed its department for boys in 1836, three years after the foundation of co-educational Oberlin, and in the very year when Mount Holyoke was opened by Mary Lyon, in the large hope of doing for young women what Harvard had been founded to do for young men just two hundred years before. Ipswich and Abbot Academies in Massachusetts had already been chartered to educate girls alone. It has been the dominant sentiment in the East that boys and girls should be educated separately. The older, more generously endowed, more conservative seats of learning, inheriting the complications of the dormitory system, have remained closed to women. … In the short period of the twenty years after the war the four women's colleges which are the richest in endowments and students of any in the world were founded and set in motion. These colleges—Vassar, opened in 1865, Wellesley and Smith in 1875, and Bryn Mawr in 1885—have received in gifts of every kind about $6,000,000, and are educating nearly two thousand students. For the whole country the Commissioner of Education reports two hundred and seven institutions for the superior instruction of women, with more than twenty-five, thousand students. But these resources proved inadequate. There came an increasing demand, especially from teachers, for education of all sorts. … In an attempt to meet a demand of this sort the Harvard Annex began twelve years ago [in 1879] to provide a few women with instruction from members of the Harvard faculty. … Barnard College in New York is an annex of Columbia only in a sense, for not all her instruction is given by Columbia's teaching force, though Columbia will confer degrees upon her graduates. The new woman's college at Cleveland sustains temporarily the same relations to, Adelbert College, though to a still greater extent she provides independent instruction."

A. F. Palmer, Review of the Higher Education of Women (Woman and the Higher Education, pages 105-127).

"The Cleveland College for Women, Cleveland, Ohio, was first opened for instruction in 1888 as a department of Western Reserve University. At the same time the trustees of the university decided to receive no more women into Adelbert College. That the success of the new school might be assured, the faculty of Adelbert College generously offered their services for a term of years as instructors. During the first year twenty-three young women were admitted, but two of whom were in the regular courses. During 1889-90 the number of students increased to thirty-eight. … In 1887 Evelyn College, an institution for women, was opened at Princeton, N. J. Its location at this place gives the institution very great advantages, inasmuch as the use of the libraries and museums of the College of New Jersey, popularly known as Princeton College, are granted to the students."

U. S. Commissioner of Education, Report, 1889-90, volume 2, page 744.

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"The latest report of the United States Commissioner of Education contains over two hundred institutions for the superior education of women. The list includes colleges and seminaries entitled to confer degrees, and a few seminaries, whose work is of equal merit, which do not give degrees. Of these more than two hundred institutions for the education of women exclusively, only 47 are situated within [western states]. … Of these 47, but 30 are chartered with authority to confer degrees. … The extent to which the higher education of women is in the West identified with co-education, can be seen by comparing the two statements above given. Of the total 212 higher institutions receiving women, and of the total 195 such institutions which confer the regular degrees in arts, science, and letters, upon their graduates, 165 are co-educational. … Among colleges characterized from birth by a liberal and progressive spirit may be mentioned 'The Cincinnati Wesleyan Woman's College.' This institution was chartered in 1842, and claims to be 'the first liberal collegiate institution in the world for the exclusive education of women.' … The West is committed to co-education, excepting only the Roman Catholic, the Lutheran, and the Protestant Episcopal sects,—which are not yet, as sects, committed to the collegiate education of women at all,—and the Presbyterian sect, whose support, in the West, of 14 co-educational colleges against 4 for the separate education of young men, almost commits it to the co-educational idea. … In 1853, Antioch College was opened at Yellow Springs, Ohio. It was the first endeavor in the West to found a college under Christian but non-sectarian auspices. Its president, Horace Mann, wrote of it: 'Antioch is now the only first-class college in all the West that is really an unsectarian institution.' … Antioch was from the first avowedly co-educational."

M. W. Sewall, Education of Women in the Western States (Woman's Work in America, pages 61-70).

"Most people would probably be ready to say that except for the newly founded Woman's College in Baltimore and Tulane University [State university of Louisiana], the collegiate education of women does not exist in the South. But as matter of fact, there are no less than one hundred and fifty institutions in the South which are authorized by the Legislatures of their respective States to confer the regular college degrees upon women. Of these, forty-one are co-educational, eighty-eight are for women alone, and twenty-one are for colored persons of both sexes. The bureau of education makes no attempt to go behind the verdict of the State Legislatures, but on looking over the catalogues of all these institutions it is, as might have been expected, easy to see that the great majority of them are not in any degree colleges, in the ordinary sense of the word. Not a single one of the so-called female colleges presents a real college course, and many of the co-educational colleges are colleges only in name."

C. L. Franklin, Education of Women in the Southern States (Woman's Work in America, pages 93-94).

EDUCATION: A. D. 1816-1892, Froebel and the Kindergarten.

"Frœbel (Friedrich Wilhelm August) was born April 21, 1782, at Oberweissbach, in the principality of Schwanburg-Rudolstadt. His mother died when he was so young that he never even remembered her; and he was left to the care of an ignorant maid-of-all-work, who simply provided for his bodily wants. … Not until he was ten years of age did he receive the slightest regular instruction. He was then sent to school, to an uncle who lived in the neighborhood, … He pronounced the boy to be idle (which, from his point of view, was quite true) and lazy (which certainly was not true)—a boy, in short, that you could do nothing with. … It was necessary for him to earn his bread, and we next find him a sort of apprentice to a woodsman in the great Thuringian forest. Here, as he afterward tells us, he lived some years in cordial intercourse with nature and mathematics, learning even then, though unconsciously, from the teaching he received, how to teach others. … In 1801 he went to the University of Jena, where he attended lectures on natural history, physics, and mathematics; but, as he tells us, gained little from them. … This … was put an end to by the failure of means to stay at the University. For the next few years he tried various occupations. … While engaged in an architect's office at Frankfort, he formed an acquaintance with the Rector of the Model School, a man named Gruner. Gruner saw the capabilities of Frœbel, and detected also his entire want of interest in the work that he was doing; and one day suddenly said to him: 'Give up your architect's business; you will do nothing at it. Be a teacher. We want one now in the school; you shall have the place.' This was the turning point in Frœbel's life. He accepted the engagement, began work at once, and tells us that the first time he found himself in the midst of a class of 30 or 40 boys, he felt that he was in the element that he had missed so long—'the fish was in the water.' He was inexpressibly happy. … In a calmer mood he severely questioned himself as to the means by which he was to satisfy the demands of his new position. About this time he met with some of Pestalozzi's writings, which so deeply impressed him that he determined to go to Yverdun and study Pestalozzi on the spot. He accomplished his purpose, and lived and worked for two years with Pestalozzi. His experience at Yverdun impressed him with the conviction that the science of education had still to draw out from Pestalozzi's system those fundamental principles which Pestalozzi himself did not comprehend. 'And therefore,' says Schmidt, 'this genial disciple of Pestalozzi supplemented his system by advancing from the point which Pestalozzi had reached through pressure from without, to the innermost conception of man, and arriving at the thought of the true development and culture of mankind.' … His educational career commenced November 13th, 1816, in Greisheim, a little village near Stadt-Ilm, in Thuringia; but in 1817, when his Pestalozzian friend, Middendorf, joined him … the school was transferred to the beautiful village of Keilhau, near Rudolstadt, which may be considered as his chief starting-place. … Langenthal, another Pestalozzian, associated himself with them, and they commenced building a house. The number of pupils rose to twelve in 1818. Then the daughter of war-counselor Hoffman of Berlin, from enthusiasm for Frœbel's educational ideas, became his wife. She had a considerable dowry, which, together with the accession of Frœbel's elder brother, increased the funds and welfare of the school. In 1831 he was invited by the composer, Schnyder von Wartensee, to erect a similar garden on his estate, near the lake of Sempach, in the canton Luzern. It was done. Frœbel changed his residence the next year, from Keilhau to Switzerland. In 1834 the government of Bern invited him to arrange a training course for teachers in Burgdorf. In 1835 he became principal of the orphan asylum in Burgdorf, but in 1836 he and his wife wished to return to Germany. There he was active in Berlin, Keilhau, Blankenburg, Dresden, Liebenstein in Thuringia, Hamburg, (1849,) and Marienthal, near Liebenstein, where he lived until his decease in 1852, among the young ladies, whom he trained as nurses for the kindergarten, and the little children who attended his school."

H. Barnard, editor, Papers on Froebel's Kindergarten: Memoir.

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"The child thinks only through symbols. In other words, it explains all it sees not by the recorded experience of others, as does an adult, but by marshaling and comparing its own concept or symbol of what it has itself seen. Its sole activity is play. 'The school begins with teaching the conventionalities of intelligence. Froebel would have the younger children receive a symbolic education in plays, games, and occupations which symbolize the primitive arts of man.' For this purpose, the child is led through a series of primitive occupations in plaiting, weaving, and modeling, through games and dances, which bring into play all the social relations, and through songs and the simple use of number, form and language. The 'gifts' all play their manifold purpose, inspiring the child, awakening its interest, leading the individual along the path the race has trod, and teaching social self-control. The system has its palpable dangers. The better and more intricate the tool, the more skill needed in its safe use. … The kindergarten requires trained hands. With trivial teachers its methods may easily degenerate into mere amusement, and thwart all tendency to attention, application, or industry. Valuable as it is in its hints for the care and development of children, its gay round needs to be ballasted with the purpose and theory uppermost in Froebel's mind when he opened his first school in a German peasant village, down whose main street a brook tumbled, and through whose lanes the halberdier still walked by night and sang the hours. It is idle to suppose that Froebel founded a perfect system, or to insist on all the details of the professional kindergartner's creed. Here as elsewhere, and aforetime, it has taken only forty years from the founder's death for faith to degenerate into religion and sect. But the central purpose he had in view must be steadily maintained. He sought his ends through play, and not through work. It is as dangerous for this method to harden into an approach to the primary school as it is for it to soften into a riot of misrule, and lax observance of order. … Switzerland, then the only republic in Europe, was the first country to adopt Froebel's method, though in some Swiss towns the kindergarten is still supported by private associations. France, another republic, has more children beginning school under an adaptation of Froebel than all the rest of the world put together. It was Froebel's own opinion that 'the spirit of American nationality was the only one in the world with which his method was in complete harmony, and to which its legitimate institutions would present no barriers.' The figures given below of the growth of the kindergarten in this country are the best possible proof of the truth of Froebel's prescient assertion. … In 1870 there were in this country only five kindergarten schools, and in 1872 the National Education Association at its Boston meeting appointed a committee which reported a year later recommending the system. Between 1870 and 1873, experimental kindergartens were established in Boston, Cleveland, and St. Louis, public attention was enlisted by the efforts of Miss Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, the most important worker in the early history of the kindergarten in this country, and the system began a rapid growth. Taking private and public kindergartens together, the advance of the system has displayed this most rapid progress:

1875 1880 1885 1891-2 Schools. 95 232 413 1,001 Teachers. 216 524 902 2,242 Pupils. 2,809 8,871 18,780 50,423

Down to 1880, these figures, outside of St. Louis, relate almost altogether to private schools. By 1885 the public kindergartens were not over a fifth in number of the schools, and held not over a fourth of the pupils. In the figures last given in this table there are 724 private kindergartens with 1,517 teachers and 29,357 pupils, and 277 public kindergartens with 725 teachers and 21,066 pupils, so that the latter have now 27 per cent. of the schools, 33 per cent. of the teachers, and 42 per cent. of the pupils. … Yet great as is this advance, the kindergarten as yet plays but an infinitesimal part in our educational system as a whole. … Of the sixteen American cities with a population of over 200,000 in 1890, only four—Philadelphia, Boston, Milwaukee, and St. Louis have incorporated the kindergarten on any large scale in their public-school systems. Four more—New York, Chicago, Brooklyn, and Buffalo—have kindergarten associations organized to introduce the new method as a part of free public education."

T. Williams, The Kindergarten Movement (The Century, January, 1893).

EDUCATION: A. D. 1865-1883. The Higher Education of Women in England.

The movement in England to secure a higher education for women dates from 1865. "In that year a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into and report on the endowed grammar schools of England and Wales, and on what is called 'secondary' education generally. Several ladies who were already alive to the deficiencies in the education of their own sex, memorialized this Commission to extend the scope of its inquiry to girls' schools, and the Commission taking what was then thought quite a bold step, consented to do so. … One of the points brought out was the absence of any institutions doing for women what the universities did for men, and the consequent difficulty in which women stood of obtaining the highest kind of education—a difficulty which told on girls' schools by making it hard for them to procure thoroughly competent mistresses. This led in the course of the next year or two—the report of the Commission having been published in 1868—to the establishment of a college for women, which was first placed at Hitchin, a town on the Great Northern Railway, between London and Cambridge, and in a little while, when money had been collected sufficient for the erection of buildings, this college was finally settled at Girton, a spot about two miles from Cambridge, whence it takes the name of Girton College. Its purpose was to provide for women the same teaching in the same subjects as men receive in Cambridge University, and the teachers were nearly all of them professors or tutors there, men in some cases of high eminence. {746} Meanwhile, in Cambridge itself, a system of day classes for women, taught by University teachers, had been created, at first as an experiment for one year only. When several years had passed, when the number attending had increased, and it was found that women came to lodge in Cambridge in order to profit by these lectures, a house was hired in which to receive them, and ultimately a company was formed and a building erected a little way out of Cambridge, under the name of Newnham Hall, to which the lectures, now mainly designed for these students coming from a distance, were attached. Thus, at about the same time, though from somewhat different origins, Girton and Newnham came into being and began their course of friendly rivalry. Both have greatly developed since then. Their buildings have been repeatedly enlarged. Their numbers have risen steadily. … In Girton the charge for lodging, board and instruction is £100 per annum, in Newnham a little less. The life in both is very similar, a lady being placed at the head as resident principal, while the affairs are managed by a committee including both men and women. The lectures are delivered partly by Cambridge men, professors in the University, or tutors or lecturers in some of the colleges, partly by ladies, who, having once been students themselves, have come back as teachers. These lectures cover all the subjects required in the degree examinations of the University; and although students are not obliged to enter themselves for those examinations, they are encouraged to do so, and do mostly set the examinations before them as their goal. Originally the University took no official notice of the women students, and their being examined by the regular degree examiners of the University was a matter of pure favor on the part of those gentlemen. … At last, however, some examiners came into office (for the examiners are changed every two years) who disapproved of this informal examination of the women candidates, and accordingly a proposal was made to the University that it should formally authorize and impose on the examiners the function heretofore discharged by them in their individual capacity. This proposal, after some discussion and opposition, was carried, so that now women may enter both for the honor examinations and the pass examinations for the University degree as a matter of right. Their names do not appear in the official lists among those of the men, but separately; they are, however, tested by the same question papers and judged by the same standard. … Some Oxford graduates and their friends, stimulated by the success of Girton and Newnham, have founded two similar institutions in Oxford, one of which, Episcopalian and indeed High Church in its proclivities, is called Lady Margaret Hall, while the other, in compliment to the late Mrs. Somerville, has been given the title of Somerville Hall. These establishments are conducted on much the same lines as the two Cambridge colleges. … In the large towns where new colleges have been lately founded or courses of lectures established, such as Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds, steps are usually taken to provide lectures for women. … What is called among you the question of co-education has come up very little in England. All the lectures given inside the walls of the four English colleges I have mentioned are, of course, given to women only, the colleges being just as exclusively places for women as Trinity and St. John's are places for men. … At this moment the principal of one of the two halls of which Newnham consists is a daughter of the Prime Minister [Miss Helen Gladstone], while her predecessor was a niece of the Marquis of Salisbury. The principal of Girton is a niece of the late Lord Lawrence, the famous Governor-General of India. Of the students a fair proportion belong to the wealthy classes, while a somewhat larger proportion mean to take teaching as their profession."

Progress of Female Education in England. (Nation, July 5, 1883).

See, also, above, SCOTLAND.

EDUCATION: A. D. 1865-1886. Industrial Education in the United States.

"In 1865 John Boynton of Templeton, Mass., gave $100,000 for the endowment and perpetual support of a Free Institute for the youth of Worcester County, Mass. He thus explained his objects: 'The aim of this school shall ever be the instruction of youth in those branches of education not usually taught in the public schools, which are essential and best adapted to train the young for practical life'; especially such as were intending to be mechanics, or manufacturers, or farmers. In furtherance of this object, ten months later, in 1866, Ichabod Washburn of Worcester gave $25,000, and later $50,000 more to erect, equip, and endow a machine-shop which should accommodate twenty apprentices and a suitable number of skilled workmen to instruct them and to carry on the shop as a commercial establishment. The apprentices were to be taught the use of tools in working wood and metals, and to be otherwise instructed, much as was customary fifty years ago for boys learning a trade. The Worcester Free Institute was opened for students in November, 1868, as a technical school of about college grade; and the use of the shops and shop instruction was limited to those students in the course of mechanical engineering. Thus did the Worcester School under the leadership of Prest. C. O. Thompson incorporate tool-instruction and shop-practice into the training of mechanical engineers. … In the same year, 1868, Victor Della-Vos introduced into the Imperial Technical (engineering) School at Moscow the Russian method of class-instruction in the use of tools. … The great value of the work of Della-Vos lay in the discovery of the true method of tool-instruction, for without his discovery the later steps would have been impossible. In 1870, under the direction of Professor Robinson and Prest. J. M. Gregory of the University of Illinois, a wood-working shop was added to the appliances for the course in architecture, and an iron-working shop to the course in mechanical engineering in that institution. In 1871, the Stevens Institute of Hoboken, N. J., munificently endowed by Edwin A. Stevens, as a school of mechanical engineering, fitted up a series of shops for the use of its students. The next step forward was taken by Washington University in St. Louis in providing for all its engineering students systematic instruction in both wood and metals. In 1872, a large shop in the Polytechnic School was equipped with work-benches, two lathes, a forge, a gear-cutter and full sets of carpenters', machinists', and forging tools. … {747} Thus far had we progressed when the Philadelphia Exposition of 1876 was opened. None of us knew anything of the Moscow school, or of the one in Bohemia in which the Russian method had been adopted in 1874. … In his report of 1876, Prest. J. D. Runkle, of the Mass. Institute of Technology, gave a full exposition of the theory and practice of tool-instruction of Della-Vos as exhibited at the Philadelphia Exposition, and he recommended that without delay the course in mechanical engineering at the Institute be completed by the addition of a series of Instruction Shops. The suggestion was acted on, and in the spring of 1877 a class of mechanical engineering students was given instruction in chipping and filing. … The St. Louis Manual Training School was established June 6, 1879. It embodied hopes long cherished and plans long formed. For the first time in America the age of admission to school-shops was reduced to fourteen years as a minimum, and a very general three-years' course of study was organized. The ordinance by which the school was established specified its objects in very general terms:—'Its objects shall be instruction in mathematics, drawing, and the English branches of a high-school course, and instruction and practice in the use of tools. The tool-instruction, as at present contemplated, shall include carpentry, wood-turning, pattern-making, iron clipping and filing, forge-work, brazing and soldering, the use of machine-shop tools, and such other instruction of a similar character, its it may be deemed advisable to add to the foregoing from time to time. The students will divide their working hours, as nearly as possible, equally between mental and manual exercises.' … The Baltimore Manual Training School, a public school, on the same footing as the high school, was opened in 1883. The Chicago Manual Training School, established as an incorporated school by the Commercial Club of that city, was opened in January, 1884. … Manual training was introduced into the high school of Eau Claire, Wisconsin, in 1884. The 'Scott Manual Training School' was organized as a part of the high school of Toledo in 1884. … Manual training was introduced into the College (high school) of the City of New York in 1884. The Philadelphia Manual Training School, a public high school, was opened in September, 1885. The Omaha high school introduced manual training in 1885. … Dr. Adler's Workingman's School for poor children has for several years taught manual training to the very lowest grades. … The Cleveland Manual Training School was incorporated in 1885, and opened in connection with the city high school, in 1886. New Haven, which had for some time encouraged the use of tools by the pupils of several of its grammar schools, in September, 1886, opened a regular shop and furnished systematic instruction in tool-work. The school board of Chicago added manual training to the course of the 'West Side High School' in September, 1886."

C. M. Woodward, The Manual Training School, chapter 1.

"Concerning the manual-training school there are two widely different views. The one insists that it shall teach no trade, but the rudiments of all of them; the other that the particular industries may properly be held to maintain schools to recruit their own ranks. The first would teach the use of the axe, the saw, the plane, the hammer, the square, the chisel, and the file; claiming that 'the graduate from such a course at the end of three years is within from one to three months of knowing quite as thoroughly as an apprentice who had served seven years any one of the twenty trades to which he may choose to turn.' Of this class are, besides most of those already named, the Haish Manual Training School of Denver; that of Tulane University, New Orleans; the Felix Adler's 'Workingman's School, of New York City; and the School of Manual Technology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville. Among schools of the second class are some interesting institutions. They include the numerous general and special trade-schools for boys, instruction in the manifold phases of domestic economy for girls, and the yet small but rapidly growing class of industries open alike to both. Sewing is taught in public or private schools in Baltimore, Boston, Cincinnati, Chicago, New York, Philadelphia, Providence, St. Louis, and about a dozen other cities, besides in a number of special institutions. Cooking-schools are no longer a novelty in half as many of the larger cities, since their introduction into New York city in 1876. Printing may be learned in the Kansas Agricultural College; Cooper Union, New York; Girard College, Philadelphia, and elsewhere. Telegraphy, stenography, wood-engraving, various kinds of smithing, and carpentry, have, especially the last two, numerous representatives. The New York Kitchen Garden, for the instruction of children in the work of the household, is an interesting modification of the Kindergarten along the industrial line. For young ladies, the Elizabeth Aull Seminary, Lexington, Missouri, is a school of home-work, in which 'are practically taught the mysteries of the kitchen and laundry,' and upon whose graduates is conferred the degree of 'Mistress of Home-Work.' The Lasell Seminary at Auburndale, Massachusetts, also has recently (1885) undertaken a similar but more comprehensive experiment, including lessons and lectures in anatomy and physiology, with hygiene and sanitation, the principles of common law by an eminent attorney, instruction and practice in the arts of domestic life, the principles of dress, artistic house-furnishing, healthy homes, and cooking. Of training-schools for nurses there are thirty-one. … Of schools of a different character still, there have been or are the Carriage Builder's Apprenticeship School, New York; those of Hoe & Co., printing-press manufacturers; and Tiffany & Co., jewelers; and the Tailors' 'Trades School' recently established and flourishing in Baltimore, besides the Pennsylvania Railroad novitiate system, at Altoona; in which particular trades or guilds or corporations have sought to provide themselves with a distinct and specially trained class of artisans. The latest and in some respects the most interesting experiment of the kind is that of the 'Baltimore and Ohio Railroad service' at Mt. Clare, Baltimore. It was inaugurated in 1885, apprentices being selected from applicants by competitive examination."

R. G. Boone, Education in the United States, chapter 13.

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EDUCATION: A. D. 1873-1889. University Extension in England.

"The University Extension Movement, which has now been before the country eighteen years, has revealed the existence of a real need for larger opportunities of higher education amongst the middle and working classes. From the time of its inauguration in 1873 by the University of Cambridge, owing mainly to the enthusiastic advocacy and skill in practical affairs of Mr. James Stuart (at that time Fellow and Lecturer of Trinity College), down to the present day, when the principle has been accepted by all the Universities in Great Britain and by some in countries beyond the seas, the movement has shown marvellous vitality and power of adjustment to changing conditions. From a small beginning in three towns in the Midlands, it has grown until the centres in connection with the various branches are to be numbered by hundreds and the students by tens of thousands. The success attained by Cambridge in the first three years led, in 1876, to the formation of the London Society for the Extension of University Teaching, for the express purpose of carrying on similar work within the metropolitan area. In 1878 the University of Oxford undertook to make similar arrangements for Lectures, but after a year or two, they were for the time abandoned. Subsequently in 1885 the Oxford work was revived and has since been carried on with vigour and success. The University of Durham is associated with Cambridge in this work in the northeast of England, while courses of Lectures on the Extension plan have been given for several years in connection with Victoria University in centres around Manchester. Two or three years ago the four Scottish Universities united in forming a like scheme for Scotland, while at the close of 1889 a Society for the Extension of University Teaching was formed in the north of Ireland. Finally the movement has spread to Greater Britain and the United States, and there are signs that work on similar lines is about to be established in various countries on the continent of Europe."

R. D. Roberts, Eighteen years of University Extension, chapter 1.

"One of the chief characteristics of the system is the method of teaching adopted in connection with it. A working man at one of the centres in the north of England who had attended the lectures for several terms, described the method as follows in a paper read by him at a meeting:

'Any town or village which is prepared to provide an audience, and pay the necessary fees, can secure a course of twelve lectures on any subject taught in the University, by a lecturer who has been educated at the University, and who is specially fitted for lecturing work. A syllabus of the course is printed and put into the hands of students. This syllabus is a great help to persons not accustomed to note-taking. Questions are given on each lecture, and written answers can be sent in by anyone, irrespective of age or sex. All the lectures, except the first, are preceded by a class, which lasts about an hour. In this class the students and the lecturer talk over the previous lecture. The written answers are returned with such corrections as the lecturer deems necessary. At the end of the course an examination is held and certificates are awarded to the successful candidates. These lectures are called University Extension Lectures.'

Another definition which has been given is this:

'Advanced systematic teaching for the people, without distinction of rank, sex, or age, given by means of lectures, classes, and written papers during a connected course, conducted by men "who believe in their work, and intend to do it," teachers who connect the country with the University by manner, method, and information.'"

R. D. Roberts, The University Extension Scheme, pages 6-7.

EDUCATION: A. D. 1887-1892. University Extension in the United States.

"The first conscious attempts to introduce English University Extension methods into this country were made in 1887, by individuals connected with the Johns Hopkins University. The subject was first publicly presented to the American Library Association at their meeting upon one of the Thousand Islands in September, 1887. The idea was heartily approved," and the first result of the suggestion was a course of lectures on economic questions given in one of the lecture-rooms of the Buffalo Library the following winter by Dr. Edward W. Bemis. The next winter "Dr. Bemis repeated his course on 'Economic Questions of the Day' in Canton, Ohio. … The Canton experiment was followed in February, 1889, by another course, conducted by Dr. Bemis, in connection with the Public Library at St. Louis. … About the time when these various experiments were being tried in St. Louis, Canton, and Buffalo, individual members of Johns Hopkins University were attempting to introduce University Extension methods in connection with local lectures in the city of Baltimore. … The idea of University Extension in connection with Chautauqua was conceived by Dr. J. H. Vincent during a visit to England, in 1886, when he saw the English lecture system in practical operation and his own methods of encouraging home reading in growing favor with university men. The first definite American plan, showing at once the aims, methods, cost, and history, of University Extension lectures, was drawn up at Chautauqua by the writer of this article in the early summer of 1888. … Contemporary with the development of Chautauqua College and University Extension was the plan of Mr. Seth T. Stewart, of Brooklyn, New York, for 'University and School Extension.' … Several public meetings were held in New York in 1889-90 for the promotion of University and School Extension. … One of the most gratifying recent experiments in University Extension in America has been in the city of Philadelphia under the auspices of the American Society for the Extension of University Teaching. At various local centres Mr. Richard G. Moulton, one of the most experienced lecturers from Cambridge, England, lectured for ten weeks in the winter and spring of 1891 to large and enthusiastic audiences. All the essential features of English University Extension were methodically and persistently carried out. … The American field for University Extension is too vast for the missionary labors of any one society or organization. … The most significant sign of the times with regard to University Extension in America is the recent appropriation of the sum of $10,000 for this very object by the New York legislature. The money is to be expended under the direction of the Regents of the University of the State of New York. … The intention of the New York act is simply to provide the necessary means for organizing a State system of University Extension … and to render such general assistance and co-operation as localities may require."

H. B. Adams, University Extension in America, (Forum, July, 1891).

On the opening, in 1892, of the Chicago University, munificently endowed by Mr. John D. Rockefeller, of Cleveland, University Extension was made one of the three grand divisions of its organization.

{749}

EDWARD, King of Portugal, A. D. 1433-1438. Edward, called the Confessor, King of England, A. D. 1042-1065. Edward, called the Elder, King of Wessex, A. D. 901-925. Edward, called the Martyr, King of Wessex, A. D. 975. Edward I., King of England, A. D. 1274-1307. Edward II., King of England, A. D. 1307-1327. Edward III., King of England, A. D. 1327-1377. Edward V., King of England (first king of the House of York), A. D. 1461-1483. Edward V., titular King of England, A. D. 1483 (from April 9, when his father, Edward IV., died, until June 22, when he is believed to have been murdered in the Tower by command of his uncle, the usurper, Richard III.). Edward VI., King of England, A. D. 1547-1553.

EDWARD, Fort: A. D. 1755. Built by the New England troops.

See CANADA: A. D. 1755 (SEPTEMBER).

EDWARD, Fort: A. D. 1717. Abandoned to the British.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D.1777(JULY-OCTOBER).

—————EDWARD, Fort: End—————

EDWIG, King of Wessex, A. D. 955-957.

EDWIN, King of Northumbria, A. D. 617-633.

Egesta.

See SYRACUSE: B. C. 415-413; and SICILY: B. C. 409-405.

EGFRITH, King of Northumbria, A. D. 670-685.

EGINA. EGINETANS.

See ÆGINA.

EGMONT, Count, and the struggle in the Netherlands.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1562-1566, and 1566-1568.

EGNATIAN WAY, The.

A Roman road constructed from Apollonia on the Adriatic to the shores of the Hellespont; finally carried to Byzantium.

EGRA: A. D. 1647. Siege and capture by the Swedes.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1646-1648.

EGYPT: Its Names.

"Egypt is designated in the old inscriptions, as well as in the books of the later Christian Egyptians, by a word which signifies 'the black land,' and which is read in the Egyptian language Kern, or Kami."

[Footnote: Kamit in the edition of 1891.]

"The ancients had early remarked that the cultivable land of Egypt was distinguished by its dark and almost black colour. … The neighbouring region of the Arabian desert bore the name of Tesher, or the red land. … The Egyptians designated themselves simply as 'the people of the black land,' and … the inscriptions, so far as we know, have handed down to us no other appellation. … A real enigma is proposed to us in the derivation and meaning of the curious proper name, by which the foreign peoples of Asia, each in its own dialect, were accustomed to designate Egypt. The Hebrews gave the land the name of Mizraim; the Assyrians Muzur; the Persians, Mudraya. We may feel assured that at the basis of all these designations there lies an original form which consisted of the three letters M-z-r, all explanations of which have been as yet unsuccessful. Although I intend hereafter to consider more particularly the derivation of this puzzling name, which is still preserved at the present day in the Arabic appellation Misr, I will here premise the remark that this name was originally applied only to a certain definite part of Egypt, in the east of the Delta, which, according to the monuments, was covered and defended by many 'zor,' or fortresses, and was hence called in Egyptian Mazor (that is, fortified)."

H. Brugsch-Bey, History of Egypt under the Pharaohs, chapter 2.

"Brugsch explains the name Egypt by 'ha-ka-ptah,' i. e. 'the precinct of Ptah.' As Ptah was more especially the god of Memphis, this name would have come from Memphis."

M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 1, chapter 1, note.

"The last use of Kem died out in the form Chemi in Coptic, the descendant of the classical language, which ceased to be spoken a century ago. It survives among us in the terms 'chemistry' and 'alchemy,' sciences thought to be of Egyptian origin."

R. S. Poole, Cities of Egypt, introduction.

EGYPT: Its Historical Antiquity.

The lists of Egyptian kings which have been found "agree in presenting the name of Mena [or Menes] as that of the first Pharaoh of Egypt, and as such he is unhesitatingly accepted, although no contemporary monumental record of the fact has yet been discovered. According to Manetho, the age of Mena dates back to a period of 5,004 years before the Christian era, a date which is nearly equal to 7,000 years from the present day. Brugsch favours a somewhat less interval, namely, 4455 B. C.; others place it as low as 2700 B. C., whilst Birch and Chabas adopt a medium date, namely 4000 B. C., which is equivalent to 6000 years backward from the existing time. These extreme variations are chiefly referable to the difficulty of ascertaining the precise length of each individual reign, and especially to the occasional contemporaneous reign of two or more kings, and sometimes the existence of two or more dynasties in different parts of the empire. … Lieblein gives full credit to the chronology of Manetho [a priest of Heliopolis, who wrote about 260 B. C.], as recorded by the historian Africanus, as likewise did the distinguished Mariette, and differs very little from the standard adopted by Birch. He assigns to Mena, as the pioneer of the first monarchy, a date in round numbers of 3900 years."

E. Wilson, The Egypt of the Past, chapter 1.

"As to the era … when the first Pharaoh mounted the throne, the German Egyptologers have attempted to fix it at the following epochs: Boeckh, B. C. 5702; Unger, 5613; Brugsch, 4455; Lauth, 4157; Lepsius, 3892; Bunsen, 3623. The difference between the two extreme points of the series is amazingly great, for its number of years amounts to no less than 2079. … The calculations in question are based on the extracts already often mentioned from a work by the Egyptian priest Manetho on the history of Egypt. That learned man had then at his command the annals of his country's history, which were preserved in the temples, and from them, the best and most accurate sources, be derived the materials for his work, composed in the Greek language, on the history of the ancient Egyptian Dynasties. His book, which is now lost, contained a general review of the kings of the land, divided into Thirty Dynasties, arranged in the order of their names, with the lengths of their reigns, and the total duration of each dynasty. Though this invaluable work was little known and certainly but little regarded by the historians of the old classical age, large extracts were made from it by some of the ecclesiastical writers. In process of time the copyists, either by error or designedly, corrupted the names and the numbers, and thus we only possess at the present day the ruins instead of the complete building. The truth of the original, and the authenticity of its sources were first proved by the deciphering of the Egyptian writings. And thus the Manethonian list served, and still serves, as a guide for assigning to the royal names read on the monuments their places in the Dynasties."

H. Brugsch-Bey, History of Egypt under the Pharaohs, chapter 4.

See, also, MANETHO, LIST OF.

{750}

EGYPT: Origin of the ancient people.

"The Egyptians, together with some other nations, form, as it would seem, a third branch of that [the Caucasian] race, namely, the family called Cushite, which is distinguished by special characters from the Pelasgian and the Semitic families. Whatever relations may be found always to exist between these great races of mankind, thus much may be regarded as certain, that the cradle of the Egyptian people must be sought in the interior of the Asiatic quarter of the world. In the earliest ages of humanity, far beyond all historical remembrance, the Egyptians, for reasons unknown to us, left the soil of their primeval home, took their way towards the setting sun, and finally crossed that bridge of nations, the Isthmus of Suez, to find a new fatherland on the favoured banks of the holy Nile. Comparative philology, in its turn, gives powerful support to this hypothesis. The Egyptian language … shows in no way any trace of a derivation and descent from the African families of speech. On the contrary, the primitive roots and the essential elements of the Egyptian grammar point to such an intimate connection with the Indo-Germanic and Semitic languages that it is almost impossible to mistake the close relations which formerly prevailed between the Egyptians and the races called Indo-Germanic and Semitic."

H. Brugsch-Bey, History of Egypt under the Pharaohs, chapter 1.

"It has been maintained by some that the immigration was from the south, the Egyptians having been a colony from Ethiopia which gradually descended the Nile and established itself in the middle and lower portions of the valley; and this theory can plead in its favour, both a positive statement of Diodorus, and the fact, which is quite certain, of an ethnic connection between the Egyptians and some of the tribes who now occupy Abyssinia (the ancient Ethiopia). But modern research has shown quite unmistakably that the movement of the Egyptians was in the opposite direction. … We must look, then, rather to Syria or Arabia than to Ethiopia as the cradle of the Egyptian nation. At the same time we must admit that they were not mere Syrians or Arabs, but had, from the remotest time whereto we can go back, distinct characteristics, whereby they have a good claim to be considered as a separate race."

G. Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt, chapter 3.

"So far as our knowledge reaches, the northern edge of Africa, like the valley of the Nile as far as the marshes at the foot of the Abyssinian hills, was inhabited by nations who in colour, language, and customs were sharply distinguished from the negro. These nations belong to the whites: their languages were most closely allied to the Semitic. From this, and from their physical peculiarities, the conclusion has been drawn that these nations at some time migrated from Asia to the soil of Africa. They formed a vast family, whose dialects still continue in the language of the Berbers. Assisted by the favourable conditions of their land, the tribe which settled on the Lower Nile quickly left their kinsmen far behind. Indeed the latter hardly rose above a pastoral life. The descendants of these old inhabitants of the valley of the Nile, in spite of the numerous layers which the course of centuries has subsequently laid upon the soil of the land, still form the larger part of the population of Egypt, and the ancient language is preserved in the dialect of the Copts."

M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 1, chapter 1.

EGYPT: The Old Empire and the Middle Empire.

The following are the Egyptian Dynasties, from the first Pharaoh, Mena, to the epoch of the Hyksos, or Shepherd kings, with the dates and periods assigned to each by Brugsch:

The First Dynasty; of Thinis: B. C. 4400-4166. The Second; of Thinis: 4133-4000. The Third; of Memphis: 3966-3766. The Fourth; of Memphis: 3733-3600. The Fifth; of Elephantine: 3566-3333. The Sixth; of Memphis: 3300-3066. The Seventh to the Eleventh (a confused and obscure period): 3033-2500. The Twelfth; of Thebes: 2466-2266.

H. Brugsch-Bey, History of Egypt under the Pharaohs, appendix A.

"The direct descendants of Menes [or Mena] form the First Dynasty, which, according to Manetho, reigned 253 years. No monument contemporary with these princes has come down to us. … The Second Dynasty, to which Manetho assigns nine kings, lasted 302 years. It was also originally from This [or Thinis], and probably related to the First. … When this family had become extinct, a Dynasty, originally from Memphis, seized the throne, forming the Third, and to it a duration of 214 years is attributed. … With the Fourth Dynasty, Memphite like the Third, and which reigned 284 years, history becomes clearer and monuments more numerous. This was the age of the three Great Pyramids, built by the three kings, Khufu (the Cheops of Herodotus), Shafra (Chefren), and Menkara (Mycerinus). … The Fifth Dynasty came originally from Elephantine, at the southern extremity of Upper Egypt, and there possibly the kings generally resided, though at the same time Memphis was not deprived of its importance. … On the death of the last king of the Fifth Dynasty, a new family, of Memphitic origin according to Manetho, came to the throne. … Primitive art attained its highest point under the Sixth Dynasty. … But, from the time of the civil commotions in which Neit-aker [the Nitocris of Herodotus] perished, Egyptian civilization underwent a sudden and unaccountable eclipse. From the end of the Sixth Dynasty to the commencement of the Eleventh, Manetho reckons 436 years, and for this whole period the monuments are absolutely silent. Egypt seems then to have disappeared from the rank of nations; and when this long slumber ended, civilization commenced a new career, entirely independent of the past. … {751} Thus ends that period of nineteen centuries, which modern scholars know as the Old Empire. … Thebes did not exist in the days of the glory of the Old Empire. The holy city of Amen seems to have been founded during the period of anarchy and obscurity, succeeding, as we have said, to the Sixth Dynasty. Here was the birthplace of that renewed civilization, that new monarchy, we are accustomed to call the Middle Empire, the middle age in fact of ancient Egypt—a middle age anterior to the earliest ages of all other history. From Thebes cane the six kings of the Eleventh Dynasty. … We again quote the excellent remarks of M. Mariette: 'When, with the Eleventh Dynasty, we see Egypt awake from her long slumber, all old traditions appear to be forgotten; the proper names used in ancient families, the titles of functionaries, the style of writing, and even the religion—all seem new. This, Elephantine, and Memphis, are no longer the favourite capitals. Thebes for the first time becomes the seat of sovereign power. Egypt, moreover, has lost a considerable portion of her territory, and the authority of her legitimate kings hardly extends beyond the limited district of the Thebaid. The study of the monuments confirms these general views; they are rude, primitive, sometimes coarse; and when we look at them we may well believe that Egypt, under the Eleventh Dynasty, again passed through a period of infancy, as she had already done under the Third Dynasty.' A dynasty probably related to, and originally from the same place as these first Theban princes succeeded them. … This Twelfth Dynasty reigned for 213 years, and its epoch was one of prosperity, of peace at home and glorious achievements abroad. … Although the history of the Twelfth Dynasty is clear and well known, illustrated by numerous monuments, there is, nevertheless, no period in the annals of Egypt more obscure than the one closing with the Thirteenth Dynasty. It is one long series of revolutions, troubles, and internal dissensions, closed by a terrible catastrophe, the greatest and most lasting recorded in Egyptian history, which a second time interrupted the march of civilization on the banks of the Nile, and for a while struck Egypt from the list of nations."

F. Lenormant and E. Chevallier, Manual of Ancient History of the East, book 3, chapter 1-2.

ALSO IN: C. C. J. Bunsen, Egypt's Place in Universal History, volume 2.

See, also, MEMPHIS, and THEBES, EGYPT.

EGYPT: The Hyksos, or Shepherd-Kings.

According to the Manethouian account which the Jewish historian Josephus has preserved to us by transcribing it, the Egyptian Netherlands were at a certain time overspread by a wild and rough people, which came from the countries of the east, overcame the native kings who dwelt there, and took possession of the whole country, without finding any great opposition on the part of the Egyptians. They were called Hyksos, which Josephus interpreted as meaning Shepherd-kings. "Hyk," he explained, meant King, in the holy language, and "sos," in the dialect of the people, signified Shepherd. But Dr. Brugsch identifies "sos" with the name "Shasu," which the old Egyptians gave to the Bedouins, whose name became equivalent to Shepherds. Hence Dr. Brugsch inclines to the ancient opinion transmitted by Josephus, that the Hyksos were Arabs or Bedouins—the Shasu of the Egyptian records, who hung on the northeastern frontier of Egypt from the most ancient times and were always pressing into the country, at every opportunity. But many objections against this view are raised and the different theories advanced to account for the Hyksos are quite numerous. Canon Rawlinson says: "The Egyptians of the time of Herodotus seem to have considered that they were Philistines. Moderns have regarded them as Canaanites, Syrians, Hittites. It is an avoidance rather than a solution of the difficulty to say that they were 'a collection of all the nomad hordes of Arabia and Syria' [Lenormant], since there must have been a directing hand. … On the whole, therefore, we lean to the belief that the so-called Hyksos or Shepherds were Hittites."

G. Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt, chapter 19.

"It is maintained on good authority that the Hyksos, or Shepherd-Kings, had secured possession of the eastern frontier of Lower Egypt immediately after the close of the Twelfth Dynasty; that at this time the Thirteenth and the Fourteenth Dynasties ruled contemporaneously, the former in Upper, the latter in Lower Egypt; one was illegitimate, the other the illegitimate line; but authors are not in accord as to their right of priority. It is supposed that, while Egypt claimed the Thirteenth Dynasty as her own, the Hyksos usurped the mastery over the Fourteenth Dynasty, and governed through the agency of its kings, treating them meanwhile as vassal chiefs. These local kings had cities from which they were unable to escape, and were deprived of an army of defence. Such was the state of the country for 184 years, when the Fourteenth Dynasty died out, and when the Fifteenth Dynasty, constituted of six successive Hyksos kings, took the reins of government into their own hands. Lieblein, whose views we are now endeavouring to express, assigns as the date of the invasion of the Hyksos 2108 years B. C. … It is not improbable that the well-known journey of Abraham to Egypt was made during the early period of the reign of the Shepherd-Kings; whilst the visit of Joseph occurred near the close of their power."

E. Wilson, The Egypt of the Past, chapter 5.

"'The Shepherds possessed themselves of Egypt by violence,' writes Mariette-Bey, 'but the civilization which they immediately adopted on their conquest was rather Egyptian than Asiatic, and the discoveries of Avaris (San) prove that they did not even banish from their temples the gods of the ancient Egyptian Pantheon.' In fact the first shepherd-king, Solatis himself, employed an Egyptian artist to inscribe … his title on the statue of a former legitimate Pharaoh. 'They did not disturb the civilization more than the Persians or the Greeks, but simply accepted the higher one they had conquered.' So our revered scholar Dr. Birch has summed up the matter; and Professor Maspero has very happily described it thus: 'The popular hatred loaded them with ignominious epithets, and treated them as accursed, plague-stricken, leprous. Yet they allowed themselves very quickly to be domesticated. … Once admitted to the school of Egypt, the barbarians progressed quickly in the civilized life. The Pharaonic court reappeared around these shepherd-kings, with all its pomp and all its following of functionaries great and small. The royal style and title of Cheops and the Amenemhas were fitted to the outlandish names of Jannes and Apapi. The Egyptian religion, without being officially adopted, was tolerated, and the religion of the Canaanites underwent some modifications to avoid hurting beyond measure the susceptibility of the worshippers of Osiris.'"

H. G. Tomkins, Studies on the Times of Abraham, chapter 8.

{752}

In a late Italian work ("Gli Hyksos") by Dr. C. A. de Cara, "he puts together all that is ascertained in regard to them [the Hyksos], criticises the theories that have been propounded on their behalf, and suggests a theory of his own. Nothing that has been published on the subject seems to have escaped his notice. … His own view is that the Hyksos represented a confederacy of various Asiatic tribes, under the leadership of the northern Syrians. That their ruling class came from this part of the world seems to me clear from the name of their supreme god Sutekh, who occupied among them the position of the Semitic Baal."

A. H. Sayce, The Hyksôs (Academy, September 20, 1890).

"Historical research concerning the history of the Hyksos may be summed up as follows:

I. A certain number of non-Egyptian kings of foreign origin, belonging to the nation of the Menti, ruled for a long time in the eastern portion of the Delta.

II. These chose as their capitals the cities of Zoan and Avaris, and provided them with strong fortifications.

III. They adopted not only the manners and customs of the Egyptians, but also their official language and writing, and the order of their court was arranged on Egyptian models.

IV. They were patrons of art, and Egyptian artists erected, after the ancient models, monuments in honour of these usurpers, in whose statues they were obliged to reproduce the Hyksos physiognomy, the peculiar arrangement of the beard und head-dress, as well as other variations of their costume.

V. They honored Sutekh, the son of Nut, as the supreme god of their newly acquired country, with the surname Nub, 'the golden.' He was the origin of all that is evil and perverse in the visible and invisible world, the opponent of good and the enemy of light. In the cities of Zoan and Avaris, splendid temples were constructed in honour of this god, and other monuments raised, especially Sphinxes, carved out of stone from Syene.

VI. In all probability one of them was the founder of a new era, which most likely began with the first year of his reign. Down to the time of the second Ramses, four hundred years had elapsed of this reckoning which was acknowledged even by the Egyptians.

VII. The Egyptians were indebted to their contact with them for much useful knowledge. In particular their artistic views were expanded and new forms and shapes, notably that of the winged sphinx, were introduced, the Semitic origin of which is obvious at a glance. …

The inscriptions on the monuments designate that foreign people who once ruled in Egypt by the name of Men or Menti. On the walls of the temple of Edfû it is stated that 'the inhabitants of the land of Asher are called Menti.' … In the different languages, … and in the different periods of history, the following names are synonymous: Syria, Rutennu of the East, Asher, and Menti."—"Since, on the basis of the most recent and best investigations in the province of ancient Egyptian chronology, we reckon the year 1350 B. C. as a mean computation for the reign of Ramses, the reign of the Hyksos king, Nub, and probably its beginning, falls in the year 1750 B. C., that is, 400 years before Ramses II. Although we are completely in the dark as to the place King Nub occupied in the succession of the kindred princes of his house, yet the number mentioned is important, as an approximate epoch for the stay of the foreign kings in Egypt. According to the statement in the Bible, the Hebrews from the immigration of Jacob into Egypt until the Exodus remained 430 years in that land. Since the Exodus from Egypt took place in the time of Meneptah II., the son of Ramses II.—the Pharaoh of the oppression—the year B. C. 1300 may be an approximate date. If we add to this 430 years, as expressing the total duration of the sojourn of the Hebrews in Egypt, we arrive at the year 1730 B. C. as the approximate date for the immigration of Jacob into Egypt, and for the time of the official career of Joseph at the court of Pharaoh. In other words, the time of Joseph (1730 B. C.) must have fallen in the period of the Hyksos domination, about the reign of the above-mentioned prince Nub (1750 B. C)."

H. Brugsch-Bey, Egypt under the Pharaohs (edition of 1891, by M. Brodrick), pages 106-109, and 126.

See JEWS: THE CHILDREN OF ISRAEL IN EGYPT.

ALSO IN: F. C. H. Wendel, History of Egypt, chapter 4.

EGYPT: About B. C. 1700-1400. The New Empire. The Eighteenth Dynasty.

"The dominion of the Hyksos by necessity gave rise to profound internal divisions, alike in the different princely families and in the native population itself. Factions became rampant in various districts, and reached the highest point in the hostile feeling of the inhabitants of Patoris or the South country against the people of Patomit or North country, who were much mixed with foreign blood. … From this condition of divided power and of mutual jealousy the foreign rulers obtained their advantage and their chief strength, until King Aahmes made himself supreme."

H. Brugsch-Bey, Egypt under the Pharaohs (edition of 1891, by M. Brodrick).

"The duration of the reign of this first Pharaoh of the New Empire was twenty-five years. He was succeeded by his son Amenhotep I. and the latter by his son Thothmes I. "The reign of Thothmes 1. … derives its chief distinction from the fact that, at this period of their history, the Egyptians for the first time carried their arms deep into Asia, overrunning Syria, and even invading Mesopotamia, or the tract between the Tigris and the Euphrates. Hitherto the furthest point reached in this direction had been Sharuhen in Southern Palestine. … Syria was hitherto almost an undiscovered region to the powerful people which nurturing its strength in the Nile valley, had remained content with its own natural limits and scarcely grasped at any conquests. A time was now come when this comparative quietude and absence of ambition were about to cease. Provoked by the attack made upon her from the side of Asia, and smarting from the wounds inflicted upon her pride and prosperity by the Hyksos during the period of their rule, Egypt now set herself to retaliate, and for three centuries continued at intervals to pour her armies into the Eastern continent, and to carry fire and sword over the extensive and populous regions which lay between the Mediterranean and the Zagros mountain range. There is some uncertainty as to the extent of her conquests; but no reasonable doubt can be entertained that for a space of three hundred years Egypt was the most powerful and the most aggressive state that the world contained, and held a dominion that has as much right to be called an 'Empire' as the Assyrian, the Babylonian or the Persian. {753} While Babylonia, ruled by Arab conquerors, declined in strength, and Assyria proper was merely struggling into independence, Egypt put forth her arm and grasped the fairest regions of the earth's surface." The immediate successor of Thothmes I. was his son, Thothmes II., who reigned in association with a sister of masculine character, queen Hatasu. The strong-minded queen, moreover, prolonged her reign after the death of this elder brother, until a younger brother, Thothmes III. displaced her. The Third Thothmes was the greatest of Egyptian conquerors and kings. He carried his arms beyond the Euphrates, winning a memorable victory at Megiddo over the confederated kings of the Syrian and Mesopotamian countries. He left to his son (Amenhotep II.) "a dominion extending about 1,100 miles from north to south, and (in places) 450 miles from west to east." He was a great builder, likewise, and "has left the impress of his presence in Egypt more widely than almost any other of her kings, while at the same time he has supplied to the great capitals of the modern world their most striking Egyptian monuments." The larger of the obelisks now standing in Rome and Constantinople, as well as those at London and New York were all of them produced in the reign of this magnificent Pharaoh. The two obelisks last named stood originally, and for fourteen centuries at the front of the great temple of the sun, in Heliopolis. They were removed by the Roman Emperor, Augustus, B. C: 23, to Alexandria, where they took in time the name of Cleopatra's Needles,—although Cleopatra had no part in their long history. After nineteen centuries more of rest, these strangely coveted monuments were again disturbed, and transported into lands which their builder knew not of. The later kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty seem to have, none of them, possessed the energy and character of Thothmes III. The line ended about 1400 B. C. with Horemheb, who left no heirs.

G. Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt, chapter 20.

ALSO IN: H. Brugsch-Bey, Egypt under the Pharaohs, chapter 13.

H. H. Gorringe, Egyptian Obelisks.

EGYPT: About B. C. 1500-1400. The Tell el-Amarna Tablets. Correspondence of the Egyptian kings with Babylonia, Assyria, Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine.

"The discovery made in 1887 by a peasant woman of Middle Egypt may be described as the most important of all contributions to the early political history of Western Asia. We have become possessed of a correspondence, dating from the fifteenth century B. C., which was carried on during the reigns of three Egyptian kings, with the rulers of Babylon, Assyria, Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine, during a period of great activity, when revolutions which affected the whole history of the east shore lands of the Mediterranean were in progress; and we find in these tablets a contemporary picture of the civilisation of the age. … The Tell Amarna tablets represent a literature equal in bulk to about half the Pentateuch, and concerned almost exclusively with political affairs, They are clay tablets, varying from two inches to a foot in length, with a few as large as eighteen inches, covered with cuneiform writing generally on both sides, and often on the edges as well. The peasantry unearthed nearly the complete collection, including some 320 pieces in all; and explorers afterwards digging on the site have added only a few additional fragments. The greater number were bought for the Berlin Museum, while eighty-two were acquired for England, and the rest remain either in the Boulak Museum at Cairo; or, in a few instances, in the hands of private collectors. … Tell Amarna (apparently 'the mound of the tumuli ') is an important ruined site on the east bank of the Nile, about a hundred and fifty miles in a straight line south of Cairo. Its Egyptian name is said to have been Khu-en-aten, 'Glory of the Sun-disk.'"

The Tell Amarna Tablets (Edinburgh Review, July, 1893).

"The collection of Cuneiform Tablets recently found [1887] at Tell el-Amarna in Upper Egypt, consisted of about three hundred and twenty documents, or portions of documents. The British Museum possesses eighty-two … the Berlin Museum has one hundred and sixty, a large number being fragments; the Gizeh Museum has sixty; and a few are in the hands of private persons. … In color the Tablets vary from a light to a dark dust tint, and from a flesh-color to dark brick-red. The nature of the clay of which they are made sometimes indicates the countries from which they come. The size of the Tablets in the British Museum varies from 8¾ inches x 4-7/8 inches to 2-1/8 inches x 1-11/16 inches; the longest text contains 98 lines, the shortest 10. … The greater number are rectangular, and a few are oval; and they differ in shape from any other cuneiform documents known to us. … The writing … resembles to a certain extent the Neo-Babylonian, i. e., the simplification of the writing of the first Babylonian Empire used commonly in Babylonia and Assyria for about seven centuries B. C. It possesses, however, characteristics different from those of any other style of cuneiform writing of any period now known to exist; and nearly every tablet contains forms of characters which have hitherto been thought peculiar to the Ninevite or Assyrian style of writing. But, compared with the neat, careful hand employed in the official documents drawn up for the kings of Assyria, it is somewhat coarse and careless, and suggests the work of unskilled scribes. One and the same hand, however, appears in tablets which come from the same person and the same place. On some of the large tablets the writing is bold and free; on some of the small ones the characters are confused and cramped, and are groups of strokes rather than wedges. The spelling … is often careless, and in some instances syllables have been omitted. At present it is not possible to say whether the irregular spelling is due to the ignorance of the scribe or to dialectic peculiarities. … The Semitic dialect in which these letters are written is Assyrian, and is, in some important details, closely related to the Hebrew of the Old Testament. … The documents were most probably written between the years B. C. 1500 to 1450. … They give an insight into the nature of the political relations which existed between the kings of Western Asia and the kings of Egypt, and prove that an important trade existed between the two countries from very early times. … A large number of the present tablets are addressed to 'the King of Egypt,' either Amenophis III. or Amenophis IV. Nearly all of them consist of reports of disasters to the Egyptian power and of successful intrigues against it, coupled by urgent entreaties for help, pointing to a condition of distraction and weakness in Egypt. … The most graphic details of the disorganized condition, and of the rival factions, of the Egyptian dependencies lying on the coastline of Phoenicia and Northern Palestine, are to be gathered from a perusal of the dispatches of the governors of the cities of Byblos, Beyrut and Tyre."

The Tell el-Amarna Tablets in the British Museum, introduction.

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"In the present state of cuneiform research I believe it to be impossible to give a translation of the Tell el-Amarna texts which would entirely satisfy the expert or general reader. No two scholars would agree as to any interpretation which might be placed upon certain rare grammatical forms and unknown words in the Babylonian text, and any literal translation in a modern language would not be understood by the general reader on account of the involved style and endless repetition of phrases common to a Semitic idiom and dialect. About the general meaning of the contents of the greater number of the letters there can be no doubt whatever, and it is therefore possible to make a summary of the contents of each letter, which should, as a rule, satisfy the general reader, and at the same time form a guide to the beginner in cuneiform. Summaries of the contents of the Tell el-Amarna tablets in the British Museum have been published in 'The Tell el-Amarna Tablets in the British Museum, with autotype facsimiles,' printed by order of the Trustees, London, 1892, and it is hoped that the transliteration, given in the following pages may form a useful supplement to that work." …

No. 1. A Letter from Egypt—Amenophis III. to Kallimma (?) Sin, King of Karaduniyash, referring to his proposed marriage with Sukharti, the daughter of Kallimma-Sin, and containing the draft of a commercial treaty, and an allusion to the disappearance of certain chariots and horses.

No.2. Letters from Babylonia-Burraburiyash, King of Karaduniyash, to Amenophis IV., referring to the friendship which had existed between their respective fathers, and the help which had been rendered to the King of Egypt by Burraburiyash himself; the receipt of two manahs of gold is acknowledged and a petition is made for more.

No. 3. Burraburiyash, King of Karaduniyash to Amenophis IV., complaining that the Egyptian messengers had visited his country thrice without bringing gifts, and that they withheld some of the gold which had been sent to him from Egypt; Burraburiyash announces the despatch of a gift of lapis-lazuli for the Egyptian princess who was his son's wife. …

No. 30. Letter from Abi-milki, governor of Tyre, to the King of Egypt, reporting that he believes Zimrida will not be able to stir up disaffection in the city of Sidon, although he has caused much hostility against Tyre. He asks for help to protect the city, and for water to drink and wood to burn, and he sends with his messenger Ili-milki five talents of copper and other gifts for the King of Egypt. He reports that the King of Danuna is dead and that his brother reigns in his stead; one half of the city of Ugarit has been destroyed by fire; the soldiers of the Khatti have departed; Itagamapairi, governor of Kedesh, and Aziru are fighting against Namyawiza. If the King of Egypt will but send a few troops, all will be well with Tyre. …

No. 43. Letter from the governor of a town in Syria to the King of Egypt, reporting that the rebels have asserted their independence; that Biridashwi has stirred up rebellion in the city of Inu-Amma; that its people have captured chariots in the city of Ashtarti: that the kings of the cities of Buzruna and Khalunni have made a league with Biridashwi to slay Namyawiza (who, having taken refuge in Damascus and being attacked by Arzawiya, declared himself to be a vassal of Egypt); that Arzawiya went to the city of Gizza and afterwards captured the city of Shaddu; that Itakkama ravaged the country of Gizza; and that Arzawiya and Biridashwi have wasted the country of Abitu.

No. 44. Continuation (1) of a letter to the King of Egypt, reporting that, owing to the hostilities of Abd-Ashirta, Khâya, an official, was unable to send ships to the country of Amurri, as he had promised. The ships from Arvad which the writer has in his charge, lack their full complement of men for war service, and he urges the king to make use of the ships and crews which he has had with him in Egypt. The writer of the letter also urges the King of Egypt to appoint an Egyptian official over the naval affairs of Sidon, Beyrut and Arvad, and to seize Abd-Ashirta and put him under restraint to prevent him obstructing the manning of the ships of war. …

No. 58. Letter from the governor of a district in Palestine (?) to the governors of neighbouring states in the land of Canaan, informing them that he is about to send his messenger Akiya on a mission to the King of Egypt, and to place himself and every thing that he has at his disposal. Akiya will go to Egypt by the way of Canaan, and the writer of this letter suggests that any gifts they may have to send to Egypt should be carried by him, for Akiya is a thoroughly trustworthy man.

C. Bezold, Oriental Diplomacy: Being the transliterated text of the Cuneiform Despatches, preface.

Under the title of "The Story of a 'Tell,'" Mr. W. M. Flinders Petrie, the successful excavator and explorer of Egyptian antiquities, gave a lecture in London, in June, 1892, in which he described the work and the results of an excavation then in progress under his direction on the supposed site of Lachish, at a point where the maritime plain of Philistia rises to the mountains of Judæa, on the route from Egypt into Asia. The chairman who introduced Mr. Petrie defined the word "Tell" as follows: "A Tell is a mound of earth showing by the presence of broken pottery or worked stone that it is the site of a ruined city or village. In England when a house falls down or is pulled down the materials are usually worth the expense of removing for use in some new building. But in Egypt common houses have for thousands of years been built of sun-dried bricks; in Palestine of rough rubble walling, which, on falling, produces many chips, with thick flat roofs of plaster. It is thus often less trouble to get new than to use old material; the sites of towns grow in height, and depressions are filled up." The mound excavated by Mr. Petrie is known as Tell el Hesy. After he left the work it was carried on by Mr. Bliss, and Mr. Petrie in his lecture says "The last news is that Mr. Bliss has found the long looked for prize, a cuneiform tablet. … From the character of the writing, which is the same as on the tablets written in Palestine in 1400. B. C., to the Egyptian king at Tel el Amarna, we have a close agreement regarding the chronology of the town. Further, it mentions Zimrida as a governor, and this same man appears as governor of Lachish on the tablets found at Tel el Amarna. We have thus at last picked up the other end of the broken chain of correspondence between Palestine and Egypt, of which one part was so unexpectedly found in Egypt a few years ago on the tablets at Tel el Amarna; and we may hope now to recover the Palestinian part of this intercourse and so establish the pre-Israelite history of the land."

W_. M. F. Petrie, The Story of a "Tell" (The City and the Land, lecture 6)._

See, also, PALESTINE.

ALSO IN: C. R. Conder, The Tell Amarna Tablets, translated.

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EGYPT: About B. C. 1400-1200. The first of the Ramesides. The Pharaohs of the Oppression and the Exodus.

"Under the Nineteenth Dynasty, which acquired the throne after the death of Har-em-Hebi [or Hor-em-heb] the fortune of Egypt maintained to some extent its ascendancy; but, though the reigns of some war-like kings throw a bright light on this epoch, the shade of approaching trouble already darkens the horizon." Ramses I. and his son, or son-in-law, Seti I., were involved in troublesome wars with the rising power of the Hittites, in Syria, and with the Shasu of the Arabian desert. Seti was also at war with the Libyans, who then made their first appearance in Egyptian history. His son Ramses II., the Sesostris of the Greeks, who reigned for sixty-seven years, in the fourteenth century B. C., has always been the most famous of the Egyptian kings, and, by modern discovery, has been made the most interesting of them to the Christian world. He was a busy and boastful warrior, who accomplished no important conquests; but "among the Pharaohs he is the builder 'par excellence.' It is almost impossible to find in Egypt a ruin or an ancient mound, without reading his name." … It was to these works, probably, that the Israelites then in Egypt were forced to contribute their labor; for the Pharaoh of the oppression is identified, by most scholars of the present day, with this building and boasting Sesostris.

F. Lenormant and E. Chevallier, Manual of the Ancient History of the East, book 3, chapter 3.

"The extreme length of the reign of Ramses was, as in other histories, the cause of subsequent weakness and disaster. His successor was an aged son, Menptah, who had to meet the difficulties which were easily overcome by the youth of his energetic father. The Libyans and their maritime allies broke the long tranquillity of Egypt by a formidable invasion and temporary conquest of the north-west. The power of the monarchy was thus shaken, and the old king was not the leader to restore it. His obscure reign was followed by others even obscurer, and the Nineteenth Dynasty ended in complete anarchy, which reached its height when a Syrian chief, in what manner we know not, gained the rule of the whole country. It is to the reign of Menptah that Egyptian tradition assigned the Exodus, and modern research has come to a general agreement that this is its true place in Egyptian history. … Unfortunately we do not know the duration of the oppression of the Israelites, nor the condition of Lower Egypt during the Eighteenth Dynasty, which, according to the hypothesis here adopted, corresponds to a great part of the Hebrew sojourn. It is, however, clear from the Bible that the oppression did not begin till after the period of Joseph's contemporaries, and had lasted eighty years before the Exodus. It seems almost certain that this was the actual beginning of the oppression, for it is very improbable that two separate Pharaohs are intended by the 'new king which knew not Joseph' and the builder of Rameses, or, in other words, Ramses II., and the time from the accession of Ramses II. to the end of Menptah's reign can have little exceeded the eighty years of Scripture between the birth of Moses and the Exodus. … If the adjustment of Hebrew and Egyptian history for the oppression, as stated above, be accepted, Ramses II. was probably the first, and certainly the great oppressor. His character suits this theory; he was an undoubted autocrat who … covered Egypt and Lower Nubia with vast structures that could only have been produced by slave-labor on the largest scale."

R. S. Poole, Ancient Egypt (Contemporary Review, March, 1879).

ALSO IN: H. Brugsch-Bey, Egypt Under the Pharaohs, chapter 14.

H. G. Tomkins, Life and Times of Joseph.

See, also: JEWS: THE CHILDREN OF ISRAEL IN EGYPT.

EGYPT: About B. C. 1300. Exodus of the Israelites.

See JEWS: THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS.

EGYPT: About B. C. 1200-670. The decline of the empire of the Pharaohs.

From the anarchy in which the Nineteenth Dynasty came to its end, order was presently restored by the seating in power of a new family, which claimed to be of the Rameside stock. The second of its kings, who called himself Ramses III. and who is believed to be the Rhampsinitus of the Greeks, appears to have been one of the ablest of the monarchs of his line. The security and prosperity of Egypt were recovered under his reign and he left it in a state which does not seem to have promised the rapid decay which ensued. "It is difficult to understand and account for the suddenness and completeness of the collapse. … The hieratic chiefs, the high priests of the god Ammon at Thebes, gradually increased in power, usurped one after another the prerogatives of the Pharaohs, by degrees reduced their authority to a shadow, and ended with an open assumption not only of the functions, but of the very insignia of royalty. A space of nearly two centuries elapsed, however, before this change was complete. Ten princes of the name of Ramses, and one called Meri-Tum, all of them connected by blood with the great Rameside house, bore the royal title and occupied the royal palace, in the space between B. C. 1280 and B. C. 1100. Egyptian history during this period is almost wholly a blank. No military expeditions are conducted—no great buildings are reared—art almost disappears—literature holds her tongue." Then came the dynasty of the priest-kings, founded by Her-Hor, which held the throne for more than a century and was contemporary in its latter years with David and Solomon. The Twenty-Second Dynasty which succeeded had its capital at Bubastis and is concluded by Dr. Brugsch to have been a line of Assyrian kings, representing an invasion and conquest of Egypt by Nimrod, the great king of Assyria. Other Egyptologists disagree with Dr. Brugsch in this, and Professor Rawlinson, the historian of Assyria, finds objections to the hypothesis from his own point of view. {756} The prominent monarch of this dynasty was the Sheshonk of Biblical history, who sheltered Jeroboam, invaded Palestine and plundered Jerusalem. Before this dynasty came to an end it had lost the sovereignty of Egypt at large, and its Pharaohs contended with various rivals and invaders. Among the latter, power grew in the hands of a race of Ethiopians, who had risen to importance at Napata, on the Upper Nile, and who extended their power, at last, over the whole of Egypt. The Ethiopian domination was maintained for two-thirds of a century, until the great wave of Assyrian conquest broke upon Egypt in 672 B. C. and swept over it, driving the Ethiopians back to Napata and Meroë.

G. Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt, chapter 25.

ALSO IN: H. Brugsch-Bey, Egypt under the Pharaohs, chapter 15-18.

E. Wilson, Egypt of the Past, chapter 8.

See, also, ETHIOPIA.

EGYPT: B. C. 670-525. Assyrian conquest and restored independence. The Twenty-sixth Dynasty. The Greeks at Naucratis.

Although Syria and Palestine had then been suffering for more than a century from the conquering arms of the Assyrians, it was not until 670 B. C., according to Professor Rawlinson, that Esarhaddon passed the boundaries of Egypt and made himself master of that country. His father Sennacherib, had attempted the invasion thirty years before, at the time of his siege of Jerusalem, and had recoiled before some mysterious calamity which impelled him to a sudden retreat. The son avenged his father's failure. The Ethiopian masters of Egypt were expelled and the Assyrian took their place. He "broke up the country into twenty governments, appointing in each town a ruler who bore the title of king, but placing all the others to a certain extent under the authority of the prince who reigned at Memphis. This was Neco, the father of Psammetichus (Psamtik I.)—a native Egyptian of whom we have some mention both in Herodotus and in the fragments of Manetho. The remaining rulers were likewise, for the most part, native Egyptians." These arrangements were soon broken up by the expelled Ethiopian king, Tirhakah, who rallied his forces and swept the Assyrian kinglets out of the country; but Asshur-bani-pal, son and successor of Esarhaddon, made his appearance with an army in 668 or 667 B. C. and Tirhakah fled before him. Again and again this occurred, and for twenty years Egypt was torn between the Assyrians and the Ethiopians, in their struggle for the possession of her. At length, out of the chaos produced by these conflicts there emerged a native ruler—the Psammetichus mentioned above—who subjugated his fellow princes and established a new Egyptian monarchy, which defended itself with success against Assyria and Ethiopia, alike. The Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, of Sais, founded by Psammetichus, is suspected to have been of Libyan descent. It ruled Egypt until the Persian conquest, and brought a great new influence to bear on the country and people, by the introduction of Greek soldiers and traders. It was under this dynasty that the Greek city of Naucratis was founded, on the Canobic branch of the Nile.

G. Rawlinson, The Five Great Monarchies: Assyria, chapter 9.

The site of Naucratis, near the Canobic branch of the Nile, was determined by excavations which Mr. W. M. Flinders Petrie began in 1884, and from which much has been learned of the history of the city and of early relations between the Egyptians and the Greeks. It is concluded that the settlement of Naucratis dates from about 660 B. C.—not long after the beginning of the reign of Psammitichus—and that its Greek founders became the allies of that monarch and his successors against their enemies. "All are agreed that before the reign of Psammitichus and the founding of Naucratis, Egypt was a sealed book to the Greeks. It is likely that the Phoenicians, who were from time to time the subjects of the Pharaohs, were admitted, where aliens like the Greeks were excluded. We have indeed positive evidence that the Egyptians did not wish strange countries to learn their art, for in a treaty between them and the Hittites it is stipulated that neither country shall harbour fugitive artists from the other. But however the fact may be accounted for, it is an undoubted fact that long before Psammitichus threw Egypt open to the foreigner, the Phoenicians had studied in the school of Egyptian art, and learned to copy all sorts of handiwork procured from the valley of the Nile. … According to Herodotus and Diodorus, the favour shown to the Greeks by the King was the cause of a great revolt of the native Egyptian troops, who left the frontier fortresses, and marched south beyond Elephantine, where they settled, resisting all the entreaties of Psammitichus, who naturally deplored the loss of the mainstay of his dominions, and developed into the race of the Sebridae. Wiedemann, however, rejects the whole story as unhistorical, and certainly, if we closely consider it, it contains great inherent improbabilities. … Psammitichus died in B. C: 610, and was succeeded by his son Necho, who was his equal in enterprise and vigour. This King paid great attention to the fleet of Egypt, and Greek shipwrights were set to work on both the Mediterranean and Red Seas to build triremes for the State navy. A fleet of his ships, we are told, succeeded in sailing round Africa, a very great feat for the age. The King even attempted the task, of which the completion was reserved for the Persian Darius, the Ptolemies, and Trajan, of making a canal from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Herodotus says that, after sacrificing the lives of 120,000 men to the labour and heat of the task, he gave it up, in consequence of the warning of an oracle that he was toiling only for the barbarians. … Necho, like his father, must needs try the edge of his new weapon, the Ionian mercenaries, on Asia. At first he was successful. Josiah, King of Judah, came out against him, but was slain, and his army dispersed. Greek valour carried Necho as far as the Euphrates. … But Nebuchadnezzar, son of the King of Babylon, marched against the invaders, and defeated them in a great battle near Carehemish. His father's death recalled him to Babylon, and Egypt was for the moment saved from counter-invasion by the stubborn resistance offered to the Babylonian arms by Jehoiakim, King of Judah, a resistance fatal to the Jewish race; for Jerusalem was captured after a long siege, and most of the inhabitants carried into captivity. Of Psammitichus II., who succeeded Necho, we should know but little were it not for the archaeological record. Herodotus only says that he attacked Ethiopia, and died after a reign of six years. {757} But of the expedition thus summarily recorded we have a lasting and memorable result in the well-known inscriptions written by Rhodians and other Greek mercenaries on the legs of the colossi at Abu Simbel in Nubia, which record how certain of them came thither in the reign of Psammitichus, pushing up the river in boats as far as it was navigable, that is, perhaps, up to the second cataract. … Apries, the Hophra of the Bible, was the next king. The early part of his reign was marked by successful warfare against the Phoenicians and the peoples of Syria; but, like his predecessor, he was unable to maintain a footing in Asia in the face of the powerful and warlike Nebuchadnezzar. The hostility which prevailed between Egypt and Babylon at this time caused King Apries to open a refuge for those Jews who fled from the persecution of Nebuchadnezzar. He assigned to their leaders, among whom were the daughters of the King of Judah, a palace of his own at Daphnae, 'Pharaoh's house at Tahpanhes,' as it is called by Jeremiah. That prophet was among the fugitives, and uttered in the palace a notable prophecy, (xliii. 9) that King Nebuchadnezzar should come and spread his conquering tent over the pavement before it. Formerly it was supposed that this prophecy remained unfulfilled, but this opinion has to be abandoned. Recently discovered Egyptian and Babylonian inscriptions prove that Nebuchadnezzar conquered Egypt as far as Syene. … The fall of Apries as brought about by his ingratitude to the Greeks, and his contempt for the lives of his own subjects. He had formed the project of bringing under his sway the Greek cities of the Cyrenaica. … Apries despatched against Cyrene a large force; but the Cyreneans bravely defended themselves, and as the Egyptians on this occasion marched without their Greek allies, they were entirely defeated, and most of them perished by the sword, or in the deserts which separate Cyrene from Egypt. The defeated troops, and their countrymen who remained behind in garrison in Egypt, imputed the disaster to treachery on the part of Apries. … They revolted, and chose as their leader Amasis, a man of experience and daring. But Apries, though deserted by his subjects, hoped still to maintain his throne by Greek aid. At the head of 30,000 Ionians and Carians he marched against Amasis. At Momemphis a battle took place between the rival kings and between the rival nations; but the numbers of the Egyptians prevailed over the arms and discipline of the mercenaries, and Apries was defeated and captured by his rival, who, however, allowed him for some years to retain the name of joint-king. It is the best possible proof of the solidity of Greek influence in Egypt at this time that Amasis, though set on the throne by the native army after a victory over the Greek mercenaries, yet did not expel these latter from Egypt, but, on the contrary, raised them to higher favour than before. … In the delightful dawn of connected European history we see Amasis as a wise and wealthy prince, ruling in Egypt at the time when Polycrates was tyrant of Samos; and when Croesus of Lydia, the richest king of his time, was beginning to be alarmed by the rapid expansion of the Persian power under Cyrus. … In the days of Psammitichus III., the son of Amasis, the storm which had overshadowed Asia broke upon Egypt. One of the leaders of the Greek mercenaries in Egypt named Phanes, a native of Halicarnassus, made his way to the Persian Court, and persuaded Cambyses, who, according to the story, had received from Amasis one of those affronts which have so often produced wars between despots, to invade Egypt in full force."