Part 2 — CHAPTER IV. Concerning the infallible teaching of the Roman Pontiff: (continued 44)

G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine Empire, from 716 to 1057, book 2, chapter 1, section 2.

THESSALONICA: A. D. 1204-1222. Capital of the kingdom of Saloniki.

See SALONIKI.

THESSALONICA: A. D. 1222-1234. The Greek empire.

See EPIRUS: A. D. 1204-1350.

THESSALONICA: A. D. 1430. Capture by the Turks.

Thessalonica, feebly defended by Venetians and Greeks, was taken by the Turks, under Amurath II., in February, 1430. "'The pillage and the carnage,' relates the Greek Anagnosta, an eye-witness of this disastrous night, 'transcended the hopes of the Turks and the terror of the Greeks. No family escaped the swords, the chains, the flames, the outrages of the Asiatics fierce for their prey. At the close of the day, each soldier drove like a herd before him, through the streets of Salonica, troops of women, of young girls, of children, of caloyers and anchorites, of monks of all the monasteries. Priests were chained with virgins, children with old men, mothers with their sons, in derision of age, of profession, of sex, which added a barbarous irony to nudity and death itself.'"

A. Lamartine, History of Turkey, book 10, section 27.

—————THESSALONICA: End————

THESSALY.

"The northern part of Greece is traversed in its whole length by a range of mountains, the Greek Apennines, which issue from the same mighty root, the Thracian Scomius, in which Hæmus, and Rhodopé and the Illyrian Alps likewise meet. This ridge first takes the name of Pindus, where it intersects the northern boundary of Greece, at a point where an ancient route still affords the least difficult passage from Epirus into Thessaly. From Pindus two huge arms stretch towards the eastern sea and enclose the vale of Thessaly, the largest and richest plain in Greece: on the north the Cambunian Hills, after making a bend towards the south, terminate in the loftier heights of Olympus, which are scarcely ever entirely free from snow; the opposite and lower chain of Othrys parting, with its eastern extremity, the Malian from the Pagasæan Gulf, sinks gently towards the coast. A fourth rampart, which runs parallel to Pindus, is formed by the range which includes the celebrated heights of Pelion and Ossa; the first a broad and nearly even ridge, the other towering into a steep and conical peak, the neighbour and rival of Olympus, with which, in the songs of the country, it is said to dispute the pre-eminence in the depth and duration of its snows. The mountain barrier with which Thessaly is thus encompassed is broken only at the northeast corner by a deep and narrow cleft, which parts Ossa from Olympus; the defile so renowned in poetry as the vale, in history as the pass, of Tempe. The imagination of the ancient poets and declaimers delighted to dwell on the natural beauties of this romantic glen and on the sanctity of the site, from which Apollo had transplanted his laurel to Delphi. … South of this gulf [the Gulf of Pagasæ], the coast is again deeply indented by that of Malia, into which the Spercheius, rising from Mount Tymphrestus, a continuation of Pindus, winds through a long, narrow vale, which, though considered as a part of Thessaly, forms a separate region, widely distinguished from the rest by its physical features. It is intercepted between Othrys and Œta, a huge, rugged pile, which stretching from Pindus to the sea at Thermopylæ, forms the inner barrier of Greece, as the Cambunian range is the outer, to which it corresponds in direction and is nearly equal in height. From Mount Callidromus, a southern limb of Œta, the same range is continued without interruption, though under various names and different degrees of elevation, along the coast of the Eubœan Sea. … Another branch, issuing from the same part of Pindus, connects it with the loftier summits of Parnassus, and afterward skirting the Corinthian Gulf under the names of Cirphis and Helicon, proceeds to form the northern boundary of Attica under those of Cithæron and Parnes."

C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapter 1 (volume 1).

In the mythical legends of Greece, Thessaly was the kingdom of Hellen, transmitted to his son Æolus and occupied originally by the Æolic branch of the Hellenic family. The Æolians, however, appear to have receded from the rich Thessalian plain, into Bœotia and elsewhere, before various invading tribes. The people who fixed their name, at last, upon the country, the Thessalians, came into it from Epirus, crossing the Pindus mountain-range.

See, also, GREECE: THE MIGRATIONS; and DORIANS AND IONIANS.

THETES, The.

See DEBT, ANCIENT LEGISLATION CONCERNING: GREEK; also, ATHENS: B. C. 594.

THEUDEBERT, King of the Franks (Austrasia), A. D. 596-612.

THIASI.

"The name denotes associations [in ancient Athens] which had chosen as their special protector and patron some deity in whose honour at certain times they held sacrifices and festal banquets, whilst they pursued in addition objects of a very varied nature, sometimes joint-stock businesses, sometimes only social enjoyments."

G. F. Schömann, Antiquities of Greece, part 3, chapter 3, section 2.

THIBAULT I., King of Navarre, A. D. 1236-1253.

Thibault II., King of Navarre, 1253-1270.

THIBET.

See TIBET.

THIERRY I., King of the Franks, at Metz, A. D. 511-534.

Thierry II., King of the Franks (Austrasia), 612-613; King of Burgundy, 596-613.

Thierry III., King of the Franks (Neustria and Burgundy), 670-691.

Thierry IV., King of the Franks (Neustria, Austrasia, and Burgundy), 720-737.

{3108}

THIERS, Adolphe, and the founding of the third French Republic.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1871-1876.

THIN. THINÆ.

See CHINA: The NAMES OF THE COUNTRY.

THING. THINGVALLA. ALTHING.

"The judicial and legislative assembly of the Northmen represented by the word 'thing' (from 'tinga'=to speak, and allied to our English word 'think') can be traced in many local names throughout England, and more especially in the extreme North, where the Scandinavian race prevailed, and where the 'thing' was primitively held upon the site of, or as an appanage to, a 'hof' or temple. It is plainly seen in the Tynwald Court or general legislative assembly for the Isle of Man, where the distinctive feature of the primitive open-air assembly still survives in the custom of the whole assembly going once a year in solemn procession, attended by the governor of the island and a military escort, to a hill known as the Tynwald Hill, whence all the laws that have been passed in the course of the past year are proclaimed in English and Manx. … In Norway there is an 'Al-thing' or general assembly, and four district 'things' for the several provinces, as well as a Norwegian Parliament familiar to us as 'Stor-thing' or great council."

R. R. Sharpe, Introduction to Calendar of Wills, Court of Husting, London, volume 1.

"By the end of the period of the first occupation of Iceland, a number of little kingdoms had been formed all round the coast, ruled by the priests, who, at stated times, convened their adherents and retainers to meetings for the settlement of matters which concerned any or all of them. These were called 'Things'—meetings, i. e. Mot-things. Each was independent of the other, and quarrels between the members of two separate Things could only be settled as the quarrels of nations are settled, by treaty or war. But the time soon arrived when the progress of political thought began to work upon this disjointed constitution; and then amalgamation of local Things into an Althing, of local jurisdiction into a commonwealth jurisdiction, was the historical result. … The Thingvalla, or Thing-field itself, was a vast sunken plain of lava, about four miles broad and rather more than four miles deep, lying with a dip or slope from north-east to south-west, between two great lips or furrows. A stream called Öxará, (Axewater) cuts off a rocky portion of the plain, so as almost to form an island. This is the famous Hill of Laws, or Lögberg, which was the heart of the Icelandic body politic. … This example of the Icelandic Thing is the most perfect that is known to history."

G. L. Gomme, Primitive Folk-Moots, chapter 2.

ALSO IN: G. W. Dasent, introduction to "The Story of Burnt Njal."

See, also, NORMANS. NORTHMEN: A. D. 860-1100; and SCANDINAVIAN STATES (DENMARK-ICELAND): A. D. 1849-1874.

THINGMEN.

See HOUSECARLS.

THINIS.

See MEMPHIS, EGYPT; also EGYPT: THE OLD EMPIRE AND THE MIDDLE EMPIRE.

THIONVILLE: A. D. 1643. Siege and capture by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1643.

THIONVILLE: A. D. 1659. Ceded to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

THIRD ESTATE, The.

See ESTATES, THE THREE.

THIRTEEN COLONIES, The.

See MASSACHUSETTS; RHODE ISLAND; CONNECTICUT; NEW HAMPSHIRE; NEW YORK; NEW JERSEY; PENNSYLVANIA; DELAWARE: MARYLAND; VIRGINIA; NORTH CAROLINA; SOUTH CAROLINA; GEORGIA;

also, NEW ENGLAND.

THIRTEENTH AMENDMENT.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (JANUARY).

THIRTY TYRANTS OF ATHENS, The.

See ATHENS: B. C. 404-403.

THIRTY TYRANTS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE, The.

See ROME: A. D. 192-284.

THIRTY YEARS TRUCE, The.

See GREECE: B. C. 449-445.

THIRTY YEARS WAR, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1608-1618, to 1648: and BOHEMIA: A. D. 1611-1618, and 1621-1648.

THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES, The.

"In 1563 the Articles of the English Church, forty-two in number, originally drawn up in 1551 under Edward VI., were revised in Convocation, and reduced to their present number, thirty-nine; but it was not until 1571 that they were made binding upon the clergy by Act of Parliament."

T. P. Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History, chapter 12.

THIS, THINIS.

See EGYPT: THE OLD EMPIRE AND THE MIDDLE EMPIRE; also, MEMPHIS, EGYPT.

THISTLE: Its adoption as the national emblem of Scotland.

See SAINT ANDREW: THE SCOTTISH ORDER.

THISTLE, Order of the.

A Scottish order of knighthood instituted by James V. in 1530.

THOMAS, General George H.: Campaign against Zollicoffer.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY: KENTUCKY-TENNESSEE).

Refusal of the command of the Army of the Ohio.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JUNE-OCTOBER: TENNESSEE-KENTUCKY).

At Chickamauga, and in the Chattanooga Campaign.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER) ROSECRANS' ADVANCE; and (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER: TENNESSEE).

The Atlanta campaign.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY: GEORGIA), to (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER: GEORGIA).

Campaign against Hood.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (NOVEMBER: TENNESSEE), and (DECEMBER: TENNESSEE).

THOMAS À BECKET, Saint, and King Henry II.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1162-1170.

THOMPSON'S STATION, Battle at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (FEBRUARY-APRIL: TENNESSEE).

THORN, Peace of (1466).

See POLAND: A. D. 1333-1572.

"THOROUGH," Wentworth and Laud's government system.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1633-1639.

THRACE: B. C. 323-281. The kingdom of Lysimachus and its overthrow.

See MACEDONIA, &c.: B. C. 323-316 to 297-280.

{3109}

THRACIANS, The.

"That vast space comprised between the rivers Strymon and Danube, and bounded to the west by the easternmost Illyrian tribes, northward of the Strymon, was occupied by the innumerable subdivisions of the race called Thracians, or Threïcians. They were the most numerous and most terrible race known to Herodotus: could they by possibility act in unison or under one dominion (he says) they would be irresistible. … Numerous as the tribes of Thracians were, their customs and character (according to Herodotus) were marked by great uniformity: of the Getæ, the Trausi, and others, he tells us a few particularities. … The general character of the race presents an aggregate of repulsive features unredeemed by the presence of even the commonest domestic affections. … It appears that the Thynians and Bithynians, on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus, perhaps also the Mysians, were members of this great Thracian race, which was more remotely connected, also, with the Phrygians. And the whole race may be said to present a character more Asiatic than European; especially in those ecstatic and maddening religious rites, which prevailed not less among the Edonian Thracians than in the mountains of Ida and Dindymon of Asia, though with some important differences. The Thracians served to furnish the Greeks with mercenary troops and slaves."

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 26.

"Under Seuthes [B. C. 424] Thrace stood at the height of its prosperity. It formed a connected empire from Abdera to the Danube, from Byzantium to the Strymon. … The land abounded in resources, in corn and flocks and herds, in gold and silver. … No such state had as yet existed in the whole circuit of the Ægean. … But their kingdom failed to endure. After Seuthes it broke up into several principalities."

E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 7, chapter 1.

"Herodotus is not wrong in calling the Thracians the greatest of the peoples known to him after the Indians. Like the Illyrian, the Thracian stock attained to no full development, and appears more as hard-pressed and dispossessed than as having any historically memorable course of its own. … The Thracian [language] disappeared amidst the fluctuations of peoples in the region of the Danube and the overpowerful influence of Constantinople, and we cannot even determine the place which belongs to it in the pedigree of nations. … Their wild but grand mode of worshipping the gods may perhaps be conceived as a trait peculiar to this stock—the mighty outburst of the joy of spring and youth, the nocturnal mountain-festivals of torch-swinging maidens, the intoxicating sense-confusing music, the flowing of wine and the flowing of blood, the giddy festal whirl, frantic with the simultaneous excitement of all sensuous passions. Dionysos, the glorious and the terrible, was a Thracian god." Under the supremacy of the Romans, the Thracians were governed by a native line of vassal kings, reigning at Bizye (Wiza), between Adrianople and the coast of the Black Sea, until the Emperor Claudius, A. D. 46, suppressed the nominal kingdom and made Thrace a Roman province.

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 8, chapter 6.

In the 8th and 9th centuries, "the great Thracian race, which had once been inferior in number only to the Indian, and which, in the first century of our era, had excited the attention of Vespasian by the extent of the territory it occupied, had … almost disappeared. The country it had formerly inhabited was peopled by Vallachian and Sclavonian tribes."

G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine Empire, book 1, chapter 1, section 1.

THREE CHAPTERS, The dispute of the.

A famous church dispute raised in the sixth century by the Emperor Justinian, who discovered an heretical taint in certain passages, called the Three Chapters, culled out of the works of Theodore of Mopsuestia and two other doctors of the church who had been teachers and friends of Nestorius. A solemn Church Council called (A. D. 553) at Constantinople—the fifth general Council—condemned the Three Chapters and anathematized their adherents. But this touched by implication the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon, which were especially cherished in the Latin Church, and Rome became rebellious. In the end, the Roman opposition prevailed, and, "in the period of a century, the schism of the three chapters expired in an obscure angle of the Venetian province."

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 47.

ALSO IN: H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity, book 1, chapter 4.

THREE F'S. The.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1873-1879.

THREE HENRYS. War of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1584-1589.

THREE HUNDRED AT THERMOPYLÆ, The.

See GREECE: B. C. 480 (THERMOPYLÆ).

THREE HUNDRED OF THEBES, The.

See THEBES: B. C. 378.

THREE KINGS, Battle of the.

See MAROCCO: THE ARAB CONQUEST, AND SINCE.

THREE LEGS OF MAN. The.

See TRISKELION.

THREE PRESIDENCIES OF INDIA, The.

See INDIA: A. D. 1600-1702.

THUCYDIDES: The origin of his history.

See AMPHIPOLIS.

THUGS. THUGGEE.

See INDIA: A. D. 1823-1833.

THULE.

Pytheas, a Greek traveller and writer of the time (as supposed) of Alexander the Great, was the first to introduce the name of Thule into ancient geography. He described it vaguely as an island, lying six days' voyage to the north of Britain, in a region where the sea became like neither land nor water, but was of a thick and sluggish substance, resembling that of the jelly fish. "It appears to me impossible to identify the Thule of Pytheas with any approach to certainty; but he had probably heard vaguely of the existence of some considerable island, or group of islands, to the north of Britain, whether the Orkneys or the Shetlands it is impossible to say."

E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, chapter 15, section 2, foot-note.

Some modern writers identify Thule with Iceland; some with the coast of Norway, mistakenly regarded as an island. But, whichever land it may have been, Thule to the Greeks and Romans, was Ultima Thule,—the end of the known world,—the most northerly point of Europe to which their knowledge reached.

R. F. Burton, Ultima Thule, introduction, section 1 (volume 1).

{3110}

THUNDERING LEGION, The.

During the summer of the year 174, in a campaign which the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus conducted against the Quadi, on the Danube, the Roman army was once placed in a perilous position. It was hemmed in by the enemy, cut off from all access to water, and was reduced to despair. At the last extremity, it is said, the army was saved by a miraculous storm, which poured rain on the thirsty Romans, while lightning and hail fell destructively in the ranks of the barbarians. According to the Pagan historians, Aurelius owed this "miraculous victory," as it was called, to the arts of one Arnuphis, an Egyptian magician. But later Christian writers told a different story. They relate that the distressed army contained one legion composed entirely of Christians, from Melitene, and that these soldiers, being called upon by the emperor to invoke their God, united in a prayer which received the answer described. Hence, the legion was known thereafter, by imperial command, as the Thundering Legion.

P. B. Watson, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, chapter 5.

ALSO IN: Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, book 5, chapter 5.

THURII. THURIUM.

See SIRIS.

THURINGIA. THURINGIANS, The.

"To the eastward of the Saxons and of the Franks, the Thuringians had just formed a new monarchy. That people had united to the Varni and the Heruli, they had spread from the borders of the Elbe and of the Undstrut to those of the Necker. They had invaded Hesse or the country of the Catti, one of the Frankish people, and Franconia, where they had distinguished their conquests by frightful cruelties. … It is not known at what period these atrocities were committed, but Thierri [or Theoderic, one of the four Frank kings, sons of Clovis] towards the year 528, reminds his soldiers of them to excite their revenge; it is probable that they were the motives which induced the Franks of Germany and those of Gaul to unite, in order to provide more powerfully for their defence." Thierry, the Frank king at Metz, and Clotaire, his brother, who reigned at Soissons, united in 528 against the Thuringians and completely crushed them. "This great province was then united to the monarchy of the Franks, and its dukes, during two centuries, marched under the standards of the Merovingians."

J. C. L. S. de Sismondi, The French under the Merovingians, chapter 6.

ALSO IN: W. C. Perry, The Franks, chapter 3.

See, also, GERMANY: A. D. 481-768.

THURINGIA: Absorbed in Saxony.

See SAXONY: THE OLD DUCHY.

THURM AND TAXIS, Prince, and the German postal system.

See POST.

THYMBRÆAN ORACLE.

See ORACLES OF THE GREEKS.

THYNIANS. The.

See BITHYNIANS.

TIBARENIANS, The.

A people who anciently inhabited the southern coast of the Euxine, toward its eastern extremity.

G. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies: Persia, chapter 1.

TIBBOOS, The.

See LIBYANS.

TIBERIAS, Battle of (1187).

See JERUSALEM: A. D. 1149-1187.

TIBERIAS, The Patriarch of.

See JEWS: A. D. 200-400.

TIBERIUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 14-37.

German campaigns.

See GERMANY: B. C. 8-A. D. 11.

Tiberius II, Roman Emperor (Eastern), 578-582.

Tiberius Absimarus, Roman Emperor (Eastern), 698-704.

TIBET.

"The name of Tibet is applied not only to the south-west portion of the Chinese Empire, but also to more than half of Kashmîr occupied by peoples of Tibetan origin. These regions of 'Little Tibet' and of 'Apricot Tibet' —so called from the orchards surrounding its villages—consist of deep valleys opening like troughs between the snowy Himalayan and Karakorum ranges. Draining towards India, these uplands have gradually been brought under Hindu influences, whereas Tibet proper has pursued a totally different career. It is variously known as 'Great,' the 'Third,' or 'East Tibet'; but such is the confusion of nomenclature that the expression 'Great Tibet' is also applied to Ladak, which forms part of Kashmîr. At the same time, the term Tibet itself, employed by Europeans to designate two countries widely differing in their physical and political conditions, is unknown to the people themselves. Hermann Schlagintweit regards it as an old Tibetan word meaning 'strength,' or 'empire' in a pre-eminent sense and this is the interpretation supplied by the missionaries of the seventeenth century, who give the country the Italian name of Potente, or 'Powerful.' But however this be, the present inhabitants use the term Bod-yul alone; that is, 'land of the Bod,' itself probably identical with Bhutan, a Hindu name restricted by Europeans to a single state on the southern slope of the Himalayas. The Chinese call Tibet either Si-Tsang —that is, West Tsang, from its principal province—or Wei-Tsang, a word applied to the two provinces of Wei and Tsang, which jointly constitute Tibet proper. To the inhabitants they give the name of Tu-Fan, or 'Aboriginal Fans,' in opposition to the Si-Fan, or "Western Fans,' of Sechuen and Kansu. … Suspended like a vast terrace some 14,000 or 16,000 feet above the surrounding plains, the Tibetan plateau is more than half filled with closed basins dotted with a few lakes or marshes, the probable remains of inland seas whose overflow discharged through the breaks in the frontier ranges. … During the present century the Tibetan Government has succeeded better than any other Asiatic state in preserving the political isolation of the people, thanks chiefly to the relief and physical conditions of the land. Tibet rises like a citadel in the heart of Asia; hence its defenders have guarded its approaches more easily than those of India, China, and Japan. The greater part of Tibet remains still unexplored. … The great bulk of the inhabitants, apart from the Mongolo-Tartar Horsoks of Khachi and the various independent tribes of the province of Kham, belong to a distinct branch of the Mongolian family. They are of low size, with broad shoulders and chests, and present a striking contrast to the Hindus in the size of their arms and calves, while resembling them in their small and delicate hands and feet. … The Tibetans are one of the most highly endowed people in the world. Nearly all travellers are unanimous in praise of their gentleness, frank and kindly bearing, unaffected dignity. Strong, courageous, naturally cheerful, fond of music, the dance and song, they would be a model race but for their lack of enterprise. They are as easily governed as a flock of sheep, and for them the word of a lama has force of law. Even the mandates of the Chinese authorities are scrupulously obeyed, and thus it happens that against their own friendly feelings they jealously guard the frontiers against all strangers. {3111} The more or less mixed races of East Tibet on the Chinese frontier, on the route of the troops that plunder them and of the mandarins who oppress them, seem to be less favourably constituted, and are described as thievish and treacherous. … The Tibetans have long been a civilised people. … In some respects they are even more civilised than those of many European countries, for reading and writing are general accomplishments in many places, and books are here so cheap that they are found in the humblest dwellings, though several of these works are kept simply on account of their magical properties. In the free evolution of their speech, which has been studied chiefly by Foucaux, Csoma de Körös, Schiefner, and Jäschke, the Tibetans have outlived the period in which the Chinese are still found. The monosyllabic character of the language, which differs from all other Asiatic tongues, has nearly been effaced. … The Tibetan Government is in theory a pure theocracy. The Dalia-lama, called also the Gyalba-remboché, 'Jewel of Majesty,' or 'Sovereign Treasure,' is at once god and king, master of the life and fortunes of his subjects, with no limit to his power except his own pleasure. [On Lamaism in Tibet, see LAMAS.] Nevertheless he consents to be guided in ordinary matters by the old usages, while his very greatness prevents him from directly oppressing his people. His sphere of action being restricted to spiritual matters, he is represented in the administration by a viceroy chosen by the Emperor in a supreme council of three high priests. … Everything connected with general politics and war must be referred to Peking, while local matters are left to the Tibetan authorities. … Pope, viceroy, ministers, all receive a yearly subvention from Peking and all the Tibetan mandarins wear on their hats the button, or distinctive sign of the dignities conferred by the empire. Every third or fifth year a solemn embassy is sent to Peking with rich presents, receiving others in exchange from the 'Son of Heaven.' … The whole land belongs to the Dalai-lama, the people being merely temporary occupants, tolerated by the real owner. The very houses and furniture and all movable property are held in trust for the supreme master, whose subjects must be grateful if he takes a portion only for the requirements of the administration. Due of the most ordinary sentences, in fact, is wholesale confiscation, when the condemned must leave house and lands, betaking themselves to a camp life, and living by begging in the districts assigned to them. So numerous are these chong long, or official mendicants, that they form a distinct class in the State. … Since the cession of Ladak to Kashmir, and the annexation of Batang, Litang, Aten-tze, and other districts to Sechuen and Yunnan, Si-tsang, or Tibet proper, comprises only the four provinces of Nari, Tsang, Wei, or U, and Kham. Certain principalities enclosed in these provinces are completely independent of Lassa, and either enjoy self-government or are directly administered from Peking. … Even in the four provinces the Chinese authorities interfere in many ways, and their power is especially felt in that of Nari, where, owing to its dangerous proximity to Kashmir and India, the old spirit of independence might be awakened. Nor is any money allowed to be coined in Tibet, which in the eyes of the Imperial Government is merely a dependency of Sechuen, whence all orders are received in Lassa."

É. Reclus, The Earth and its Inhabitants: Asia, volume 2, chapter 2.

ALSO IN: H. Bower, Diary of a Journey across Tibet, chapter 16.

TIBISCUS, The.

The ancient name of the river Theiss.

TIBUR.

An important Latin city, more ancient than Rome, from which it was only 20 miles distant, on the Anio. Tibur, after many wars, was reduced by the Romans to subjection in the 4th century, B. C., and the delightful country in its neighborhood became a favorite place of residence for wealthy Romans in later times. The ruins of the villa of Hadrian have been identified in the vicinity, and many others have been named, but without historical authority. Hadrian's villa is said to have been like a town in its vast extent. The modern town of Tivoli occupies the site of Tibur.

R. Burn, Rome and the Campagna, chapter 14.

TIBURTINE SIBYL.

See SIBYLS.

TICINUS, Battle on the.

See PUNIC WARS: THE SECOND.

TICKET-OF-LEAVE SYSTEM, The.

See LAW, CRIMINAL: A. D. 1825.

TICONDEROGA, Fort: A. D. 1731.- Built by the French.

See CANADA: A. D. 1700-1735.

TICONDEROGA, Fort: A. D. 1756. Reconstructed by the French.

See CANADA: A. D. 1756.

TICONDEROGA, Fort: A. D. 1758. The bloody repulse of Abercrombie.

See CANADA: A. D. 1758.

TICONDEROGA, Fort: A. D. 1759. Taken by General Amherst.

See CANADA: A. D. 1759 (JULY-AUGUST).

TICONDEROGA, Fort: A. D. 1775. Surprised and taken by the Green Mountain Boys.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (MAY).

TICONDEROGA, Fort: A. D. 1777. Recapture by Burgoyne.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1777 (JULY-OCTOBER).

TIEN-TSIN, Treaty of (1858).

See CHINA: A. D. 1856-1860.

TIERRA FIRME.

"The world was at a loss at first [after Columbus' discovery] what to call the newly found region to the westward. It was easy enough to name the islands, one after another, as they were discovered, but when the Spaniards reached the continent they were backward about giving it a general name. … As the coast line of the continent extended itself and became known as such, it was very naturally called by navigators 'tierra firme,' firm land, in contradistinction to the islands which were supposed to be less firm. … The name Tierra Firme, thus general at first, in time became particular. As a designation for an unknown shore it at first implied only the Continent. As discovery unfolded, and the magnitude of this Firm Land became better known, new parts of it were designated by new names, and Tierra Firme became a local appellation in place of a general term. Paria being first discovered, it fastened itself there; also along the shore to Darien, Veragua, and on to Costa Rica, where at no well defined point it stopped, so far as the northern seaboard was concerned, and in due time struck across to the South Sea, where the name marked off an equivalent coast line. … As a political division Tierra Firme had existence for a long time. {3112} It comprised the provinces of Darien, Veragua, and Panama, which last bore also the name of Tierra Firme as a province. The extent of the kingdom was 65 leagues in length by 18 at its greatest breadth, and 9 leagues at its smallest width. It was bounded on the east by Cartagena, and the gulf of Urabá and its river; on the west by Costa Rica, including a portion of what is now Costa Rica; and on the north and south by the two seas. … Neither Guatemala, Mexico, nor any of the lands to the north were ever included in Tierra Firme. English authors often apply the Latin form, Terra Firma, to this division, which is misleading."

H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States, volume 1, page 290, foot-note.

See, also, SPANISH MAIN.

TIERS ETAT.

See ESTATES, THE THREE.

TIGORINI, TIGURINI, in Gaul, The.

After the Cimbri had defeated two Roman armies, in 113 and 109 B. C., "the Helvetii, who had suffered much in the constant conflicts with their north-eastern neighbours, felt themselves stimulated by the example of the Cimbri to seek in their turn for more quiet and fertile settlements in western Gaul, and had, perhaps, even when the Cimbrian hosts marched through their land, formed an alliance with them for that purpose. Now, under the leadership of Divico, the forces of the Tougeni (position unknown) and of the Tigorini (on the lake of Murten) crossed the Jura and reached the territory of the Nitiobroges (about Agen on the Garonne). The Roman army under the consul Lucius Cassius Longinus, which they here encountered, allowed itself to be decoyed by the Helvetii into an ambush, in which the general himself and his legate, the consular Gaius Piso, along with the greater portion of the soldiers, met their death."

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 4, chapter 5.

Subsequently the Tigorini and the Tougeni joined the Cimbri, but were not present at the decisive battle on the Raudine Plain and escaped the destroying swords of the legions of Marius, by flying back to their native Helvetia.

TIGRANOCERTA, Battle of (B. C. 69).

See ROME: B. C. 78-68.

TIGRANOCERTA, The building of.

See GORDYENE.

TILDEN, Samuel J. In the Free Soil Movement.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1848.

The overthrow of the Tweed Ring.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1863-1871.

Defeat in Presidential Election.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1876-1877.

TILLEMONT: A. D. 1635. Stormed and sacked by the Dutch and French.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1635-1638.

TILLY, Count von: Campaigns.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1620, to 1631-1632.

TILSIT, Treaty of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1807 (JUNE-JULY).

TIMAR. TIMARLI. SAIM. SPAHI.

"It was Alaeddin who first instituted a division of all conquered lands among the 'Sipahis,' or Spahis (horsemen), on conditions which, like the feudal tenures of Christian Europe, obliged the holders to service in the field. Here, however, ends the likeness between the Turkish 'Timar' and the European fief. The 'Timarli' were not, like the Christian knighthood, a proud and hereditary aristocracy almost independent of the sovereign and having a voice in his councils, but the mere creatures of the Sultan's breath. The Ottoman constitution recognised no order of nobility, and was essentially a democratic despotism. The institution of military tenures was modified by Amurath I., who divided them into the larger and smaller ('Siamet' and 'Timar'), the holders of which were called 'Saim' and 'Timarli.' Every cavalier, or Spahi, who had assisted to conquer by his bravery, was rewarded with a fief, which, whether large or small, was called 'Kilidseh' (the sword). The symbols of his investment were a sword and colours ('Kilidsch' and 'Sandjak')."

T. H. Dyer, The History of Modern Europe, volume 1, introduction.

See, also, SPAHIS.

TIMOCRACY.

See GEOMORI.

TIMOLEON, and the deliverance of Sicily.

See SYRACUSE: B. C. 344.

TIMOUR, The Conquests of.

"Timour the Tartar, as he is usually termed in history, was called by his countrymen Timourlenk, that is, Timour the Lame, from the effects of an early wound; a name which some European writers have converted into Tamerlane, or Tamberlaine. He was of Mongol origin [see below], and a direct descendant, by the mother's side, of Zenghis. Khan. He was born at Sebzar, a town near Samarcand, in Transoxiana, in 1336. … Timour's early youth was passed in struggles for ascendeney with the petty chiefs of rival tribes, but at the age of thirty-five he had fought his way to undisputed pre-eminence, and was proclaimed Khan of Zagatai by the 'couroultai,' or general assembly of the warriors of his race. He chose Samarcand as the capital of his dominion, and openly announced that he would make that dominion comprise the whole habitable earth. … In the thirty-six years of his reign he raged over the world from the great wall of China to the centre of Russia on the north; and the Mediterranean and the Nile were the western limits of his career, which was pressed eastward as far as the sources of the Ganges. He united in his own person the sovereignties of twenty-seven countries, and he stood in the place of nine several dynasties of kings. … The career of Timour as a conqueror is unparalleled in history; for neither Cyrus, nor Alexander, nor Cæsar, nor Attila, nor Zenghis Khan, nor Charlemagne, nor Napoleon, ever won by the sword so large a portion of the globe, or ruled over so many myriads of subjugated fellow-creatures."

E. S. Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks, chapter 3.

"Born of the same family as Jenghiz, though not one of his direct descendants, he bore throughout life the humble title of Emir, and led about with him a nominal Grand Khan [a descendant of Chagatai, one of the sons of Jenghiz Khan], of whom he professed himself a dutiful subject. His pedigree may in strictness entitle him to be called a Mogul; but, for all practical purposes, himself and his hordes must be regarded as Turks. Like all the eastern Turks, such civilization as they had was of Persian origin; and it was of the Persian form of Islam that Timour was so zealous an assertor."

E. A. Freeman, History and Conquests of the Saracens, lecture 6.

{3113}

In 1378 Timour overran Khuarezm. Between 1380 and 1386 he subjugated Khorassan, Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Sistan. He then passed into southern Persia and forced the submission of the Mozafferides who reigned over Fars, punishing the city of Isfahan for a rebellious rising by the massacre of 70,000 of its inhabitants. This done, he returned to Samarkand for a period of rest and prolonged carousal. Taking the field again in 1389, he turned his arms northward and shattered the famous "Golden Horde," of the Khanate of Kiptchak, which dominated a large part of Russia. In 1392-93 the Tartar conqueror completed the subjugation of Persia and Mesopotamia, extinguishing the decayed Mongol Empire of the Ilkhans, and piling up a pyramid of 90,000 human heads on the ruins of Bagdad, the old capital of Islam. Thence he pursued his career of slaughter through Armenia and Georgia, and finished his campaign of five years by a last destroying blow struck at the Kiptchak Khan whom he is said to have pursued as far as Moscow. Once more, at Samarkand, the red-handed, invincible savage then gave himself up to orgies of pleasure-making; but it was not for many months. His eyes were now on India, and the years 1398-1399 were spent by him in carrying death and desolation through the Punjab, and to the city of Delhi, which was made a scene of awful massacre and pillage. No permanent conquest was achieved; the plunder and the pleasure of slaughter were the ends of the expedition. A more serious purpose directed the next movement of Timour's arms, which were turned against the rival Turk of Asia Minor, or Roum—the Ottoman, Bajazet, or Bayezid, who boasted of the conquest of the Roman Empire of the East. In 1402, Bajazet was summoned from the siege of Constantinople to defend his realm. On the 20th of July in that year, on the plain of Angora, he met the enormous hosts of Timourlenk and was overwhelmed by them—his kingdom lost, himself a captive. The merciless Tartar hordes swept hapless Anatolia with a besom of destruction and death. Nicæa, Prusa and other cities were sacked. Smyrna provoked the Tartar savage by an obstinate defense and was doomed to the sword, without mercy for age or sex. Even then, the customary pyramid of heads which he built on the site was not large enough to satisfy his eye and he increased its height by alternate layers of mud. Aleppo, Damascus, and other cities of Syria had been dealt with in like manner the year before. When satiated with blood, he returned to Samarkand in 1404, rested there until January 1405, and then set out upon an expedition to China; but he died on the way. His empire was soon broken in pieces.

A. Vambery, History of Bokhara, chapters 10, 11, 12.

ALSO IN: J. Hutton, Central Asia, chapters 5-6.

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 65.

A. Lamartine, History of Turkey, book 7.

H. G. Smith, Romance of History, chapter 4.

TIMUCHI.

This was the name given to the members of the senate or council of six hundred of Massilia—ancient Marseilles.

G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 1, chapter 21.

TIMUCUA, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: TIMUQUANAN FAMILY.

TINNEH.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ATHAPASCAN FAMILY.

TIOCAJAS, Battles of.

See ECUADOR: ABORIGINAL KINGDOM.

TIPPECANOE, The Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1811.

TIPPERMUIR, Battle of (1644).

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1644-1645.

TIPPOO (OR TIPU) SAIB, English wars with.

See INDIA: A. D. 1785-1793, and 1798-1805.

TIROL.

See TYROL.

TIRSHATHA.

An ancient Persian title, borne by an officer whose functions corresponded with those of High Sheriff.

H. Ewald, History of Israel, book 5, section 1.

TIRYNS.

See ARGOS; and HERACLEIDÆ.

TITHE.

"To consecrate to the Sanctuary in pure thankfulness towards God the tenth of all annual profits, was a primitive tradition among the Canaanites, Phoenicians and Carthaginians. The custom, accordingly, very early passed over to Israel."

H. Ewald. Antiquities of Israel, introduction, 3d section, II., 3.

Modern "recognition of the legal obligation of tithe dates from the eighth century, both on the continent and in England. In A. D. 779 Charles the Great ordained that everyone should pay tithe, and that the proceeds should be disposed of by the bishop; and in A. D. 787 it was made imperative by the legatine councils held in England."

W. Stubbs. Constitutional History of England, chapter 8, section 86 (volume 1).

TITHE OF SALADIN.

See SALADIN, THE TITHE OF.

TITHES, Irish.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1832-1833.

TITIES, The.

See ROME: THE BEGINNINGS.

TITUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 79-81.

TIVITIVAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.

TIVOLI.

See TIBUR.

TLACOPAN.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1325-1502.

TLASCALA.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1519 (JUNE-OCTOBER).

T'LINKETS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ATHAPASCAN FAMILY.

TOBACCO: Its introduction into the Old World from the New.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1584-1586.

The systematic culture of the plant introduced in Virginia.

See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1609-1616.

TOBACCO NATION, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: HURONS; and IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY: THEIR NAME.

TOBAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

TOGA, The Roman.

"The toga, the specifically national dress of the Romans, was originally put on the naked body, fitting much more tightly than the rich folds of the togas of later times. About the shape of this toga, which is described as a semicircular cloak …, many different opinions prevail. Some scholars consider it to have been an oblong piece of woven cloth …; others construct it of one or even two pieces cut into segments of a circle. Here again we shall adopt in the main the results arrived at through practical trials by Weiss ('Costümkunde,' page 956 et seq.). The Roman toga therefore was not … a quadrangular oblong, but 'had the shape of an oblong edged off into the form of an oval, the middle length being equal to about three times the height of a grown-up man (exclusive of the head), and its middle breadth equal to twice the same length. In putting it on, the toga was at first folded lengthwise, and the double dress thus originated was laid in folds on the straight edge and thrown over the left shoulder in the simple manner of the Greek or Tuscan cloak; the toga, however, covered the whole left side and even dragged on the ground to a considerable extent. The cloak was then pulled across the back and through the right arm, the ends being again thrown over the left shoulder backwards. The part of the drapery covering the back was once more pulled towards the right shoulder, so as to add to the richness of the folds.' … The simpler, that is narrower, toga of earlier times naturally clung more tightly to the body."

E. Guhl and W. Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans, section 95.

{3114}

"No tacks or fastenings of any sort indeed are visible in the toga, but their existence may be inferred from the great formality and little variation displayed in its divisions and folds. In general, the toga seems not only to have formed, as it were, a short sleeve to the right arm, which was left unconfined, but to have covered the left arm down to the wrist. … The material of the toga was wool; the colour, in early ages, its own natural yellowish hue. In later periods this seems, however, only to have been retained in the togas of the higher orders; inferior persons wearing theirs dyed, and candidates for public offices bleached by an artificial process. In times of mourning the toga was worn black, or was left off altogether. Priests and magistrates wore the 'toga pretexta,' or toga edged with a purple border, called pretexta. This … was, as well as the bulla, or small round gold box suspended on the breast by way of an amulet, worn by all youths of noble birth to the age of fifteen. … The knights wore the 'trabea,' or toga striped with purple throughout."

T. Hope, Costume of the Ancients, volume 1.

TOGATI, The.

See ROME: B. C. 275.

TOGGENBURG WAR, The.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1652-1789.

TOGRUL BEG, Seljuk Turkish Sultan. A. D. 1037-1063.

TOHOMES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

TOHOPEKA, Battle of (1814).

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1813-1814 (AUGUST-APRIL).

TOISECH.

See RI.

TOISON D'OR.

The French name of the Order of Knighthood known in the English-speaking world as the "Order of the Golden Fleece."

See GOLDEN FLEECE.

TOLBIAC, Battle of.

See ALEMANNI: A. D. 496-504; also, FRANKS: A. D. 481-511.

TOLEDO, Ohio: A. D. 1805-1835. Site in dispute between Ohio and Michigan.

See MICHIGAN: A. D. 1837.

TOLEDO, Spain: A. D. 531-712. The capital of the Gothic kingdom in Spain.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 507-711.

TOLEDO, Spain: A. D. 712. Surrender to the Arab-Moors.

See SPAIN: A. D. 711-713.

TOLEDO, Spain: A. D. 1083-1085. Recovery from the Moors.

On the crumbling of the dominions of the Spanish caliphate of Cordova, Toledo became the seat of one of the most vigorous of the petty kingdoms which arose in Moorish Spain. But on the death of its founder, Aben Dylnun, and under his incapable son Yahia, the kingdom of Toledo soon sank to such weakness as invited the attacks of the Christian king of Leon, Alfonso VI. After a siege of three years, on the 25th of May, A. D. 1085, the old capital of the Goths, which the Moslems had occupied for nearly four centuries, was restored to their descendants and successors.

S. A. Dunham, History of Spain and Portugal, book 3, section 1, chapter 1.

TOLEDO, Spain: A. D. 1520-1522. Revolt against the government of Charles, the emperor. Siege and surrender.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1518-1522.

TOLEDO, Councils of.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 507-711.

TOLENTINO, Treaty of (1797).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796-1797 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

TOLERATION, and the Puritan theocracy In Massachusetts.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1631-1636.

In Maryland.

See MARYLAND: A. D. 1649.

TOLERATION ACT, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1689 (APRIL-AUGUST).

TOLOSA, Battle of Las Navas de (1211 or 1212).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1146-1232; also, ALMOHADES.

TOLTECS, The.

See MEXICO, ANCIENT.

TOMI.

An ancient Greek city on the western shore of the Euxine, which was Ovid's place of banishment. Its site is occupied by the modern town of Kustendje.

TONE, Theobald Wolf, and the United Irishmen.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1793-1798.

TONIKAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: TONIKAN FAMILY.

TONKAWAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: TONKAWAN FAMILY.

TONKIN. COCHIN-CHINA. ANNAM. CAMBOJA.

"The whole region which recent events have practically converted into French territory comprises four distinct political divisions: Tonkin in the north; Cochin-China in the centre; Lower Cochin-China and Camboja in the south. The first two, formerly separate States, have since 1802 constituted a single kingdom, commonly spoken of as the empire of Annam. This term Annam (properly An-nan) appears to be a modified form of Ngannan, that is, 'Southern Peace,' first applied to the frontier river between China and Tonkin, and afterwards extended not only to Tonkin, but to the whole region south of that river after its conquest and pacification by China in the third century of the new era. Hence its convenient application to the same region since the union of Tonkin and Cochin-China under one dynasty and since the transfer of the administration to France in 1883, is but a survival of the Chinese usage, and fully justified on historic grounds. Tonkin (Tongking, Tungking), that is, 'Eastern Capital,' a term originally applied to Ha-noi when that city was the royal residence, has in quite recent times been extended to the whole of the northern kingdom, whose true historic name is Yüeh-nan. Under the native rulers Tonkin was divided into provinces and sub-divisions bearing Chinese names, and corresponding to the administrative divisions of the Chinese empire. … Since its conquest by Cochin-China the country has been administered in much the same way as the southern kingdom. From this State Tonkin is separated partly by a spur of the coast range projecting seawards, partly by a wall built in the sixteenth century and running in the same direction. After the erection of this artificial barrier, which lies about 18° North Latitude, between Hatinh and Dong-koi, the northern and southern kingdoms came to be respectively distinguished by the titles of Dang-ngoai and Dang-trong, that is, 'Outer' and 'Inner Route.' {3115} The term Cochin-China, by which the Inner Route is best known, has no more to do with China than it has with the Indian city of Cochin. It appears to be a modified form of Kwe-Chen-Ching, that is, the 'Kingdom of Chen-Ching,' the name by which this region was first known in the 9th century of the new era, from its capital Chen-Ching. Another although less probable derivation is from the Chinese Co-Chen-Ching, meaning 'Old Champa,' a reminiscence of the time when the Cham (Tsiam) nation was the most powerful in the peninsula. … Before the arrival of the French, Cochin-China comprised the whole of the coast lands from Tonkin nearly to the foot of the Pursat hills in South Camboja. … From the remotest times China claimed, and intermittently exercised, suzerain authority over Annam, whose energies have for ages been wasted partly in vain efforts to resist this claim, partly in still more disastrous warfare between the two rival States. Almost the first distinctly historic event was the reduction of Lu-liang, as Tonkin was then called, by the Chinese in 218 B. C., when the country was divided into prefectures, and a civil and military organisation established on the Chinese model. … Early in the ninth century of the new era the term Kwe-Chen-Ching (Cochin-China) began to be applied to the southern, which had already asserted its independence of the northern, kingdom. In 1428 the two States freed themselves temporarily from the Chinese protectorate, and 200 years later the Annamese reduced all that remained of the Champa territory, driving the natives to the uplands, and settling in the plains. This conquest was followed about 1750 by that of the southern or maritime provinces of Camboja since known as Lower (now French) Cochin-China. In 1775 the King of Cochin-China, who had usurped the throne in 1774, reduced Tonkin, and was acknowledged sovereign of Annam by the Chinese emperor. But in 1798 Gia-long, son of the deposed monarch, recovers the throne with the aid of some French auxiliaries, and in 1802 reconstitutes the Annamese empire under the Cochin-Chinese sceptre. From this time the relations with France become more frequent. … After his death in 1820 the anti-European national party acquires the ascendant, the French officers are dismissed, and the Roman Catholic religion, which had made rapid progress during the reign of Gia-long, is subjected to cruel and systematic persecution. Notwithstanding the protests and occasional intervention of France, this policy is persevered in, until the execution of Bishop Diaz in 1857 by order of Tu-Duc, third in succession from Gia-long, calls for more active interference. Admiral Rigault de Genouilly captures Tourane in 1858, followed next year by the rout of the Annamese army at the same place, and the occupation of the forts at the entrance of the Donnai and of Gia-diñh (Saigon), capital of Lower Cochin-China. This virtually established French supremacy, which was sealed by the treaty of 1862, ceding the three best, and that of 1867 the three remaining, provinces of Lower Cochin-China. It was further strengthened and extended by the treaty of 1863, securing the protectorate of Camboja and the important strategical position of 'Quatre-Bras' on the Mekhong. Then came the scientific expedition of Mekhong (1866-68), which dissipated the hopes entertained of that river giving access to the trade of Southern China. Attention was accordingly now attracted to the Song-koi basin, and the establishment of French interests in Tonkin secured by the treaties of peace and commerce concluded with the Annamese Government in 1874. This prepared the way for the recent diplomatic complications with Annam and China, followed by the military operations in Cochin-China and Tonkin [see FRANCE: A. D. 1875-1889], which led up to the treaties of 1883 and 1884, extending the French protectorate to the whole of Annam, and forbidding the Annamese Government all diplomatic relations with foreign powers, China included, except through the intermediary of France. Lastly, the appointment in 1886 of a French Resident General, with full administrative powers, effaced the last vestige of national autonomy, and virtually reduced the ancient kingdoms of Tonkin and Cochin-China to the position of an outlying French possession."

A. H. Keane, Eastern Geography, pages 98-104.

"In the south-eastern extremity of Cochin-China, and in Camboja, still survive the scattered fragments of the historical Tsiam (Cham, Khiam) race, who appear to have been at one time the most powerful nation in Farther India. According to Gagelin, they ruled over the whole region between the Menam and the Gulf of Tongking. … Like the Tsiams, the Cambojans, or Khmers, are a race sprung from illustrious ancestry, but at present reduced to about 1,500,000, partly in the south-eastern provinces of Siam, partly forming a petty state under French protection, which is limited east and west by the Mekong and Gulf of Siam, north and south by the Great Lake and French Cochin-China. During the period of its prosperity the Cambojan empire overshadowed a great part of Indo-China, and maintained regular intercourse with Cisgangetic India on the one hand, and on the other with the Island of Java. The centre of its power lay on the northern shores of the Great Lake, where the names of its great cities, the architecture and sculptures of its ruined temples, attest the successive influences of Brahmanism and Buddhism on the local culture. A native legend, based possibly on historic data, relates how a Hindu prince migrated with ten millions of his subjects, some twenty-three centuries ago, from Indraspathi (Delhi) to Camboja, while the present dynasty claims descent from a Benares family. But still more active relations seem to have been maintained with Lanka (Ceylon), which island has acquired almost a sacred character in the eyes of the Cambojans. The term Camboja itself (Kampushea, Kamp'osha) has by some writers been wrongly identified with the Camboja of Sanskrit geography. It simply means the 'land of the Kammen,' or 'Khmer.' Although some years under the French protectorate, the political institutions of the Cambojan state have undergone little change. The king, who still enjoys absolute power over the life and property of his subjects, chooses his own mandarins, and these magistrates dispense justice in favour of the highest bidders. Trade is a royal monopoly, sold mostly to energetic Chinese contractors; and slavery has not yet been abolished, although the severity of the system has been somewhat mitigated since 1877. Ordinary slaves now receive a daily pittance, which may help to purchase their freedom. … {3116} On the eastern slopes, and in the lower Mekong basin, the dominant race are the Giao-shi (Giao-kii} or Annamese, who are of doubtful origin, but resemble the Chinese more than any other people of Farther India. Affiliated by some to the Malays, by others to the Chinese, Otto Kunze regards them as akin to the Japanese. According to the local traditions and records they have gradually spread along the coast from Tongking southwards to the extremity of the Peninsula. After driving the Tsiams into the interior, they penetrated about 1650 to the Lower Mekong, which region formerly belonged to Camboja, but is now properly called French Cochin-China. Here the Annamese, having driven out or exterminated most of the Cambojans, have long formed the great majority of the population."

É. Reclus, The Earth and its Inhabitants: Asia, volume 3, chapter 22.

TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE.

See TUNNAGE AND POUNDAGE; also, ENGLAND: A. D. 1629.

TONQUIN.

See TONKIN.

TONTONTEAC.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PUEBLOS.

TONTOS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: APACHE GROUP.

TOPASSES, The.

See INDIA: A. D. 1600-1702.

TOPEKA CONSTITUTION, The.

See KANSAS: A. D. 1854-1859.

TOQUIS.

See CHILE: THE ARAUCANIANS.

TORBAY, Landing of William of Orange at.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1688 (JULY-NOVEMBER).

TORDESILLAS, Treaty of.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1494.

TORGAU: A. D. 1525. Protestant League.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1525-1529.

TORGAU: A. D. 1645. Yielded to the Swedes.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1640-1645.

TORGAU: A. D. 1760. Victory of Frederick the Great.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1760.

TORGAU: A. D. 1813. Siege and capture by the Allies.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

TORIES, English: Origin of the Party and the Name.

See RAPPAREES; ENGLAND: A. D. 1680; and CONSERVATIVE PARTY.

TORIES, English: Of the American Revolution, and their exile.

"Before the Revolution the parties in the colonies were practically identical with the Whigs and Tories of the mother country, the Whigs or anti-prerogative men supporting ever the cause of the people against arbitrary or illegal acts of the governor or the council. In the early days of the Revolution the ultra Tories were gradually driven into the ranks of the enemy, until for a time it might be said that all revolutionary America had become Whig; the name Tory, however, was still applied to those who, though opposed to the usurpations of George III., were averse to a final separation from England."

G. Pellew, John Jay, page 269.

"The terms Tories, Loyalists, Refugees, are burdened with a piteous record of wrongs and sufferings. It has not been found easy or satisfactory for even the most candid historian to leave the facts and arguments of the conflict impartially adjusted. Insult, confiscation of property, and exile were the penalties of those who bore these titles. … Remembering that the most bitter words of Washington that have come to us are those which express his scorn of Tories, we must at least look to find some plausible, if not justifying, ground for the patriot party. Among those most frank and fearless in the avowal of loyalty, and who suffered the severest penalties, were men of the noblest character and of the highest position. So, also, bearing the same odious title, were men of the most despicable nature, self-seeking and unprincipled, ready for any act of evil. And between these were men of every grade of respectability and of every shade of moral meanness. … As a general rule, the Tories were content with an unarmed resistance, where they were not reinforced by the resources or forces of the enemy. But in successive places in possession of the British armies, in Boston, Long Island, New York, the Jerseys, Philadelphia, and in the Southern provinces, there rallied around them Tories both seeking protection, and ready to perform all kinds of military duty as allies. By all the estimates, probably below the mark, there were during the war at least 25,000 organized loyalist forces. … When the day of reckoning came at the close of the war, it needed no spirit of prophecy to tell how these Tories, armed or unarmed, would fare, and we have not to go outside the familiar field of human nature for an explanation. That it was not till six months after the ratification of the treaty by Congress that Sir Guy Carleton removed the British army from New York—the delay being caused by his embarrassment from the crowds of loyalists seeking his protection—is a reminder to us of their forlorn condition. … From all over the seaboard of the continent refugees made their way to New York in crowds. … They threw themselves in despair upon the protection of the British commander. … He pleaded his encumbrances of this character in answer to the censures upon him for delaying his departure, and he vainly hoped that Congress would devise some measures of leniency to relieve him. It is difficult to estimate with any approach to exactness the number of these hounded victims. Many hundreds of them had been seeking refuge in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick since the autumn of 1782, and additional parties, in increasing number, followed to the same provinces. An historian [Murdoch, "History of Nova Scotia"] sets the whole number at the close of 1783 at 25,000. Large numbers of the loyalists of the Southern provinces were shipped to the Bahamas and to the West India Islands. At one time Carleton had upon his hands over 12,000 Tories clamorous for transportation. … A celebration of the centennial of the settlement of Upper Canada by these exiles took place in 1884. At a meeting of the royal governor, Lord Dorchester, and the council, in Quebec, in November, 1789, in connection with the disposal of still unappropriated crown lands in the province, order was taken for the making and preserving of a registry of the names of all persons, with those of their sons and daughters, 'who had adhered to the unity of the empire, and joined the royal standard in America before the treaty of separation in the year 1783.' The official list contains the names of several thousands. It was by their descendants and representatives that the centennial occasion referred to was observed. … Some bands passed to Canada by Whitehall, Lake Champlain, Ticonderoga, and Plattsburg, then southward to Cornwall, ascending the St. Lawrence, and settling on the north bank. {3117} Others went from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia up the St. Lawrence to Sorel, where they wintered, going afterwards to Kingston. Most of the exiles ascended the Hudson to Albany, then by the Mohawk and Wood Creek to Oneida and Ontario lakes. … As these exiles had stood for the unity of the empire, they took the name of the 'United Empire Loyalists'" (a name which is often abbreviated in common use to U. E. Loyalists).

G. E. Ellis, The Loyalists and their Fortunes (Narrative and Critical History of America, volume 7, pages 185-214).

"Some 10,000 refugees had, in 1784, and the few years following, found homes in Western Canada, just as it is estimated … that 20,000 had settled in the provinces by the sea. Assuming full responsibility for the care and present support of her devoted adherents, Great Britain opened her hand cheerfully to assist them. … The sum paid by the British Government to the suffering refugees was about $15,000,000."

G. Bryce, Short History of the Canadian People, chapter 7, section 2.

ALSO IN: E. Ryerson, The Loyalists of America and their Times.

L. Sabine, Biographical Sketches of the Loyalists of America.

TORNOSA, Battle of.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1808 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER).

TORO, Battle of (1476).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1368-1479.

TOROMONOS, The.

See BOLIVIA: ABORIGINES INHABITANTS.

TORONTO: A. D. 1749. The hospitable origin of the city.

"The Northern Indians were flocking with their beaver-skins to the English of Oswego; and in April, 1749, an officer named Portneuf had been sent with soldiers and workmen to build a stockaded trading-house at Toronto, in order to intercept them,—not by force, which would have been ruinous to French interests, but by a tempting supply of goods and brandy. Thus the fort was kept well stocked, and with excellent effect."

F. Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, chapter 3 (volume 1).

TORONTO: A. D. 1813. Taken and burned by the Americans.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1813 (APRIL-JULY).

TORONTO: A. D. 1837. The Mackenzie rising. Defeat of the rebels.

See CANADA: A. D. 1837-1838.

TORQUES.

"The Latin word torques has been applied in a very extended sense to the various necklaces or collars for the neck, found in Britain, and other countries inhabited by the Celtic tribes. This word has been supposed to be derived from the Welch or Irish 'torc,' which has the same signification, but the converse is equally plausible, that this was derived from the Latin."

S. Birch, On the Torc of the Celts (Archaeological Journal, volume 2).

TORRES VEDRAS, The Lines of.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1809-1810 (OCTOBER-SEPTEMBER), and 1810-1812.

TORTONA: A. D. 1155. Destruction by Frederick Barbarossa.

See ITALY: A. D. 1154-1162.

TORTOSA: A. D. 1640. Spanish capture and sack.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1640-1642.

TORTUGAS: The Rendezvous of the Buccaneers.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1639-1700.

TORTURE.

See LAW, CRIMINAL,: A. D.1708.

TORY.

See TORIES.

TOTEMS.

"A peculiar social institution exists among the [North American] Indians, very curious in its character; and though I am not prepared to say that it may be traced through all the tribes east of the Mississippi, yet its prevalence is so general, and its influence on political relations so important, as to claim especial attention. Indian communities, independent of their local distribution into tribes, bands, and villages, are composed of several distinct clans. Each clan has its emblem, consisting of the figure of some bird, beast, or reptile; and each is distinguished by the name of the animal which it thus bears as its device; as, for example, the clan of the Wolf, the Deer, the Otter, or the Hawk. In the language of the Algonquins, these emblems are known by the name of 'Totems.' The members of the same clan, being connected, or supposed to be so, by ties of kindred more or less remote, are prohibited from intermarriage. Thus Wolf cannot marry Wolf; but he may, if he chooses, take a wife from the clan of Hawks, or any other clan but his own. It follows that when this prohibition is rigidly observed, no single clan can live apart from the rest; but the whole must be mingled together, and in every family the husband and wife must be of different clans. To different totems attach different degrees of rank and dignity; and those of the Bear, the Tortoise, and the Wolf are among the first in honor. Each man is proud of his badge, jealously asserting its claims to respect; and the members of the same clan, though they may, perhaps, speak different dialects, and dwell far asunder, are yet bound together by the closest ties of fraternity. If a man is killed, every member of the clan feels called upon to avenge him; and the wayfarer, the hunter, or the warrior is sure of a cordial welcome in the distant lodge of the clansman whose face perhaps he has never seen. It may be added that certain privileges, highly prized as hereditary rights, sometimes reside in particular clans; such as that of furnishing a sachem to the tribe, or of performing certain religious ceremonies or magic rites."

F. Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac, chapter 1.

"A totem is a class of material objects which a savage regards with superstitious respect, believing that there exists between him and every member of the class an intimate and altogether special relation. The name is derived from an Ojibway (Chippeway) word 'totem,' the correct spelling of which is somewhat uncertain. It was first introduced into literature, so far as appears, by J. Long, an Indian interpreter of last century, who spelt it 'totam.' … The connexion between a man and his totem is mutually beneficent; the totem protects the man, and the man shows his respect for the totem in various ways, by not killing it if it be an animal, and not cutting or gathering it if it be a plant. As distinguished from a fetich, a totem is never an isolated individual, but always a class of objects, generally a species of animals or of plants, more rarely a class of inanimate natural objects, very rarely a class of artificial objects. Considered in relation to men, totems are of at least three kinds:—

(1) the clan totem, common to a whole clan, and passing by inheritance from generation to generation;

(2) the sex totem, common either to all the males or to all the females of a tribe, to the exclusion in either case of the other sex;

(3) the individual totem, belonging to a single individual and not passing to his descendants."

J. G. Frazer, Totemism, pages 1-2.

ALSO IN: L. H. Morgan, League of the Iroquois, chapter 4.

L. H. Morgan, Ancient Society, part 2.

L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, Kamilaroi and Kurnai, appendix B.

W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chapter 7.

{3118}

TOTILA, King of the Ostrogoths.

See ROME: A. D. 535-553.

TOTONACOS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: TOTONACOS.

TOUL: A. D. 1552-1559. Possession acquired by France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1547-1559.

TOUL: A. D. 1648. Ceded to France in the Peace of Westphalia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

TOULON: A. D. 1793-1794. Revolt against the Revolutionary Government at Paris. English aid called in. Siege, capture and frightful vengeance by the Terrorists.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER); and 1793-1794 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

—————TOULOUSE: Start————

TOULOUSE: B. C. 106. Acquisition by the Romans.

Tolosa, modern Toulouse, was the chief town of the Volcæ Tectosages (see VOLCÆ, THE), a Gallic tribe which occupied the upper basin of the Garonne, between the western prolongation of the Cevennes and the eastern Pyrenees. Some time before 106 B. C. the Romans had formed an alliance with the Tectosages which enabled them to place a garrison in Tolosa; but the people had tired of the arrangement, had risen against the garrison and had put the soldiers in chains. On that provocation, Q. Servilius Cæpio, one of the consuls of the year 106, advanced upon the town, found traitors to admit him within its gates, and sacked it as a Roman general knew how to do. He found a great treasure of gold in Tolosa, the origin of which has been the subject of much dispute. The treasure was sent off under escort to Massilia, but disappeared on the way, its escort being attacked and slain. Consul Cæpio was accused of the robbery; there was a great scandal and prosecution at Rome, and "Aurum Tolosanum"—"the gold of Toulouse"—became a proverbial expression, applied to ill-gotten wealth.

G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 2, chapter 1.

TOULOUSE: A. D. 410-509. The Gothic kingdom.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 410-419, and after.

TOULOUSE: A. D. 721. Repulse of the Moslems.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 715-732.

TOULOUSE: A. D. 781. Made a county of Aquitaine.

See AQUITAINE: A. D. 781.

TOULOUSE: 10-11th Centuries. The rise of the Counts.

The counts of Toulouse "represented an earlier line of dukes of Aquitaine, successors of the dukes of Gothia or Septimania, under whom the capital of southern Gaul had been not Poitiers but Toulouse, Poitou itself counting as a mere underfief. In the latter half of the tenth century these dukes of Gothia or Aquitania Prima, as the Latin chroniclers sometimes called them from the Old Roman name of their country, had seen their ducal title transferred to the Poitevin lords of Aquitania Secunda—the dukes of Aquitaine with whom we have had to deal. But the Poitevin overlordship was never fully acknowledged by the house of Toulouse; and this latter in the course of the following century again rose to great importance and distinction, which reached its height in the person of Count Raymond IV., better known as Raymond of St. Gilles, from the name of the little county which had been his earliest possession. From that small centre his rule gradually spread over the whole territory of the ancient dukes of Septimania. In the year of the Norman conquest of England [1066] Rouergue, which was held by a younger branch of the house of Toulouse, lapsed to the elder line; in [1088] the year after the Conqueror's death Raymond came into possession of Toulouse itself; in 1094 he became, in right of his wife, owner of half the Burgundian county of Provence. His territorial influence was doubled by that of his personal fame; he was one of the chief heroes of the first Crusade; and when he died in 1105 he left to his son Bertrand, over and above his Aquitanian heritage, the Syrian county of Tripoli. On Bertrand's death in 1112 these possessions were divided, his son Pontius succeeding him as count of Tripoli, and surrendering his claims upon Toulouse to his uncle Alfonso Jordan, a younger son of Raymond of St. Gilles. Those claims, however, were disputed. Raymond's elder brother, Count William IV., had left an only daughter who, after a childless marriage with King Sancho Ramirez of Aragon, became the wife of Count William VIII. of Poitou. From that time forth it became a moot point whether the lord of St. Gilles or the lord of Poitiers was the rightful count of Toulouse. … With all these shiftings and changes of ownership the kings of France had never tried to interfere. Southern Gaul—'Aquitaine' in the wider sense—was a land whose internal concerns they found it wise to leave as far as possible untouched."

K. Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings, volume I, chapter 10.

See, also, BURGUNDY: A. D. 1032.

TOULOUSE: 12th Century. The joyous court.

See PROVENCE: A. D. 1179-1207.

TOULOUSE: A. D. 1209. The beginning of the Albigensian Crusades.

See ALBIGENSES: A. D. 1209.

TOULOUSE: A. D. 1213. Conquest by Simon de Montfort and his crusaders.

See ALBIGENSES: A. D. 1210-1213.

TOULOUSE: A. D. 1229-1271. End of the reign of the Counts.

See ALBIGENSES: A. D. 1217-1229.

TOULOUSE: A. D. 1814. The last battle of the Peninsular War. Occupation of the city by the English.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1812-1814.

TOURCOIGN, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794 (MARCH-JULY).

TOURNAY: A. D. 1513. Capture by the English.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1513-1515.

TOURNAY: A. D. 1581. Siege and capture by the Spaniards.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1581-1584.

TOURNAY: A. D. 1583. Submission to Spain.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1584-1585.

TOURNAY: A. D. 1667. Taken by the French.

See NETHERLANDS (THE SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1667.

TOURNAY: A. D. 1668. Ceded to France.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1668.

TOURNAY: A. D. 1709. Siege and reduction by Marlborough and Prince Eugene.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1708-1709.

{3119}

TOURNAY: A. D. 1713. Ceded to Holland.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714; and NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1713-1715.

TOURNAY: A. D. 1745-1748. Siege. Battle of Fontenoy and surrender to the French. Restoration at the Peace.

See NETHERLANDS (AUSTRIAN PROVINCES): A. D. 1745; and AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, THE CONGRESS.

TOURNAY: A. D. 1794. Battles near the city. Surrender to the French.

FRANCE: A. D. 1794 (MARCH-JULY).

—————TOURNAY: End————

TOURNEY. TOURNAMENT. JOUST.

"The word tourney, sometimes tournament, and in Latin 'torneamentum,' clearly indicates both the French origin of these games and the principal end of that exercise, the art of manœuvring, of turning ('tournoyer') his horse skilfully, to strike his adversary and shield himself at the same time from his blows. The combats, especially those of the nobility, were always fought on horseback, with the lance and sharp sword; the knight presented himself, clothed in armour which covered his whole body, and which, while it preserved him from wounds, bent to every movement and retarded those of his war horse. It was important, therefore, that constant exercise should accustom the knight's limbs to the enormous weight which he must carry, and the horse to the agility which was expected of him. In a 'passage' or 'pass of arms' ('passage' or 'pas d'armes') the generic name of all those games, this exercise was composed of two parts: the joust, which was a single combat of knight against knight, both clothed in all their arms, and the tourney, which was the image of a general battle, or the encounter and evolutions of two troops of cavalry equal in number."

J. C. L. de Sismondi, France under the Feudal System (Translated by W. Bellingham), chapter 8.

TOURS: A. D. 732. Defeat of the Moors by Charles Martel.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 715-732; also, FRANKS: A. D. 511-752.

TOURS: A. D. 1870. Seat of a part of the provisional Government of National Defense.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE, The career of.

See HAYTI: A. D. 1632-1803.

TOWER AND SWORD, The Order of the.

This was an order of knighthood founded in Portugal by Alfonso V., who reigned from 1438 to 1481. "The institution of the order related to a sword reputed to be carefully guarded in a tower of the city of Fez: respecting it there was a prophecy that it must one day come into the possession of a Christian king; in other words, that the Mohammedan empire of northwestern Africa would be subverted by the Christians. Alfonso seemed to believe that he was the destined conqueror."

S. A. Dunham. History of Spain and Portugal, volume 3, page 225 (American edition).

TOWER OF LONDON, The.

"Built originally by the Conqueror to curb London, afterwards the fortress-palace of his descendants, and in the end the State prison, from which a long procession of the ill-starred great went forth to lay their heads on the block on Tower Hill; while State murders, like those of Henry VI. and the two young sons of Edward IV., were done in the dark chambers of the Tower itself."

Goldwin Smith, A Trip to England, page 56.

"Even as to length of days, the Tower has no rival among palaces and prisons. … Old writers date it from the days of Caesar; a legend taken up by Shakspeare and the poets in favour of which the name of Caesar's Tower remains in popular use to this very day. A Roman wall can even yet be traced near some parts of the ditch. The Tower is mentioned in the Saxon Chronicle, in a way not incompatible with the fact of a Saxon stronghold having stood upon the spot. The buildings as we have them now in block and plan were commenced by William the Conqueror; and the series of apartments in Caesar's Tower [the great Norman keep now called the White Tower]—hall, gallery, council chamber, chapel—were built in the early Norman reigns and used as a royal residence by all our Norman kings."

W. H. Dixon, Her Majesty's Tower, chapter 1.

"We are informed by the 'Textus Roffensis' that the present Great or White Tower was constructed by Gundulph, Bishop of Rochester, under the direction of King William I., who was suspicious of the fidelity of the citizens. The date assigned by Stow is 1078."

J. Britton and E. W. Brayley, Memoirs of the Tower of London, chapter 1.

ALSO IN: Lord de Ros, Memorials of the Tower.

TOWN.

"Burh, burgh, borough, in its various spellings and various shades of meaning, is our native word for urbes of every kind from Rome downward: It is curious that this word should in ordinary speech have been so largely displaced by the vaguer word tun, town, which means an enclosure of any kind, and in some English dialects is still applied to a single house and its surroundings."

E. A. Freeman, City and Borough (Macmillan's Magazine, May, 1889).

See, also, TOWNSHIP; BOROUGH; GUILDS; and COMMUNE.

TOWNSHEND MEASURES, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1766-1767.

TOWNSHIP.

"In recent historical writing dealing with Anglo-Saxon conditions, a great place has been occupied by the 'township.' The example was set sixty years ago by Palgrave; but it does not seem to have been generally followed until in 1874 Dr. Stubbs gave the word a prominent place in his 'Constitutional History.' With Dr. Stubbs the 'township' was 'the unit of the constitutional machinery or local administration'; and since then most writers on constitutional and legal history have followed in the same direction. … The language commonly used in this connection need not, perhaps, necessarily be understood as meaning that the phenomenon which the writers have in mind was actually known to the Saxons themselves as a 'township' ('tunscipe'). It may be said that 'township' is merely a modern name which it is convenient to apply to it. Yet, certainly, that language usually suggests that it was under that name that the Saxons knew it. … It is therefore of some interest, at least for historical terminology,—and possibly for other and more important reasons,—to point out that there is no good foundation in Anglo-Saxon sources for such a use of the term; that 'tunscipe' in the few places where it does appear does not mean an area of land, an extent of territory, or even the material houses and crofts of a village; that it is probably nothing more than a loose general term for 'the villagers.' … {3120} Only three passages in Anglo-Saxon literature have as yet been found in which the word 'tunscipe' appears,—the Saxon translation of Bede's 'Ecclesiastical History,' volume 10, the laws of Edgar, iv. 8, and the 'Saxon Chronicle,' s. a 1137. … The later history of the word 'township' would probably repay investigation. It is certainly not a common word in literature until comparatively recent times; and, where it does appear, its old meaning seems often to cling to it. … There is a good deal to make one believe that 'town ' [see, above, TOWN] continued to be the common popular term for what we may describe in general language as a rural centre of population even into the 18th century. … The far more general use of the word 'town' than of 'township' in early New England is most naturally explained by supposing that it was the word ordinarily employed in England at the time of the migration,—at any rate, in East Anglia. … It might very naturally be said that the effect of the foregoing argument is no more than to replace 'township' by town, and that such a change is immaterial,—that it is a difference between tweedle-dum and tweedle-dee. I cannot help thinking, however, that the adoption of a more correct terminology will be of scientific advantage; and for this reason. So long as we speak of the Anglo-Saxon 'township' we can hardly help attaching to the word somewhat of the meaning which it has borne since the sixteenth century. We think of it as an area inhabited by freemen with an administrative machinery in the hands of an assembly of those inhabitants and of officers chosen by them. We start, therefore, with a sort of unconscious presumption that the 'township' was what we call 'free.' … Now, it is this question as to the position of the body of the population in the earliest Anglo-Saxon times that is just now at issue; and no student would say that at present the question is settled."

W. J. Ashley, The Anglo-Saxon "Township" (Quarterly Journal of Economics, April, 1894).

TOWNSHIP AND TOWN-MEETING, The New England.

"When people from England first came to dwell in the wilderness of Massachusetts Bay, they settled in groups upon small irregular-shaped patches of land, which soon came to be known as townships. … This migration … was a movement, not of individuals or of separate families, but of church-congregations, and it continued to be so as the settlers made their way inland and westward. … A township would consist of about as many farms as could be disposed within convenient distance from the meeting-house, where all the inhabitants, young and old, gathered every Sunday, coming on horseback or afoot. The meeting-house was thus centrally situated, and near it was the town pasture or 'common,' with the school-house and the block-house, or rude fortress for defence against the Indians. … Around the meeting-house and common the dwellings gradually clustered into a village, and after a while the tavern, store, and town-house made their appearance. … Under these circumstances they developed a kind of government which we may describe in the present tense, for its methods are pretty much the same to-day that they were two centuries ago. In a New England township the people directly govern themselves; the government is the people, or, to speak with entire precision, it is all the male inhabitants of one-and-twenty years of age and upwards. The people tax themselves. Once each year, usually in March but sometimes as early as February or as late as April, a 'town-meeting' is held, at which all the grown men of the township are expected to be present and to vote, while anyone may introduce motions or take part in the discussion. … The town-meeting is held in the town-house, but at first it used to be held in the church, which was thus a 'meeting-house' for civil as well as ecclesiastical purposes. At the town-meeting measures relating to the administration of town affairs are discussed and adopted or rejected; appropriations are made for the public expenses of the town, or in other words the amount of the town taxes for the year is determined; and town officers are elected for the year. … The principal executive magistrates of the town are the selectmen. They are three, five, seven, or nine in number. … It [the town] was simply the English parish government brought into a new country and adapted to the new situation. Part of this new situation consisted in the fact that the lords of the manor were left behind. There was no longer any occasion to distinguish between the township as a manor and the township as a parish; and so, as the three names had all lived on together, side by side, in England, it was now the oldest and most generally descriptive name, 'township,' that survived, and has come into use throughout a great part of the United States. … New York had from the very beginning the rudiments of an excellent system of local self-government. The Dutch villages had their assemblies, which under the English rule were developed into town-meetings, though with less ample powers than those of New England. … The New York system is of especial interest, because it has powerfully influenced the development of local institutions throughout the Northwest."

J. Fiske, Civil Government in the United States, chapters 2 and 4.

"The name town first occurs in the record of the second colonial meeting of the Court of Assistants [Massachusetts Bay, September 7, 1630], in connection with the naming of Boston, Charlestown and Watertown. … A rude pattern of a frame of town government was shaped by Dorchester, when, in place of the earlier practice of transacting business at meetings of the whole body of its freemen (the grants of land being certified by a committee consisting of the clergymen and deacons), it designated certain inhabitants, twelve in number, to meet weekly, and consult and determine upon public affairs,—without any authority, however, beyond other inhabitants who should choose to come and take part in their consultations and votes. About the same time, at Watertown, it was 'agreed by the consent of the freemen, that there should be three persons chosen for the ordering of the civil affairs.' In the fourth year from the settlement of Boston, at which time the earliest extant records were made, three persons were chosen 'to make up the ten to manage the affairs of the town.' The system of delegated town action was there perhaps the same which was defined in an 'Order made by the inhabitants of Charlestown, at a full meeting [February 10, 1635], for the government of the town by Selectmen,'—the name presently extended throughout New England to the municipal governors. … {3121} The towns have been, on the one hand, separate governments, and, on the other, the separate constituents of a common government. In Massachusetts, for two centuries and a quarter, the Deputies in the General Court—or Representatives, as they have been named under the State Constitution—continued to represent the municipal corporations. In New Hampshire, Vermont, Connecticut and Rhode Island, that basis of representation still subsists."

J. G. Palfrey, History of New England, volume 1, chapter 9.

"Boston … is the largest community that ever maintained the town organization, probably the most generally able and intelligent. No other town ever played so conspicuous a part in connection with important events. It led Massachusetts, New England, the thirteen colonies, in the struggle for independence. Probably in the whole history of the Anglo-Saxon race, there has been no other so interesting manifestation of the activity of the Folk-mote. Of this town of towns, Samuel Adams was the son of sons. … One may almost call him the creature of the town-meeting."

J. K. Hosmer, Samuel Adams, the Man of the Town-Meeting (Johns Hopkins University Studies, series 2, number 4).

ALSO IN: E. Channing, Town and County Government in the English Colonies (Johns Hopkins University Studies, series 2, number 10).

See, also, NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1640-1644; and SELECTMEN.

TOWTON, Battle of (A. D. 1461).

On Palm Sunday, March 29, 1461, two armies of Englishmen met on a "goodly plain," ten miles from the city of York, between the villages of Towton and Saxton, to fight out the contention of the parties of the "two roses,"—of Lancaster and York. The battle they fought is called the bloodiest that ever dyed English soil. It raged through an afternoon and 'a night until the following day, and the slain of the two sides has been variously reckoned by different historians at 20,000 to 38,000. No quarter was given by the victorious partisans of Edward IV. and the Lancastrians were utterly crushed. Henry VI. fled to Scotland and Queen Margaret repaired to France.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1455-1471.

C. Ransome, Battle of Towton (English Historical Review, July, 1889).

TOXANDRIA.

After Julian's successful campaigns against the Franks, A. D. 358, the latter were permitted to remain, as subjects of the Roman Empire, in "an extensive district of Brabant, which was then known by the appellation of Toxandria, and may deserve to be considered as the original seat of their Gallic monarchy. … This name seems to be derived from the 'Toxandri' of Pliny, and very frequently occurs in the histories of the middle age. Toxandria was a country of woods and morasses, which extended from the neighbourhood of Tongres to the conflux of the Vahal and the Rhine."

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 19, with foot-note.

See, also, GAUL: A. D. 355-361.

TOXARCHI, The.

The commanders of the Athenian archers and of the city-watch (known as Scythians) were so called.

A. Boeckh, Public Economy of Athens, book 2, chapter 11.

TRACHIS. TRACHINIA.

See GREECE: B. C. 480 (THERMOPYLÆ).

TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT. TRACTS FOR THE TIMES. TRACT NINETY.

See OXFORD OR TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT.

TRADES UNIONS.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS.

TRAFALGAR, Naval Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1805 (MARCH-DECEMBER).

TRAJAN, Roman Emperor, A. D. 98-117.

TRAJAN'S WALL.

The Emperor Trajan "began a fortified line, afterwards completed, from the Rhine to the Danube. This great work was carried from Ratisbon to Mayence. It was known as Trajan's Wall. It may still be traced to some extent by the marks of a mound and a ditch."

Church and Brodribb, Notes to the Germany of Tacitus, chapter 29.

TRAMELI, The.

See LYCIANS.

TRANSALPINE.

Beyond the Alps, looking from the Roman standpoint.

TRANSLEITHANIA.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1866-1867.

TRANSOXANIA.

See BOKHARA.

TRANSPADANE GAUL.

Cisalpine Gaul north of the Padus, or Po.

See PADUS.

TRANSRHENANE.

Beyond the Rhine,—looking from the Roman standpoint; that is, on the eastern and northern side of the Rhine.

TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC, The.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1806-1881.

TRANSYLVANIA: Early history.

See DACIA.

TRANSYLVANIA: The Huns in possession.

See HUNS: A. D. 433-453.

TRANSYLVANIA: 12th Century. Conquest by Hungary. Settlement of Germans.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1114-1301.

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1526-1567. John Zapolya, the waivod, elected King of Hungary. His contest with Ferdinand of Austria. His appeal to the Turks. The Sultan assumes suzerainty of the country.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1526-1567.

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1567-1660. Struggles between the Austrian and the Turk.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1567-1604; and 1606-1660.

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1575. Stephen Batory, the Duke, elected King of Poland.

See POLAND: A. D. 1574-1590.

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D: 1599-1601. Wallachian conquest.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES, 14-18TH CENTURIES (ROUMANIA, ETC.).

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1606. Yoke of the Ottomans partly broken.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1595-1606.

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1660-1664. Recovery of independence from the Turks.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1660-1664.

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1699. Ceded to the House of Austria by the Turks, in the Treaty of Carlowitz.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1683-1699.

TRANSYLVANIA, The Kentucky colony of.

See KENTUCKY: A. D. 1765-1778.

TRAPPISTS.

The monks of La Trappe are often referred to as Trappists. "This celebrated abbey was one of the most ancient belonging to the Order of Cisteaux [the Cistercians]. It was established [A. D. 1140] by Rotrou, the second count of Perche, and undertaken to accomplish a vow made whilst in peril of shipwreck." In the 17th century the monks had become scandalous]y degenerate and dissolute. Their institution was reformed by M. de Rancé, who assumed the direction as abbot in 1662, and who introduced the severe discipline for which the monastery was afterwards famous. Among its rules was one of absolute silence.

C. Lancelot, A Tour to Alet and La Grande Chartreuse, volume 1, pages 113-186.

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TRASIMENE, Lake, Battle of (B. C. 217).

See PUNIC WARS: THE SECOND.

TRASTEVERE.

Trastevere was a suburb of Rome "as early as the time of Augustus; it now contains the oldest houses in Rome, which belong to the 11th and 12th centuries."

B. G. Niebuhr, Lectures on ancient Ethnography and Geography, volume 2, page 103.

TRAUSI, The.

See THRACIANS.

TRAVENDAHL, Treaty of (1700).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES: A. D. 1697-1700.

TRAVENSTADT, Battle of (1706).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1701-1707.

TREASON.

See MAJESTAS.

TREATIES.

The Treaties of which account is given in this work are so numerous that no convenience would be served by collecting references to them under this general heading. They are severally indexed under the names by which they are historically known.

TREATY PORTS, The.

See CHINA: A. D. 1839-1812.

TREBIA, TREBBIA, Battle of the.

See PUNIC WARS: THE SECOND.

Battle.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER).

TREBIZOND: Origin of the city.

"Trebizond, celebrated in the retreat of the Ten Thousand as an ancient colony of Greeks, derived its wealth and splendour from the munificence of the Emperor Hadrian, who had constructed an artificial port on a coast left destitute by nature of secure harbours. The city was large and populous."

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 10.

TREBIZOND: A. D. 258. Capture by the Goths.

See GOTHS: A. D. 258-267.

TREBIZOND: A. D. 1204-1461. The Greek empire.

"The empire of Trebizond was the creation of accident. … The destruction of a distant central government, when Constantinople was conquered by the Frank Crusaders, left [the] provincial administration without the pivot on which it had revolved. The conjuncture was seized by a young man, of whom nothing was known but that he bore a great name, and was descended from the worst tyrant in the Byzantine annals, This youth grasped the vacant sovereignty, and, merely by assuming the imperial title, and placing himself at the head of the local administration, founded a new empire. Power changed its name and its dwelling, but the history of the people was hardly modified. The grandeur of the empire of Trebizond exists only in romance. Its government owed its permanence to its being nothing more than a continuation of a long-established order of civil polity, and to its making no attempt to effect any social revolution." The young man who grasped the sovereignty of this Asiatic fragment of the shattered Byzantine empire was Alexius, a grandson of Andronicus I., the last emperor at Constantinople of the family of Comnenos. This Alexius and his brother David, who had been raised in obscurity at Constantinople, escaped from the city before it was taken by the Crusaders, and fled to the coast of Colchis, "where their paternal aunt, Thamar, possessed wealth and influence. Assisted by her power, and by the memory of their tyrannical grandfather, who had been popular in the east of Asia Minor, they were enabled to collect an army of Iberian mercenaries. At the head of this force Alexios entered Trebizond in the month of April 1204, about the time Constantinople fell into the hands of the Crusaders. He had been proclaimed emperor by his army on crossing the frontier. To mark that he was the legitimate representative of the imperial family of Komnenos, and to prevent his being confounded with the numerous descendants of females, or with the family of the emperor Alexius III. (Angelos), who had arrogated to themselves his name, he assumed the designation of Grand-Komnenos. Wherever he appeared, he was acknowledged as the lawful sovereign of the Roman empire." For a time Alexius of Trebizond, with the help of his brother David, extended his dominions in Asia Minor with rapidity and ease, and he was brought very soon into collision with the other Greek emperor, Theodore Lascaris, who had established himself at Nicæa. It seemed likely, at first, that Trebizond would become the dominant power; but the movement of events which favored that one of the rival empires was presently stayed, and then reversed, even though Alexius took aid from the Latin emperor at Constantinople. Not many years later, in fact, the empire of Trebizond evaded extinction at the hands of the Turkish Sultan of Iconium, or Roum, only by paying tribute and acknowledging vassalage to that sovereign. For sixty years the so-called empire continued in a tributary relationship to the Seljuk sultans and to the grand khan of the Mongols who overthrew them in 1244. But, if not a very substantial empire during that period, it seems to have formed an exceedingly prosperous and wealthy commercial power, controlling not only a considerable coast territory on its own side of the Euxine, but also Cherson, Gothia, and all the Byzantine possessions in the Tauric Chersonesos; and "so close was the alliance of interest that these districts remained dependent on the government of Trebizond until the period of its fall." On the decline of the Mongol power, the empire of Trebizond regained its independence in 1280, and maintained it for nearly a century, when it was once more compelled to pay tribute to the later Mongol conqueror, Timur. At the end of the 14th century the little "empire" was reduced to a strip of coast, barely forty miles wide, extending from Batoun to Kerasunt, and the separated city of Oinaion, with some territory adjoining it. But, within this small compass, "few countries in Europe enjoyed as much internal tranquility, or so great security for private property." The commerce of Trebizond had continued to flourish, notwithstanding frequent quarrels and hostilities with the Genoese, who were the chief managers of its trade with the west. But the decay of the empire, politically, commercially, and morally, was rapid in its later years. First becoming tributary to the Ottoman conqueror of Constantinople, it finally shared the fate of the Byzantine capital. The city of Trebizond was surrendered to Mohammed II. in 1461. Its last emperor, David, was permitted to live for a time, with his family, in the European dominions of the Turk; but after a few years, on some suspicion of a plot, he was put to death with his seven sons, and their bodies were cast unburied to the dogs. The wife and mother of the dead—the fallen empress Helena—guarded them and dug a grave for them with her own hands. The Christian population of Trebizond was expelled from the city and mostly enslaved. Its place was taken by a Moslem colony.