Part 2 — CHAPTER IV. Concerning the infallible teaching of the Roman Pontiff: (continued 9)

The French Press (Cornhill Magazine, June, 1873).

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1637. Archbishop Laud's Star-Chamber restriction of printing.

On the 11th of July, 1637, "Archbishop Laud procured a decree to be passed in the star chamber, by which it was ordered, that the master printers should be reduced to twenty in number; and that if any other should secretly, or openly, pursue the trade of printing, he should be set in the pillory, or whipped through the streets, and suffer such other punishment as the court should inflict upon him; that none of the master printers should print any book or books of divinity, law, physic, philosophy, or poetry, till the said books, together with the titles, epistles, prefaces, tables, or commendatory verses, should be lawfully licensed, on pain of losing the exercise of his art, and being proceeded against in the star chamber, &c.; that no person should reprint any book without a new license; that every merchant, bookseller, &c., who should import any book or books, should present a catalogue of them to the archbishop or bishop, &c., before they were delivered, or exposed to sale, who should view them, with power to seize those that were schismatical; and, that no merchant, &c., should print or cause to be printed abroad, any book, or books, which either entirely or for the most part, were written in the English tongue, nor knowingly import any such books, upon pain of being proceeded against in the star chamber, or high commission court. … That there should be four founders of letters for printing, and no more. That the archbishop of Canterbury, or the bishop of London, with six other high commissioners, shall supply the places of those four as they shall become void. That no master founder shall keep above two apprentices at one time. That all journeymen founders be employed by the masters of the trade; and that all the idle journeymen be compelled to work upon pain of imprisonment, and such other punishment as the court shall think fit. That no master founder of letters shall employ any other person in any work belonging to casting and founding of letters than freemen and apprentices to the trade, save only in putting off the knots of metal hanging at the end of the letters when they are first cast; in which work, every master founder may employ one boy only, not bound to the trade."

C. H. Timperley, Encyclopœdia of Literary and Typographical Anecdote, page 490.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1647. Renewed ordinance, in England, against the printers.

"An ordinance of parliament passed the house of lords on this day [September 30, 1647], that no person shall make, write, print, sell, publish or utter, or cause to be made, &c., any book, pamphlet, treatise, ballad, libel, sheet, or sheets of news whatsoever (except the same be licensed by both or either house of parliament,) under the penalty of 40s. and an imprisonment not exceeding forty days, if he can not pay it: if a printer, he is to pay a fine of only 20s., or suffer twenty days' imprisonment, and likewise to have his press and implements of printing broken in pieces. The book-seller, or stationer, to pay 10s., or suffer ten days' imprisonment,—and, lastly, the hawker, pedlar, or ballad-singer, to forfeit all his printed papers exposed to sale, and to be whipped as a common rogue in the parish where he shall be apprehended. {2596} Early in the following year, the committee of estates in Scotland passed an act prohibiting the printing under the pain of death, any book, declaration, or writing, until these were first submitted to their revisal. … One of the consequences of these persecutions was the raising up of a new class of publishers, those who became noted for what was called 'unlawful and unlicensed books.' Sparkes, the publisher of Prynne's Histriomastix, was of this class. The presbyterian party in parliament, who thus found the press closed on them, vehemently cried out for its freedom; and it was imagined, that when they ascended into power, the odious office of a licenser of the press would have been abolished; but these pretended friends of freedom, on the contrary, discovered themselves as tenderly alive to the office as the old government, and maintained it with the extremest vigour. Both in England and Scotland, during the civil wars, the party in power endeavoured to crush by every means the freedom of the press."

C. H. Timperley, Encyclopœdia of Literary and Typographical Anecdote, page 506.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1654-1694. Freedom of the press under Cromwell. Censorship under the restored Stuarts. Roger L'Estrange and the first news reporters.

"During the Protectorate of Cromwell the newspaper press knew … what it was to enjoy the luxury of freedom. The natural result was that a very great increase took place in the number of new political journals. Most of them, however, had only a very brief existence. Many of their number could not boast of a longer life than six or seven months—nay, many of them not so much as even that term of life. But, as might have been expected, from what was known of the antecedents of Charles II., the freedom of the press, which previously existed, came to an immediate end on his ascending the throne. Hardly had he done so, than an edict was issued, prohibiting the publication of any journal except the London Gazette, which was originally printed at Oxford, and called the Oxford Gazette,—the Court being then resident there on account of the plague raging in London at the time, 1665, when it was commenced, and for some time afterwards. This was an act of pure despotism. But Government at this time reserved to itself the right —a right which there was none to dispute—to publish a broad sheet in connexion with the London Gazette, whenever they might deem it expedient, which should contain either foreign or domestic matters of interest,—of the knowledge of which some of the King's subjects might wish to be put in early possession. … The newspapers of the seventeenth century were permitted, until the time of Charles II., to be published without being licensed by the Government of the day; but in the reign of that despotic sovereign, a law was passed [1662] prohibiting the publication of any newspaper without being duly licensed. … Sir John Birkenhead, … one of the three men whom Disraeli the elder called the fathers of the English press, was appointed to the office of Licenser of the Press. But he was soon succeeded by Sir Roger l'Estrange."

J. Grant, The Newspaper Press, volume 1, chapter. 2.

Roger L'Estrange "is remarkable for having been the writer of the best newspapers which appeared before the age of Queen Anne, and, at the same time, a most bitter enemy to the freedom of the press. He was appointed licenser or censor in 1663, and in the same year was given authority to publish all newspapers, periodicals, and pamphlets, not exceeding two sheets in size. He appears to have looked upon his newspaper as a noxious thing, suffered to exist only that an income might be created for him in return for the labour of purging the press. Yet he spared no pains to make his Public Intelligencer readable, and if we may trust his letters now preserved at the State Paper Office, expended in the first year more than £500 on 'spyes for collecting intelligence.' Three years afterwards he estimated the profits at £400 a year. … He sent paid correspondents, or 'spyes' as they were called, to all parts of the country, and even induced some respectable persons, under promise of concealing their names, to contribute occasional paragraphs; these persons were for the most part repaid by sending to them their newspapers and letters free of postage. Another set of 'spyes' was employed in picking up the news of the town on Paul's Walk or in the taverns and coffee–houses. L'Estrange printed about sixteen reams of his Intelligencer weekly, which were for the most part sold by the mercury-women who cried them about the streets. One Mrs. Andrews is said to have taken more than one-third of the whole quantity printed. … Advantage was taken of a slip in the weekly intelligence to deprive L'Estrange of his monopoly in favour of the new Oxford Gazette, published in the winter of 1665 and transferred to London in the ensuing spring. The Gazette was placed under the control of Williamson, then a rising under-Secretary of State, under whose austere influence nothing was suffered to appear which could excite or even amuse the public. … L'Estrange has not been a favourite with historians, and we confess that his harsh measures towards the press are apt to raise a feeling of repugnance. … But he was certainly an enthusiastic and industrious writer, who raised the tone of the press, even while taking pains to fetter its liberty. When he lost his monopoly, that era of desolation began which Macaulay has so forcibly described. The newspapers became completely sterile, omitting events even of such importance as the trial of the seven bishops, and were supplanted in popular favour by the manuscript news-letters, which were, in fact, the only journals of importance. On the day after the abdication of James II. three fresh newspapers appeared, and many more burst out after the appearance of the official journal under the style of the Orange Gazette. But it was not until 1694 that the king was induced to abolish the censorship and to permit free trade in news; 'he doubted much,' says Hume, 'of the salutary effects of such unlimited freedom.' The newspapers increased and multiplied exceedingly for the eighteen years between the abolition of the office of licenser and the passing of the Stamp Act, in 1712, by which a halfpenny tax was laid on every half-sheet of intelligence."

Early English Newspapers (Cornhill Magazine, July, 1868).

{2597}

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1685-1693. William Bradford and his Press in Philadelphia and New York.

William Bradford, a young printer, of the Society of Friends, came to Philadelphia in the autumn of 1685, and established himself in business. "His first publication was 'Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense, or America's Messenger; Being an Almanack for the Year of Grace 1686.' This brought him a summons before the Governor and Council, for referring to the Proprietary, in the table of chronology, ns 'Lord Penn;' and, on his appearance, he was ordered to blot out the objectionable title, and forbidden to print anything without license from the Provincial Council. In 1687 he was cautioned by the Philadelphia meeting not to print anything touching the Quakers without its approval. Two years later he was again called before the Governor, and Council—this time for printing the charter of the province. The spirited report, in his own handwriting, of his examination on this occasion, is now preserved in the collection of the New York Historical Society. Disappointed at the non-fulfilment of Penn's promise of the government printing and the failure of his scheme for printing an English Bible, which, although indorsed by the meeting, found few subscribers, and harassed by both the civil and religious authorities, Bradford determined to leave the province," which he did, with his family, sailing to England in 1689. He was induced, however, by promises of increased business and a yearly salary of £40, to return. In 1692, having become one of the supporters of George Keith, and having printed Keith's "Appeal", he was arrested and imprisoned.

See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1692-1696.

This occurred in August, and his trial followed in December. The jury disagreed, and he was held for appearance at the next court. "In the meantime the dissensions in the province aroused by the Keithian schism had led to the abrogation of Penn's charter by the crown, and the appointment of Benjamin Fletcher to be Royal Governor of Pennsylvania as well as New York." This change led to the dropping of proceedings against Bradford, and to his removal from Philadelphia to New York, whither he seems to have been invited. His removal was undoubtedly prompted by a resolution which the Provincial Council of New York adopted on the 23d of March, 1693: "That if a Printer will come and settle in the city of New York for the printing of our Acts of Assembly and Publick Papers, he shall be allowed the sum of £40 current money of New York per annum for his salary and have the benefit of his printing besides what serves the publick." "Bradford's first warrant for his salary as 'Printer to King William and Queen Mary, at the City of New York,' was dated October 12, 1693, and was for six months, due on the 10th preceding," showing that he had established himself in the colony more hospitable to his art as early as the 10th of April, 1693. "What was the first product of his press is a matter of doubt. It may have been, as Dr. Moore suggests, the 'Journal of the Late Actions of the French at Canada,' or 'New England's Spirit of Persecution Transmitted to Pennsilvania'"—which was a report of his own trial at Philadelphia—or it may have been an Act of the New York Assembly—one of three which his press produced early that year, but the priority among which is uncertain.

C. R Hildeburn, Printing in New York in the 17th Century (Memorial History of the City of New York, volume 1, chapter 15.)

ALSO IN: I. Thomas, History of Printing in America, 2d edition, volume 1.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1695. Expiration of the Censorship law in England. Quick multiplication of Newspapers.

"While the Licensing Act was in force there was no newspaper in England except the 'London Gazette,' which was edited by a clerk in the office of the Secretary of State, and which contained nothing but what the Secretary of State wished the nation to know. There were indeed many periodical papers: but none of those papers could be called a newspaper. Welwood, a zealous Whig, published a journal called the Observator: but his Observator, like the Observator which Lestrange had formerly edited, contained, not the news, but merely dissertations on politics. A crazy bookseller, named John Dunton, published the Athenian Mercury: but the Athenian Mercury merely discussed questions of natural philosophy, of casuistry and of gallantry. A fellow of the Royal Society, named John Houghton, published what he called a Collection for the Improvement of Industry and Trade: but his Collection contained little more than the prices of stocks, explanations of the modes of doing business in the City, puffs of new projects, and advertisements of books, quack medicines, chocolate, Spa water, civet cats, surgeons wanting ships, valets wanting masters, and ladies wanting husbands. If ever he printed any political news, he transcribed it from the Gazette. The Gazette was so partial and so meagre a chronicle of events that, though it had no competitors, it had but a small circulation. … But the deficiencies of the Gazette were to a certain extent supplied in London by the coffeehouses, and in the country by the news-letters. On the third of May 1695 the law which had subjected the press to a censorship expired. Within a fortnight, a stanch old Whig, named Harris, who had, in the days of the Exclusion Bill, attempted to set up a newspaper entitled Intelligence Domestic and Foreign, and who had been speedily forced to relinquish that design, announced that the Intelligence Domestic and Foreign, suppressed fourteen years before by tyranny, would again appear. Ten days later was printed the first number of the English Courant. Then came the Packet Boat from Holland and Flanders, the Pegasus, the London Newsletter, the London Post, the Flying Post, the Old Postmaster, the Postboy, and the Postman. The history of the newspapers of England from that time to the present day is a most interesting and instructive part of the history of the country. At first they were small and mean-looking. … Only two numbers came out in a week; and a number contained little more matter than may be found in a single column of a daily paper of our time."

Lord Macaulay, History of England, chapter 21.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1704-1729. The first Newspapers in America.

"There was not a newspaper published in the English colonies, throughout the extensive continent of North America, until the 24th of April, 1704. John Campbell, a Scotchman, who was a bookseller and postmaster in Boston, was the first who began and established a publication of this kind. It was entitled 'The Boston News-Letter.' … It is printed on half a sheet of pot paper, with a small pica type, folio. {2598} The first page is filled with an extract from 'The London Flying Post,' respecting the pretender. … The queen's speech to both houses of parliament on that occasion, a few articles under the Boston head, four short paragraphs of marine intelligence from New York, Philadelphia, and New London, and one advertisement, form its whole contents. The advertisement is from Campbell, the proprietor of the paper." In 1719, a rival paper was started in Boston, called the "Gazette," and in 1721, a third, founded by James Franklin, took the name of "The New England Courant." Meantime there had appeared at Philadelphia, on the 22nd of December, 1719,—only one day later than the second of the Boston newspapers—"The American Weekly Mercury," printed by Andrew Bradford, son of William Bradford. The same printer, Andrew Bradford, removing to New York, brought out "The New York Gazette," the first newspaper printed in that city, in October, 1725.

I. Thomas, History of Printing in America, volume 2, page 12, and after.

"In 1740, the number of newspapers in the English colonies on the continent had increased to eleven, of which one appeared in South Carolina, one in Virginia, three in Pennsylvania—one of them being in German—one in New York, and the remaining five in Boston. … The New England 'Courant,' the fourth American periodical, was, in August 1721, established by James Franklin as an organ of independent opinion. Its temporary success was advanced by Benjamin, his brother and apprentice, a boy of fifteen, who wrote for its columns, worked in composing the types as well as printing off the sheets, and, as carrier, distributed the papers to the customers. The sheet satirized hypocrisy, and spoke of religious knaves as of all knaves the worst. This was described as tending 'to abuse the ministers of religion in a manner which was intolerable.' … In July 1722, a resolve passed the council, appointing a censor for the press of James Franklin; but the house refused its concurrence. The ministers persevered; and, in January 1723, a committee of inquiry was raised by the legislature. Benjamin, being examined, escaped with an admonition; James, the publisher, refusing to discover the author of the offence, was kept in jail for a month; his paper was censured as reflecting injuriously on the reverend ministers of the gospel; and, by vote of the house and council, he was forbidden to print it, 'except it be first supervised.' Vexed at the arbitrary proceedings, Benjamin Franklin, then but seventeen years old, in October 1723, sailed clandestinely for New York. Finding there no employment, he crossed to Amboy; went on foot to the Delaware; for want of a wind, rowed in a boat from Burlington to Philadelphia; and bearing marks of his labor at the oar, weary, hungry, having for his whole stock of cash a single dollar, the runaway apprentice—the pupil of the free schools of Boston, rich in the boundless hope of youth and the unconscious power of modest genius—stepped on shore to seek food and occupation. On the deep foundations of sobriety, frugality and industry, the young journeyman built his fortunes and fame; and he soon came to have a printing-office of his own. … The assembly of Pennsylvania chose him its printer. He planned a newspaper [the 'Pennsylvania Gazette']; and, when (1729] he became its proprietor and editor, he defended freedom of thought and speech, and the inalienable power of the people."

G. Bancroft, History of the United States of America, part 3, chapter 15 (volume 2).

ALSO IN: J. Parton, Life of Franklin, parts 1-2 (volume l).

B. Franklin, Life by Himself, edited by J. Bigelow, part 1.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1709-1752. The Periodicals of the Essayists. The "Tatler," "Spectator," and their successors.

"In the spring of 1709, Steele [Sir Richard] formed a literary project, of which he was far indeed from foreseeing the consequences. Periodical papers had during many years been published in London. Most of these were political; but in some of them questions of morality, taste, and love-casuistry had been discussed. The literary merit of these works was small indeed; and even their names are now known only to the curious. Steele had been appointed gazetteer by Sunderland, at the request, it is said, of Addison; and thus had access to foreign intelligence earlier and more authentic than was in those times within the reach of an ordinary news-writer. This circumstance seems to have suggested to him the scheme of publishing a periodical paper on a new plan. It was to appear on the days on which the post left London for the country, which were, in that generation, the Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. It was to contain the foreign news, accounts of theatrical representations, and the literary gossip of Will's and of the Grecian. It was also to contain remarks on the fashionable topics of the day, compliments to beauties, pasquinades on noted sharpers, and criticisms on popular preachers. The aim of Steele does not appear to have been at first higher than this. … Issac Bickerstaff, Esquire, Astrologer, was an imaginary person, almost as well known in that age as Mr. Paul Pry or Mr. Pickwick in ours. Swift had assumed the name of Bickerstaff in a satirical pamphlet against Partridge, the almanac-maker. Partridge had been fool enough to publish a furious reply. Bickerstaff had rejoined in a second pamphlet still more diverting than the first. All the wits had combined to keep up the joke, and the town was long in convulsions of laughter. Steele determined to employ the name which this controversy had made popular; and, in April, 1709, it was announced that Isaac Bickerstaff, Esquire, Astrologer, was about to publish a paper called the 'Tatler.' Addison had not been consulted about this scheme; but as soon as he heard of it, he determined to give it his assistance. The effect of that assistance cannot be better described than in Steele's own words. 'I fared,' he said, 'like a distressed prince who calls in a powerful neighbour to his aid. I was undone by my auxiliary. When I had once called him in, I could not subsist without dependence on him.' 'The paper,' he says elsewhere, 'was advanced indeed. It was raised to a greater thing than I intended it.'"

Lord Macaulay. Life and Writings of Addison (Essays).

"Steele, on the 12th of April 1709, issued the first number of the 'Tatler.' … This famous newspaper, printed in one folio sheet of 'tobacco paper' with 'scurvy letter,' ran to 271 numbers, and abruptly ceased to appear in January 1711. It enjoyed an unprecedented success, for, indeed, nothing that approached it had ever before been issued from the periodical press in England. The division of its contents was thus arranged by the editor: 'All accounts of gallantry, pleasure, and entertainment shall be under the article of White's Chocolate House; poetry under that of Will's Coffee-House; learning under the title of Grecian; foreign and domestic news you will have from St. James's Coffee-House; and what else I shall on any other subject offer shall be dated from my own apartment.' {2599} The political news gradually ceased to appear. … Of the 271 'Tatlers,' 188 were written by Steele, 42 by Addison, and 36 by both conjointly. Three were from the pen of John Hughes. … These, at least, are the numbers usually given, but the evidence on which they are based is slight. It rests mainly upon the indications given by Steele to Tickell when the latter was preparing his edition of Addison's Works. The conjecture may be hazarded that there were not a few Tatlers written by Addison which he was not anxious to claim as his particular property. … Addison, … remained Steele's firm friend, and less than two months after the cessation of the 'Tatler' there appeared the first number of a still more famous common enterprise, the 'Spectator,' on the 1st of March 1711. It was announced to appear daily, and was to be composed of the reflections and actions of the members of an imaginary club, formed around 'Mr. Spectator.' In this club the most familiar figure is the Worcestershire Knight, Sir Roger de Coverley, the peculiar property of Addison. … The 'Spectator' continued to appear daily until December 1712. It consisted of 555 numbers, of which Addison wrote 274, Steele 236, Hughes 19, and Pope 1 (The Messiah, 'Spectator' 378). Another contributor was Eustace Budgell (1685-1736), Addison's cousin. … The 'Spectator' enjoyed so very unequivocal a success that it has puzzled historians to account for its discontinuance. In No. 517 Addison killed Sir Roger de Coverley 'that nobody else might murder him.' This shows a voluntary intention to stop the publication, which the Stamp Act itself had not been able to do by force."

E. Gosse, A History of Eighteenth Century Literature, chapter 6.

"After this, in 1713, came the 'Guardian'; and in 1714 an eighth volume of the 'Spectator' was issued by Addison alone. He was also the sole author of the 'Freeholder,' 1715, which contains the admirable sketch of the 'Tory Foxhunter.' Steele, on his side, followed up the 'Guardian' by the 'Lover,' the 'Reader,' and half-a–dozen abortive efforts; but his real successes, as well as those of Addison, were in the three great collections for which they worked together. … Between the 'Guardian' of 1713 and the 'Rambler' of 1750-2 there were a number of periodical essayists of varying merit. It is scarcely necessary to recall the names of these now forgotten 'Intelligencers,' 'Moderators,' 'Remembrancers,' and the like, the bulk of which were political. Fielding places one of them, the 'Freethinker' of Philips, nearly on a level with 'those great originals the "Tatlers" and the "Spectators;"' but the initial chapters to the different books of 'Tom Jones' attract us more forcibly to the author's own 'Champion,' written in conjunction with the Ralph who 'makes night hideous' in the 'Dunciad.' … Another of Fielding's enterprises in the 'Spectator' vein was the 'Covent Garden Journal,' 1752. … Concurrently with the 'Covent Garden Journal' appeared the final volume of Johnson's 'Rambler,' a work upon the cardinal defect of which its author laid his finger, when in later life, he declared it to be 'too wordy.' Lady Mary said in her smart way that the 'Rambler' followed the 'Spectator' as a pack horse would do a hunter. … In the twenty-nine papers which Johnson wrote for Hawkesworth's 'Adventurer,' the 'Rambler' style is maintained. In the 'Idler,' however, which belongs to a later date, when its author's mind was unclouded, and he was comparatively free from the daily pressure" of necessity, he adopts a simpler and less polysyllabic style."

A. Dobson, Eighteenth Century Essays, introduction.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1712. The first Stamp Tax on Newspapers in England.

The first stamp tax on newspapers in England went into effect on the 12th day of August, 1712. "An act had passed the legislature, that 'for every pamphlet or paper contained in half a sheet, or lesser piece of paper so printed, the sum of one halfpenny sterling: and for every such pamphlet or paper being larger than half a sheet, and not exceeding one whole sheet, so printed, a duty after the rate of one penny sterling for every sheet printed thereof.' This act, which was to curb the licentiousness of the press, was to be in force for the space of thirty-two years, to be reckoned from the 10th day of June, 1712. Addison, in the 'Spectator' of this day, says, 'this is the day on which many eminent authors will probably publish their last works. I am afraid that few of our weekly historians, who are men that above all others delight in war, will be able to subsist under the weight of a stamp duty in an approaching peace. In short, the necessity of carrying a stamp, and the impracticability of notifying a bloody battle, will, I am afraid, both concur to the sinking of these thin folios which have every other day related to us the history of Europe for several years last past. A facetious friend of mine, who loves a pun, calls this present mortality among authors, "the fall of the leaf.'" On this tax Dean Swift thus humorously alludes in his Journal to Stella, as follows (August 7):—'Do you know that all Grub-street is dead and gone last week? No more Ghosts or murders now for love or money. I plied it close the last fortnight, and published at least seven papers of my own, besides some of other people's; but now every single half-sheet pays a halfpenny to the queen. The 'Observator' is fallen; the 'Medleys' are jumbled together with the 'Flying Post'; the 'Examiner' is deadly sick; the 'Spectator' keeps up and doubles its price; I know not how long it will hold. Have you seen the red stamp the papers are marked with? Methinks the stamping is worth a half-penny.' The stamp mark upon the newspapers was a rose and thistle joined by the stalks, and enclosing between the Irish shamrock, the whole three were surmounted by a crown. … It is curious to observe what an effect this trifling impost had upon the circulation of the most favourite papers. Many were entirely discontinued, and several of those which survived were generally united into one publication. The bill operated in a directly contrary manner to what the ministers had anticipated; for the opposition, who had more leisure, and perhaps more acrimony of feeling, were unanimous in the support of their cause. The adherents of ministers, who were by no means behind the opposition in their proficiency in the topic of defamation, were, it seems, not so strenuously supported; and the measure thus chiefly destroyed those whom it was Bolinbroke's interest to protect. {2600} For some reason, which we have not been able to trace, the stamp-duties were removed shortly after their imposition, and were not again enforced until 1725. In order to understand how so small a duty as one halfpenny should operate so strongly upon these periodical publications, we must look at the price at which they were vended at that period. The majority of them were published at a penny, many at a halfpenny, and some were even published so low as a farthing."

C. H. Timperley, Encyclopædia of Literary and Typographical Anecdote, pages 601-602.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1723. End of Newspaper monopoly in France.

"Until Louis XVI. was dethroned, Paris was officially supposed to possess but three periodicals: the 'Gazette de France' for politics, 'Le Journal des Savants' for literature and science, and the 'Mercure de France' for politics, literature, and social matters mingled. For a time these monopolies were respected, but only for a very short time. … During the Regency of the Duke of Orleans (1715-23), the 'Gazette de France,' 'Mercure,' and 'Journal des Savants' combined to bring an action for infringement against all the papers then existing, but they were non-suited on a technical objection; and this was their last attempt at asserting their prerogative."

The French Press (Cornhill Magazine, October, 1873).

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1734. Zenger's trial in New York. Determination of the freedom of the Press.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1720-1734.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1771. Freedom of Parliamentary reporting won in England.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1771.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1777. The first Daily Newspaper in France.

"In 1777 there appeared the 'Journal de Paris,' which only deserves notice from its being the first daily paper issued in France."

Westminster Review, July 1860, page 219.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1784-1813. The earliest daily Newspapers in the United States.

"The first daily newspaper published in the United States was the 'American Daily Advertiser.' It was issued in Philadelphia in 1784, by Benjamin Franklin Bache, afterwards of the Aurora. When the seat of national government was in Philadelphia, it shared the confidence and support of Jefferson with the 'National Gazette.' It was strong in its opposition to the Federal section of the administration of Washington, and to all the measures originating with Hamilton. Zachariah Poulson became its proprietor and publisher in 1802, and it was known as 'Poulson's Advertiser,' and we believe he continued its publisher till October 28, 1839, when the establishment was sold to Brace and Newbold, the publishers of a new paper called the 'North American.' The name after that was the 'North American and Daily Advertiser.' … The 'New York Daily Advertiser,' the second real journal in the United States, was published in 1785. It was commenced on the 1st of March by Francis Childs & Co. … On the 29th of July, 1786, the 'Pittsburg (Pennsylvania) Gazette,' the first newspaper printed west of the Alleghany Mountains, appeared, and in 1796 the 'Post' was issued. … 'The United States Gazette' was started in New York in 1789 by John Fenno, of Boston. Its original name was 'Gazette of the United States.' It was first issued in New York, because the seat of the national government was then in that city. When Congress removed to Philadelphia in 1790, the 'Gazette' went with that body. In 1792 it was the special organ of Alexander Hamilton. … Noah Webster, the lexicographer of America, was a lawyer in 1793, and had an office in Hartford, Connecticut. 'Washington's administration was then violently assailed by the 'Aurora,' 'National Gazette,' and other organs of the Republican Party, and by the partisans of France. Jefferson was organizing the opposition elements, and Hamilton was endeavoring to strengthen the Federal party. Newspapers were established on each side as the chief means of accomplishing the objects each party had in view. Noah Webster was considered, in this state of affairs, the man to aid the Federalists journalistically in New York. He was, therefore, induced to remove to that city and take charge of a Federal organ. On the 9th of December, 1793, he issued the first number of a daily paper, which was named the 'Minerva.' According to its imprint, it appeared 'every day, Sundays excepted, at four o'clock, or earlier if the arrival of the mail will permit.' … With the 'Minerva' was connected a semi-weekly paper called the 'Herald.' … The names of 'Minerva' and 'Herald' were shortly changed to those of 'Commercial Advertiser' and 'New York Spectator,' and these names have continued. … The 'Commercial Advertiser' is the oldest daily newspaper in the metropolis. Of the hundreds of daily papers started in New York, from the time of Bradford's Gazette in 1725 to the 'Journal of Commerce' in 1827, there are now [1872] only two survivors—the 'Evening Post' and the 'Commercial Advertiser.' … The first prominent daily paper issued in New England was the Boston Daily Advertiser, the publication of which was commenced on the 3d of March, 1813. There was a daily paper begun in that city on the 6th of October, 1796, by Alexander Martin, and edited by John O'Ley Burk, one of the 'United Irishmen.' It lived about six months. It was called the Polar Star and Boston Daily Advertiser. Another was attempted on the 1st of January, 1798, by Caleb P. Wayne, who was afterwards editor of the United States Gazette of Philadelphia. This second daily paper of Boston was named the Federal Gazette and Daily Advertiser. It lived three months. The third attempt at a daily paper in the capital of Massachusetts was a success. It was published by William W. Clapp, afterwards of the Saturday Evening Gazette, and edited by Horatio Biglow."

F. Hudson, Journalism in the United States, pages 175-194, and 378.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1785-1812. The founding of "The Times," in London. The beginning of "leading articles."

The newspaper afterwards famous as "The Times" was started, in 1785, under the name of the "Daily Universal Register," and did not adopt the title of "The Times" until the 1st of January, 1788.

J. Grant, The Newspaper Press, volume 1, chapter 16.

"All the newspapers that can be said to have been distinguished in any way till the appearance of the 'Times' were distinguished by some freak of cleverness. … The 'Times' took up a line of its own from the first day of its existence. The proprietors staked their fortunes upon the general character of their paper, upon the promptitude and accuracy of its intelligence, upon its policy, upon the frank and independent spirit of its comments on public men. … The chief proprietor of the 'Times' was John Walter—a man who knew nothing or next to nothing of newspaper work, but who knew precisely what the public wanted in a newspaper, and possessed, with this instinct and intelligence, the determination and enterprise which constitute the character of a successful man of business. {2601} He saw how a newspaper ought to be conducted, and he thought he saw how, by the development of a new idea in printing, he could produce the 'Times' a good deal cheaper than any of its contemporaries. The whole English language, according to Mr. Walter, consisted of about 90,000 words; but by separating the particles and omitting the obsolete words, technical terms, and common terminations, Mr. Walter believed it to be possible to reduce the stock in common use to about 50,000, and a large proportion of these words, with all the common terminations, he proposed to have cast separately, so that the compositor, with a slip of MS. before him to set in type, might pick up words or even phrases instead of picking up one by one every letter of every word in his copy, and thus, of course, save a good deal of time. The idea was impracticable, utterly impracticable, because the number of words required to carry out the system must in itself be so great that no case of type that a printer could stand before would hold them all, even if the printer 'learn his boxes' with a case of some 4,000 or 5,000 compartments before him; but it took a good many years, a good many experiments, and the expenditure of some thousands of pounds to convince Mr. Walter that the failure was not due to the perversity of his printers but to the practical difficulties which surrounded his conception. John Walter was far more successful in the general conduct of the 'Times' as a newspaper than he was in the management of the 'Times' printing office. He set all the printers in London by the ears with his whim about logographic printing. But he had a very clear conception of what a national newspaper ought to be, and with the assistance of a miscellaneous group of men, who, as they are sketched for us by Henry Crabb Robinson, were apparently far more picturesque than practical, John Walter made the 'Times' what the 'Times' has been for nearly a century, pre-eminently and distinctly a national newspaper. The 'Times,' in its original shape, consisted merely of the day's news, a few advertisements, some market quotations, perhaps a notice of a new book, a few scraps of gossip, and in the session, a Parliamentary report. The 'Morning Chronicle' had the credit … of inventing the leading article, as it had the credit of inventing Parliamentary reporting. The 'Morning Chronicle,' on the 12th of May, 1791, published a paragraph, announcing that 'the great and firm body of the Whigs of England, true to their principles, had decided on the dispute between Mr. Fox and Mr. Burke, in favor of Mr. Fox, as the representative of the pure doctrines of Whiggery,' and that in consequence of this resolution Mr. Burke would retire from Parliament. It was very short, but this paragraph is the nearest approximation that is to be found in the newspapers of that time to a leading article, and appearing as it did in the part of the 'Morning Chronicle' where a year or two afterwards the leading articles were printed, Mr. Wingrove Cooke cites it as the germ of the leaders which, when they became general, gave a distinctive colour and authority to newspapers as independent organs of opinion and criticism. The idea soon became popular; and in the 'Morning Post' and the 'Courier' the leading article, developed as it was by Coleridge and Macintosh into a work of art, often rivalling in argument, wit, and eloquence the best speeches in Parliament, became the object of quite as much interest as the Parliamentary reports themselves. The 'Times,' knowing how to appropriate one by one all the specialties of its contemporaries, and to improve upon what it appropriated, was one of the first newspapers to adopt the idea of leading articles, and in adopting that idea, to improve upon it by stamping its articles with a spirit of frankness and independence which was all its own. … The reign of John Walter, practically the founder of the 'Times,' ended in the year 1812, and upon his death his son, the second John Walter, took possession of Printing House Square, and, acting in the spirit of his father, with ampler means, soon made the 'Times' the power in the State that it has been from that day to this."

C. Pebody, English Journalism, pages 92-99.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1817. The trials of William Hone.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1816-1820.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1830-1833. The first Penny Papers in the United States.

"The Penny Press of America dates from 1833. There were small and cheap papers published in Boston and Philadelphia before and about that time. The Bostonian was one. The Cent, in Philadelphia, was another. The latter was issued by Christopher C. Cornwall in 1830. These and all similar adventures were not permanent. Most of them were issued by printers when they had nothing else to do. Still they belonged to the class of cheap papers. The idea came from the illustrated Penny Magazine, issued in London in 1830. … The Morning Post was the first penny paper of any pretensions in the United States. It was started on New-Year's Day, 1833, as a two-cent paper, by Dr. Horatio David Shepard, with Horace Greeley and Francis V. Story as partners, printers, and publishers. … After one week's trial, with the exhaustion of the capital, the original idea of Dr. Shepard, his dream of the previous year 1832 was attempted, and the price reduced to one cent; but it was too late. … This experiment, however, was the seed of the Cheap Press. It had taken root. On Tuesday, the 3d of September, in the same year 1833, the first number of the Sun was issued by Benjamin H. Day."

F. Hudson, Journalism in the United States, pages 416-417.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1853-1870. Extinction of taxes on Newspapers in England. The beginning of Penny Papers. Rise of the provincial daily press.

"In 1853 the advertisement duty was repealed; in 1855 the obligatory newspaper stamp was abolished, and in 1861, with the repeal of the paper duty, the last check upon the unrestrained journalism was taken away. As a matter of course, the resulting increase in the number of newspapers has been very great as well as the resulting diminution in their price. … When it was seen that the trammels of journalism were about to be loosed the penny paper came into existence. The 'Daily Telegraph,' the first newspaper published at that price, was established in June, 1855, and is now one of the most successful of English journals."

T. G. Bowles, Newspapers (Fortnightly Review, July 1, 1884).

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"With the entire freedom from taxation began the modern era of the daily press. At this time [1861] London had nine or ten daily newspapers, with the 'Times' in the lead. Of these, six or seven still survive, and are holding their own with competitors of more recent origin. Up to the time of the abolition of the stamp duties, London was the only city which had a daily press; but between 1855 and 1870 a large number of newspapers published in the provincial cities, which had hitherto been issued in weekly or bi-weekly form, made their appearance as daily journals. With only one or two exceptions, all the prosperous provincial morning papers of to-day were originally weeklies, and as such had long occupied the ground they now hold as dailies."

E. Porritt, The Englishman at Home, chapter 13.

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1874-1894. Surviving Press Censorship in Germany.

"It would be wrong to speak of the Newspaper Press of Germany as the fourth estate. In the land which gave Gutenberg and the art of printing to the world, the Press has not yet established a claim to a title so imposing. To the growth and power of a Free Press are needed liberal laws and institutions, with freedom of political opinion and civil action for the subject. Hitherto these fundamental conditions have been absent. During the last fifty years little has been done to liberate the newspaper, to give it free play, to unmuzzle it. It is the misfortune of the German Press that the special laws for the regulation of newspapers and serial publications have been evolved from a system of legislation which was devised in times of great political unrest and agitation. … Liberty of the Press has been one of the leading political watchwords of the reform party during the last three-quarters of a century. Yet though the Press does not stand where it stood at the beginning of the century, when even visiting cards could not be printed without the solemn assent of the public censor, and when objectionable prints were summarily suppressed at the mere beck of a Minister or his subordinate, little ground has been won since the severer features of the measures passed in 1854 for the repression of democratic excesses were abandoned. The constitution of Prussia says that 'Every Prussian has the right to express his opinion freely by word, writing, print, or pictorial representation' (Article 27). But this right is superseded by the provision of the imperial constitution (Article 41, Section 16) which reserves to the Empire the regulation of the Press, and by a measure of May 7th, 1874, which gives to this provision concrete form. This is the Press Law of Germany to-day. The law does, indeed, concede, in principle at least, the freedom of the Press (Pressfreiheit), and it abolishes the formal censorship. But a severe form of control is still exercised by the police, whose authority over the Press is greater in reality than it seems to be from the letter of the statute. It is no longer necessary, as it once was, and still is in Russia, to obtain sanction for the issue of each number before it is sent into the world, but it is the legal duty of a publisher to lay a copy of his journal before the police authority directly it reaches the press. This an informal censor revises, and in the event of any article being obnoxious he may order the immediate confiscation of the whole issue, or a court of law, which in such matters works very speedily, may do so for him. As the police and judicial authorities have wide discretion in the determination of editorial culpability, this power of confiscation is felt to be a harsh one. While the Socialist Law existed the powers of the police were far more extensive than now, and that they were also real is proved by the wholesale extermination of newspapers of Socialistic tendencies which took place between the years 1878 and 1890. Since that law disappeared, however, Socialist journals have sprung up again in abundance, though the experience gained by their conductors in the unhappy past does not enable them to steer clear of friction with the authorities. The police, too, regulates the public sale of newspapers and decides whether they shall be cried in the street or not. In Berlin special editions cannot be published without the prior sanction of this authority. … So frequent are prosecutions of editors that many newspapers are compelled to maintain on their staffs batches of Sitzredakteure, or 'sitting editors,' whose special function is to serve in prison (colloquially sitzen=sit) the terms of detention that may be awarded for the too liberal exercise of the critical faculty. … Some measure of the public depreciation of newspapers is due to the fact that they are largely in Hebrew hands. In the large towns the Press is, indeed, essentially a Jewish institution."

W. H. Dawson, Germany and the Germans, part 2, chapter 1 (volume 1).

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: American Periodicals founded before 1870 and existing in 1894.

The following is a carefully prepared chronological list of important newspapers and other periodicals, still published (1894) in the United States and Canada, which have existed for a quarter of a century or more, having been founded before 1870. The * before a title indicates that the information given has been obtained directly from the publisher. For some of the periodicals not so marked, the dates of beginning have been taken from their own files. In other cases, where publishers have neglected to answer a request for information, the facts have been borrowed from Rowell's American Newspaper Directory:

1764. * Connecticut Courant (Hartford), w.; added Courant, d., 1836.

* Quebec Gazette (French and English), weekly; ran many years as tri-weekly, in English; discontinued for about 16 years; now resumed as Quebec Gazette in connection with Quebec Morning Chronicle (founded 1847).

1766 or 1767. * Connecticut Herald and Post Boy (New Haven); various names; now Connecticut Herald and Weekly Journal.

1768. * Essex Gazette; changes of name and place; suspended; revived at Salem, Massachusetts, as Salem Mercury, 1786; became semi-weekly, 1796; became Salem Daily Gazette, 1892.

1770. Worcester Spy, weekly; added daily, 1845.

1771. * Pennsylvania Packet and General Advertiser (Philadelphia), weekly; became Pennsylvania Packet and American Daily Advertiser, daily, 1784; consolidated with North American (founded 1839), 1839; consolidated with United States Gazette (established 1789, see 1789, Gazette of the U. S.), as North American and United States Gazette, 1847; became North American, 1876.

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1773. * Maryland Journal and Baltimore Advertiser; merged in Baltimore American, 1799.

1778. * Gazette (Montreal), weekly; now daily and weekly; since 1870 absorbed Telegraph and Daily News.

1785. *Falmouth (Maine) Gazette and Weekly Advertiser; Cumberland Gazette, 1786; Gazette of Maine, 1790; Eastern Herald, 1792; Eastern Herald and Gazette of Maine, 1796; Jenks' Portland Gazette, 1798; Portland Gazette and Maine Advertiser, 1805; Portland Advertiser, semi-weekly, 1823; daily, 1831. * Journal (Poughkeepsie, New York); established to take the place of New York Journal, published at Poughkeepsie, 1778-1783; consolidated with Eagle (founded 1828—see 1828, Dutchess Intelligencer), as Journal and Eagle; became Eagle after a few years.

1786. Hampshire Gazette (Northampton, Massachusetts). Pittsburgh Commercial Gazette.

1789. * Gazette of the United States (New York); removed to Philadelphia, 1790; daily, 1793; became The Union, or United States Gazette and True American; merged in North American, 1847. Berkshire County Eagle (Pittsfield, Massachusetts), weekly.

1793. Gazette (Cincinnati), weekly; added daily, Commercial Gazette, 1841. Minerva (New York), daily, and Herald, semi-weekly; became Commercial Advertiser, and New York Spectator. Newburyport (Massachusetts) Herald. Utica Gazette; consolidated with Herald (founded 1847), as Morning Herald and Gazette.

1794. Rutland (Vermont) Herald.

1796. * Sentinel of Freedom (Newark), weekly; added Newark Daily Advertiser, daily, 1832.

1800. * Salem Register, weekly; then semi-weekly; now weekly.

1801. New York Evening Post. Ægis and Gazette (Worcester), weekly; added Evening Gazette, 1843.

1803. Charleston News and Courier. Portland (Maine) Eastern Argus.

1804. Pittsburgh Post.

1805. Missionary Herald (Boston), monthly. * Quebec Mercury, tri-weekly; became daily about 1860.

1806. * Precurser (Montpelier), weekly; became Vermont Watchman, 1807, weekly.

1807. * New Bedford (Massachusetts) Mercury, weekly; added daily, 1831.

1808. * Cooperstown(New York) Federalist; became Freeman's Journal, weekly, 1820. Le Canadien (Montreal). St. Louis Republic, weekly; added daily, 1835.

1809. * New Hampshire Patriot (Concord, New Hampshire); consolidated with People (founded 1868) as People and Patriot, 1878, daily and weekly. Montreal Herald.

1810. Kingston (Ontario) News, weekly.; added daily, 1851.

1811. * Buffalo Gazette, weekly; became Niagara Patriot, weekly, 1818; became Buffalo Patriot, weekly, July 10, 1821; added Buffalo Commercial Advertiser, daily, 1835. * Western Intelligencer; Western Intelligencer and Columbus Gazette, 1814; became Ohio State Journal, 1825; daily, 1839.

1812. * Columbian Weekly Register (New Haven); added Evening Register, daily, 1848.

1813. Albany Argus. Boston Advertiser. Acadian Recorder (Halifax).

1815. North American Review (New York), monthly.

1816. * Boston Recorder; merged in Congregationalist, weekly, 1867. Knoxville Tribune, weekly; added daily, 1865. Rochester Union and Advertiser, weekly; added daily, 1826.

1817. * Hartford Times, weekly; added daily., 1841.

1819. * Cleveland Herald; consolidated with Evening News (founded 1868), 1885. See 1848. Cleveland Leader. Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock). * Oswego Palladium, weekly; added daily about 1860.

1820. Nova Scotian (Halifax), weekly; added Chronicle, 3 times a week, 1845; added Morning Chronicle, 1865. * Manufacturers' and Farmers' Journal (Providence), semi-weekly; added Daily Journal, 1829.

1821. * Christian Register (Boston), weekly. Indianapolis Sentinel. Mobile Register.

1822. Broome Republican (Binghamton, New York), weekly; added Republican, daily, 1849. * Old Colony Memorial (Plymouth, Massachusetts), weekly; has absorbed Plymouth Rock, and Old Colony Sentinel.

1823. Auburn (New York) News and Democrat, weekly; added Bulletin, daily, 1870. Zion's Herald (Boston), weekly. * New Hampshire Statesman (Concord), weekly; consolidated with Independent Democrat (founded 1845), as Independent Statesman, 1871; added daily, Concord Evening Monitor, 1864. * Western Censor and Emigrant's Guide (Indianapolis); became Indianapolis Journal, weekly, and semi-weekly during session of the Legislature; became weekly and daily, 1850. * Observer (New York), weekly. * Register (New York), weekly; became Examiner, 1855. Poughkeepsie News-Telegraph, weekly; added News-Press, daily, 1852.

1824. * Springfield (Massachusetts) Republican, weekly; added daily, 1844.

1825. Kennebec Journal, weekly; added daily, 1870. * Rome (New York) Republican, weekly; became Telegram; became Sentinel, 1837; added daily, 1852-1860; added daily, 1881.

1826. Detroit Free Press, weekly; added daily, 1835. * Lowell Courier, weekly; added daily, 1845; weekly now called Lowell Weekly Journal. * La Minerve (Montreal), daily and weekly. Christian Advocate (New York), weekly. Journal of the Franklin Institute (Philadelphia), monthly. * St. Lawrence Republican (Potsdam, New York) weekly; removed to Canton, N. Y., 1827; removed to Ogdensburg, 1830, and consolidated with St. Lawrence Gazette (founded 1815); purchased by Ogdensburg Journal (founded 1855), daily, 1858; both papers continue. Rochester Democrat; consolidated with Chronicle (founded 1868) as Democrat and Chronicle.

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1827. * Youth's Companion (Boston), weekly. * Independent News Letter (Cleveland); became Advertiser, 1832; became Plain Dealer, 1842. Columbus (Ohio) Press. New York Journal of Commerce.

1828. * Orleans Republican (Albion, New York), weekly. Burlington (Vermont) Free Press, weekly, added daily, 1844. Montgomery (Alabama) Advertiser. * Dutchess Intelligencer (Poughkeepsie, New York); consolidated with Dutchess Republican, as Poughkeepsie Eagle, weekly, 1833; consolidated with Poughkeepsie Journal (see 1785, Journal), as Journal and Eagle, 1844; now Eagle; added daily, 1860.

1829. * Auburn (New York) Journal, weekly; added Daily Advertiser, 1844. * Northwestern Journal (Detroit), weekly; semi-weekly, then 3 times a week, 1835; became Daily Advertiser, 1836; consolidated with Tribune (founded 1849), as Advertiser and Tribune, 1862; consolidated with Daily Post (founded 1866), as Post and Tribune, 1877; became Tribune, 1885. * Elmira Gazette, weekly, added daily, 1860. Philadelphia Inquirer. * Providence Daily Journal. * Syracuse Standard; successor to Onondaga Standard.

1830. * Albany Evening Journal. * Boston Transcript. Louisville Journal; consolidated with Courier (founded 1843) and Democrat (founded 1844), under name of Louisville Courier-Journal, 1868. * Evangelist (New York), weekly. * Sunday School Journal (Philadelphia), weekly; merged in Sunday School Times, 1859.

1831. Orleans American (Albion, New York), weekly. * Boston Daily Post. Presbyterian (Philadelphia), weekly. Illinois State Journal (Springfield), weekly; added daily, 1848.

1832. * Patriot (Montpelier, Vermont); consolidated with Argus (founded 1851, Bellows Falls), as Argus and Patriot, weekly, 1862. * Herald (New Haven), daily; various names; became Journal and Courier, 1849. Morning Journal and Courier (New Haven).

1833. * Catholic Intelligencer (Boston), weekly; successor to Jesuit; became Pilot, 1836. * Boston Mercantile Journal; now Boston Journal. * The Sun (New York).

1834. Bangor Whig and Courier. * Western Christian Advocate (Cincinnati), weekly. * British Whig (Kingston, Ontario), daily, 1849. * New Yorker Staats-Zeitung, weekly; added daily, 1845 Anzeiger des Westens (St. Louis).

1835. * New York Herald. Schenectady Reflector, weekly; added Evening Star, 1855. Troy Morning Telegram.

1836. * Miner's Express, weekly; merged in Dubuque Herald (founded 1853), now daily and weekly. * Public Ledger and Daily Transcript (Philadelphia). * Illinois State Register (Vandalia), weekly; absorbed People's Advocate, 1836; removed to Springfield, 1839; absorbed Illinois Republican, 1839; added daily, 1848. * Toledo Blade, weekly; added daily, 1848.

1837. * Sun (Baltimore), daily and weekly. Buffalo Demokrat und Weltbürger. Burlington (Iowa) Gazette. * Cincinnati Times, daily and weekly; daily consolidated with Star (founded 1872), daily and weekly, as Cincinnati Times-Star, 1880. Southern Christian Advocate (Columbia, South Carolina), weekly. Jackson (Mississippi) Clarion, weekly. * Milwaukee Sentinel, weekly; absorbed Gazette and became Sentinel-Gazette, 1846; dropped "Gazette," 1851; daily 1844. * New Orleans Picayune.

1838. Bangor Commercial. * Philadelphia Demokrat. * St. Louis Evening Gazette; became Evening Mirror, 1847; became New Era, 1848; became Intelligencer, 1849; became Evening News, 1857; consolidated with Dispatch, 1867; consolidated with Evening Post, as Post Dispatch, 1878.

1839. * Iowa Patriot (Burlington), weekly; became Hawkeye and Iowa Patriot; has been, at various times, semi-weekly, and daily; now Burlington Hawkeye, daily and weekly. * Christliche Apologete (Cincinnati), weekly. * Madison Express, weekly; became Wisconsin Express, 1848; daily, 1851; consolidated with a new paper, Statesman, as Palladium, daily and weekly, 1852; became Wisconsin State Journal, 1852. Freeman's Journal and Catholic Register (New York), weekly. * North American (Philadelphia); absorbed Pennsylvania Packet (see 1771, Pennsylvania Packet), 1839. Western State Journal (Syracuse), weekly; became Syracuse Journal, 1844; added daily, 1846; absorbed Evening Chronicle, 1856; added semi-weekly, 1893.

1840. Chicago Tribune. * Appeal Memphis); consolidated with Avalanche (founded 1857), as Appeal-Avalanche, 1890 (?); consolidated with Commercial (founded 1889), as Commercial Appeal, 1894. * Union and Evangelist (Uniontown, Pennsylvania); became Evangelist and Observer at Pittsburgh; succeeded by Cumberland Presbyterian, about 1846, at Uniontown; removed to Brownsville; then to Waynesburg; to Alton, Illinois, in 1868; and to Nashville, Tennessee, in 1874; here consolidated with Banner of Peace (founded, Princeton, Kentucky, 1840; removed to Lebanon, Tennessee, 1843; then to Nashville). * Roman Citizen, weekly; became Rome Semi-Weekly Citizen, 1888.

1841. * Brooklyn Eagle. * Prairie Farmer (Chicago), weekly. * New York Tribune. * Pittsburgh Chronicle; consolidated with Pittsburgh Telegraph (founded 1873), as Pittsburgh Chronicle Telegraph, 1884. Reading Eagle, weekly; added daily, 1868.

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1842. * Daily Mercantile Courier and Democratic Economist (Buffalo); became Daily Courier and Economist, 1843; became Buffalo Courier, daily, 1845. * Cincinnati Enquirer, daily and semi-weekly. * Galveston News. Rural New Yorker (New York), weekly. * Preacher (Pittsburgh), weekly; became United Presbyterian, 1854.

1843. * Albany Daily Knickerbocker; consolidated with Press (founded 1877), as Daily Press and Knickerbocker, 1877. * Steuben Courier (Bath, New York).

1844. Chicago Evening Journal. * Woechentlicher Seebote (Milwaukee); became Der Seebote, daily and Woechentlicher Seebote. * American Baptist (New York); became Baptist Weekly; has absorbed Gospel Age; became Christian Inquirer, weekly, 1888. * Churchman (New York), weekly. *New Yorker Demokrat; New Yorker Journal, 1862; consolidated as New Yorker Zeitung, 1878. Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature (New York), monthly. Ledger (New York), weekly. Oswego Times. * Globe (Toronto).

1845. * Binghamton Democrat, weekly; added daily, 1864. * Buffalo Morning Express. * Independent Democrat (Concord, New Hampshire). See 1823, New Hampshire Statesman. Montreal Witness, weekly; added daily, 1860. Scientific American (New York), weekly. * St. Joseph (Missouri) Gazette, daily and weekly.

1846. * Boston Herald, daily and weekly. * Evening News (Hamilton, Ontario), daily and weekly; successor to Journal and Express, semi-weekly; became Banner and Railway Chronicle, 1852 or 1853; became Evening Times, 1858. * Hamilton (Ontario) Spectator, semi-weekly; added daily, 1852. Keokuk (Iowa) Gate City. * Bankers' Magazine (New York), monthly. * Newport (Rhode Island) Daily News. Pittsburgh Dispatch.

1847. * Albany Morning Express. New England Historical and Genealogical Register (Boston), quarterly. Boston Traveller. Illinois Staats-Zeitung (Chicago). * Lewiston (Maine) Weekly Journal; added Evening Journal, 1861. London (Ontario) Free Press, weekly; added daily, 1859. * Evening Wisconsin Milwaukee). Iron Age (New York), weekly. Toledo Commercial. Utica Morning Herald; consolidated with Gazette (founded 1793), as Morning Herald and Gazette.

1848. * Massachusetts Teacher; afterwards, with College Courant (founded 1866, New Haven), Rhode Island Schoolmaster (founded 1855), and Connecticut School Journal, formed Journal of Education (founded 1875, Boston). * Williamsburg Times; became Brooklyn Daily Times, 1854. * Cleveland Leader, daily; added, by purchase, Evening News (founded 1868), 1869; purchased Cleveland Herald (founded 1819), and consolidated it with Evening News, as News and Herald, 1885. Des Moines Leader. * Independent (New York), weekly.

1849. * Congregationalist (Boston), weekly; absorbed Boston Recorder (founded 1816), 1867. * Detroit Tribune; consolidated with Post, 1877. See 1829, Northwestern Journal. * Irish American (New York), weekly. * Water Cure Journal (New York); became Herald of Health, 1863; became Journal of Hygiene and Herald of Health, m., 1893. * St. Paul Pioneer, weekly; daily, 1854; consolidated with St. Paul Press (founded 1860), daily, as Pioneer Press, 1875. Wilkesbarre Leader, weekly; added daily, 1879.

1850. * Buffalo Christian Advocate, weekly. Kansas City (Missouri) Times. Mirror and American (Manchester, New Hampshire). Harper's New Monthly Magazine (New York). * Oregonian (Portland), weekly; added daily, 1861. Richmond Dispatch. * Deseret News (Salt Lake City), weekly; added semi-weekly, 1865; added daily, 1867. * Morning News (Savannah, Georgia), daily and weekly; absorbed Savannah Republican (founded 1802), and Savannah Daily Advertiser (founded 1866), 1874. * Watertown (New York) Weekly Reformer; added Daily Times, 1860.

1851. La Crosse Morning Chronicle. * Union Democrat (Manchester, New Hampshire), weekly; added Manchester Union, daily, 1863. * Argus (Bellows Falls); consolidated with Patriot, at Montpelier, under name of Argus and Patriot, weekly, 1862. * New York Times, daily and weekly. * Rochester Beobachter, weekly; 3 times a week, 1855; daily, 1863; consolidated with Abendpost (founded 1880), as Rochester Abendpost und Beobachter, daily and weekly, 1881. St. Joseph (Mo.) Herald. * Troy (New York) Times, daily.

1852. Wächter am Erie (Cleveland). St. Louis Globe–Democrat. Wheeling Intelligencer (Wheeling, West Virginia).

1853. Elmira Advertiser. Frank Leslie's Illustrated Weekly (New York). Richmond Anzeiger. San Francisco Evening Post. Toledo Express. Washington Evening Star. * Record of the Times (Wilkesbarre), weekly; added Wilkesbarre Record, daily, 1873.

1854. * Deutsche Zeitung (Charleston, South Carolina), semi-weekly and weekly; suspended during four years of Civil War. Chicago Times, daily and weekly. * American Israelite (Cincinnati), weekly. * Kansas City (Missouri) Journal, weekly; added daily, 1864. La Crosse Republican and Leader. Herold (Milwaukee). * Nebraska City News. * Anzeiger des Nordens (Rochester); became Rochester Volksblatt, weekly, 1859, added daily, 1863.

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1855. * Ogdensburg Journal, daily; purchased St. Lawrence Republican (founded 1826), weekly, 1858.

1856. * Albany Times; absorbed Evening Courier, 1861; consolidated with Evening Union (founded 1882), as Albany Times-Union, daily and weekly, 1891. * Buffalo Allgemeine Zeitung, weekly; succeeded by Buffalo Freie Presse, daily 3 months, then semi-weekly; daily, 1872. * Iowa State Register (Des Moines), weekly; added daily, 1861. Dubuque Times. * Western Railroad Gazette (Chicago), weekly; became Railroad Gazette; removed to New York, 1871. San Francisco Call. * Scranton Republican, weekly; added daily, 1867.

1857. Baltimore News. Atlantic Monthly (Boston). * Banner of Light (Boston), weekly. Leavenworth Times. New Haven Union. Harper's Weekly (New York). * Jewish Messenger (New York), weekly. * Scottish American (New York), weekly. Philadelphia Press. Courrier du Canada (Quebec). Westliche Post (St. Louis). Syracuse Courier.

1858. Hartford Evening Post; Connecticut Post, weekly. Nebraska Press (Nebraska City), daily and weekly. Rochester Post-Express.

1859. * Boston Commercial Bulletin, weekly. * Rocky Mountain News (Denver), weekly; added daily, 1860. Kansas City (Missouri) Post (German). * Sunday School Times (Philadelphia), weekly; succeeded Sunday School Journal (founded 1830); absorbed Sunday School Workman (founded 1870), 1871; absorbed National Sunday School Teacher (founded 1866), 1882. St. John (New Brunswick) Globe.

1860. World (New York).

1861. Commonwealth (Boston), weekly.

1862. * New Yorker Journal. See 1844, New Yorker Demokrat. * Maine State Press (Portland), weekly; Portland Press, daily. Raleigh News and Observer. St. John (New Brunswick) Telegraph, weekly;added daily, 1869.

1863. * Brooklyn Daily Union; consolidated with Brooklyn Daily Standard (founded 1884), as Brooklyn Standard Union, 1887. London (Ontario) Advertiser. * New Orleans Times; consolidated with Democrat (founded 1876), as New Orleans Times–Democrat, 1881, all daily and weekly. Army and Navy Journal (New York), weekly. Portland (Oregon) Evening Telegram. Providence Evening Bulletin. * Sioux City Journal, weekly; added daily, 1870. * Wheeling Register.

1864. * Concord (New Hampshire) Evening Monitor, daily; issued in connection with Independent Statesman (see 1823, New Hampshire Statesman). Reading Post (German), weekly; added daily, 1867. * Springfield (Massachusetts) Union.

1865. Albany Evening Post. * Skandinaven (Chicago), weekly; daily, 1871. Halifax Morning Chronicle. Florida Times-Union (Jacksonville). Memphis Public Ledger.

* Commercial and Financial Chronicle (New York), weekly; absorbed Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, 1870. Nation (New York), weekly Norfolk Virginian. * Daily Herald (Omaha, Nebraska); consolidated with Evening World (founded 1885), as World-Herald, 1889. * Index (Petersburg, Virginia); consolidated with Appeal (successor to Express, founded in 1848), as Index-Appeal, 1873. Philadelphia Abend Post. San Antonio Express. * San Francisco Chronicle. * Union (Schenectady), daily, and weekly.

1866. * Denver Tribune; consolidated with Denver Republican (founded 1878), under name of Tribune-Republican, 1884; became Denver Republican, daily and weekly. * Christian at Work (New York), weekly; became Christian Work, 1894; has absorbed The Continent, The Manhattan Magazine, Every Thursday, and others. Engineering and Mining Journal (New York), weekly. Sanitarian (New York), monthly.

1867. * Advance (Chicago), weekly. * Evening Journal (Jersey City). * Nebraska Commonwealth (Lincoln), weekly; became Nebraska State Journal, weekly, 1869; added daily, 1870. * Democrat (Madison, Wisconsin), daily and weekly. Minneapolis Tribune. * Le Monde (Montreal). Engineering News (New York), weekly. Harper's Bazaar (New York), weekly. American Naturalist (Philadelphia), monthly. * L'Evenement (Quebec). * Seattle Intelligencer, weekly; daily, 1876; consolidated with Post (founded 1878), daily, under name of Post-Intelligencer, 1881. Vicksburg Commercial Herald, weekly; added daily, 1869. Wilmington (North Carolina) Messenger. * Morning Star (Wilmington, North Carolina).

1868. Atlanta Constitution. * Buffalo Volksfreund, daily and weekly. * People (Concord, New Hampshire). See 1809, New Hampshire Patriot. Lippincott's Magazine (Philadelphia), monthly. St. Paul Dispatch. * San Diego Union, weekly; added daily, 1871. Troy Press.

1869. * Evening Star (Montreal); became Montreal Evening Star, then Montreal Daily Star; added Family Herald and Weekly Star, weekly. * Christian Union (New York), weekly; became The Outlook, 1893. Manufacturer and Builder (New York), monthly. * Ottawa Free Press, daily and weekly. Scranton Times, daily and weekly.

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PRIOR. PRIORY.

See MONASTERY.

PRIORIES, Alien.

"These were cells of foreign abbeys, founded upon estates which English proprietors had given to the foreign houses."

E. L. Cutts, Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages, chapter 4.

PRIORS OF THE FLORENTINE GUILDS.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1250-1203.

PRISAGE.

See TUNNAGE AND POUNDAGE.

PRISON-SHIPS, British, at New York.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776-1777 PRISONERS AND EXCHANGES.

PRISONS AND PRISON-PENS, Confederate. Libby. Belle Isle. Andersonville.

"The Libby, which is best known, though also used as a place of confinement for private soldiers, is generally understood to be the officers' prison. It is a row of brick buildings, three stories high, situated on the canal [in Richmond, Virginia], and overlooking the James river, and was formerly a tobacco warehouse. … The rooms are 100 feet long by 40 feet broad. In six of these rooms, 1,200 United States officers, of all grades, from the Brigadier-General to the Second-Lieutenant, were confined for many months, and this was all the space that was allowed them in which to cook, eat, wash, sleep, and take exercise. … Ten feet by two were all that could be claimed by each man—hardly enough to measure his length upon; and even this was further abridged by the room necessarily taken for cooking, washing and clothes-drying. At one time they were not allowed the use of benches, chairs, or stools, nor even to fold their blankets and sit upon them, but those who would rest were obliged to huddle on their haunches, as one of them expresses it, 'like so many slaves on the middle passage.' After awhile this severe restriction was removed, and they were allowed to make chairs and stools for themselves, out of the barrels and boxes which they had received from the North. They were overrun with vermin in spite of every precaution and constant ablutions. Their blankets, which averaged one to a man, and sometimes less, had not been issued by the rebels, but had been procured in different ways; sometimes by purchase, sometimes through the Sanitary Commission. The prisoners had to help themselves from the refuse accumulation of these articles. … The prison did not seem to be under any general and uniform army regulations, but the captives were subject to the caprices of Major Turner, the officer in charge, and Richard Turner, inspector of the prison. It was among the rules that no one should go within three feet of the windows, a rule which seems to be general in all Southern prisons of this character. … Often by accident, or unconsciously, an officer would go near a window, and be instantly shot at without warning. The reports of the sentry's musket were heard almost every day, and frequently a prisoner fell either killed or wounded. It was even worse with a large prison near by, called the Pemberton Buildings, which was crowded with enlisted men. … The daily ration in the officers' quarter of Libby Prison was a small loaf of bread about the size of a man's fist, made of Indian meal. Sometimes it was made from wheat flour, but of variable quality. It weighed a little over half a pound. With it was given a piece of beef weighing two ounces. … But there is a still lower depth of suffering to be exposed. The rank of the officers, however disregarded in most respects, induced some consideration, but for the private soldiers there seemed to be no regard whatever, and no sentiment which could restrain. It is to this most melancholy part of their task that the Commissioners now proceed. Belle Isle is a small island in the James river, opposite the Tredegar Iron–works, and in full sight from the Libby windows. … The portion on which the prisoners are confined is low, sandy, and barren, without a tree to cast a shadow, and poured upon by the burning rays of a Southern sun. Here is an enclosure, variously estimated to be from three to six acres in extent, surrounded by an earthwork about three feet high, with a ditch on either side. … The interior has something of the look of an encampment, a number of Sibley tents being set in rows, with 'streets' between. These tents, rotten, torn, full of holes,—poor shelter at any rate,—accommodated only a small proportion of the number who were confined within these low earth walls. The number varied at different periods, but from 10,000 to 12,000 men have been imprisoned in this small space at one time, turned into the enclosure like so many cattle, to find what resting place they could. … Thousands had no tents, and no shelter of any kind. Nothing was provided for their accommodation. Lumber was plenty in a country of forests, but not a cabin or shed was built. … Every day, during the winter season, numbers were conveyed away stiff and stark, having fallen asleep in everlasting cold. … They were fed as the swine are fed. A chunk of corn-bread, 12 or 14 ounces in weight, half-baked, full of cracks as if baked in the sun, musty in taste, containing whole grains of corn, fragments of cob, and pieces of husks; meat often tainted, suspiciously like mule–meat, and a mere mouthful at that; two or three spoonfuls of rotten beans; soup thin and briny, often with worms floating on the surface. None of these were given together, and the whole ration was never one-half the quantity necessary for the support of a healthy man."

V. Mott, and others, Report of United States Sanitary Commission Com. of Inquiry on the Sufferings of Prisoners of War in the hands of the Rebel Authorities, chapters 2-3.

The little hamlet of Anderson, so named, in 1853, after John W. Anderson, of Savannah, but called Andersonville by the Post Office Department, is situated in the heart of the richest portion of the cotton and corn-growing region of Georgia, on the Southwestern Railroad, 62 miles south from Macon and 9 miles north of Americus. "Here, on the 27th day of November, 1863, W. S. Winder, a captain in the rebel army, and who was selected for the purpose, came and located the grounds, for a 'Confederate States Military Prison.' … When the site was definitely established, it was found to be covered with a thick growth of pines and oaks. … It was … suggested to W. S. Winder by a disinterested spectator of his preliminary proceedings … that the shade afforded by the trees would prove grateful protections to the prisoners. The reply was characteristic of the man and prophetic of their future fate. 'That is just what I am not going to do! I will make a pen here for the d—d Yankees, where they will rot faster than they can be sent!' … The trees were leveled to the ground, and the space was cleared. … No buildings, barracks, houses, or huts of any kind were built. {2608} The canopy of the sky was the only covering." In March, 1864, John H. Winder, father of the W. S. Winder mentioned above, became commandant of the post, and with him came Henry Wirz, as superintendent of the prison. These two names are linked in infamy with the horrors of the Andersonville Prison-Pen. "The stockade at Andersonville was originally built, as we learn from many sources, with a capacity for 10,000, its area being about 18 acres. It continued without enlargement until the month of June, 1864, when it was increased about one third, its area then, as shown by actual survey, being 23½ acres. … From Colonel Chandler's Inspection Report [the report of a Confederate official], dated August 5th, 1864, I quote the following: 'A railing around the inside of the stockade, and about 20 feet from it, constitutes the 'dead line,' beyond which prisoners are not allowed to pass. A small stream passes from west to east through the inclosure, about 150 yards from its southern limit, and furnishes the only water for washing accessible to the prisoners. Bordering this stream, about three quarters of an acre in the centre of the inclosure are so marshy as to be at present unfit for occupation, reducing the available present area to about 23½ acres, which gives somewhat less than six square feet to each prisoner'; and, he remarks, 'even this is being constantly reduced by the additions to their number.' … Dr. Joseph Jones, Professor of Chemistry in the Medical College of Georgia, … went to Andersonville under the direction of the surgeon general of the Confederacy, pursuant to an order dated Richmond, Virginia, August 6th, 1864. … Dr. Jones proceeds to give a table illustrating the mean strength of prisoners confined in the stockade. … His table … shows the following as the mean result: March, 7,500; April, 10,000; May, 15,000; June, 22,291; July, 29,030; August, 32,899. He says: 'Within the circumscribed area of the stockade the Federal prisoners were compelled to perform all the offices of life, cooking, washing, urinating, defecation, exercise, and sleeping.' … 'The low grounds bordering the stream were covered with human excrement and filth of all kinds, which in many cases appeared to be alive with working maggots. An indescribable sickening stench arose from the fermenting mass of human dung and filth.' And again: 'There were nearly 5,000 seriously-ill Federals in the stockade and Confederate States Military Prison Hospital, and the deaths exceeded 100 per day. … I visited 2,000 sick within the stockade, lying under some long sheds which they had built at the northern portion for themselves. At this time only one medical officer was in attendance.'" At the close of the war, Wirz, the inhuman jailor of Andersonville was tried for his many crimes before a military commission, over which General Lewis Wallace presided, was condemned and was hanged, at Andersonville, November 10, 1865. His superior officer, Winder, escaped the earthly tribunal by dying of a gangrenous disorder, which had been caused, without doubt, by the poisoned air of the place.

A. Spencer, Narrative of Andersonville, chapters 1, 4, 5, 13, 15.

"There can be no accurate count of the mortality in rebel prisons. The report made by the War Department to the 40th Congress shows that about 188,000 Union soldiers were captured by the Confederates; that half of them were paroled, and half confined in prison; of this number 36,000 died in captivity. The Union armies, on the other hand, captured 476,000 Confederates: of these 227,000 were retained as prisoners, and 30,000 died. While the percentage of mortality in Northern prisons was 13 in the hundred, that in rebel prisons was 38."

J. G. Nicolay and J. Hay, Abraham Lincoln, volume 7, chapter 16.

Report of Special Commission on Treatment of Prisoners (H.R. Report No. 45, 40th Cong., 3d Session).

Trial of Henry Wirz.

Southern Historical Society Papers, volume 1.

F. F. Cavada, Libby Life.

A. B. Isham, H. M. Davidson and H. B. Furness, Prisoners of War and Military Prisons.

PRIVATE WARFARE, The Right of.

See LANDFRIEDE.

PRIVATEERING, American, in the War of 1812.

"The war [of 1812-14] lasted about three years, and the result was, as near as I have been able to ascertain, a loss to Great Britain of about 2,000 ships and vessels of every description, including men-of-war and merchantmen. Eighteen hundred sail are recorded as having been taken, burnt, sunk, or destroyed. To this number may be added 200 more, which were either destroyed or considered too insignificant to be reported; making an aggregate of 2,000 sail of British shipping captured by our little navy, with the aid of privateers and letters-of-marque. … I have not had sufficient time in giving this summary to ascertain, precisely, what proportion of these 2,000 vessels were captured by the United States government ships; but, at a rough estimate, should judge one-third part of the whole number, leaving two-thirds, or, say, 1330 sail, to have been taken by American privateers and private-armed vessels. I have found it difficult to ascertain the exact number of our own vessels taken and destroyed by the English; but, from the best information I can obtain, I should judge they would not amount to more than 500 sail. It must be recollected that the most of our losses occurred during the first six months of the war. After that period, we had very few vessels afloat, except privateers and letters-of–marque."

G. Coggeshall, History of American Privateers, 1812-14, pages 394-395.

PRIVATEERS. LETTERS OF MARQUE.

"Until lately all maritime states have … been in the habit of using privateers, which are vessels belonging to private owners, and sailing under a commission of war [such commissions being denominated letters of marque and reprisal] empowering the person to whom it is granted to carry on all forms of hostility which are permissible at sea by the usages of war. … Universally as privateers were formerly employed, the right to use them has now almost disappeared from the world. It formed part of the Declaration adopted at the Congress of Paris in 1856 with reference to Maritime Law that 'privateering is and remains abolished'; and all civilised states have since become signataries of the Declaration, except the United States, Spain, and Mexico. For the future privateers can only be employed by signataries of the Declaration of Paris during war with one of the last-mentioned states."

W. E. Hall, Treatise on International Law, part 3, chapter 7, section 180.

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"There is a distinction between a privateer and a letter of marque in this, that the former are always equipped for the sole purpose of war, while the latter may be a merchantman, uniting the purposes of commerce to those of capture. In popular language, however, all private vessels commissioned for hostile purposes, upon the enemy's property, are called letters of marque."

F. H. Upton, The Law of Nations affecting Commerce during War, page 186.

See, also, DECLARATION OF PARIS.

PRIVILEGE OF UNION AND GENERAL PRIVILEGE OF ARAGON.

See CORTES, THE EARLY SPANISH.

PRIVILEGIUM MAJUS, THE.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1330-1364.

PRIVY COUNCIL, THE.

"It was in the reign of Henry VI. that the King's Council first assumed the name of the 'Privy Council,' and it was also during the minority of this King that a select Council was gradually emerging from out of the larger body of the Privy Council, which ultimately resulted in the institution of our modern Cabinet.

See CABINET, THE ENGLISH.

From the accession of Henry VII. to the reign of Charles I. the Privy Council was wholly subservient to the royal will, and the instrument of unconstitutional and arbitrary proceedings. The first act of the Long Parliament was to deprive the Council of most of its judicial power, leaving, however, its constitution and political functions unchanged. Since the Revolution of 1688 the Privy Council has dwindled into comparative insignificance, when contrasted with its original authoritative position. Its judicial functions are now restrained within very narrow limits. The only relic of its ancient authority in criminal matters is its power of taking examinations, and issuing commitments for treason. It still, however, continues to exercise an original jurisdiction in advising the Crown concerning the grant of charters, and it has exclusively assumed the appellate jurisdiction over the colonies and dependencies of the Crown, which formerly appertained to the Council in Parliament. Theoretically, the Privy Council still retains its ancient supremacy, and in a constitutional point of view is presumed to be the only legal and responsible Council of the Crown. … As her Majesty can only act through her privy councillors, or upon their advice, all the higher and more formal acts of administration must proceed from the authority of the Sovereign in Council, and their performance be directed by orders issued by the Sovereign at a meeting of the Privy Council specially convened for that purpose. No rule can be laid down defining those political acts of the Crown which may be performed upon the advice of particular ministers, or those which must be exercised only 'in Council'—the distinction depends partly on usage and partly on the wording of Acts of Parliament. … The ancient functions of the Privy Council are now performed by committees, excepting those formal measures which proceed from the authority of her Majesty in Council. The acts of these committees are designated as those of the Lords of the Council. These Lords of Council (who are usually selected by the Lord President of the Council, of whom more hereafter) constitute a high court of record for the Investigation of all offences against the Government, and of such other extraordinary matters as may be brought before them. … If the matter be one properly cognisable by a legal tribunal, it is referred to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. This committee, which is composed of the Lord President, the Lord Chancellor, and such members of the Privy Council as from time to time hold certain high judicial offices, has jurisdiction in appeals from all colonial courts: it is also the supreme court of maritime jurisdiction, and the tribunal wherein the Crown exercises its judicial supremacy in ecclesiastical cases. The Privy Council has also to direct local authorities throughout the kingdom in matters affecting the preservation of the public health. A committee of the Privy Council is also appointed to provide 'for the general management and superintendence of Education,' and subject to this committee is the Science and Art Department for the United Kingdom. … Formerly meetings of the Council were frequently held, but they now seldom occur oftener than once in three or four weeks, and are always convened to assemble at the royal residence for the time being. The attendance of seven Privy Councillors used to be regarded as the quorum necessary to constitute a Council for ordinary purposes of state, but this number has been diminished frequently to only three. No Privy Councillor presumes to attend upon any meeting of the Privy Council unless specially summoned. The last time the whole Council was convoked was in 1839. Privy Councillors are appointed absolutely, without patent or grant, at the discretion of the Sovereign. Their number is unlimited. … Since the separate existence of the Cabinet Council, meetings of the Privy Council for purposes of deliberation have ceased to be held. The Privy Council consists ordinarily of the members of the Royal Family, the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the Bishop of London, all the Cabinet Ministers, the Lord Chancellor, the chief officers of the Royal Household, the Judges of the Courts of Equity, the Chief Justices of the Courts of Common Law, and some of the Puisne Judges, the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Judges and the Judge-Advocate, the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Ambassadors and the Chief Ministers Plenipotentiary, the Governors of the chief colonies, the Commander-in-Chief, the Vice-President of the Committee of Council for Education, certain other officials I need not particularise, and occasionally a Junior Lord of the Admiralty, though it is not usual for Under Secretaries of State or Junior Lords of the Treasury or Admiralty to have this rank conferred upon them. A seat in the Privy Council is sometimes given to persons retiring from the public service, who have filled responsible situations under the Crown, as an honorary distinction. A Privy Councillor is styled Right Honourable, and he takes precedence of all baronets, knights, and younger sons of viscounts and barons."

A. C. Ewald, The Crown and its Advisers, lecture 2.

ALSO IN: A. V. Dicey, The Privy Council.

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PROBULI, The.

A board of ten provisional councillors, instituted at Athens during the later period of the Peloponnesian War, after the great calamity at Syracuse. It was intended to introduce a conservative agency into the too democratic constitution of the state; to be "a board composed of men of mature age, who should examine all proposals and motions, after which only such among the latter as this board had sanctioned and approved should come before the citizens. This new board was, at the same time, in urgent cases itself to propose the necessary measures."

E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 4, chapter 5.

See ATHENS; B. C. 413-411.

PROBUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 276-282.

PROBUS, Wall of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 277.

PROCESSION OF THE HOLY SPIRIT, Controversy on.

See FILIOQUE CONTROVERSY.

PROCONSUL AND PROPRÆTOR, ROMAN.

"If a Consul was pursuing his operations ever so successfully, he was liable to be superseded at the year's close by his successor in the Consulship: and this successor brought with him new soldiers and new officers; everything, it would seem, had to be done over again. This was always felt in times of difficulty, and the constitutional usages were practically suspended. … In the year 328 B. C. the Senate first assumed the power of decreeing that a Consul or Prætor might be continued in his command for several successive years, with the title of Proconsul, or Proprætor, the power of these officers being, within their own district, equal to the power of the Consul or Prætor himself. The Proconsul also was allowed to keep part of his old army, and would of course continue his Tribunes and Centurions in office. … Almost all the great successes of Marcellus and Scipio were gained in Proconsular commands."

H. G. Liddell, History of Rome, book 4, chapter 35.

PROCURATOR. PROCTOR.

See ROME: B. C. 31-A. D. 14.

PROHIBITIONISTS.

A party in American politics which contends for the enactment of laws to prohibit the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors.

PROMANTY, The Right of.

See GREECE: B. C. 449-445.

PROPAGANDA, The College of the.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1622.

PROPHESYINGS.

In the early part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, among those English reformers who were subsequently known as Puritans, "the clergy in several dioceses set up, with encouragement from their superiors, a certain religious exercise, called prophesyings. They met at appointed times to expound and discuss together particular texts of Scripture, under the presidency of a moderator appointed by the bishop, who finished by repeating the substance of their debate, with his own determination upon it. These discussions were in public, and it was contended that this sifting of the grounds of their faith, and habitual argumentation, would both tend to edify the people, very little acquainted as yet with their religion, and supply in some degree the deficiencies of learning among the pastors themselves." The prophesyings, however, were suppressed by the queen and Archbishop Parker.

H. Hallam, Constitutional History of England, chapter 4 (volume 1).

ALSO IN: J. B. Marsden, History of the Early Puritans, chapter 4. sections 7-25.

PROPHETS, The Hebrew.

"The Hebrew word 'Nabi' is derived from the verb 'naba.' … The root of the verb is said to be a word signifying 'to boil or bubble over,' and is thus taken from the metaphor of a fountain bursting forth from the heart of man, into which God has poured it. Its actual meaning is 'to pour forth excited utterances,' as appears from its occasional use in the sense of 'raving.' Even to this day, in the East, the ideas of prophet and madman are closely connected. The religious sense, in which, with these exceptions, the word is always employed, is that of 'speaking' or 'singing under a divine afflatus or impulse,' to which the peculiar form of the word, as just observed, lends itself. … It is this word that the Seventy translated by a Greek term not of frequent usage in classical authors, but which, through their adoption of it, has passed into all modern European languages; namely, the word … Prophet. … The English words 'prophet,' 'prophecy,' 'prophesying,' originally kept tolerably close to the Biblical use of the word. The celebrated dispute about 'prophesyings,' in the sense of 'preachings,' in the reign of Elizabeth, and the treatise of Jeremy Taylor on 'The Liberty of Prophesying,' i. e. the liberty of preaching, show that even down to the seventeenth century the word was still used, as in the Bible, for 'preaching,' or 'speaking according to the will of God.' In the seventeenth century, however, the limitation of the word to the sense of 'prediction' had gradually begun to appear. … The Prophet then was 'the messenger or interpreter of the Divine will.'"

Dean Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, lecture 19 (volume 1).

PROPHETS, Schools of the.

See EDUCATION, ANCIENT; JUDÆA.

PROPONTIS, The.

The small sea which intervenes between the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea) and the Ægean. So-called by the Greeks; now called the Sea of Marmora.

PROPRÆTOR, Roman.

See PROCONSUL.

PROPYLÆA OF THE ACROPOLIS, The.

See ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS.

PROTECTIVE TARIFFS.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION.

PROTECTORATE, Cromwell's.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1653 (DECEMBER); 1654-1658.

PROTESTANT, Origin of the name.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1525-1529.

PROTESTANT FLAIL, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1678-1679.

—————PROTESTANT REFORMATION: Start————

PROTESTANT REFORMATION: Bohemia.

See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1405-1415. and after.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION: England.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1527-1534, to 1558-1588.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION: France.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1521-1535; and FRANCE; A. D. 1532-1547, and after.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION: Germany.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1516-1517, 1517, 1517-1521, 1521-1522, 1522-1525, 1525-1529, 1530-1531, 1537-1563; also, GERMANY: A. D. 1517-1523, and 1530-1532, to 1552-1561;

also PALATINATE OF THE RHINE: A. D. 1518-1572.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION: Hungary.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1526-1567.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION: Ireland: its failure.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1535-1553.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION: Netherlands.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1521-1555, and after.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION: Piedmont.

See SAVOY: A. D. 1559-1580.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION: Scotland.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1547-1557; 1557; 1558-1560; and 1561-1568.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION: Sweden and Denmark.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES; A. D. 1397-1527.

PROTESTANT REFORMATION: Switzerland.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1519-1524; SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1528-1531; and GENEVA: A. D. 1536-1564.

—————PROTESTANT REFORMATION: End————

PROTOSEVASTOS.

See SEVASTOS.

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PROVENCE: Roman origin.

"The colonization of Narbo [Narbonne, B. C. 118] may be considered as the epoch when the Romans finally settled the province of southern Gallia, which they generally named Gallia Provincia, and sometimes simply Provincia. From the time of Augustus it was named Narbonensis Provincia, and sometimes Gallia Braccata. It comprehended on the east all the country between the Rhone and the Alps. The most northeastern town in the Provincia was Geneva in the territory of the Allobroges. Massilia, the ally of Rome, remained a free city. On the west side of the Rhone, from the latitude of Lugdunum (Lyon), the Cevenna, or range of the Cévennes, was the boundary of the Provincia. … The limits of the Provincia were subsequently extended to Carcaso (Carcassone) and Tolosa (Toulouse); and it will appear afterwards that some additions were made to it even on the other side of the Cévennes. This country is a part of France which is separated by natural boundaries from the rest of that great empire, and in climate and products it is Italian rather than French. In the Provincia the Romans have left some of the noblest and most enduring of their great works."

G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 1, chapter 22.

The Provincia of the Romans became the Provence of mediæval times.

PROVENCE: Cession to the Visigoths.

"The fair region which we now call Provence, nearly the earliest formed and quite the latest lost 'Provincia' of Rome, that region in which the Latin spirit dwelt so strongly that the Roman nobles thought of migrating thither in 401, when Alaric first invaded Italy, refused to submit to the rule of the upstart barbarian [Odovacar, or Odoacer, who subverted the Western Empire in 476]. The Provençals sent an embassy to Constantinople to claim the protection of Zeno for the still loyal subjects of the Empire." But Zeno "inclined to the cause of Odovacar. The latter, however, who perhaps thought that he had enough upon his hands without forcing his yoke on the Provençals, made over his claim to Euric king of the Visigoths, whose influence was at this time predominant in Gaul."

T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, book 4, chapter 4 (volume 3).

See, also, ARLES: A. D. 508-510.

PROVENCE: A. D. 493-526. Embraced in the Ostrogothic kingdom of Theodoric.

See ROME: A. D. 488-526.

PROVENCE: A. D. 536. Cession to the Franks.

Out of the wreck of the Visigothic kingdom in Gaul, when it was overthrown by the Frank king, Clovis, the Ostrogothic king of Italy, Theodoric, seems to have secured Provence. Eleven years after the death of Theodoric, and on the eve of the subversion of his own proudly planted kingdom, in 536, his successor Witigis, or Vitigis, bought the neutrality of the Franks by the cession to them of all the Ostrogothic possessions in Gaul, which were Provence and part of Dauphiné.