Part 2 — Chapter III. (These four articles abrogated by the four articles following them, 118-122.) Article 118. The Federal Constitution may at any time be amended. (continued 103)

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1867 (MARCH).

General Sheridan was assigned to the command of the fifth military district therein defined, consisting of Louisiana and Texas.

P. H. Sheridan, Personal Memoirs, volume 2, chapters 10-11.

ALSO IN: Report of Select Committee on New Orleans Riot, 39th Congress, 2d Session, H. R. Report, Number 16.

LOUISIANA: A. D. 1868. Reconstruction complete. Restored representation in Congress.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1868-1870.

—————LOUISIANA: End—————

LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY: Threatened by the Rebel Army under Bragg.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JUNE-OCTOBER: TENNESSEE-KENTUCKY).

—————LOUVAIN: Start————

LOUVAIN: A. D. 1635. Unsuccessful siege by the French.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1635-1638.

LOUVAIN: A. D. 1706. Taken by Marlborough and the Allies.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1706-1707.

—————LOUVAIN: End————

LOUVAIN, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (FEBRUARY-APRIL).

LOUVRE, The.

"The early history of the Louvre is involved in great obscurity. The name of its founder and the period of its erection are alike unknown; the first notice of it we meet with upon record is in the 7th century, when Dagobert kept here his horses and hounds. The kings [Merovingeans] called 'fainéans' often visited it, when after dinner they rode in a sort of coach through the forest, which covered this side of the river, and in the evening returned in a boat, fishing by the way, to the city, where they supped and slept. There is no mention of this royal dwelling under the second, nor even under the third race of kings, till the reign of Philip Augustus. About the year 1204, that prince converted it into a kind of citadel, surrounded with wide ditches and flanked with towers. … The walls erected by Philip Augustus did not take in the Louvre, but after having remained outside of Paris more than six centuries, it was enclosed by the walls begun in 1367, under Charles V., and finished in 1383, under Charles VI. … Charles IX., Henry III., Henry IV., and Louis XIII., inhabited the Louvre and added to its buildings. Nothing remains of the old château of Philip Augustus, which Charles V. repaired; the most ancient part now in existence is that called 'le Vieux Louvre,' begun by Francis I. in 1539, and finished by Henry II. in 1548."

History of Paris (London, 1827), chapter 2 (volume 2).

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The origin of the word Louvre is believed to be a Saxon word, 'Leowar' or 'Lower,' which meant a fortified camp. … Francis I. did little more than decide the fate of the old Louvre by introducing the new fashion. His successors went on with the work; and the progress of it may be followed, reign after reign, till the last visible fragment of the Gothic castle had been ruthlessly carted away. … Vast as is the Louvre that we know, it is as nothing in comparison with the prodigious scheme imagined by Richelieu and Louis XIII.; a scheme which, though never carried out, gave a very strong impulse to the works, and ensured the completion of the present building, at least in a subsequent reign. … Happily for the Louvre Louis XIV. interested himself in it before he engulfed his millions at Marly and Versailles. … The sums of money expended on the Louvre and Tuileries defy all calculation. … The greatest spender on these palaces was Napoleon III."

P. G. Hamerton. Paris in Old and Present Times, chapter 6.

LOVERS, War of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1578-1580.

LOW CHURCH.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1689 (APRIL-AUGUST).

LOW COUNTRIES, The.

See NETHERLANDS.

LOWLANDS OF SCOTLAND.

See SCOTCH HIGHLAND and LOWLAND.

LOWOSITZ, OR LOBOSITZ, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1756.

LOYALISTS, American.

See TORIES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

LOYOLA, and the founding of the Order of Jesus.

See JESUITS: A. D. 1540-1556.

—————LUBECK: Start————

LUBECK: Origin and rise.

"Near the mouth of the river Trave there had long existed a small settlement of pirates or fishermen. The convenience of the harbour had led to this settlement and it had been much frequented by Christian merchants. The unsettled state of the country, however, afforded them little security, and it had been often taken and plundered by the Pagan freebooters. When Henry acquired the dominion of the soil [Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, who subdued the heathen Wendish tribe of the Oborites, A. D. 1165, and added their country to his dominions] he paid particular attention to this infant establishment, and under the shadow of his power the city of Lubeck (for so it became) arose on a broad and permanent basis. He made it … the seat of a bishop; he also established a mint and a custom-house, and by the grant of a municipal government, he secured the personal, while he prepared the way for the political, rights of its burghers. The ancient name of the harbour was Wisby, and by a proclamation addressed to the Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, and Russians, he invited them to frequent it, with an assurance that the ways should be open and secure by land and water. … This judicious policy was rewarded by a rapid and large increase to the wealth and commerce of Lubeck."

Sir A. Halliday, Annals of the House of Hanover, volume 1, pages 229-230.

See, also, HANSA TOWNS.

LUBECK: A. D. 1801-1803. One of six free cities which survived the Peace of Luneville.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

LUBECK: A. D. 1806. Battle of French and Prussians.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1806 (OCTOBER).

LUBECK: A. D. 1810. Annexation to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1810 (FEBRUARY-DECEMBER).

LUBECK: A. D. 1810-1815. Loss and recovery of autonomy as a "free city."

See CITIES, IMPERIAL AND FREE, OF GERMANY; and VIENNA, CONGRESS OF.

LUBECK: A. D. 1866. Surrender of free privileges. Entrance into the Zollverein.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1888.

—————LUBECK: End————

LUBECK, Treaty of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1627-1629.

LUCANIANS, The.

See SABINES; also, SAMNITES.

—————LUCCA: Start————

LUCCA: The founding of the city.

See MUTINA AND PARMA.

LUCCA: 8th Century. The seat of Tuscan government.

See TUSCANY: A. D. 685-1115.

LUCCA: A. D. 1248-1278. In the wars of the Guelfs and Ghibellines.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1248-1278.

LUCCA: A. D. 1284-1293. War with Pisa.

See PISA: A. D. 1063-1293.

LUCCA: A. D. 1314-1328. The brief tyranny of Uguccione della Faggiuola, and the longer despotism of Castruccio Castracani. Erected into an imperial duchy.

See ITALY: A. D. 1313-1330.

LUCCA: A. D. 1335-1341. Acquired by Mastino della Scala of Verona. Sold to Florence. Taken by Pisa.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1341-1343.

LUCCA: A. D. 1805. Conferred on the sister of Napoleon.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1804-1805.

LUCCA: A. D. 1814-1860.

After the fall of Napoleon Lucca was briefly occupied by the Neapolitans; then, in the new arrangements, figured for some time as a distinct duchy; afterwards became part of Tuscany, until its absorption in the kingdom of Italy.

—————LUCCA: End————

LUCENA, Battle of (1483).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1476-1492.

LUCERES, The.

See ROME: BEGINNING AND NAME.

LUCHANA, Battle of (1836).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1833-1846.

LUCIUS II., Pope, A. D. 1144-1145.

Lucius III., Pope, 1181-1185.

LUCKA, Battle of (1308).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1273-1308.

LUCKNOW, The siege of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1857 (MAY-AUGUST), and 1857-1858 (JULY-JUNE).

LUCOTECIA.

See LUTETIA.

LUD. Ancient Lydia.

LUDDITES, Rioting of the.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1812-1813.

LUDI. LUDI CIRCENSES, ETC.

"Public games (Ludi) formed an important feature in the worship of the gods [in ancient Rome], and in the earlier ages were always regarded as religious rites; so that the words Ludi, Feriae and Dies Festi are frequently employed as synonymous. Games celebrated every year upon a fixed day were denominated Ludi Stati. Such were the Ludi Romani s. Magni, held invariably on the 21st of September; the Megalesia on 4th April; the Floralia on 28th April, and many others. … Another classification of Ludi was derived from the place where they were exhibited and the nature of the exhibition …

1. Ludi Circenses, chariot races and other games exhibited in a circus. 2. Ludi Scenici, dramatic entertainments exhibited in a theatre. 3. Munera Gladiatoria, prize-fights, which were usually exhibited in an amphitheatre."

W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiquity, chapter 10.

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LUDI MAXIMI ROMANI.

See ROMAN CITY FESTIVAL.

LUDI SÆCULARES, The.

See SECULAR GAMES.

LUDOVICO (called Il Moro), Duke of Milan, A. D. 1494-1500.

LUDWIG.

See LOUIS.

LUGDUNENSIS AND LUGDUNUM.

See LYONS: UNDER THE ROMANS.

LUGUVALLIUM.

The Roman military station at the western extremity of the Roman wall in Britain; the site of the modern city of Carlisle.

H. M. Scarth, Roman Britain, chapter 8.

LUITPERTUS, King of the Lombards, A. D. 700-701.

LUKETIA.

See LUTETIA.

LUNA: Destruction by the Northmen.

See NORMANS: A. D. 849-860.

LUND, Battle of (1676).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1644-1697.

LUNDY, Benjamin, and the rise of the Abolitionists.

See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D. 1828-1832.

LUNDY'S LANE, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1814 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

LUNEBURG, Duchy of.

See SAXONY: THE OLD DUCHY; and A. D. 1178-1183.

LUNEBURG HEATH, Battle of (A. D. 880).

See EBBSDORF.

LUNEVILLE, The Treaty of (1801).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1801-1803.

LUPERCAL. LUPERCALIA.

The Lupercal was the wolf cave in which, according to Roman legend, the twins, Romulus and Remus, were nursed by a she-wolf. It was supposed to be situated at the foot of the Palatine Hill. "The Lupercal is described by Dionysius as having once been a large grotto, shaded with thick bushes and large trees, and containing a copious spring of water. This grotto was dedicated to Lupercus, an ancient Latin pastoral divinity, who was worshipped by shepherds as the protector of their flocks against wolves. A festival was held every year, on the 15th of February, in the Lupercal, in honour of Lupercus; the place contained an altar and a grove sacred to the god. … Gibbon tells us the festival of the Lupercalia, whose origin had preceded the foundation of Rome, was still celebrated in the reign of Anthemus, 472 A.D."

H. M. Westropp, Early and Imperial Rome, page 35.

"At the Lupercalia youths ran through the streets dressed in goats' skins, beating all those they met with strips of goats' leather."

W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 1, chapter 13.

LURIS.

See GYPSIES.

LUSIGNAN, House of.

See JERUSALEM: A. D. 1149-1187, 1192-1229, and 1291; also, CYPRUS: A. D. 1191, and 1192-1489.

LUSITANIA. LUSITANIANS.

The Lusitani or Lusitanians were the people who resisted the Roman conquest of Spain most obstinately—with even more resolution than their neighbors and kinsmen, the Celtiberians. In 153 B. C. they defeated a Roman army, which lost 6,000 men. The following year they inflicted another defeat, on the prætor Mummius, who lost 9,000 of his soldiers. Again, in 151, the prætor Galba suffered a loss of 7,000 men at their hands. But, in 150, Galba ravaged the Lusitanian country so effectually that they sued for peace. Pretending to arrange terms of friendship with them, this infamous Roman persuaded three large bands of the Lusitanians to lay down their arms, which being done he surrounded them with his troops and massacred them in cold blood. One of the few who escaped was a man named Viriathus, who became thenceforth the leader of his surviving countrymen in a guerrilla warfare which lasted for ten years, and which cost the Romans thousands of men. In the end they could not vanquish Viriathus, but basely bribed some traitors in his own camp to murder him. The Roman province which was afterwards formed out of the country of the Lusitanians, and which took their name, has been mistakenly identified with the modern kingdom of Portugal, which it coincided with only in part.

W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 6 (volume 3).

ALSO IN: H. M. Stephens, The Story of Portugal, chapter 1.

See PORTUGAL: EARLY HISTORY.

On the settlement of the Alans,

See SPAIN: A. D. 409-414.

LUSTRUM.

After the [Roman] Censors had concluded the various duties committed to their charge, they proceeded in the last place to offer up, on behalf of the whole Roman people, the great expiatory sacrifice called Lustrum, and this being offered up once only in the space of five years, the term Lustrum is frequently employed to denote that space of time. … On the day fixed, the whole body of the people were summoned to assemble in the Campus Martius in martial order (exercitus) ranked according to their Classes and Centuries, horse and foot. The victims, consisting of a sow, a sheep, and a bull, whence the sacrifice was termed Suovetaurilia, before being led to the altar, were carried thrice round the multitude, who were then held to be purified and absolved from sin, and while the immolation took place the Censor recited a set form of prayer for the preservation and aggrandizement of the Roman State."

W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiquity, chapter 5.

LUTETIA, LUKETIA, LUCOTECIA.

The beginning of the great city of Paris was represented by a small town named as above—the stronghold of the Gallic people called the Parisii—built on one of the islands in the Seine which Paris now covers and surrounds.

See PARIS, BEGINNING OF.

LUTHER, Martin, and the Reformation.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1516-1517, 1517, 1517-1521, 1521-1522, 1522-1525, 1525-1529, 1530-1531; also, GERMANY: A. D. 1530-1532.

LUTHER: On Education.

See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE: GERMANY.

LUTTER, Battle of (1626).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1624-1626.

LÜTZEN, Battle of (1632). Death of Gustavus Adolphus.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

LÜTZEN, OR GROSS GÖRSCHEN, Battle of (1813).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (APRIL-MAY).

LUXEMBURG, The House of: Its aggrandizement in the Empire, in Bohemia, Hungary, and Brandenburg.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1308-1313, and 1347-1493; also, HUNGARY: A. D. 1301-1442; and BRANDENBURG: A. D. 1168=1417.

—————LUXEMBURG: Start————

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LUXEMBURG: A. D. 1713. Ceded to Holland.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

LUXEMBURG: A. D. 1795. Siege and capture by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (JUNE-DECEMBER).

LUXEMBURG: A. D. 1867. Separated from Germany and formed into a neutral state.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866-1870.

—————LUXEMBURG: End————

LUZZARA, Battle of (1702).

See ITALY: A. D. 1701-1713.

LYCEUM, The Athenian.

See ACADEMY, THE ATHENIAN; and GYMNASIA, GREEK; also, relative to the suppression of the Lyceum, see ATHENS: A. D. 529.

LYCIAN LEAGUE, The.

"Probably the best constructed Federal Government that the ancient world beheld. The account given by Strabo, our sole authority, is so full, clear, and brief, that I cannot do better than translate it. The 'ancestral constitution of the Lykian League' is described by the great geographer in these words: 'There are three and twenty cities which have a share in the suffrage, and they come together from each city in the common Federal Assembly, choosing for their place of meeting any city which they think best. And, among the cities, the greatest are possessed of three votes apiece, the middle ones of two, and the rest of one; and in the same proportion they pay taxes, and take their share of other public burthens. … And, in the Federal Assembly, first the Lykiarch is chosen and then the other Magistrates of the League, and bodies of Federal Judges are appointed; and formerly they used to consult about war, and peace, and alliance; this now, of course, they cannot do, but these things must needs rest with the Romans.' … On the practical working of this constitution Strabo bestows the highest praise. Lykia was, in his day, a Roman dependency, but it retained its own laws and internal government."

E. A. Freeman, History of Federal Government, chapter 4, section 4.

LYCIANS, The.

The people who occupied in ancient times the extreme southern peninsula of Asia Minor. "The ancients knew of no unmixed population in this district. The Phœnicians explored the Lycian Taurus as well as the Cilician; and by land also Semitic tribes seem to have immigrated out of Syria and Cilicia; and these tribes formed the tribe of the Solymi. Another influx of population was conducted to this coast by means of the Rhodian chain of islands: men of Crete came across, who called themselves Termili or Trameli, and venerated Sarpedon as their Hero. After an arduous struggle, they gradually made themselves masters of the land encircled by sea and rock. … From the mouth of the Xanthus the Cretans entered the land. There Leto had first found a hospitable reception; in Patara, near by, arose the first great temple of Apollo, the god of light, or Lycius, with the worship of whom the inhabitants of the land became subsequently to such a degree identified as to receive themselves from the Greeks on whose coasts they landed the same name as the god, viz., Lycians. … We know that the Lycians, in courage and knowledge of the sea fully the equals of the most seafaring nation of the Archipelago, from a desire of an orderly political life, renounced at an early period the public practice of piracy, which their neighbours in Pisidia and Cilicia never relinquished. Their patriotism they proved in heroic struggles, and in the quiet of home developed a greater refinement of manners, to which the special honour in which they held the female sex bears marked testimony."

E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1).

LYCURGUS, Constitution of.

See SPARTA: THE CONSTITUTION.

LYDIANS, The.

"On the western coast of Asia Minor the nation of the Lydians, which possessed the vallies of the Hermus and Mæander, had early arrived at a monarchy and a point of civilization far in advance of the stages of primitive life. … When the Greeks forced the Phenicians from the islands of the Ægean sea, and then, about the end of the eleventh and beginning of the tenth century, B. C., landed on the western coast of Asia Minor, the Lydians were not able any more than the Teucrians and Mysians in the North, or the Carians in the South, to prevent the establishment of the Greeks on their coasts, the loss of the ancient native sanctuaries at Smyrna, Colophon, Ephesus, and the founding of Greek cities in their land on the mouths of the Lydian rivers, the Hermus and the Cayster, though the Greek emigrants came in isolated expeditions over the sea. It was on the Lydian coasts that the most important Greek cities rose: Cyme, Phocæa, Smyrna, Colophon, Ephesus. Priene, Myus, and Miletus were on the land of the Carians."

M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 4, chapter 17.

"On the basis of a population related to the Phrygians and Armenians arose the nation of the Lydians, which through its original ancestor, Lud, would appear in Eastern tradition also to be reckoned as a member of the Semitic family. As long as we remain unacquainted with the spoken and written language of the Lydians, it will be impossible to define with any accuracy the mixture of peoples which here took place. But, speaking generally, there is no doubt of the double relationship of this people, and of its consequent important place in civilization among the groups of the nations of Asia Minor. The Lydians became on land, as the Phœnicians by sea, the mediators between Hellas and Anterior Asia. … The Lydians are the first among the nations of Asia Minor of whom we have any intimate knowledge as a political community."

E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1).

The first, perhaps legendary, dynasty of Lydia, called the Atyadæ, was followed by one called the Herakleidæ by the Greeks, which is said to have ruled over 500 years. The last king of that family, Kandaules, was murdered, about B. C. 715, by Gyges, who founded the dynasty of the Mermnadæ, under whom the Lydian dominion was extended over most of Asia Minor, and its kings contended on fairly equal terms with the power of the Medes. But their monarchy was overthrown by Cyrus, B. C. 546, and the famous Crœsus, last of their line, ended his days as an attendant and counselor of the Persian king.

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapters 17 and 32.

Recent discoveries tend to the conclusion that the primitive inhabitants of Lydia were of a race to which the Hittites belonged.

A. H. Sayce, editor, Ancient Empires of the East, appendix 4.

See, also, ASIA MINOR: B. C. 724-539; and PERSIA: B. C. 549-521.

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LYGIANS, The.

"Of all the invaders of Gaul [in the reign of Probus, A. D.277] the most formidable were the Lygians, a distant people who reigned over a wide domain on the frontiers of Poland and Silesia. In the Lygian nation the Arii held the first rank by their numbers and fierceness. 'The Arii' (it is thus that they are described by the energy of Tacitus) 'study to improve by art and circumstances the innate terrors of their barbarism. Their shields are black, their bodies are painted black. They choose for the combat the darkest hour of the night.' … Yet the arms and discipline of the Romans easily discomfited these horrid phantoms. The Lygii were defeated in a general engagement, and Semno, the most renowned of their chiefs, fell alive into the hands of Probus. That prudent emperor, unwilling to reduce a brave people to despair, granted them an honourable capitulation and permitted them to return in safety to their native country. But the losses which they suffered in the march, the battle, and the retreat, broke the power of the nation; nor is the Lygian name ever repeated in the history either of Germany or of the empire."

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 12.

"Lygii appears to have been the generic name of the Slavonians on the Vistula. They are the same people as those called Lekhs by Nestor, the Russian chronicler of the twelfth century. These Lekhs are the ancestors of the Poles."

See Latham, The Germania of Tacitus, page 158.

W. Smith, Note to above, from Gibbon.

"The Ligii were a widely-spread tribe, comprehending several clans. Tacitus names the Harii [or Arii], Helvecones, Manimi, Elisii, and Nahanarvali. Their territory was between the Oder and Vistula, and would include the greater part of Poland, and probably a portion of Silesia."

Church and Brodribb, Geographical Notes to the Germany of Tacitus.

"The Elysii are supposed to have given name to Silesia."

Note to the Oxford Translation of Tacitus: Germany, chapter 43.

LYKIANS, The.

See LYCIANS.

LYMNE, in Roman times.

See PORTUS LEMANIS.

LYON, General Nathaniel: Campaign in Missouri, and death.

See MISSOURI; A. D. 1861 (FEBRUARY-JULY); and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JULY-SEPTEMBER; MISSOURI).

—————LYONS: Start————

LYONS: Under the Romans.

Minutius Plancus, Roman governor of Gallia Comata, or the Gaul of Cæsar's conquest, founded, B. C. 43, a city called Lugdunum, at the confluence of the Rhone and the Saone. A few years later, under Augustus, it was made the capital of a province to which it gave its name—Lugdunensis—and which comprised the whole of central Gaul, between the Loire and the Seine with the Armorican peninsula. In time the name Lugdunum became softened and shorn to Lyons. "Lyons, which stood on the west side of the Rhone, not so near the confluence of the Sâone as now, appears to have been settled by fugitive Romans driven out of Vienne by another party. It grew with as marvelous a rapidity as some of our western cities, for in fifteen years it swelled from a simple colony into a metropolis of considerable splendor. … Lugdun appears to have been a Keltic designation, and, as the 'g' in that speech took the sound of 'y' and 'd' was silent, we can easily see how the name became Lyon."

P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient Gaul, book 2, chapter 5, with foot-note.

"Not having originated out of a Celtic canton, and hence always with a territory of narrow limits, but from the outset composed of Italians and in possession of the full Roman franchise, it [Lyons] stood forth unique in its kind among the communities of the three Gauls—as respects its legal relations, in some measure resembling Washington in the North American federation. … Only the governor of the middle or Lugudunensian province had his seat there; but when emperors or princes stayed in Gaul they as a rule resided in Lyons. Lyons was, alongside of Carthage, the only city of the Latin half of the empire which obtained a standing garrison, after the model of that of the capital. The only mint for imperial money which we can point to with certainty, for the earlier period of the empire, is that of Lyons. Here was the headquarters of the transit-dues which embraced all Gaul; and to this as a centre the Gallic network of roads converged. … Thus Lugudunum rapidly rose into prosperity. … In the later period of the empire, no doubt, it fell behind Treves."

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 8, chapter 3.

LYONS: A. D. 500. Under the Burgundians.

See BURGUNDIANS: A. D. 500.

LYONS: 10th Century. In the kingdom of Aries.

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 843—933.

LYONS: 12th Century. The Poor Men of Lyons."

See WALDENSES.

LYONS: A. D. 1685-1698. Loss in the silk weaving industry by the Huguenot exodus.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1681-1698.

LYONS: A. D. 1793-1794. Revolt against the Revolutionary government at Paris. Siege and capture and fearful vengeance by the Terrorists.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JUNE), (JULY-DECEMBER); and 1793—1794 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

LYONS: A. D. 1795. Reaction against the Reign of Terror. The White Terror.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794-1795 (JULY-APRIL).

—————LYONS: End—————

LYONS, Battle of (A. D. 197).

See ROME: A. D. 192-284.

LYSIMACHUS, and the wars of the Diadochi.

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 323-316, to 297-280.

LYTTON, Lord, The Indian administration of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1876, 1877; and AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1869-1881.

MAARMORS.

See MORMAERS.

MACÆ, The.

See LIBYANS.

McALLISTER, Fort, The storming of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER: GEORGIA).

MACALO, Battle of (1427).

See ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.

MACBETH, King of Scotland: A. D. 1039-1054.

MACCABEES, The.

See JEWS: B. C. 166-40.

MACCIOWICE, Battle of (1794).

See POLAND: A. D. 1793-1796.

McCLELLAN, General George B. Campaign in West Virginia.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JUNE-JULY: WEST VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B: Appointment to chief command. Organization of the Army of the Potomac.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JULY-NOVEMBER).

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McCLELLAN, General George B: Protracted inaction through the winter of 1861-62.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861-1862 (DECEMBER-MARCH: VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B: Peninsular campaign.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MARCH-MAY: VIRGINIA), (JULY-AUGUST: VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B: During General Pope's campaign.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JULY-AUGUST: VIRGINIA), to (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER, VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B: Antietam Campaign, and removal from command.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (SEPTEMBER: MARYLAND); and (OCTOBER-DECEMBER: VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B: Defeat in Presidential election.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY-NOVEMBER).

MACDONALD, Marshal. Campaigns of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL), 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER); GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER); 1813 (APRIL-MAY), (AUGUST), (OCTOBER), (OCTOBER-DECEMBER); and RUSSIA: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER).

MACDONOUGH, Commodore Thomas, and his victory on Lake Champlain.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1814 (SEPTEMBER).

McDOWELL, Battle at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862. (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA).

MACE, as a symbol of authority, The.

"The club or mace, formed originally of hard wood, and the latter, subsequently either wholly or in part of metal, would naturally be adopted as one of the earliest weapons of primitive man, but it soon came to be regarded as a symbol of authority. … In the Middle Ages the mace was a common weapon with ecclesiastics, who, in consequence of their tenures, frequently took the field, but were, by a canon of the Church, forbidden to wield the sword. It strikes me as not improbable that in this custom we have the origin of the use of the mace as a symbol of authority by our cathedral and other ancient religious bodies. … In all probability its use by lay corporations may be traced to the corps of sergeants-at-mace, instituted as a body-guard both by Philip Augustus of France and our own Richard I., whilst with the Crusaders in Palestine. We learn that when the former monarch was in the Holy Land he found it necessary to secure his person from the emissaries of a sheik, called 'the Old Man of the Mountain,' who bound themselves to assassinate whomsoever he assigned. 'When the king,' says an ancient chronicler, 'heard of this he began to reflect seriously, and took counsel how he might best guard his person. He therefore instituted a guard of serjeants-à-maces who night and day were to be about his person in order to protect him.' These sergens-à-maces were 'afterwards called sergeants-at-arms, for Jean Bouteiller, … who lived in the time of Charles VI., that is, at the conclusion of the fourteenth century tells us, "The sergens d'armes are the mace-bearers that the king has to perform his duty, and who carry maces before the king; these are called sergeants-at-arms, because they are sergeants for the king's body.'" We learn further that Richard I. of England soon imitated the conduct of the French king, but he seems to have given his corps of sergeants-at-arms a more extensive power. Not only were they to watch round the king's tent in complete armour, with a mace, a sword, a bow and arrows, but were occasionally to arrest traitors and other offenders about the court, for which the mace was deemed a sufficient authority. … Hence, in all probability, was derived the custom of the chief magistrate of a municipality, who, as such, is the representative of the sovereign, being attended by his mace-bearer, as a symbol of the royal authority thus delegated to him."

W. Kelly, The Great Mace (Royal Historical Society Transactions, volume 3).

—————MACEDONIA: Start————

MACEDONIA AND MACEDONIANS, The.

"The Macedonians of the fourth century B. C. acquired, from the ability and enterprise of two successive kings, a great perfection in Greek military organization, without any of the loftier Hellenic qualities. Their career in Greece is purely destructive, extinguishing the free movement of the separate cities, and disarming the citizen-soldier to make room for the foreign mercenary whose sword was unhallowed by any feelings of patriotism—yet totally incompetent to substitute any good system of central or pacific administration. But the Macedonians of the seventh and sixth centuries B. C. are an aggregate only of rude inland tribes, subdivided into distinct petty principalities, and separated from the Greeks by a wider ethnical difference even than the Epirots; since Herodotus, who considers the Epirotic Molossians and Thesprotians as children of Hellen, decidedly thinks the contrary respecting the Macedonians. In the main, however, they seem at this early period analogous to the Epirots in character and civilization. They had some few towns, but they were chiefly village residents, extremely brave and pugnacious. … The original seats of the Macedonians were in the regions east of the chain of Skardus (the northerly continuation of Pindus)—north of the chain called the Cambunian mountains, which connects Olympus with Pindus, and which forms the north-western boundary of Thessaly; but they did not reach so far eastward as the Thermaic Gulf. … The Macedonian language was different from Illyrian, from Thracian, and seemingly also from Pæonian. It was also different from Greek, yet apparently not more widely distinct than that of the Epirots; so that the acquisition of Greek was comparatively easy to the chiefs and people. … The large and comparatively productive region covered by the various sections of Macedonians, helps to explain that increase of ascendency which they successively acquired over all their neighbours. It was not however until a late period that they became united under one government. At first, each section—how many we do not know—had its own prince or chief. The Elymiots, or inhabitants of Elymeia, the southernmost portion of Macedonia, were thus originally distinct and independent; also the Orestæ, in mountain-seats somewhat north-west of the Elymiots. … The section of the Macedonian name who afterwards swallowed up all the rest and became known as 'The Macedonians' had their original centre at Ægæ or Edessa—the lofty, commanding and picturesque site of the modern Vodhena."

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 25 (volume 3).

MACEDONIA: B. C. 508. Subjection to Persia.

See PERSIA: B. C. 521-493.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 383-379. Overthrow of the Olynthian Confederacy by Sparta.

See GREECE: B. C. 383-379.

{2058}

MACEDONIA: B. C. 359-358. Accession and first proceedings of King Philip. His acquisition of Amphipolis.

See GREECE: B. C. 359-358.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 353-336. Philip's conquest of Thessaly. Intervention in the Sacred War. Victory at Chæronea. Mastery of Greece. Preparation to invade Persia. Assassination.

See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 351-348. War with the Olynthian Confederacy. Destruction of Olynthus.

See GREECE: B. C. 351-348.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 340. Philip's unsuccessful siege of Byzantium.

See GREECE: B. C. 340.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 336-335. Alexander's campaigns at the north. Revolt and destruction of Thebes.

See GREECE: B. C. 336-335.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 334-330. Invasion and conquest of the Persian empire by Alexander the Great.

Philip of Macedonia fell under the hand of an assassin in the midst of his preparations (B. C. 336) for the invasion of the Persian Empire. He was succeeded by his son, Alexander, who applied himself first, with significant energy, to the chastisement of the troublesome barbarians on his northern frontier, and to the crushing of revolt in Greece (see GREECE: B. C. 336-335). He had not yet been a year on the throne "when he stood forth a greater and more powerful sovereign than his father, with his empire united in the bonds of fear and admiration, and ready to carry out the long premeditated attack of the Greeks on the dominion of the Great king. … He had indeed a splendid army of all branches, heavy infantry, light infantry, slingers and archers, artillery such as the ancients could produce without gunpowder, and cavalry, both Thessalian and Macedonian, fit for both skirmishing and the shock of battle. If its numbers were not above 40,000, this moderate force was surely as much as any commander could handle in a rapid campaign with long marches through a hostile country. … After a Homeric landing on the coast near Ilium, and sacrifices to the Ilian goddess at her ancient shrine, with feasts and games, the king started East to meet the Persian satraps, who had collected their cavalry and Greek mercenary infantry on the plain of Zeleia, behind the river Granicus (B. C. 334). Here he fought his first great battle, and showed the nature of his tactics. He used his heavy infantry, divided into two columns or phalanxes as his left wing, flanked by Thessalian cavalry, to threaten the right of the enemy, and keep him engaged while he delivered his main attack. Developing this movement by a rapid advance in echelonned squadrons thrown forward to the right, threatening to outflank the enemy, he induced them to spread their forces towards their left wing, and so weaken their left centre. No sooner had he succeeded in this than he threw his heavy cavalry on this weak point, and after a very severe struggle in crossing the river, and climbing its rugged banks, he completely broke the enemy's line. … He did not strike straight into Asia, for this would have left it possible for Mentor and Memnon, the able Rhodians who commanded on the coast for Darius, either to have raised all Asia Minor against him, or to have transferred the war back to Macedon. … So then he seized Sardis, the key of all the highroads eastwards; he laid siege to Halicarnassus, which made a very long and stubborn resistance, and did not advance till he had his rear safe from attack. Even with all these precautions, the Persian fleet, under Memnon, was producing serious difficulties, and had not that able general died at the critical moment (B. C. 333), the Spartan revolt, which was put down the following year in Greece, would have assumed serious proportions. Alexander now saw that he could press on, and strike at the headquarters of the enemies' power—Phœnicia and the Great king himself. He crossed the difficult range of the Taurus, the southern bulwark of the Persian Empire, and occupied Cilicia. Even the sea was supposed to have retreated to allow his army to pass along a narrow strand under precipitous cliffs. The Great king was awaiting him with a vast army—grossly exaggerated, moreover, in our Greek accounts—in the plain of Syria, near Damascus. Foolish advisers persuaded him, owing to some delay in Alexander's advance, to leave his favourable position, where the advantage of his hosts of cavalry was clear. He therefore actually crossed Alexander, who had passed on the sea side of Mount Amanus, southward, and occupied Issus on his rear. The Macedonian army was thus cut off from home, and a victory necessary to its very existence. The great battle of Issus was fought on such narrow ground, between the sea and the mountains, that neither side had room for outflanking its opponent, except by occupying the high ground on the inland side of the plain (B. C. 333). This was done by the Persians, and the banks of a little river (the Pinarus) crossing their front were fortified as at the Granicus. Alexander was obliged to advance with a large reserve to protect his right flank. As usual he attacked with his right centre, and as soon as he had shaken the troops opposed to him, wheeled to the left, and made straight for the king himself, who occupied the centre in his chariot. Had Darius withstood him bravely and for some time, the defeat of the Macedonians' left wing would probably have been complete, for the Persian cavalry on the coast, attacking the Thessalians on Alexander's left wing, were decidedly superior, and the Greek infantry was at this time a match for the phalanx. But the flight of Darius, and the panic which ensued about him, left Alexander leisure to turn to the assistance of his hard-pressed left wing, and recover the victory. … The greatness of this victory completely paralyzed all the revolt prepared in his rear by the Persian fleet. Alexander was now strong enough to go on without any base of operation, and he boldly (in the manifesto he addressed to Darius after the battle) proclaimed himself King of' Persia by right of conquest, who would brook no equal. Nevertheless, he delayed many months (which the siege of Tyre [see TYRE: B. C. 332] cost him, B. C. 332), and then, passing through Jerusalem, and showing consideration for the Jews, he again paused at the siege of Gaza [see GAZA: B. C. 332], merely, we may suppose, to prove that he was invincible, and to settle once for all the question of the world's mastery. He delayed again for a short while in Egypt [see EGYPT: B. C. 332], when he regulated the country as a province under his sway, with kindness towards the inhabitants, and respect for their religion, and founded Alexandria; nay, he even here made his first essay in claiming divinity; and then, at last, set out to conquer the Eastern provinces of Darius' empire. {2059} The great decisive battle in the plains of Mesopotamia (B. C. 331)—it is called either Arbela or Gaugamela—was spoken of as a trial of strength, and the enormous number of the Persian cavalry, acting on open ground, gave timid people room to fear; but Alexander had long since found out, what the British have found in their many Eastern wars, that even a valiant cavalry is helpless, if undisciplined, against an army of regulars under a competent commander. … The Macedonian had again, however, failed to capture his opponent, for which he blamed Parmenio. … So then, though the issue of the war was not doubtful, there was still a real and legitimate rival to the throne, commanding the sympathies of most of his subjects. For the present, however, Alexander turned his attention to occupying the great capitals of the Persian empire—capitals of older kingdoms, embodied in the empire. … These great cities, Babylon in Mesopotamia, Susa (Shushan) in Elam, Persepolis in Persia proper, and Ecbatana in Media, were all full of ancient wealth and splendour, adorned with great palaces, and famed for monstrous treasures. The actual amount of gold and silver seized in these hoards (not less than £30,000,000 of English money, and perhaps a great deal more) had a far larger effect on the world than the discovery of gold and silver mines in recent times. Every adventurer in the army became suddenly rich; all the means and materials for luxury which the long civilization of the East had discovered and employed, were suddenly thrown into the hands of comparatively rude and even barbarous soldiers. It was a prey such as the Spaniards found in Mexico and Peru, but had a far stronger civilization, which must react upon the conquerors. And already Alexander showed clear signs that he regarded himself as no mere Macedonian or Greek king, but as the Emperor of the East, and successor in every sense of the unfortunate Darius. He made superhuman efforts to overtake Darius in his retreat from Ecbatana through the Parthian passes to the northern provinces—Balkh and Samarcand. The narrative of this famous pursuit is as wonderful as anything in Alexander's campaign. He only reached the fleeing Persian as he was dying of the wounds dealt him by the traitor Bessus, his satrap in Bactria, who had aspired to the crown (B. C. 330). Alexander signally executed the regicide, and himself married the daughter of Darius—who had no son—thus assuming, as far as possible, the character of Darius' legitimate successor."

J. P. Mahaffy, The Story of Alexander's Empire, chapters 2-3.

ALSO IN: C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapters 49-50 (volume 6).

E. S. Creasy, Fifteen Decisive Battles: Arabela.

T. A. Dodge, Alexander, chapters 18-31.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 330-323. Alexander's conquest of Afghanistan, Bactria and Sogdiana. His invasion of India. His death at Babylon. His character and aims.

"After reducing the country at the south of the Caspian, Alexander marched east and south, through what is now Persia and Afghanistan. On his way he founded the colony of Alexandria Arion, now Herat, an important military position on the western border of Afghanistan. At Prophthasia (Furrah), a little further south, he stayed two months. … Thence he went on eastwards and founded a city, said to be the modern Candahar, and then turned north and crossed the Hindo Koosh mountains, founding another colony near what is now Cabul. Bessus had intended to resist Alexander in Bactria (Balkh), but he fled northwards, and was taken and put to death. Alexander kept on marching northwards, and took Mara Kanda, now Samarcand, the capital of Bokhara (B. C. 329). He crossed the river Jaxartes (Sir), running into the sea of Aral, and defeated the Scythians beyond it, but did not penetrate their country. He intended the Jaxartes to be the northern frontier of his empire. … The conquest of Sogdiana (Bokhara) gave Alexander some trouble, and occupied him till the year B. C. 327. In B. C. 327 Alexander set out from Bactria to conquer India [see INDIA: B. C. 327-312]. … Alexander was as eager for discovery as for conquest; and from the mouth of the Indus he sent his fleet, under the admiral Nearchus, to make their way along the coast to the mouth of the Euphrates. He himself marched westwards with the army through the deserts of Beloochistan, and brought them after terrible sufferings, through thirst, disease, and fatigue, again to Persepolis (B. C. 324). From this he went to Susa, where he stayed some months, investigating the conduct of his satraps, and punishing some of them severely. Since the battle of Arbela, Alexander had become more and more like a Persian king in his way of living, although he did not allow it to interfere with his activity. He dressed in the Persian manner, and took up the ceremonies of the Persian court. The soldiers were displeased at his giving up the habits of Macedonia, and at Susa he provoked them still more by making eighty of his chief officers marry Persian wives. The object of Alexander was to break down distinctions of race and country in his empire, and to abolish the great gulf that there had hitherto been between the Greeks and the Asiatics. He also enrolled many Persians in the regiments which had hitherto contained none but Macedonians, and levied 30,000 troops from the most warlike districts of Asia, whom he armed in the Macedonian manner. Since the voyage of Nearchus, Alexander had determined on an expedition against Arabia by sea, and had given orders for ships to be built in Phœnicia, and then taken to pieces and carried by land to Thapsakus on the Euphrates. At Thapsakus they were to be put together again, and so make their way to Babylon, from which the expedition was to start. In the spring of B. C. 323, Alexander set out from Susa for Babylon. On his journey he was met by embassies from nearly all the States of the known world. At Babylon he found the ships ready: fresh troops had arrived, both Greek and Asiatic; and the expedition was on the point of starting, when Alexander was seized with fever and died (June, B. C. 323). He was only thirty-two years old."

C. A. Fyffe, History of Greece (Primer), chapter 7.

"Three great battles and several great sieges made Alexander master of the Persian empire. And it is worth remark that the immediate results of the three battles, Granikos, Issos, and Gaugamela, coincide with lasting results in the history of the world. The victory of the Granikos made Alexander master of Asia Minor, of a region which in the course of a few centuries was thoroughly hellenized, and which remained Greek, Christian, and Orthodox, down to the Turkish invasions of the 11th century. {2060} The territory which Alexander thus won, the lands from the Danube to Mount Tauros, answered very nearly to the extent of the Byzantine Empire for several centuries, and it might very possibly have been ruled by him, as it was in Byzantine times, from an European centre. The field of Issos gave him Syria and Egypt, lands which the Macedonian and the Roman kept for nearly a thousand years, and which for ages contained, in Alexandria and Antioch, the two greatest of Grecian cities. But Syria and Egypt themselves never became Greek; when they became Christian, they failed to become Orthodox, and they fell away at the first touch of the victorious Saracen. Their government called for an Asiatic or Egyptian capital, but their ruler might himself still have remained European and Hellenic. His third triumph at Gaugamela gave him the possession of the whole East; but it was but a momentary possession: he had now pressed onward into lands where neither Grecian culture, Roman dominion, nor Christian theology proved in the end able to strike any lasting root. … He had gone too far for his original objects. Lasting possession of his conquests beyond the Tigris could be kept only in the character of King of the Medes and Persians. Policy bade him put on that character. We can also fully believe that he was himself really dazzled with the splendour of his superhuman success. … His own deeds had outdone those which were told of any of his divine forefathers or their comrades; Achilleus, Herakles, Theseus, Dionysos, had done and suffered less than Alexander. Was it then wonderful that he should seriously believe that one who had outdone their acts must come of a stock equal to their own? Was it wonderful if, not merely in pride or policy, but in genuine faith, he disclaimed a human parent in Philip, and looked for the real father of the conqueror and lord of earth in the conqueror and lord of the heavenly world? We believe then that policy, passion, and genuine superstition were all joined together in the demand which Alexander made for divine, or at least for unusual, honours. He had taken the place of the Great King, and he demanded the homage which was held to be due to him who held that place. Such homage his barbarian' subjects were perfectly ready to pay; they would most likely have had but little respect for a king who forgot to call for it. But the homage which to a Persian seemed only the natural expression of respect for the royal dignity, seemed to Greeks and Macedonians an invasion of the honour due only to the immortal Gods. … He not only sent round to all the cities of Greece to demand divine honours, which were perhaps not worth refusing, but he ordered each city to bring back its political exiles. This last was an interference with the internal government of the cities which certainly was not warranted by Alexander's position as head of the Greek Confederacy. And, in other respects also, from this unhappy time all the worst failings of Alexander become more strongly developed. … The unfulfilled designs of Alexander must ever remain in darkness; no man can tell what might have been done by one of such mighty powers who was cut off at so early a stage of his career. That he looked forward to still further conquests seems beyond doubt. The only question is, Did his conquests, alike those which were won and those which were still to be won, spring from mere ambition and love of adventure, or is he to be looked on as in any degree the intentional missionary of Hellenic culture? That such he was is set forth with much warmth and some extravagance in a special treatise of Plutarch; it is argued more soberly, but with true vigour and eloquence, in the seventh volume of Bishop Thirlwall. Mr. Grote denies him all merit of the kind."

E. A. Freeman, Alexander (Historical Essays, series 2).

ALSO IN: C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapters 51-55 (volumes 6-7).

MACEDONIA: B. C. 323-322. Revolt in Greece. The Lamian War. Subjugation of Athens.

See GREECE: B. C. 323-322.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 323-316. The Partition of the Empire of Alexander. First Period of the Wars of the Diadochi or Successors of Alexander.

Alexander "left his wife Roxana pregnant, who at the end of three months brought into the world the rightful heir to the sceptre, Alexander; he left likewise an illegitimate son, Hercules; a bastard half-brother, Arrhidæus; his mother, the haughty and cruel Olympias, and a sister, Cleopatra, both widows; the artful Eurydice, (daughter to Cyane, one of Philip's sisters,) subsequently married to the king, Arrhidæus; and Thessalonica, Philip's daughter, afterwards united to Cassander of Macedonia. The weak Arrhidæus, under the name of Philip, and the infant Alexander, were at last proclaimed kings, the regency being placed in the hands of Perdiccas, Leonnatus, and Meleager; the last of whom was quickly cut off at the instigation of Perdiccas." The provinces of the Empire which Alexander had conquered were now divided between the generals of his army, who are known in history as the Diadochi, that is, the Successors. The division was as follows: "Ptolemy son of Lagus received Egypt [see EGYPT: B. C. 323-30]; Leonnatus, Mysia; Antigonus, Phyrgia, Lycia, and Pamphylia; Lysymachus, Macedonian Thrace; Antipater and Craterus remained in possession of Macedonia. … The remaining provinces either did not come under the new division [see SELEUCIDAE], or else their governors are unworthy of notice,"

A. H. L. Heeren, Manual of Ancient History, page 222.

Meantime, "the body of Alexander lay unburied and neglected, and it was not until two years after his death that his remains were consigned to the tomb. But his followers still shewed their respect for his memory by retaining the feeble Arrhidæus on the throne, and preventing the marriage of Perdiccas with Cleopatra, the daughter of Philip; a union which manifestly was projected to open a way to the throne. But while this project of marriage occupied the attention of the regent, a league had secretly been formed for his destruction; and the storm burst forth from a quarter whence it was least expected. … The barbarous tribes of the Cappadocians and Paphlagonians … asserted their independence after the death of Alexander, and chose Ariarathes for their leader. Perdiccas sent against them Eumenes, who had hitherto fulfilled the peaceful duties of a secretary; and sent orders to Antigonus and Leonatns, the governors of Western Asia, to join the expedition with all their forces. These commands were disobeyed; and Perdiccas was forced to march with the royal army against the insurgents. He easily defeated these undisciplined troops, but sullied his victory by unnecessary cruelty. {2061} On his return he summoned the satraps of Western Asia to appear before his tribunal, and answer for their disobedience. Antigonus, seeing his danger, entered into a league with Ptolemy the satrap of Egypt, Antipater the governor of Macedon, and several other noblemen, to crush the regency. Perdiccas, on the other hand, leaving Eumenes to guard Lower Asia, marched with the choicest divisions of the royal army against Ptolemy, whose craft and ability he dreaded even more than his power. Antipater and Craterus were early in the field; they crossed the Hellespont with the army that had been left for the defence of Macedon. … Seduced by … false information, they divided their forces; Antipater hastening through Phrygia in pursuit of Perdiccas, while Craterus and Neoptolemus marched against Eumenes. They encountered him in the Trojan plain, and were completely defeated. … Eumenes sent intelligence of his success to Perdiccas; but two days before the messenger reached the royal camp the regent was no more. His army, wearied by the long siege of Pelusium, became dissatisfied; their mutinous dispositions were secretly encouraged by the emissaries of Ptolemy … and Perdiccas was murdered in his tent (B. C. 321). … In the meantime a brief struggle for independence had taken place in Greece, which is commonly called the Lamian war [see GREECE: B. C. 323-322]. … As soon as Ptolemy had been informed of the murder of Perdiccas, he came to the royal army with a large supply of wine and provisions. His kindness and courteous manners so won upon these turbulent soldiers, that they unanimously offered him the regency; but he had the prudence to decline so dangerous an office. On his refusal, the feeble Arrhidæus and the traitor Python were appointed to the regency, just as the news arrived of the recent victory of Eumenes. This intelligence filled the royal army with indignation. … They hastily passed a vote proclaiming Eumenes and his adherents public enemies. … The advance of an army to give effect to these decrees was delayed by a new revolution. Eurydice, the wife of Arrhidæus, a woman of great ambition and considerable talent for intrigue, wrested the regency from her feeble husband and Python, but was stripped of power on the arrival of Antipater, who reproached the Macedonians for submitting to the government of a woman; and, being ably supported by Antigonus and Seleucus, obtained for himself the office of regent. No sooner had Antipater been invested with supreme power than he sent Arrhidæus and Eurydice prisoners to Pella, and entrusted the conduct of the war against Eumenes to the crafty and ambitious Antigonus. … Eumenes was unable to cope with the forces sent against him; having been defeated in the open field, he took shelter in Nora, a Cappadocian city, and maintained a vigorous defence, rejecting the many tempting offers by which Antigonus endeavoured to win him to the support of his designs (B. C. 318). The death of Antipater produced a new revolution in the empire; and Eumenes in the meantime escaped from Nora, accompanied by his principal friends. … Antipater, at his death, bequeathed the regency to Polysperchon, excluding his son Cassander from power on account of his criminal intrigues with the wicked and ambitious Eurydice. Though a brave general, Polysperchon had not the qualifications of a statesman; he provoked the powerful resentment of Antigonus by entering into a close alliance with Eumenes; and he permitted Cassander to strengthen himself in southern Greece, where he seized the strong fortress of Munychia. … Polysperchon, unable to drive Cassander from Attica, entered the Peloponnesus to punish the Arcadians, and engaged in a fruitless siege of Megalopolis. In the meantime Olympias, to whom he had confided the government of Macedon, seized Arrhidæus and Eurydice, whom she had murdered in prison. Cassander hasted, at the head of all his forces, to avenge the death of his mistress: Olympias, unable to meet him in the field, fled to Pydna; but the city was forced to surrender after a brief defence, and Olympias was immediately put to death. Among the captives were Roxana the widow, Alexander Ægus the posthumous son, and Thessalonica the youngest daughter, of Alexander the Great. Cassander sought and obtained the hand of the latter princess, and thus consoled himself for the loss of his beloved Eurydice. By this marriage he acquired such influence, that Polysperchon did not venture to return home, but continued in the Peloponnesus, where he retained for some time a shadow of authority over the few Macedonians who still clung to the family of Alexander. In Asia, Eumenes maintained the royal cause against Antigonus, though deserted by all the satraps, and harassed by the mutinous dispositions of his troops, especially the Argyraspides, a body of guards that Alexander had raised to attend his own person, and presented with the silver shields from which they derived their name. After a long struggle, both armies joined in a decisive engagement; the Argyraspides broke the hostile infantry, but learning that their baggage had in the meantime been captured by the light troops of the enemy, they mutinied in the very moment of victory, and delivered their leader, bound with his own sash, into the hands of his merciless enemy (B. C. 315). The faithful Eumenes was put to death by the traitorous Antigonus; but he punished the Argyraspides for their treachery."

W. C. Taylor, The Student's Manual of Ancient History, chapter 11, section 3.

ALSO IN: P. Smith, History of the World: Ancient, chapter 17 (volume 2).

G. Grote, History of Greece, chapter 96 (volume 12).

See, also, GREECE: B. C. 321-312.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 315-310. The first league and war against Antigonus. Extermination of the heirs of Alexander.

"Antigonus was now unquestionably the most powerful of the successors of Alexander the Great. As master of Asia, he ruled over those vast and rich lands that extended from India to the Mediterranean Sea. … Although nearly seventy years old, and blind in one eye, he still preserved the vigor of his forces. … He was fortunate in being assisted by a son, the famous Demetrius, who, though possessed of a very passionate nature, yet from early youth displayed wonderful military ability. Above all, the prominent representatives of the royal family had disappeared, and there remained only the youthful Alexander, Herakles, the illegitimate son of Alexander the Great, who had no lawful claim whatever to the sovereignty, and two daughters of Philip, Kleopatra, who lived at Sardis, and Thessalonike, whom Kassander had recently married—none of whom were sufficiently strong to assert their rights to the throne. {2062} Thus Antigonus seemed indeed destined to become vicar and master of the entire Alexandrian kingdom, and to restore the unity of the empire. But not only was this union not realized, but even the great realm which Antigonus had established in Asia was doomed to inevitable destruction. The generals who possessed the various satrapies of the empire could not bear his supremacy, and accordingly entered into a convention, which gradually ripened into an active alliance against him. The principal organ of this movement was Seleukus, who, having escaped to Ptolemy of Egypt, first of all persuaded the latter to form an alliance—which Kassander of Macedonia and Lysimachus of Thrace readily joined—against the formidable power of Antigonus. The war lasted for four years, and was carried on in Asia, Europe, and Africa. Its fortunes were various [the most noteworthy event being a bloody defeat inflicted upon Demetrius the son of Antigonus, by Ptolemy, at Gaza, in 312], but the result was not decisive. … In 311 B. C. a compact was made between Antigonus on one side, and Kassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus on the other, whereby 'the supreme command in Europe was guaranteed to Kassander, until the maturity of Alexander, son of Roxana; Thrace being at the same time assured to Lysimachus, Egypt to Ptolemy, and the whole of Asia to Antigonus. It was at the same time covenanted by all that the Hellenic cities should be free.' Evidently this peace contained the seeds of new disputes and increasing jealousies. The first act of Kassander was to cause the death of Roxana and her child in the fortress of Amphipolis, where they had been confined; and thus disappeared forever the only link which apparently maintained the union of the empire, and a ready career now lay open to the ambition of the successors. Again, the name of Seleukus was not even mentioned in the peace, while it was well known at the time it was concluded that he had firmly established his rule over the eastern satrapies of Asia. … The troops also of Antigonus, notwithstanding the treaty, still remained in Hellas, under command of his nephew Ptolemy. Ptolemy of Egypt, therefore, accusing Antigonus of having contravened the treaty by garrisoning various Hellenic cities, renewed the war and the triple alliance against him." A series of assassinations soon followed, which put out of the way the young prince Herakles, bastard son of Alexander the Great, and Kleopatra, the sister of Alexander, who was preparing to wed Ptolemy of Egypt when Antigonus brought about her murder, to prevent the marriage. Another victim of the jealousies that were rife among the Diadochi was Antigonus' nephew Ptolemy, who had deserted his uncle's side, but who was killed by the Egyptian Ptolemy. "For more than ten years … Antigonus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Kassander successively promised to leave the Greeks independent, free, and unguarded; but the latter never ceased to be guarded, taxed, and ruled by Macedonian despots. We may, indeed, say that the cities of Hellas never before had suffered so much as during the time when such great promises were made about their liberty. The Ætolians alone still possessed their independence. Rough, courageous, warlike, and fond of freedom, they continued fighting against the Macedonian rule."

T. T. Timayenis, History of Greece, part 9, chapter 5 (volume 2).

ALSO IN: J. P. Mahaffy, Story of Alexander's Empire, chapters 5-6.

[Image: Four maps of the Empire of Alexander the Great and his successors.]

MACEDONIA: B. C. 310-301. Demetrius Poliorcetes at Athens. His siege of Rhodes. The last combination against Antigonus. His defeat and death at Ipsus. Partition of his dominions.

After the war which was renewed in 310 B. C. had lasted three years, "Antigonus' resolved to make a vigorous effort to wrest Greece from the hands of Cassander and Ptolemy, who held all the principal towns in it. Accordingly, in the summer of 307 B. C., he despatched his son Demetrius from Ephesus to Athens, with a fleet of 250 sail, and 5,000 talents in money. Demetrius, who afterwards obtained the surname of 'Poliorcetes,' or 'Besieger of Cities,' was a young man of ardent temperament and great abilities. Upon arriving at the Piræus, he immediately proclaimed the object of his expedition to be the liberation of Athens and the expulsion of the Macedonian garrison. Supported by the Macedonians, Demetrius the Phalerean had now ruled Athens for a period of more than ten years. … During the first period of his administration he appears to have governed wisely and equitably, to have improved the Athenian laws, and to have adorned the city with useful buildings. But in spite of his pretensions to philosophy, the possession of uncontrolled power soon altered his character for the worse, and he became remarkable for luxury, ostentation, und sensuality. Hence he gradually lost the popularity which he had once enjoyed. … The Athenians heard with pleasure the proclamations of the son of Antigonus; his namesake, the Phalerean, was obliged to surrender the city to him, and to close his political career by retiring to Thebes. … Demetrius Poliorcetes then formally announced to the Athenian assembly the restoration of their ancient constitution, and promised them a large donative of corn and ship-timber. This munificence was repaid by the Athenians with the basest and most abject flattery

See GREECE: B. C. 307-197.

… Demetrius Poliorcetes did not remain long at Athens. Early in 306 B. C. he was recalled by his father, and, sailing to Cyprus, undertook the siege of Salamis. Ptolemy hastened to its relief with 140 vessels and 10,000 troops. The battle that ensued was one of the most memorable in the annals of ancient naval warfare, more particularly on account of the vast size of the vessels engaged. Ptolemy was completely defeated; and so important was the victory deemed by Antigonus, that on the strength of it he assumed the title of king, which he also conferred upon his son. This example was followed by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus. Encouraged by their success at Cyprus, Antigonus and Demetrius made a vain attempt upon Egypt, which, however, proved a disastrous failure. By way of revenge, Demetrius undertook an expedition against Rhodes, which had refused its aid in the attack upon Ptolemy. It was from the memorable siege of Rhodes that Demetrius obtained his name of Poliorcetes. … After a year spent in the vain attempt to take the town, Demetrius was forced to retire and grant the Rhodians peace.

See RHODES: B. C. 305-304.

{2063}

Whilst Demetrius was thus employed, Cassander had made great progress in reducing Greece. He had taken Corinth, and was besieging Athens, when Demetrius entered the Euripus. Cassander immediately raised the siege, and was subsequently defeated in an action near Thermopylae. When Demetrius entered Athens he was received as before with the most extravagant flatteries. He remained two or three years in Greece, during which his superiority over Cassander was decided, though no great battle was fought. In the spring of 301 B. C. he was recalled by his father Antigonus, who stood in need of his assistance against Lysimachus and Seleucus. In the course of the same year the struggle between Antigonus and his rivals was brought to a close by the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in which Antigonus was killed, and his army completely defeated. Antigonus had attained the age of 81 at the time of his death. Demetrius retreated with the remnant of the army to Ephesus, whence he sailed to Cyprus, and afterwards proposed to go to Athens; but the Athenians, alienated by his ill-fortune at Ipsus, refused to receive him."

W. Smith, History of Greece, chapter 45.

"After the battle [of Ipsus] it remained for the conquerors to divide the spoil. The dominions of Antigonus were actually in the hands of Seleucus and Lysimachus, and they alone had achieved the victory. It does not appear that they consulted either of their allies on the partition, though it seems that they obtained the assent of Cassander. They agreed to share all that Antigonus had possessed between themselves. It is not clear on what principle the line of demarcation was drawn, nor is it possible to trace it. But the greater part of Asia Minor was given to Lysimachus. The portion of Seleucus included not only the whole country between the coast of Syria and the Euphrates, but also, it seems, a part of Phrygia and of Cappadocia. Cilicia was assigned to Cassander's brother Pleistarchus. With regard to Syria however a difficulty remained. The greater part of it had … been conquered by Ptolemy: Tyre and Sidon alone were still occupied by the garrisons of Antigonus. Ptolemy had at least as good a right as his ally to all that he possessed. … Seleucus however began to take possession of it, and when Ptolemy pressed his claims returned an answer, mild in sound, but threatening in its import … : and it appears that Ptolemy was induced to withdraw his opposition. There were however also some native princes [Ardoates in Armenia, and Mithridates, son of Ariobarzanes, in Pontus—see MITHRIDATIC WARS] who had taken advantage of the contests between the Macedonian chiefs to establish their authority over extensive territories in the west of Asia. … So far as regards Asia, the battle of Ipsus must be considered as a disastrous event. Not because it transferred the power of Antigonus into different hands, nor because it would have been more desirable that he should have triumphed over Seleucus. But the new distribution of territory led to calamitous consequences, which might perhaps otherwise have been averted. If the empire of Seleucus had remained confined between the Indus and the Euphrates, it might have subsisted much longer, at least, as a barrier against the inroads of the barbarians, who at last obliterated all the traces of European civilisation left there by Alexander and his successors. But shortly after his victory, Seleucus founded his new capital on the Orontes, called, after his father, Antiochia, peopling it with the inhabitants of Antigonia. It became the residence of his dynasty, and grew, while their vast empire dwindled into the Syrian monarchy. For the prospects of Greece, on the other hand, the fall of Antigonus must clearly be accounted an advantage, so far as the effect was to dismember his territory, and to distribute it so that the most powerful of his successors was at the greatest distance. It was a gain that Macedonia was left an independent kingdom, within its ancient limits, and bounded on the north by a state of superior strength. It does not appear that any compact was made between Cassander and his allies as to the possession of Greece. It was probably understood that he should keep whatever he might acquire there."

C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapter 59 (volume 7).

ALSO IN: B. G. Niebuhr, Lectures on Ancient History, lectures 86-87 (volume 3).

MACEDONIA: B. C. 297-280. Death of Casander. Intrigues of Ptolemy Keraunos. Overthrow and death of Lysimachus. Abdication and death of Ptolemy. Murder of Seleucus. Seizure of the Macedonian crown by Keraunos.

"Casander died of disease (a rare end among this seed of dragon's teeth) in 297 B. C., and so the Greeks were left to assert their liberty, and Demetrius to machinate and effect his establishment on the throne of Macedonia, as well as to keep the world in fear and suspense by his naval forces, and his preparations to reconquer his father's position. Lysimachus, Seleucus, and Ptolemy were watching one another, and alternating in alliance and in war. All these princes, as well as Demetrius and Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, were connected in marriage; they all married as many wives as they pleased, apparently without remonstrance from their previous consorts. So the whole complex of the warring kings were in close family relations. … Pyrrhus was now a very rising and ambitions prince; if not in alliance with Demetrius, he was striving to extend his kingdom of Epirus into Macedonia, and would doubtless have succeeded, but for the superior power of Lysimachus. This Thracian monarch, in spite of serious reverses against the barbarians of the North, who took both him and his son prisoners, and released them very chivalrously, about this time possessed a solid and secure kingdom, and moreover an able and righteous son, Agathocles, so that his dynasty might have been established, but for the poisonous influence of Arsinoe, the daughter of Ptolemy, whom he, an old man, had married in token of an alliance after the battle of Ipsus. … The family quarrel which upset the world arose in this wise. To seal the alliance after Ipsus, old king Ptolemy sent his daughter Arsinoe to marry his rival and friend Lysimachus, who, on his side, had sent his daughter, another Arsinoe, in marriage to the younger Ptolemy (Philadelphus). This was the second son of the great Ptolemy, who had chosen him for the throne in preference to his eldest son, Keraunos, a man of violent and reckless character, who accordingly left the country, and went to seek his fortune at foreign courts. Meanwhile the old Ptolemy, for safety's sake, installed his second son as king of Egypt during his own life, and abdicated at the age of 83 [B. C. 283], full of honours, nor did he leave the court, where he appeared as a subject before his son as king. Keraunos naturally visited, in the first instance, the Thracian court, where he not only had a half sister (Arsinoe) queen, but where his full sister, Lysandra, was married to the crown prince, the gallant and popular Agathocles; but Keraunos and the queen conspired against this prince; they persuaded old Lysimachus that he was a traitor, and so Keraunos was directed to put him to death. {2064} This crime caused unusual excitement and odium all through the country, and the relations and party of the murdered prince called on Seleucus to avenge him. He did so, and advanced with an army against Lysimachus, whom he defeated and slew in a great battle, somewhere not far from the field of Ipsus. It was called the plain of Coron (B. C. 281). Thus died the last but one of Alexander's Companions, at the age of 80, he, too, in battle. Ptolemy was already laid in his peaceful grave (B. C. 283). There remained the last and greatest, the king of Asia, Seleucus. He, however, gave up all his Asiatic possessions from the Hellespont to the Indus to his son Antiochus, and meant to spend his last years in the home of his fathers, Macedonia; but as he was entering that kingdom he was murdered by Keraunos, whom he brought with him in his train. This bloodthirsty adventurer was thus left with an army which had no leader, in a kingdom which had no king; for Demetrius' son, Antigonus, the strongest claimant, had not yet made good his position. All the other kings, whose heads were full with their newly acquired sovereignties, viz., Antiochus in Asia and Ptolemy II. in Egypt, joined with Keraunos in buying off the dangerous Pyrrhus [king of Epirus—see ROME: B. C. 282-275], by bribes of men, money, and elephants, to make his expedition to Italy, and leave them to settle their affairs. The Greek cities, as usual, when there was a change of sovereign in Macedonia, rose and asserted what they were pleased to call their liberty, so preventing Antigonus from recovering his father's dominions. Meanwhile Keraunos established himself in Macedonia; he even, like our Richard, induced the queen, his step-sister, his old accomplice against Agathocles, to marry him! but it was only to murder her children by Lysimachus, the only dangerous claimants to the Thracian provinces. The wretched queen fled to Samothrace, and thence to Egypt, where she ended her guilty and chequered career as queen of her full brother Ptolemy II. (Philadelphus), and was deified during her life! Such then was the state of Alexander's Empire in 280 B. C. All the first Diadochi were dead, and so were even the sons of two of them, Demetrius and Agathocles. The son of the former was a claimant for the throne of Macedonia, which he acquired after long and doubtful struggles. Antiochus, who had long been regent of the Eastern provinces beyond Mesopotamia, had come suddenly, by his father's murder, into possession of so vast a kingdom, that he could not control the coast of Asia Minor, where sundry free cities and dynasts sought to establish themselves. Ptolemy II. was already king of Egypt, including the suzerainty of Cyrene, and had claims on Palestine and Syria. Ptolemy Keraunos, the double-dyed villain and murderer, was in possession of the throne of Macedonia, but at war with the claimant Antigonus. Pyrrhus of Epirus was gone to conquer a new kingdom in the West. Such was the state of things when a terrible new scourge [the invasion of the Gauls] broke over the world."

J. P. Mahaffy, The Story of Alexander's Empire, chapter 7.

ALSO IN: C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapter 60 (volume 8).

MACEDONIA: B. C. 280-279. Invasion by the Gauls. Death of Ptolemy Keraunos.

See GAULS: B. C. 280-279.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 277-244. Strife for the throne. Failures of Pyrrhus. Success of Antigonus Gonatus. His subjugation of Athens and Corinth.

"On the retirement of the Gauls, Antipater, the nephew of Cassander, came forward for the second time, and was accepted as king by a portion, at any rate, of the Macedonians. But a new pretender soon appeared upon the scene. Antigonus Gonatus, the son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, who had maintained himself since that monarch's captivity as an independent prince in Central or Southern Hellas, claimed the throne once filled by his father, and, having taken into his service a body of Gallic mercenaries, defeated Antipater and made himself master of Macedonia. His pretensions being disputed by Antiochus Soter, the son of Seleucus, who had succeeded to the throne of Syria, he engaged in war with that prince, crossing into Asia and uniting his forces with those of Nicomedes, the Bithynian king, whom Antiochus was endeavouring to conquer. To this combination Antiochus was forced to yield: relinquishing his claims, he gave his sister, Phila, in marriage to Antigonus, and recognised him as king of Macedonia. Antigonus upon this fully established his power, repulsing a fresh attack of the Gauls. … But he was not long left in repose. In B. C. 274, Pyrrhus finally quitted Italy, having failed in all his schemes, but having made himself a great reputation. Landing in Epirus with a scanty force, he found the condition of Macedonia and of Greece favourable to his ambition. Antigonus had no hold on the affections of his subjects, whose recollections of his father, Demetrius, were unpleasing. The Greek cities were, some of them, under tyrants, others occupied against their will by Macedonian garrisons. Above all, Greece and Macedonia were full of military adventurers, ready to flock to any standard which offered them a fair prospect of plunder. Pyrrhus, therefore, having taken a body of Celts into his pay, declared war against Antigonus, B. C. 273, and suddenly invaded Macedonia. Antigonus gave him battle, but was worsted, owing to the disaffection of his soldiers, and being twice defeated became a fugitive and a wanderer. The victories of Pyrrhus, and his son Ptolemy, placed the Macedonian crown upon the brow of the former, who might not improbably have become the founder of a great power, if he could have turned his attention to consolidation, instead of looking out for fresh conquests. But the arts and employments of peace had no charm for the Epirotic knight-errant. Hardly was he settled in his seat when, upon the invitation of Cleonymus of Sparta, he led an expedition into the Peloponnese, and attempted the conquest of that rough and difficult region. Repulsed from Sparta, which he had hoped to surprise, he sought to cover his disappointment by the capture of Argos; but here he was still more unsuccessful. Antigonus, now once more at the head of an army, watched the city, prepared to dispute its occupation, while the lately threatened Spartans hung upon the invader's rear. {2065} In a desperate attempt to seize the place by night, the adventurous Epirote was first wounded by a soldier and then slain by the blow of a tile, thrown from a housetop by an Argive woman, B. C. 271. On the death of Pyrrhus the Macedonian throne was recovered by Antigonus, who commenced his second reign by establishing his influence over most of the Peloponnese, after which he was engaged in a long war with the Athenians (B. C. 268 to 263), who were supported by Sparta and by Egypt [see ATHENS: B. C. 288-263]. These allies rendered, however, but little help; and Athens must have soon succumbed, had not Antigonus been called away to Macedonia by the invasion of Alexander, son of Pyrrhus. This enterprising prince carried, at first, all before him, and was even acknowledged as Macedonian king; but ere long Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, having defeated Alexander near Derdia, re-established his father's dominion over Macedon, and, invading Epirus, succeeded in driving the Epirotic monarch out of his paternal kingdom. The Epirots soon restored him; but from this time he remained at peace with Antigonus, who was able once more to devote his undivided attention to the subjugation of the Greeks. In B. C. 263 he took Athens, and rendered himself complete master of Attica; and, in B. C. 244, … he contrived by a treacherous stratagem to obtain possession of Corinth. But at this point his successes ceased. A power had been quietly growing up in a corner of the Peloponnese [the Achaian League—see GREECE: B. C. 280-146] which was to become a counterpoise to Macedonia, and to give to the closing scenes of Grecian history an interest little inferior to that which had belonged to its earlier pages."

G. Rawlinson, Manual of Ancient History, pages 261-263.

ALSO IN: B. G. Niebuhr, Lectures on Ancient History, lectures 100-102.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 214-168. The Roman conquest. Extinction of the kingdom.

See GREECE: B. C. 214-146.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 205-197. Last relations with the Seleucid empire.

See SELEUCIDÆ: B. C. 224-187.

Slavonic occupation.

See SLAVONIC PEOPLES: 6-7TH CENTURIES.

—————MACEDONIA: End—————

MACEDON IAN DYNASTY, The.

See BYZANTINE EMPIRE: A. D. 820-1057.

MACEDONIAN PHALANX.

See PHALANX, MACEDONIAN.

MACEDONIAN WARS, The.

See GREECE: B. C. 214-146.

MACERATA, Battle of (1815).

See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 1815.

McHENRY, Fort, The bombardment of, by the British.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1814 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).

MACHICUIS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

MACHINE, Political.

See STALWARTS.

MACK, Capitulation of, at Ulm.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1805 (MARCH-DECEMBER).

MACKENZIE, William Lyon, and the Canadian Rebellion.

See CANADA: A. D.1837; and 1837-1838.

—————MACKINAW: Start————

MACKINAW (MICHILLIMACKINAC): Discovery and first Jesuit Mission.

See CANADA: A. D. 1634-1673.

MACKINAW: Rendezvous of the Coureurs de Bois.

See COUREURS DE BOIS.

MACKINAW: A. D. 1763. Captured by the Indians.

See PONTIAC'S WAR.

—————MACKINAW: End————

McKINLEY TARIFF ACT, The.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION (UNITED STATES): A. D. 1890.

McLEOD CASE, The.

See CANADA: A. D. 1840-1841.

MacMAHON, Marshal, President of the French Republic, A. D. 1873-1879.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1871-1876; and 1875-1889.

MACON, Fort, Capture of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-APRIL: NORTH CAROLINA).

McPHERSON, General: Death in the Atlanta campaign.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY: GEORGIA); and (MAY-SEPTEMBER: GEORGIA).

MACRINUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 217-218.

MACUSHI, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.

MADAGASCAR: A. D. 1882-1883. French claims and demands enforced by war.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1875-1889.

MADEIRA ISLAND, Discovery of.

In the year 1419, Joham Gonçalvez Zarco and Tristam Vaz, "seeing from Porto Santo something that seemed like a cloud, but yet different (the origin of so much discovery, noting the difference in the likeness), built two boats, and, making for this cloud, soon found themselves alongside a beautiful island, abounding in many things, but most of all in trees, on which account they gave it the name of Madeira (wood)."

A. Helps, Spanish Conquest, book 1, chapter 1.

MADISON, James, and the framing and adoption of the Federal Constitution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787; 1787-1789.

Presidential election and administration.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1808 to 1817.

MADRAS: A. D. 1640. The founding of the city.

See INDIA: A. D. 1600-1702.

MADRAS: A. D. 1746-1748. Taken by the French. Restored to England.

See INDIA: A. D. 1743-1752.

MADRAS: A. D. 1758-1759. Unsuccessful siege by the French.

See INDIA: A. D. 1758-1761.

—————MADRID: Start————

MADRID: A. D. 1560. Made the capital of Spain by Philip II.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1559-1563.

MADRID: A. D. 1706-1710. Taken and retaken by the French and Austrian claimants of the crown.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1706; and 1707-1710.

MADRID: A. D. 1808. Occupied by the French. Popular insurrection.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1807-1808.

MADRID: A. D. 1808. Arrival of Joseph Bonaparte, as king, and his speedy flight.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1808 (MAY-SEPTEMBER).

MADRID: A. D. 1808 (December). Recovery by the French. Return of King Joseph Bonaparte.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1808 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER).

MADRID: A. D. 1812. Evacuation by the French. Occupation of the city by Wellington and his army.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-AUGUST).

MADRID: A. D. 1823. Again occupied by the French.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1814-1827.

{2066}

MADRID, The Treaty of (1526).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1525-1526.

—————MADRID: End————

MÆATÆ, The.

A common or national name given by the Romans to the tribes in Scotland which dwelt between the Forth and the Clyde, next to "the wall."

MÆOTIS PALUS, PALUS MÆOTIS.

The ancient Greek name of the body of water now called the Sea of Azov.

—————MAESTRICHT: Start————

MAESTRICHT: A. D. 1576. The Spanish Fury.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1575-1577.

MAESTRICHT: A. D. 1579. Spanish siege, capture and massacre.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1577-1581.

MAESTRICHT: A. D. 1632. Siege and capture by the Dutch.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1621-1633.

MAESTRICHT: A. D. 1673. Siege and capture by Vauban and Louis XIV.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1672-1674.

MAESTRICHT: A. D. 1676. Unsuccessfully besieged by William of Orange.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674-1678.

MAESTRICHT: A. D. 1678. Restored to Holland.

See NIMEGUEN, PEACE OF.

MAESTRICHT: A. D. 1748. Taken by the French and restored to Holland.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1746-1747; and AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, CONGRESS AND TREATY.

MAESTRICHT: A. D. 1793. Unsuccessful siege by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (FEBRUARY-APRIL).

MAESTRICHT: A. D. 1795. Ceded to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794-1795 (OCTOBER-MAY).

—————MAESTRICHT: End————

MAFRIAN.

See JACOBITE CHURCH.

MAGADHA, The kingdom of.

See INDIA: B. C. 327-312; and 312—.

MAGDALA, Capture of (1868).

See ABYSSINIA: A. D. 1854-1889.

MAGDEBURG: A. D. 1631. Siege, storming, and horrible sack and massacre by the troops of Tilly.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1630-1631.

MAGELLAN, Voyage of.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1519-1524.

MAGENTA, Battle of (1859).

See ITALY: A. D. 1856-1859.

MAGESÆTAS, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 547-633.

MAGIANS. MAGI.

The priesthood of the ancient Iranian religion—the religion of the Avesta and of Zarathrustra, or Zoroaster—as it existed among the Medes and Persians. In Eastern Iran the priests were called Athravas. In Western Iran "they are not called Athravas, but Magush. This name is first found in the inscription which Darius caused to be cut on the rock-wall of Behistun; afterwards it was consistently used by Western writers, from Herodotus to Agathias, for the priests of Iran."

M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 7, chapter 8 (volume 5).

"The priests of the Zoroastrians, from a time not long subsequent to Darius Hystaspis, were the Magi. This tribe, or caste, originally perhaps external to Zoroastrianism, had come to be recognised as a true priestly order; and was entrusted by the Sassanian princes with the whole control and direction of the religion of the state. Its chief was a personage holding a rank but very little inferior to the king. He bore the title of 'Tenpet,' 'Head of the Religion,' or 'Movpetan Movpet,' 'Head of the Chief Magi.'"

G. Rawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy, chapter 28.

"To the whole ancient world Zoroaster's lore was best known by the name of the doctrine of the Magi, which denomination was commonly applied to the priests of India, Persia, and Babylonia. The earliest mention of them is made by the prophet Jeremiah (xxxix. 3), who enumerated among the retinue of King Nebuchadnezzar at his entry into Jerusalem, the 'Chief of the Magi' ('rab mag' in Hebrew), from which statement we may distinctly gather that the Magi exercised a great influence at the court of Babylonia 600 years B. C. They were, however, foreigners, and are not to be confounded with the indigenous priests. … The name Magi occurs even in the New Testament. In the Gospel according to St. Matthew (ii. 1), the Magi (Greek 'magoi,' translated in the English Bible by 'wise men') came from the East to Jerusalem, to worship the new-born child Jesus at Bethlehem. That these Magi were priests of the Zoroastrian religion, we know from Greek writers."

M. Haug, Essays on the Religion of the Parsis, 1.

See, also, ZOROASTRIANS.

MAGNA CARTA.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1215.

MAGNA GRÆCIA.

"It was during the height of their prosperity, seemingly, in the sixth century B. C., that the Italic Greeks [in southern Italy] either acquired for, or bestowed upon, their territory the appellation of Magna Græcia, which at that time it well deserved; for not only were Sybaris and Kroton then the greatest Grecian cities situated near together, but the whole peninsula of Calabria may be considered as attached to the Grecian cities on the coast. The native Œnotrians and Sikels occupying the interior had become hellenised, or semi-hellenised, with a mixture of Greeks among them—common subjects of these great cities."

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 22.

On the Samnite conquest of Magna Græcia

See SAMNITES.

MAGNANO, Battle of (1799).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL).

MAGNATÆ, The.

See IRELAND, TRIBES OF EARLY CELTIC INHABITANTS.

MAGNESIA.

The eastern coast of Thessaly was anciently so called. The Magnetes who occupied it were among the people who became subject to the Thessalians or Thesprotians, when the latter came over from Epirus and occupied the valley of the Peneus.

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 3.

Two towns named Magnesia in Asia Minor were believed to be colonies from the Magnetes of Thessaly. One was on the south side of the Meander; the other, more northerly, near the river Harmus.

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 13.

MAGNESIA, Battle of (B. C. 190).

See SELEUCIDÆ: B. C. 224-187.

MAGNUS I., King of Denmark, A. D. 1042-1047.

Magnus I. (called The Good), King of Norway, 1035-1047.

Magnus I., King of Sweden, 1275-1290.

Magnus II., King of Norway, 1066-1069.

Magnus II., King of Sweden, 1319-1350, and 1359-1363; and VII. of Norway, 1319-1343.

Magnus III., King of Norway, 1093-1103.

Magnus IV., King of Norway, 1130-1134.

Magnus V., King of Norway, 1162-1186.

Magnus VI., King of Norway, 1263-1280.

{2067}

MAGYARS, The.

See HUNGARIANS.

MAHARAJA.

See RAJA.

MAHDI, Al, Caliph, A. D. 775-785.

MAHDI, The.

"The religion of Islam acknowledges the mission of Jesus, but not His divinity. Since the Creation, it teaches, five prophets had appeared before the birth of Mahomet—Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus—each being greater than his predecessor, and each bringing a fuller and higher revelation than the last. Jesus ranks above all the prophets of the old dispensation, but below those of the new, inaugurated by Mahomet. In the final struggle He will be but the servant and auxiliary of a more august personage—the Mahdi. The literal meaning of the word Mahdi is not, as the newspapers generally assert, 'He who leads,' a meaning more in consonance with European ideas, but 'He who is led.' … If he leads his fellow-men it is because he alone is the 'well-guided one,' led by God—the Mahdi. The word Mahdi is only an epithet which may be applied to any prophet, or even to any ordinary person; but used as a proper name it indicates him who is 'well-guided' beyond all others, the Mahdi 'par excellence,' who is to end the drama of the world, and of whom Jesus shall only be the vicar. … The Koran does not speak of the Mahdi, but it seems certain that Mahomet must have announced him. … The idea of the Mahdi once formed, it circulated throughout the Mussulman world: we will follow it rapidly in its course among the Persians, the Turks, the Egyptians, and the Arabs of the Soudan; but without for an instant pretending to pass in review all the Mahdis who have appeared upon the prophetic stage; for their name is Legion."

J. Darmesteter, The Mahdi, Past and Present, chapters 1-2.

See, also, ISLAM; ALMOHADES; and EGYPT: A. D. 1870-1883, and 1884-1885.

MAHDIYA: Taken by the Moorish Corsair, Dragut, and retaken by the Spaniards (1550).

See BARBARY STATES: A. D. 1543-1560.

MAHMOUD I., Turkish Sultan, A. D. 1730-1754.

Mahmoud II., Turkish Sultan, 1808-1839.

Mahmoud, the Afghan, Shah of Persia, 1722-1725.

Mahmoud, the Gaznevide, The Empire of.

See TURKS: A. D. 999-1183.

—————MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: Start————

MAHOMETAN CONQUEST AND EMPIRE.

MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 609-632. The Mission of the Prophet.

Mahomet (the usage of Christendom has fixed this form of the name Mohammad) was born at Mecca, on or about the 20th day of August, A. D. 570. He sprang from "the noblest race in Mecca and in Arabia [the tribe of Koreish and the family of Hashem]. To his family belonged the hereditary guardianship of the Kaaba and a high place among the aristocracy of his native city. Personally poor, he was raised to a position of importance by his marriage with the rich widow Khadijah, whose mercantile affairs he had previously conducted. In his fortieth year he began to announce himself as an Apostle of God, sent to root out idolatry, and to restore the true faith of the preceding Prophets, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Slowly and gradually he makes converts in his native city; his good wife Khadijah, his faithful servant Zeyd, are the first to recognize his mission; his young cousin, the noble Ali, the brave and generous and injured model of Arabian chivalry, declares himself his convert and Vizier; the prudent, moderate and bountiful Abu-Bekr acknowledges the pretensions of the daring innovator. Through mockery and persecution the Prophet keeps unflinchingly in his path; no threats, no injuries, hinder him from still preaching to his people the unity and the righteousness of God, and exhorting to a far purer and better morality than had ever been set before them. He claims no temporal power, no spiritual domination; he asks but for simple toleration, for free permission to win men by persuasion into the way of truth. … As yet at least his hands were not stained with blood, nor his inner life with lust."

E. A. Freeman, History and Conquests of the Saracens, lecture 2.

After ten years of preaching at Mecca, and of a private circulation and repetition of the successive Suras or chapters of the Koran, as the prophet delivered them, Mahomet had gained but a small following, while the opposition to his doctrines and pretensions had gained strength. But in A. D. 620 (he being then fifty years of age) he gained the ear of a company of pilgrims from Medina and won them to his faith. Returning home, they spread the gospel of Islam among their neighbors, and the disciples at Medina were soon strong enough in numbers to offer protection to their prophet and to his persecuted followers in Mecca. As the result of two pledges, famous in Mahometan history, which were given by the men of Medina to Mahomet, in secret meetings at the hill of Acaba, a general emigration of the adherents of the new faith from Mecca to Medina took place in the spring of the year 622. Mahomet and his closest friend, Abu Bakr, having remained with their families until the last, escaped the rage of the Koreish, or Coreish, only by a secret flight and a concealment for three days in a cave on Mount Thaur, near Mecca. Their departure from the cave of Thaur, according to the most accepted reckoning, was on the 20th of June, A. D. 622. This is the date of the Hegira, or flight, or emigration of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina. The Mahometan Era of the Hegira, "though referring 'par excellence' to the flight of the Prophet, … is also applicable to all his followers who emigrated to Medina prior to the capture of Mecca; and they are hence called Muhâjirîn, i. e., the Emigrants, or Refugees. We have seen that they commenced to emigrate from the beginning of Moharram (the first month of the Hegira era) two months before." The title of the Muhâjirîn, or Refugees, soon became an illustrious one, as did that of the Ansar, or Allies, of Medina, who received and protected them. At Medina Mahomet found himself strongly sustained. Before the year of his flight ended, he opened hostilities against the city which had rejected him, by attacking its Syrian caravans. The attacks were followed up and the traffic of Mecca greatly interfered with, until January, 624, when the famous battle of Bedr, or Badr, was fought, and the first great victory of the sword of Islam achieved. {2068} The 300 warriors of Bedr formed "the peerage of Islam." From this time the ascendancy of Mahomet was rapidly gained, and assumed a political as well as a religious character. His authority was established at Medina and his influence spread among the neighboring tribes. Nor was his cause more than temporarily depressed by a sharp defeat which he sustained, January, 625, in battle with the Koreish at Ohod. Two years later Medina was attacked and besieged by a great force of the Koreish and other tribes of Arabs and Jews, against the latter of whom Mahomet, after vainly courting their adhesion and recognition, had turned with relentless hostility. The siege failed and the retreat of the enemy was hastened by a timely storm. In the next year Mahomet extorted from the Koreish a treaty, known as the Truce of Hodeibia, which suspended hostilities for ten years and permitted the prophet and his followers to visit Mecca for three days in the following year. The pilgrimage to Mecca was made in the holy month, February, 629, and in 630 Mahomet found adherents enough within the city and outside of it to deliver the coveted shrine and capital of Arabia into his hands. Alleging a breach of the treaty of peace, he marched against the city with an army of 10,000 men, and it was surrendered to him by his obstinate opponent, Abu Sofiân, who acknowledged, at last, the divine commission of Mahomet and became a disciple. The idols in the Kaaba were thrown down and the ancient temple dedicated to the worship of the one God. The conquest of Mecca was followed within no long time by the submission of the whole Arabic peninsula. The most obstinate in resisting were the great Bedouin tribe of the Hawazin, in the hill country, southeast of Mecca, with their kindred, the Bani Thackif. These were crushed in the important battle of Honein, and their strong city of Tayif was afterwards taken. Before Mahomet died, on the 8th June, A. D. 632, he was the prince as well as the prophet of Arabia, and his armies, passing the Syrian borders, had already encountered the Romans, though not gloriously, in a battle fought at Muta, not far from the Dead Sea.