Part 2 — CHAPTER IV. Concerning the infallible teaching of the Roman Pontiff: (continued 83)

E. Fischel, The English Constitution, book 7, chapter 9.

"By the 33 & 34 Vict. c. 23, forfeiture and attainder for treason or felony have been abolished."

T. P. Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History, chapter 10 (2d edition, page 393), foot-note.

—————AUSTRIA: Start————

AUSTRIA: A. D. 1273-1349. The House of Hapsburgh in the earlier period of its fortunes.

"It was just now [1273] that the German monarchy received once more a real king [in the person of Rudolph of Hapsburgh]. It is evident that Ottocar's remarkable rise into power was due essentially to the previous excessive weakness of German kingship. He had acquired Austria and Styria by doubtful right according to German notions, Carinthia and Carniola without any acquiescence at all on the part of the empire. … In the election of Rudolph he was not willing to take part and afterwards he refused him recognition. No wonder that from the very beginning the German princes felt the necessity of driving him from his usurped position. … For the German cause it was the greatest gain that through Ottocar's fall (1278) room was won on the Middle Danube for a national rule: the House of Austria was enabled there to found that power which played so great a part in the world's history. The victory on the marchfeld was a victory of the renewed imperial might over a recalcitrant vassal whose power had extended the due measure of that of a prince of the realm. Looked at in this light the fall of Ottocar reminds one of the fall of Henry the Lion a hundred years before; the gain for Rudolph, however, was still greater and more essential than it had been at that former time for Frederick I. His position was for the first time now actually assured; for if the battle had resulted unfavorably it is doubtful if he could have continued to command obedience. Besides this the possibility presented itself now of using the position of ruler, conferred on him personally, to the lasting advantage of his house; at the same time he could only go to work in the matter very slowly and cautiously. … At his departure from these parts in 1281 he conferred the regency in Austria proper and in the other lands to his own son Albrecht. The latter appears already as a matured man with a certain talent for ruling. He overthrew all those who opposed them but, having done this, he bore no malice and cherished no hostility. No one could be in doubt but that for Albrecht, and for his house altogether, the king thought to found there a separate territorial principality. To begin with, the fiefs which the dukes of Austria had held of the neighboring bishoprics, especially the Bavarian ones, were conferred by Rudolph on his sons, other privileges in compensation being granted to the bishoprics. The consent of the electors, according to the new order of things, was necessary in such a case, and the king next sought to gain them over. … On December 27, 1282, he invested his sons Albrecht and Rudolph in common with Austria, Styria, Carniola and the Windischmark. … {3686} At the request of the Estates of those lands, who wished neither a joint rule nor a separation from each other, Rudolph in 1283 invested his son Albrecht alone with those four provinces. To the younger Rudolph the promise of another appanage or at least of a compensation was held out—a fatal matter! For the son of this Rudolph was John the Parricide. It was an event of the greatest import that in these south-eastern marks of the empire the Babenbergers were replaced by the Hapsburghs. The latter now, in consequence of their all-decisive victory, turned their attention at the same time to Bohemia and Hungary. Although neither in the one land nor the other did they now actually attain their goal, yet their efforts in this direction deserve our close attention as being the first tokens of a policy that was most strongly to affect the world's history. … One sees, even in these unsuccessful attempts, the bold dynastic ambition of King Rudolph; the kingdom of Arles, also, he had had in view for one of his sons. The acquisition of Austria alone, indeed, marks an epoch in itself; all the more so as only through this did he gain the prestige which he needed to enable him to do justice to his task as king of Germany. If this task be regarded as having consisted chiefly in restoring and maintaining the public peace after thirty years of utter confusion, then, indeed, he showed himself completely equal to it. … In short, through valor and steadfastness he strongly, in internal matters, upheld the power of the empire. Rebellions, indeed, were not wanting; now the archbishop of Cologne, now the duke of Savoy revolted; now Bern or Colmar, now the counts in Suabia and Burgundy. He overcame and humbled them all. … He was a very tall, thin man, pale of countenance and with very little hair on his small head; in all things moderate and of a genial nature as was shown by his offering to become the guest of artisans and by his darning his own doublet. … When giving Austria to his son Albrecht who was to try and establish here a dynastic power (Hausmacht), Rudolph had really intended to give the German crown to his younger son, Rudolph, and he might have put this through had not this son died before himself. In May 1291 the king then held a diet at Frankfort for the purpose of inducing the electors now to give their vote to his son Albrecht. This he was unable to bring about and with his hopes unrealized he died on the 15th of July 1291. … After long preliminary negotiations between the separate electors … the election took place on May 5th, 1292. Albrecht had not yet abandoned hope and had appeared in the vicinity. … The electors laid down the principle that it was not right for the son to directly follow the father on the throne of the empire. … They chose again a simple count, Adolphus of Nassau. … The less Adolphus fulfilled the expectations of his electors … the more did he lose his authority. … In short it appears that Adolphus's whole attitude, his league with England, his conception of the rights of the empire, the way he insulted ecclesiastical and secular princes, his policy with regard to the majority of the cities, caused a general ferment. … It was at a great assembly of princes in Prague, where Mainz, Bohemia, Brandenburg and Saxony met together that Albrecht's influence began to gain the upper hand. Albrecht promised, in case he should become king, to give to King Wenzel the conquests made by Adolphus in Meissen. Albrecht and all his friends then girded themselves up to conquer the empire. In April 1298 we find him in Alsace opposing Adolphus who, however, still had the upper hand. The archbishop of Mainz then summoned the electors to Mainz for June 15 to consult about the disturbances in the empire. … They determined now to depose the king whom they had elected. This was done in the Thiergarten near Mainz on June 23, 1298. … The battle for the possession of the empire took place on July 2nd at Göllheim, where a stone cross still marks the spot. … The kings wore the same coat-of-arms—yellow with a black eagle—and bore the same banner. According to one account, for which Albert of Strassburg is voucher, they came into hand to hand conflict with each other. Adolphus cried out: 'Here you will relinquish the Empire!' Albrecht answered 'The decision lies in the hand of God.' The one-eyed Albrecht struck the surer blow, hitting his antagonist directly over the eye. The blood ran down Adolphus s face; he fell and died. Albrecht would never acknowledge that he had been the slayer of the Lord's anointed. Be that as it may he won the crown for himself on the battle-field. … Albrecht is altogether a striking figure in German history. Everywhere, in the lowest plains of Switzerland or in the highest mountains of Switzerland he is busy in founding his dynastic power. Under him the House of Austria made a vigorous beginning in the matter of establishing a great and extensive authority in all parts of the empire. … It was fatal for him that the harsh want of consideration which forms the chief feature of his sway as a statesman should have raised up a murderer against him in his own immediate vicinity—in the person of his own nephew."

L. Ranke, Weltgeschichte (translated from the German), volume 8, pages 566-601.

See, also, AUSTRIA (pages 199-201).

AUSTRIA: A. D. 1648-1715. Relations with Germany and France. See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1648-1715.

AUSTRIA: A. D. 1780-1790. Joseph II., the enthroned Philosopher.

"The prince who best sums up the spirit of the century, is not Frederic [the Great, of Prussia), it is Joseph II. [the emperor]. Frederic was born a master, Joseph II. a disciple, and it is by disciples that we judge schools. The king of Prussia dammed up the waters, directed their flow, made use of the current: the emperor cast himself upon them and permitted himself to be carried. With Frederic the statesman always dominates, it is he who proposes and finally decides; the philosopher is subordinate: he furnishes to the results brought about by policy their abstract cause for existence and their theoretical justification. With Joseph II. rational conception precedes political calculation and governs it. He had breadth of mind, but his mind was superficial; ideas slipped from it. He had a taste for generosity, a passion for grandeur; but there was nothing profound in him but ambition, and it was all counter-stroke and reflection. He wished to surpass Frederic; his entire conduct was but an awkward, imprudent and ill-advised imitation of this prince whom he had made his hero, whom history made his rival and whom he copied while detesting him. {3687} The political genius of Frederic was born of good sense and moderation: there was nothing in Joseph II. but the immoderate. He was a man of systems: he had only great velleities. His education was mediocre, and, as to methods, entirely jesuitical. Into this contracted mould he cast confusedly notions hastily borrowed from the philosophers of France, from the economists especially. He thus formed a very vague ideal of political aspirations and an exaggerated sense of the power at his disposition to realize them. 'Since I ascended the throne and have worn the first crown of the world,' wrote he in 1781, 'I have made Philosophy the lawmaker of my empire. Her logical applications are going to transform Austria.' He undertakes reforms in every direction at once. History is null for him, traditions do not count, nor do facts acquired. There is no race, nor period, nor surrounding circumstances: there is the State which is everything and can do everything. He writes in 1782, to the bishop of Strasbourg: 'In a kingdom governed conformably to my principles, prejudice, fanaticism, bondage of mind must disappear, and each of my subjects must be reinstated in the possession of his natural rights.' He must have unity, and, as a first condition, the rejection of all previous ideas. Chance makes him operate on a soil the most heterogeneous, the most incoherent, the most cut up, parceled out and traversed by barriers, that there is in Europe. Nothing in common among his subjects, neither language, nor traditions, nor interests. It is from this, according to him, that the defect of monarchy arises. 'The German language is the universal language of my empire. I am the emperor of Germany, the states which I possess are provinces which form but one body with the State of which I am the head. If the kingdom of Hungary were the most important of my possessions, I should not hesitate to impose its tongue on the other countries.' So he imposes the German language on the Hungarians, the Croats, the Tchèques, the Poles, on all the Slavs. He suppresses the ancient territorial divisions; they recall the successive agglomerations, the irregular alluvions which had formed the monarchy; he establishes thirteen governments and divides them into circles. The diets disappear; the government passes into the hands of intendants according to the French formula. In the cities the burgomaster appointed by the government becomes a functionary. The nobles lose the part, already much curtailed, that they still had, here and there, in the government. He taxes them, he taxes the ecclesiastics; he meditates establishing a tax proportional to incomes and reaching all classes. He protects the peasants, alleviates serfdom, diminishes the corvées, builds hospitals, schools above all, in which the state will form pupils to obey her. His ideal would be the equality of his subjects under the uniform sway of his government. He unifies the laws; he institutes courts of appeal with a supreme court for the entire empire. He makes regulations for manufactures, binds commerce to the most rigorous protective system. Finally he puts a high hand on the church and decrees tolerance. … This immense revolution was accomplished by means of decrees, in less than five years. If we compare the state of cohesion which the Bourbon government had brought about in France in 1789, with the incoherence of the Austrian monarchy on the death of Maria Theresa in 1780, it will be seen that the revolution which caused the Constituent Assembly was a small matter compared with that which Joseph II. intended to effect."

A. Sorel, L'Europe et la Rêvolution française (translated from the French), part 1, pages 119-122.

—————AUSTRIA: End————

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, Libraries of.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).

AUSTRIAN SCHOOLS.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 709).

AVICENNA AND ARABIAN MEDICAL SCIENCE.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 7-11TH CENTURIES (page 2130).

B.

BÂB, The.

The word Bâb, "meaning, in Arabic, 'a gate,' is the title of a hero of our own days, the founder, if not of a new religion, at least of a new phase of religious belief. His history, with that of his first followers, as told by M. le Comte de Gobineau in his 'Religions et Philosophies dans l'Asie Centrale,' presents a picture of steadfast adherence to truth (as they held it), of self-denial, of joyful constancy in the face of bitterest suffering, torture and death, as vivid and touching as any that are found in the records of the heroic days of old. … Among the crowd of pilgrims who flocked to Mecca in the summer of 1843 was a youth who had then hardly completed his nineteenth year. He had come from the far distant city of Shiraz, where his family held an honourable position, claiming, indeed, to trace their descent from the great Prophet himself. Thoughtful and devout from his childhood, Mirza Ali Mohammed had zealously and regularly practised all religious duties considered binding on an orthodox Mussulman. He had received a liberal education, and while still a mere boy had eagerly examined and weighed every new set of ideas with which he came in contact. Christians, Jews, Fire-worshippers—he conversed with them all, and studied their books. … Up to the time of his visiting the shrine of the Prophet there had been no indication of any departure from the faith of his fathers. But this pilgrimage, instead of confirming his faith in Islam, had a quite contrary effect. While still in the holy city, and still more on the return journey, he had begun to confide to a select few views which attracted and delighted them, not more, perhaps, by their breadth and freedom than by the vague mystery in which they were still wrapped. His decisive breach with the old faith was not far distant. … Arrived at Shiraz, his first overt act was to present to his friends his earliest written works. These were two: a journal of his pilgrimage and a commentary on a part of the Korân. In the latter the readers were amazed and charmed to find meanings and teachings of which they had never dreamed before. From this time he began to teach more publicly; and day by day larger crowds flocked around him. {3688} In public he still spoke with reverence of the Prophet and his laws; while in more private conferences he imparted to his disciples those new ideas which were, perhaps, not yet very clearly defined in his own mind. Very soon he had gathered round him a little band of devoted followers, ardently attached to himself, and ready to sacrifice wealth, life, all, in the cause of truth. And throughout the great empire men began everywhere to hear of the fame of Mirza Ali Mohammed. There was much in the young teacher himself, apart from the subject of his teaching, to account for this rapid success. Of blameless life; simple in his habits; strict and regular in all pious observances, he had already a weight of character to which his extreme youth added a tenfold interest. But in addition to these things, he was gifted with striking beauty of person, and with that subtle, winning sweetness of manner so often possessed by leaders of men, and to which, more than to the most weighty arguments, they have often owed their power. … Ere long, Mirza assumed the title by which he has since been known throughout Persia—the Bâb—that is, the Door, the only one through which men can reach the knowledge of God. It may be well to give here an outline of what the Bâb did teach. He believed in one God, eternal, unchangeable, Creator of all things, and into whom all shall finally be reabsorbed. He taught that God reveals His will to men by a series of messengers, who, while truly men, are not mere men, but also divine; that each of these messengers—Moses, Jesus, Mohammed—is the medium of some new truth, higher than that brought by the one who preceded him; that he himself, the Bâb, though claiming divine honours while he lived, was but the forerunner of one greater than he, the great Revealer—'He whom God shall manifest, who should complete the revelation of all truth, and preside at the final judgment, at which all the good shall be made one with God, and all evil annihilated. One of the most marked and singular characteristics of his system is the prominence given in it to that mysterious and fanciful theory of numbers which had always had so great a charm for him. Taking various forms of the name of God—'ahyy,' meaning 'the giver of life'; 'wahed,' 'the only One'; or that which is a most sacred formula, 'Bismillah elemna elegdous,' 'in the name of God, highest and holiest'—he shows that the letters composing each of those names, taken by their numerical value, make up the number 19. This he therefore concludes is the number which lies at the foundation of all things in heaven and earth, the harmony of the universe, the number which must rule in all earthly arrangements. The year should have 19 months, the month 19 days, the day 19 hours. … There are three points in particular in which the reforms proposed by the Bâb cannot fail, so far as they gain ground, to have a mighty effect on society. In the first place, he abolished polygamy; that is, he so strongly discountenanced it that his followers universally regard it as a prohibition. In close connection—almost as a necessary accompaniment of this—he forbade divorce; that festering sore which corrupts the mass of Persian society to its very heart, and makes pure family life almost impossible. His third revolutionary step was in the same direction. He abolished the veiling of the women. … While the fame and popularity of the young preacher were daily increasing, his bold exposure of the vices of the clergy aroused against him their bitterest enmity." This hostility soon became influential enough to prevail on the king and his ministers to silence the Bâb. Mirza was placed under confinement in his own house; but a chosen band of apostles went forth to do missionary work throughout the empire, and their success was great. Ere long, they began to combine political with religious aims, and one of them, Moulla Houssein, organized a movement which assumed a revolutionary character and spread to formidable proportions. The government became greatly alarmed, and an energetic minister took measures to suppress the Bâbys, which was done with merciless vigor. The Bâb, himself, though he had taken no part in the political doings of his disciples, and had remained a quiet prisoner on parole at Shiraz, was put to death, after being brutally exposed for several hours to the insults of a mob. This was in 1851. The following year witnessed the martyrdom of a large number of the surviving Bâbys of prominence, all of whom died for their faith without shrinking—as exalted in spirit, it would seem, as the early Christian martyrs. But Bâbism was not extinguished. It is said to have spread secretly and continually throughout Persia, and to be of unknown extent at the present day."

M. F. Wilson, The Story of the Bâb (Contemporary Review, December, 1885).

BABŒUF, Conspiracy of.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1753-1797 (page 2934).

BABYLONIA: Captivity of the Jews.

See JEWS: B. C. 604-536; and 537 (page 1907).

BABYLONIA: Commerce.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, ANCIENT.

BABYLONIA: Education, ancient.

See EDUCATION, ANCIENT (page 674).

BABYLONIA: Libraries.

See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2000).

BABYLONIA: Medical Science.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE, BABYLONIAN (page 2122).

BABYLONIA: Money and banking.

See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2199).

BACK, Captain, Northern explorations of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1833-1835; and 1836-1837.

BACTERIOLOGY, Development of the science of.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 19TH CENTURY (page 2146).

BALOCHISTAN, BALUCHISTAN.

"Balochistan, in the modern acceptation of the term, may be said, in a general sense, to include all that tract of country which has for its northern and north-eastern boundary the large kingdom of Afghanistan, its eastern frontier being limited by the British province of Sindh, and its western by the Persian State, while the Arabian Sea washes its southern base for a distance of nearly six hundred miles. … In area Balochistan had long been supposed to cover in its entirety quite 160,000 square miles, but the latest estimates do not raise it higher than 140,000 square miles, of which 60,000 are said to belong to what is termed Persian Balochistan, and the remaining 80,000 to Kalāti Balochistan, or that portion which is more or less directly under the rule of the Brāhui Khān of Kalāt. … {3689} Balochistan may be said to be inhabited chiefly by the Baloch tribe, the most numerous in the country, and this name was given to the tract they occupy by the great Persian monarch, Nadir Shah, who, as St. John remarks, after driving the Afghan invaders from Persia, made himself master in his turn of the whole country west of the Indus, and placed a native chief over the new province, formed out of the districts bounded on the north and south by the Halmand valley and the sea, and stretching from Karmān on the west to Sindh on the east. This newly formed province he called Balochistan, or, the country of the Baloch, from the name of the most widely spread and numerous, though not the dominant, tribe. According to Masson, who, it must be admitted, had more ample opportunities of obtaining correct information on this subject than any other European, the Balochis are divided into three great classes, viz., (1) the Brahuis; (2) the Rinds; and (3) the Lumris (or Numris); but this must be taken more in the sense of inhabitants of Balochistan than as divisions of a tribe, since the Brahuis are of a different race and language and call the true Balochis 'Nhāruis,' in contradistinction to themselves as 'Brahuis.' … The origin of the word 'Baloch' is evidently involved in some obscurity, and has given rise to many different interpretations. Professor Rawlinson supposes it to be derived from Belūs, king of Babylon, the Nimrod of Holy Writ, and that from 'Kush,' the father of Nimrod, comes the name of the Kalāti eastern district, 'Kachh.' Pottinger believes the Balochis to be of Turkoman lineage, and this from a similarity in their institutions, habits, religion—in short, in everything but their language, for which latter anomaly, however, he has an explanation to offer. But be this as it may, the very tribe themselves ascribe their origin to the earliest Muhammadan invaders of Persia, and are extremely desirous of being supposed to be of Arab extraction. They reject with scorn all idea of being of the same stock as the Afghan. They may possibly be of Iranian descent, and the affinity of their language, the Balochki, to the Persian, bears out this supposition; but the proper derivation of the word 'Baloch' still remains an open question. … The Brahuis, who, as a race, are very numerous in Balochistan, Pottinger considers to be a nation of Tartar mountaineers, who settled at a very early period in the southern parts of Asia, where they led an ambulatory life in Khels, or societies, headed and governed by their own chiefs and laws for many centuries, till at length they became incorporated and attained their present footing at Kalāt and throughout Balochistan generally. Masson supposes that the word 'Brahui' is a corruption of Ba-roh-i, meaning, literally, of the waste; and that that race entered Balochistan originally from the west. … The country may be considered as divided into two portions—the one, Kalāti Balochistan, or that either really or nominally under the rule of the Khān of Kalāt; and the other as Persian Balochistan, or that part which is more or less directly under the domination of the Shah of Persia. Of the government of this latter territory, it will suffice to say that it is at present administered by the Governor of Bam-Narmashir, a deputy of the Kermān Governor; but the only district that is directly under Persian rule is that of Banpur—the rest of the country, says St. John, is left in charge of the native chiefs, who, in their turn, interfere but little with the heads of villages and tribes. … It would … appear that the supremacy of the Shah over a very large portion of the immense area (60,000 square miles) known as Persian Balochistan is more nominal than real, and that the greater number of the chiefs only pay revenue to their suzerain when compelled to do so. As regards Kalāti Balochistan, the government is, so to speak, vested hereditarily in the Brahui Khān of Kalāt, but his sovereignty in the remote portions of his extensive territory (80,000 square miles), though even in former times more nominal than real, is at the present moment still more so, owing to the almost constant altercations and quarrels which take place between the reigning Khān and his Sardārs, or chiefs. … In … the modern history of Kalāti Balochistan under the present dynasty, extending from about the commencement of the 18th century, when Abdula Khān was ruler, down to the present time, a period of, say, nearly 180 years, there is not much to call for remark. Undoubtedly the Augustan age of Balochistan was the reign of the first Nasir Khān [1755-1795], the Great Nasir, as he is to this day called by the Balochis. Of his predecessors little seems to be known; they were indeed simply successful robbers on a large scale, with but few traces of any enlightened policy to gild over a long succession of deeds of lawlessness, rapine, and bloodshed. … Had his successors been of the same stamp and metal as himself, the Kalāti kingdom of to-day would not perhaps show that anarchy and confusion which are now its most striking characteristics."

A. W. Hughes, The Country of Balochistan, pages 2-48, and 285.

BANKING, History of.

See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2198).

BANKS, Nathaniel P. His election to the Speakership.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1855-1856 (page 3396).

BAPTIST CHURCH, The first in Rhode Island.

See RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1639 (page 2641).

BAPTISTS.

The name 'Baptist' was not a self-chosen one. In the early Reformation time those who withdrew from the dominant churches because of the failure of these churches to discriminate between the church and the world, between the regenerate and the unregenerate, and who sought to organize churches of believers only, laid much stress on the lack of Scriptural warrant for the baptism of infants and on the incompatibility of infant baptism with regenerate membership. Following what they believed to be apostolic precept and example, they made baptism on a profession of faith a condition of church-fellowship. This rejection of infant baptism and this insistence on believers' baptism were so distinctive of these Christians that they were stigmatized as 'Anabaptists,' 'Catabaptists,' and sometimes as simply 'Baptists'; that is to say, they were declared to be 'rebaptizers,' 'perverters of baptism,' or, as unduly magnifying baptism and making it the occasion of schism, simply 'baptizers.' These party names they earnestly repudiated, preferring to call themselves Brethren, Christians, Disciples of Christ, Believers, etc. … {3690} Baptists have, for the most part, been at one with the Roman Catholic, the Greek Catholic, and most Protestant communions in accepting for substance the so-called Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, not, however, because they are venerable or because of the decisions of ecclesiastical councils, but because, and only in so far as, they have appeared to them to be in accord with Scripture. … As regards the set of doctrines on which Augustin differed from his theological predecessors, and modern Calvinists from Arminians, Baptists have always been divided. … The great majority of the Baptists of today hold to what may be called moderate Calvinism, or Calvinism tempered with the evangelical anti-Augustinianism which came through the Moravian Brethren to Wesley and by him was brought powerfully to bear on all bodies of evangelical Christians. Baptists are at one with the great Congregational body and with most of the minor denominations as regards church government."

A. H. Newman, A. History of the Baptist Churches in the United States, introduction.

"Baptist principles are discoverable in New England from the very earliest colonial settlements. The Puritans of Plymouth had mingled with the Dutch Baptists during the ten years of their sojourn in Holland, and some of them seem to have brought over Baptist tendencies even in the Mayflower. Dutch Baptists had emigrated to England and extended their principles there; and from time to time a persecuted Baptist in England sought refuge in America, and, planted here, brought forth fruit after his kind. But as every offshoot of these principles here was so speedily and vigorously beaten down by persecution, and especially as, after the banishment of Roger Williams, there was an asylum a few miles distant, just over Narraganset Bay, where every persecuted man could find liberty of conscience, Baptist principles made little progress in the New England colonies, except Rhode Island, for the first hundred and twenty years. A little church of Welsh Baptists was founded in Rehoboth, near the Rhode Island line, in 1663, and shortly afterwards was compelled by civil force to remove to Swanzea, where, as it was distant from the centres of settlement, it was suffered to live without very much molestation. It still exists, the oldest Baptist church in the State. In 1665, the First Baptist Church in Boston was organized, and, alone, for almost a century, withstood the fire of persecution,—ever in the flames, yet never quite consumed. In 1693, a second church was constituted in Swanzea, not as a Regular, but as a Six-Principle, Baptist Church. In 1705, a Baptist church was formed in Groton, Connecticut. These four churches, three Regular and one Six-Principle, having in the aggregate probably less than two hundred members, were all the Baptist churches in New England outside of Rhode Island previous to the Great Awakening."

D. Weston. Early Baptists in Massachusetts (The Baptists and the National Centenary), pages 12-18.

"The representative Baptists of London and vicinity, who in 1689 put forth the Confession of Faith which was afterward adopted by the Philadelphia Association, and is therefore known in this country as the Philadelphia Confession, copied the Westminister Confession word for word, wherever their convictions would permit, and declared that they would thus show wherein they were at one with their brethren, and what convictions of truth made impossible a complete union. And wherever Baptists appeared however or by whomsoever they were opposed, the ground of complaint against them was their principles. Some of these principles were sharply antagonistic to those of existing churches, and also to those on which the civil governments were administered. They were widely disseminated, especially in Holland, England, and Wales, and there were separate churches formed. From purely doctrinal causes also came divisions among 'the Baptized churches' themselves. The most notable one was that in England between the General or Arminian Baptists, and the Particular or Calvinistic Baptists. With the latter division do the Regular Baptists of America hold lineal connection. … The churches of Philadelphia and vicinity kept the closest connection with the mother country, and were most affected by it. In New England, in 'the Great Reformation' under the lead of Jonathan Edwards, there was made from within the Congregational churches a most vigorous assault against their own 'half-way Covenant' in the interest of a pure church. Along his lines of thought he started multitudes who could not stop where he himself remained and would fain have detained them. They separated from the Congregational churches, and were hence called Separates. A large proportion of them became Baptists, and formed themselves into Baptist churches. Through the labors of earnest men who went from them to Carolina and Virginia, their principles were widely disseminated in those and the neighboring colonies, and, in consequence, many churches came into existence."

G. D. B. Pepper, Doctrinal History and Position (The same), pages 51-52.

BARDI, The.

See MONEY AND BANKING (page 2206).

BARENTZ, Voyages of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1594-1595; and 1596-1597.

BARNARD COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION (page 743).

BARRE, Colonel Isaac. Speech against the Stamp Act.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765 (page 3186).

BATTLE, Trial by.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1077, and CRIMINAL: A. D. 1818 (pages 1957 and 1985).

BELCHER, Sir Edward, Franklin search expedition of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1852-1854.

BELGIUM: Constitutional revision of 1893.

See (in this Supplement) CONSTITUTION OF BELGIUM.

BELGIUM: King Leopold's legacy of the Congo State.

See (in this Supplement) AFRICA: 1889.

BELGIUM: Libraries.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).

BELGIUM: Schools.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 709).

BELL TELEPHONE, The invention of the.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: A. D. 1876-1892 (page 776).

BELLAMY, Edward, and the Nationalist Movement.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1888-1893 (page 2956).

BENTHAM, Jeremy, and reforms in the Law of Evidence.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1851 (page 1979).

{3691}

BERNADOTTE: Election to the throne of Sweden.

See (in this Supplement) SWEDEN: A. D. 1810.

BIBLIOTHÈQUE NATIONALE.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: FRANCE (page 2010).

BICHAT, and the progress of physiological science.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 18TH CENTURY (page 2142).

BILL OF ATTAINDER.

See (in this Supplement) ATTAINDER

BILLS OF EXCHANGE.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1603 (page 1968).

BIORKO.

See (in this Supplement), COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL.

BISMARCK'S POLICY AND SPEECHES.

See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1862-1890.

BLACK FRIDAY.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1869 (page 2347).

BLAKE, Admiral Robert, Victories of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1652-1654 (page 885).

BLANC, Louis, and his scheme of stateaided co-operation.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1840-1848 (page 2942).

BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT, The.

"Just when or by whom the acts and proceedings of New Haven colony were first stigmatized as Blue Laws, cannot now be ascertained. The presumption, however, is strong that the name had its origin in New York, and that it gained currency in Connecticut, among episcopalian and other dissenters from the established church, between 1720 and 1750. … In the colony of New Haven, before the union with Connecticut, the privileges of voting and of holding civil office were, by the 'fundamental agreement,' restricted to church-members. This peculiarity of her constitution was enough to give color to the assertion that her legislation was, pre-eminently, blue. That her old record-book contained a code of 'blue laws' which were discreditable to puritanism and which testified to the danger of schism—became, among certain classes, an assured belief. To this imaginary code wit and malice made large additions, sometimes by pure invention, sometimes by borrowing absurd or arbitrary laws from the records of other colonies. And so the myth grew—till the last vestige of truth was lost in fable. The earliest mention of the 'New Haven Blue Laws' that I remember to have seen in print, is in a satirical pamphlet published in 1762, entitled; 'The Real Advantages which Ministers and People may enjoy, especially in the Colonies, by conforming to the Church of England,' etc. … From the manner in which this allusion is introduced it is evident that reproach of New Haven for her 'blue laws' was already a familiar weapon of religious controversy. A few years later—in 1767—William Smith, Chief-Justice of New York, had the curiosity to inspect 'the first records of the colony of New Haven, vulgarly called the Blue Laws.' In the continuation of his history of New York, he gives (p. 93) the result of his examination: 'A note ought not to be suppressed concerning these records, to correct a voice of misplaced ridicule. Few there are, who speak of the Blue Laws, … who do not imagine they form a code of rules for future conduct, drawn up by an enthusiastic, precise set of religionists; and if the inventions of wits, humorists, and buffoons were to be credited, they must consist of many volumes. The author had the curiosity to resort to them, when the Commissaries met at New Haven, for adjusting a partition line between New York and the Massachusetts in 1767; and a parchment-covered book of demi-royal paper was handed to him for the laws asked for, as the only volume in the office passing under this odd title. … It contains the memorials of the first establishment of the colony, which consisted of persons who had wandered beyond the limits of the old charter of the Massachusetts Bay, and who, as yet unauthorized by the crown to set up any civil government in due form of law, resolved to conduct themselves by the Bible. As a necessary consequence, the judges they chose took up an authority similar to that which every religious man exercises over his own children and domestics. Hence their attention to the morals of the people, in instances with which the civil magistrate can never intermeddle under a regular well-policied institution; because, to preserve liberty, they are cognizable only by parental authority. … So far is the common idea of the blue laws being a collection of rules from being true, that they are only records of convictions, consonant, in the judgment of the magistrates, to the word of God, and dictates of reason.' … Occasional allusions to the 'Blue Laws' are found in newspapers and pamphlets printed before the Revolution, but no specimens of the laws so stigmatised seem to have been published before 1781, when 'a sketch of some of them' was given to the world by the Rev. Samuel Peters, in 'A General History of Connecticut, from its First Settlement under George Fenwick, Esq.,' etc.: 'By a Gentleman of the Province:' printed in London, 'for the Author.' … As the sole authority for the only 'New Haven Blue Laws' that are now popularly known by the name, he and his book are entitled here to a larger notice. The late Professor J. L. Kingsley, in the notes to his Historical Discourse at New Haven (1838), was at the pains of pointing out 'a few errors'—as he charitably named them—of 'the work which, more than any other, has given currency to various misrepresentations respecting the New Haven colony:' and in this connection he quoted a remark made by the Rev. Dr. Trumbull, the historian, who was a townsman of Peters and had known him from childhood,—that, 'of all men with whom he had ever been acquainted, Dr. Peters, he had thought, from his first knowledge of him, the least to be depended upon as to any matter of fact, especially in story-telling.' The best excuse that can be made for him is, that he was a victim of pseudomania; that his abhorrence of truth was in fact a disease, and that he was not morally responsible for its outbreaks. He could not keep even his name clear of falsification. It passes into history with doubtful initials and fictitious titles. … In 1774, his obstinate and aggressive toryism rendered him very obnoxious to his neighbors and finally provoked the resentment of the Sons of Liberty. A party of two or three hundred men paid him a visit, threatened him (so he averred) with tar and feathers, handled him somewhat roughly when they detected him in falsehood, and drew from him a promise that he would not again meddle in public affairs. … He found his only comfort in the anticipation that, if his plans of vengeance should succeed, Connecticut might be blotted out: 'the bounds of New York may directly extend to Connecticut river, Boston meet them, New Hampshire take the Province of Maine, and Rhode Island be swallowed up as Dathan.' {3692} In October, 1774, he sailed for England, where he remained until 1805. He obtained a small pension from the crown, and some compensation for the property he professed to have lost in Connecticut: and it was perhaps in the hope of eking out a livelihood, as well as of gratifying his resentment, that he employed his pen in abuse of the colony which gave him birth, and the religion of his fathers. He did not, says Mr. Duykinck, 'carry his point of dismembering Connecticut, but he punished the natives almost as effectually by writing a book—his History of the State.'"

J. H. Trumbull, Introduction to "The True-Blue Laws of Connecticut and New Haven."

"In this 'History' were collected all the extravagant stories that had been set afloat during the previous fifty years to gratify the stupidity of those among the lower classes in New York who were descended from the Dutch, or the hatred of the most bitter of the British royalists. This 'History' is the first and the only 'authority' for the 'Blue Laws' which were attributed to the early New Haven colonists. … No person in America who knew anything about the history of his country ever seriously quoted Dr. Peters's 'History' as an authority on any subject whatever. The 'Comic History of England,' or the 'Travels of Baron Munchausen,' would be as little likely to be quoted in England for any serious purpose. And yet this falsehood about the 'Blue Laws,' which was thus first concocted for a purpose, has a vitality which, in some of its aspects, is amusing."

W. L. Kingsley, Blackwood's Magazine on the "Blue Laws" (New Englander, April, 1871), pages 296-299.

BODLEIAN LIBRARY, The.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2016).

BOERHAAVE, and humoral pathology.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 17TH CENTURY (page 2136).

BOLOGNA, University of.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL (page 696).

"BOMBA," King.

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849 (page 1862).

BOOTH, Reverend General William, and the Salvation Army.

See (in this Supplement) SALVATION ARMY.

BOROUGH FRANCHISE, English.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1884-1885 (pages 973-978).

BOSTON LATIN SCHOOL.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 727).

BOTHWELL, James Hepburn, Earl of, and Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots. See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1561-1568 (page 2857).

BOWDOIN COLLEGE.

An act of the Legislature of the province of Maine, approved in 1794, incorporated the above-named institution. The management of the college was placed under a board of trustees, with full powers of control. … That the institution might not want for proper support, it was further enacted, 'That the clear rents, issues, and profits of all the estate, real and personal, of which the said corporation shall be seized or possessed, shall be appropriated to the endowment of the said college, in such manner as will most effectually promote virtue, piety, and the knowledge of such of the languages and the useful and liberal arts and sciences as shall hereafter be directed from time to time by said corporation.' Five townships of land, each six miles square, were granted to the college for Its endowment and vested in the trustees, provided that fifteen families be settled in each of the said townships within a period of twelve years, and provided further that three lots containing 320 acres each be reserved, one for the first settled minister, one for the use of the ministry, and one for the support of schools within the township where it is located. These townships were to be laid out and assigned from any of the unappropriated lands belonging to the commonwealth of the district of Maine. The first money endowment was instituted by a general law of Massachusetts, approved February 24, 1814, which reads as follows: 'Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in General Court now assembled, That the tax which the president, directors and company of the Massachusetts Bank are and shall be liable to pay to the commonwealth, shall be and hereby is granted to and appropriated as follows, viz: ten-sixteenths parts thereof to the president and fellows of Harvard College; and three-sixteenths parts thereof to the president and trustees of Williams College; and three-sixteenths thereof to the president and trustees of Bowdoin College.'"

F. W. Blackmar, History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in the United States (Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1890, number 1), pages 123-124.

The college was named in honor of Governor James Bowdoin, of Massachusetts, whose son made valuable gifts to it.

BRACTON, Henry de, and early English Law.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1216-1272 (page 1961).

BRADFORD PRESS, The.

See PRINTING AND PRESS: A. D. 16815-1693: and 1704-1729 (page 2597).

BRAZIL: A. D. 1891. Adoption of the Constitution.

For text see CONSTITUTION OF BRAZIL (page 518).

BRAZIL: A. D. 1893-1894. Triumph of the Peixoto government.

"The civil war In Brazil resulted in the complete triumph of the Peixoto government in the spring. During November [1893] the insurgents held their own in the harbor of Rio Janeiro, and in the following month occupied a number of islands in the bay. On December 1 Admiral Mello, their leader, with two of his ships, ran past the government batteries and out to sea, leaving in command in the harbor Admiral da Gama, who up to that time had remained neutral. The latter shortly after issued a manifesto pointing to a restoration of the monarchy as the ultimate purpose of the rebels. This seems to have tended rather to weaken the insurgent cause, and a month later da Gama tried in another proclamation to explain away the interpretation that had been put upon the first. The government, meanwhile, confined itself to strengthening its positions in the city and along the shore so as to make any attempt to land unsuccessful. Desultory hostilities continued throughout December and January, incidentally to which the American commander on one occasion enforced respect for merchant vessels bearing his flag by firing on an insurgent vessel. On February 12 da Gama made his most elaborate attempt to gain a foothold on the main land at Armacao, but was repulsed with severe losses. {3693} By this time the insurgent cause was clearly on the decline. On the first of March a presidential election was held, which resulted in the choice of Prudente Moraes, a civilian. This removed the leading grievance of the rebels, that Piexoto was perpetuating a regime of pure militarism. On the 11th of March the fleet which the government had been fitting out in the United States and Europe appeared at the entrance to the harbor of Rio, and Peixoto gave notice of an active movement against the rebels. Da Gama promptly offered to surrender on certain conditions, which being refused, he and his officers sought asylum on first a French and later a Portuguese war vessel. Thus deserted, the crews of the insurgent vessels surrendered without resistance when the government batteries opened fire on the 13th. Admiral Mello, meanwhile, had been operating with some success in connection with the insurgents on land in the southern states of Brazil. In the first part of April, however, the government forces totally defeated the rebels in Rio Grande do Sul, and Mello, about the middle of the month, surrendered himself and his command to the Uruguayan authorities, by whom they were disarmed."

Political Science Quarterly, June, 1894.

BREAKSPEAR, Nicholas. Pope Hadrian IV., 1154-1159.

BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE, Schools of the.

See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE (page 705).

BRISBANE, Albert, and Fourierism in America.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1832-1847, and 1841-1847 (pages 2940 and 2944).

BRITANNIC FEDERATION, Proposed.

See FEDERAL GOVERNMENT (page 1112).

BRITISH MUSEUM LIBRARY, The.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: ENGLAND (page 2014).

BROCTON COMMUNITY, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1867-1875 (page 2951).

BROOK FARM.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS; A. D. 1841-1847 (page 2943).

BROTHERHOOD OF THE NEW LIFE, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1867-1875 (page 2951).

BROWN UNIVERSITY.

"Brown University, the oldest and best endowed institution of learning connected with the Baptist denomination, dates back for its origin to a period anterior to the American Revolution, when in all the thirteen colonies there were less than 70 Baptist churches, with perhaps 4,000 communicants. It is not surprising that, at the memorable meeting of the Philadelphia Association, held on the 12th of October, 1762, when the members were finally led to regard it, in the words of Backus, as 'practicable and expedient to erect a College in the Colony of Rhode Island, under the chief direction of the Baptists, in which education might be promoted and superior learning obtained, free from any sectarian tests,' the mover in the matter should at first have been laughed at, the thing being looked upon as, under the circumstances, an utter impossibility. But lenders at that time, like Morgan Edwards and Isaac Eaton, Samuel Jones, Abel Morgan, Benjamin Griffith, John Sutton and John Gano, were men of faith. … At the time of which I speak, there was graduated from Princeton, with the second honors of his class, a man of wonderful mental and physical endowments, an early pupil of Isaac Eaton at Hopewell, James Manning, of Elizabethtown, New Jersey. To him the enterprise of the college was by common consent intrusted. … The first commencement of the college, which was held in the then new Baptist meeting-house of the town of Warren, on the 7th of September, 1769, has already been regarded as a Red Letter Day in its history. Five years previous, the General Assembly, begun and holden by adjournment at East Greenwich, on the last Monday in February, 1764; after various difficulties and delays, in consequence of the determined opposition of those who were unfriendly to the movement, had granted a charter for a 'College or University in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, in New England in America.' Such is the language of the act of incorporation. But though Rhode Island had been selected for its home by the original projectors of the institution, and a liberal and ample charter had thus been secured, the college itself was still in embryo. Without funds, without students, and with no present prospect of support, a beginning must be made where the president could be the pastor of a church, and thus obtain an adequate compensation for his services. Warren, then as now, a delightful and flourishing inland town, situated 10 miles from Providence, seemed to meet the requisite requirements and thither, accordingly, Manning removed with his family in the spring of 1764. He at once commenced a Latin School, as the first step preparatory to the work of college instruction. Before the close of the year a church was organized, over which he was duly installed as pastor. The following year, at the second annual meeting of the corporation, held in Newport, Wednesday, September 3d, he was formally elected, in the language of the records, 'President of the College, Professor of Languages and other branches of learning, with full power to act in these capacities at Warren or elsewhere.' On that same day, as appears from a paper now on file in the archives of the Library, the president matriculated his first student, William Rogers, a lad of fourteen, the son of Captain William Rogers, of Newport. Not only was this lad the first student of the college, but he was also the first freshman class. Indeed, for a period of nine months and seventeen days, as appears from the paper already referred to, he constituted the entire body of students. From such feeble beginnings has the university sprung."

R. A. Guild, The First Commencement of Rhode Island College (Rhode Island Historical Society Collections, v. 7), pages 269-271.

Six years after the founding of the University it was removed from Warren to Providence, and its name changed from Rhode Island College to Brown University, in honor of John Brown, of Providence, who was its most liberal benefactor.

G. W. Greene, Short History of Rhode Island, page 196.

Although founded by the Baptist Church, the charter of the University "expressly forbids the use of religious tests. The corporation is divided into two Boards—the Trustees, 36 in number, of whom 22 must be Baptists, 5 Quakers, 5 Episcopalians, and 4 Congregationalists, and the Fellows, 12 in number, of whom 8, including the President, must be Baptists, and the remainder of other denominations. Twelve Trustees and 5 Fellows form a quorum. The college estate, the students, and the members of the faculty, with their families, are exempt from taxation and from serving as jurors."

S. G. Arnold, History of the State of Rhode Island, chapter 18 (volume 2).

{3694}

BRUCHION, Library of the.

See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2003).

BRUNONIAN SYSTEM, The.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 18TH CENTURY (page 2141).

BRYN MAWR COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION (page 743).

BUBBLE ACT, The.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1710 (page 1971).

BULGARIANS, The conversion of the.

See CHRISTIANITY: 9TH CENTURY (page 464).

BUREAU OF EDUCATION, The United States.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 735).

BURKE, Edmund. Speech on Conciliation of the American Colonies.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (pages 3218-3221).

BYNG, Admiral John, Execution of.

See MINORCA: A. D. 1756 (page 2187).

BYZANTINE TRADE.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL.

CABOTS, Voyages of the.

See (in this Supplement) AMERICA.

C.

CALHOUN, John C., The aggressive proslavery policy of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1837-1838, and 1847 (pages 3375 and 3380).

CAMBOJA.

See TONKIN (page 3114).

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY.

See EDUCATION (pages 701, 706 and 710).

CAMPBELLITES, The.

See (in this Supplement) DISCIPLES OF CHRIST.

CANADA: Constitution of the Dominion.

See CONSTITUTION OF CANADA (page 526).

CANADA: Libraries.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: CANADA (page 2023).

CANADA: The Ontario school system.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 733).

CANALS.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MODERN.

CANULEIAN LAW, The.

See ROME: B. C. 445-400 (page 2667).

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.

See LAW, CRIMINAL: A. D. 1600, and 1660-1820 (pages 1983 and 1984).

CARNATIC, The.

See (in this Supplement) KARNATIC.

CARNOT, President Sadi, The assassination of.

See (in this Supplement) FRANCE: A. D. 1894-1895.

CARTHAGINIAN COMMERCE.

See (In this Supplement) COMMERCE, ANCIENT.

CASHGAR.

See TURKESTAN (page 3130); and YAKOOB BEG (page 3662).

CASIMIR-PERIER, Election to the Presidency of the French Republic, and resignation.

See (in this Supplement) FRANCE: A. D. 1894-1895.

CATHOLIC REACTION IN GERMANY, The.

See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: 16TH CENTURY; also, page 2457.

CAUCASUS, The Races of the.

"One of the most remarkable characteristics of the Caucasus is that, while it has acted as a barrier between the north and the south, stopping and turning aside the movements of population, it has also preserved within its sheltered recesses fragments of the different peoples who from time to time have passed by it, or who have been driven by conquest into it from the lower country. Thus it is a kind of ethnological museum, where specimens may be found of countless races and languages, some of which probably belong to the early ages of the world; races that seem to have little affinity with their present neighbours, and of whose history we know nothing except what comparative philology can reveal. Even before the Christian era it was famous for the variety of its peoples. … No more inappropriate ethnological name was ever propounded than that of Caucasian for a fancied division of the human family, the cream of mankind, from which the civilized peoples of Europe are supposed to have sprung. For the Caucasus is to-day as it was in Strabo's time, full of races differing in religion, language, aspect, manners, character."

J. Bryce, Trans-caucasia and Ararat, chapter 2.

CELESTINES, CELESTINIANS.

A religious order founded by the hermit, Peter of Morone, who afterwards, in 1294, became Pope, and took the name Celestine V. The rules of the order were austere. It became widespread throughout Europe, but was suppressed in France in 1766.

CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS, in England and Germany.

See PRINTING AND PRESS: A. D. 1695 (pages 2597 and 1602).

CENSUS, United States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1790 (page 3305); 1800 (page 3324), and after.

CHANCELLOR. CHANCERY.

See LAW, EQUITY (page 1988).

CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE.

See GERMANY: A. D. 687-800, 800, and 814-843 (pages 1436-1438); and (in this Supplement) ROME.

CHARLEMAGNE'S PALATINE SCHOOL.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL (page 689).

CHARTERHOUSE SCHOOL.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 712).

CHASE, Judge, Impeachment and trial of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1805 (page 3329).

CHATHAM, John Pitt, Earl of, and the Walcheren expedition.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1809 (page 947).

CHATHAM, William Pitt, Earl of, Speech on the repeal of the Stamp Act.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1766 (page 3201).

CHICAGO UNIVERSITY, The founding of the.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 738).

CHILE.

The account of Chilean affairs given in volume 1 (pages 411-415) ends with the overthrow and suicide of the dictatorial usurper, Balmaceda (September 20, 1891), the triumph of the Congress party, and the election to the Presidency of Admiral Jorge Montt. During the civil war which had this termination, the representative of the United States, Minister Egan, showed marked favor to Balmaceda and his party, which irritated the Chileans and produced among them a hostile feeling towards Americans and the American government. This was increased by the action of Mr. Egan, after the defeat of the Balmacedists, in sheltering a large number of refugees of that party within the walls of the American legation. {3695} The same was done by other foreign representatives, but to no such extent, except in the case of the Spanish legation. A telegram sent by Mr. Egan on the 8th of October to the State Department at Washington stated: "80 persons sought refuge in his legation after the overthrow of the Balmaceda government; about the same number in the Spanish legation, 8 in the Brazilian, 5 in the French, several in the Uruguayan, 2 in the German and 1 in the English. Balmaceda sought refuge in the Argentine. All these have gone out except 15 in his own legation, 1 in the German and 5 in the Spanish." Not venturing to violate the privileges of the American Minister's residence, the Chilean authorities placed it under police surveillance, and arrested a number of persons entering the premises. The Minister complained, and was supported in his complaints at Washington, causing further irritation in Chile. This was again greatly increased by his claiming the right, not only to shelter the refugees in his residence, but to protect them in their departure from the country. In that, too, he was sustained by his government, and the refugees were safely sent away. Meantime a more serious cause of quarrel between the two countries had risen. A party of sailors on shore at Valparaiso, from the United States ship Baltimore, had been assailed by a mob, October 16, and two were killed, while eighteen were wounded. The United States demanded satisfaction, and much angry correspondence ensued, made particularly offensive on the Chilean side by an insulting circular which Señor Matta, the Chilean Foreign Minister, issued December 13, and which he caused to be published in the Chilean newspapers. But Señor Matta disappeared from the Foreign Department soon after and his successor made apologies. "On January 16th the Chilean authorities notified Mr. Egan that they would withdraw any offensive passages in the Matta circular, and had instructed their Minister in Washington to express regret. The apology, thus expressed both in Washington and Santiago, was stiff and ungraceful, perhaps inadequate; but it was made in good faith. On January 20th, evidently feeling that all was now serene, the Chileans ventured, acting on a hint of Mr. Blaine's, to ask for Egan's withdrawal as a 'persona non grata.' What, therefore, must have been the dismay of the Chileans on January 23d, to receive an official notice, which the newspapers dubbed an 'ultimatum,' containing the statement that the United States Government was not satisfied with the result of the judicial investigation at Valparaiso and still asked 'for a suitable apology;' that for the Matta note there must be still another 'suitable apology,' without which the United States would terminate diplomatic relations; and that the request for Mr. Egan's withdrawal could not at that time be considered. It was a bitter draught for any government; but threats of war were resounding through the United States; American naval vessels were hurriedly being made ready; coal and supplies were going into the Pacific. There was power behind the note, and Chile prepared to bend to the storm. The 'ultimatum' appears to have reached the Chileans on Saturday, January 23d. On Monday, January 25th, they sent an answer which could not possibly be read as anything but a complete and abject apology on all the three points." But on the same day on which this answer was being forwarded, the President of the United States sent a warlike message to Congress. "It rehearsed the whole controversy at great length, submitted copious correspondence, and ended with the significant phrase: 'In my opinion I ought not to delay longer to bring these matters to the attention of Congress for such action as may be deemed appropriate.' … It is an unprofitable controversy as to whether the authorities in Washington knew that an answer was on its way: if they had read the correspondence they knew that an answer must come, and that the Chilean Ministry must sent a peaceful answer. It is therefore difficult to understand the purpose of the President's message. … The effect … was to inflict an unnecessary humiliation on Chile. Spanish-Americans have good memories. Mexico still cherishes resentment for the war begun against her forty-five years ago; and forty-five years hence the Chileans are likely to remember the Balmaceda affair as Americans remembered the impressment of American seamen by Great Britain. We have the apology, but with it we have the ill-will."

A. B. Hart, Practical Essays on American Government, essay 5.

CHINA, Education in.

See EDUCATION (pages 675 and 724).

CHINA, Imperial Library of.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: CHINA (page 2024).

CHINA, Mediæval trade with India and the West.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL.

CHINA, Paper Money, ancient.

See MONEY AND BANKING: CHINA (page 2200}.

CHINA, War with Japan.

See (in this Supplement) COREA.

CHOLERA, Asiatic, The visitations of.

See PLAGUE: 19TH CENTURY (page 2543).

CHRISTIAN BROTHERS, The.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 739).

CHRISTIAN SOCIALISM.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1816-1886 (page 2939).

CID, The.

See (in this Supplement) SPAIN: A. D. 1034-1090.

CIVIL SERVICE REFORM: Progress in the United States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1895 (page 3586).

CLARK UNIVERSITY, The founding of.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 738).

CLEVELAND, Grover. Message on the Tariff question.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION: A. D. 1884-1888 (page 3083).

Special Message on the National Finances.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1895 (page 3586).

COCHIN-CHINA.

See TONKIN(page 3141).

CODES, New York.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1848-1883, and 1848 (page 1979).

COINAGE.

See MONEY, &c. (page 2198).

COLET, John, and St. Paul's School.

See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE (page 707).

COLLECTIVISM.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: DEFINITION OF TERMS (page 2933).

COLLEGES.

See EDUCATION (page 673) and the same in this Supplement.

COLUMBIA COLLEGE, The founding of.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 730).

COMENIUS, and Educational Reform.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 739).

{3696}

—————COMMERCE: Start————

COMMERCE: Ancient. The Earliest Records of Trade.

Probably the oldest commercial record that exists was found sculptured on the rocks in the valley of Hammamat, east from Koptos on the Nile. It relates to an expedition which was sent out by the Pharaoh Sankh-ka-ra, to trade in the "land of Punt." Dr. Brugsch fixes the reign of Sankh-ka-ra at about 2500 B. C., which is five or six centuries before the time when Abraham is supposed to have lived. The "land of Punt" he considers to have been the Somali coast of Africa, south of the extremity of the Red Sea, on the Gulf of Aden. Other writers maintain that it was southern Arabia. It was the "Holy Land" of the Egyptians, from which their gods were supposed to have anciently come. The trading expedition of Sankh-ka-ra was commanded by one Hannu (a name which has a Phœnician sound) and it is he who tells the story of it in the inscription at Hammamat. "I was sent," he says, "to conduct ships to the country of Punt, to bring back odoriferous gums." He then describes the army of 3,000 men which accompanied him, and narrates their march from Koptos to the Red Sea, through the desert, at several stations in which they dug reservoirs for water. "I arrived," he continues, "at the port Seba [believed to be the harbor now called Koseir or Quosseir] and I made transport vessels to bring back all kinds of products. I made a great offering of oxen, cows and goats. When I returned from Seba I executed the order of his Majesty; I brought him back all kinds of products which I met with in the ports of the Holy Land. I came back by Uak and Rohan. I brought back precious stones for the statues of the temples. Never was a like thing done since there were kings." It would seem from this that Hannu's expedition opened the first direct trade of the Egyptians with the land of Punt. But it is evident that they already had knowledge of the country and of its products, and it is probable they had formerly been receiving its gums and precious stones through the traders of some other country. Some seven or eight centuries after Hannu's voyage to Punt was made, we obtain in the Bible a most interesting glimpse of the trade then going on between Egypt and surrounding countries. It is found in the story of Joseph. When Joseph's brethren threw him into a pit, intending that he should be left there to die, their plans were changed by seeing a "Company of Ishmaelites from Gilead with their camels bearing spicery and balm and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt." Then Judah said, "let us sell him to the Ishmaelites," and when these "Midianites, merchantmen," as they are called in the next verse, came near, the heartless brothers of Joseph drew him out of the pit and sold him, to be taken as a slave into Egypt. Now this story is found to agree well with other facts that have been learned, and which go to show that some, at least, among the ancient tribes in northern Arabia—the Ishmaelites of the Bible—were great traders between the richer countries that surrounded them. The Midianites and Edomites, who occupied the region near the head of the Red Sea, were especially the masters of that trade. Their poor land, which gave them little to subsist upon, had one gift for its people that went far toward making up for its barren poverty. It gave them the camel—that strange and homely beast, which is better fitted than any other for bearing burdens and for making long journeys without food or drink. At a later day they acquired the horse, from Media or from Mesopotamia, and bred that noble animal to such perfection that Arabia was long supposed to be its native home. But in Joseph's time the horse can hardly have been in use among the Arabs, since it seems to have been unknown in Egypt, which they constantly visited, until a considerably later day. However that may be, the camel was always the Arab's most useful servant—his carrier, his patient burden-bearer, his "ship of the desert," as Eastern poets have fitly named it. By the poverty of their country, by their wandering disposition, by their possession of the camel, and by their geographical situation, intermediate between several of the richest regions of antiquity, these Arabs of the olden time must have naturally been made a trading people, as early as it became possible for trade to exist. To the west of them was Egypt, with its fertile basin of the Nile and its remarkable people, probably first among all races that we know to rise out of barbarism and acquire order and industrial arts. To the east, in the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris, were the fertile plains of Mesopotamia, where the second oldest civilization that Is known was growing up. To the north were Canaan and Gilead, the Scripture "land of promise," full of vineyards, of pastures and of harvest fields, with wide Syria beyond, and with Phœnician merchant cities just rising along the coast of the sea. To the south, in their own peninsula, was Arabia Felix, or Arabia the Blest, a famous land of pleasantness and plenty in ancient days. With their caravans of camels they traveled back and forth, very busily, no doubt, through the desert, which needed no building of bridges or making of roads. In one direction they carried the barley, wheat, millet, flax and woven goods of Egypt; in another, the honey, wine, wax, wool, skins, gums, resins and asphalt of Canaan and Syria; in still another the more costly freight of gold ornaments, precious stones, pearls, ivory, ebony, spices and fragrant gums from the south. In all directions, it is probable, they dragged poor unfortunates like Joseph, whom they bought or kidnapped from home and friends, to sell as slaves.

COMMERCE: Babylonia.

"The industry of the Babylonians quickly attained great skill and wide development. They were famous for their weaving in wool and linen. The nations of the West agree in acknowledging the excellence of the cloths and coloured stuffs of Babylonia. Their pottery was excellent and the manufacture active; the preparation of glass was not unknown; the ointments prepared in Babylon were famous and much sought after, and the stones cut there were highly valued. The products of Babylonian skill and industry were first brought to their kinsmen in Syria, who could offer oil and wine in exchange. In the Hebrew scriptures we find Babylonian cloaks in use in Syria before the immigration of the Hebrews into Canaan. … The rough material required by Babylonian industry was supplied in the first place by the Arabs, who exchanged their animals, skins, and wool for corn and weapons. {3697} Wine, and more especially wood, of which there was none in Babylonia, were brought by the Armenians from their valleys in the north down the Euphrates to Babylon. Before 1500 B. C. the commerce of the Arabs brought the products of South Arabia, the spices of Yemen, and even the products and manufactures of India, especially their silks, which reached the coasts of Southern Arabia, to Babylon. The Babylonians required the perfumes of Arabia and India to prepare their ointments. … When the cities of Phenicia became great centres of trade which carried the wares of Babylonia by sea to the West in order to obtain copper in exchange, the trade between Babylonia and Syria must have become more lively still. It was the ships of the Phenicians which brought the cubic measure, and the weights, and the cubit of Babylonia to the shores of Greece, and caused them to be adopted there."

M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 2, chapter 3 (volume 1).

See, also, MONEY AND BANKING (page 2199).

COMMERCE: Egypt.

"In ancient Egypt agricultural counted for more than manufactures, and manufactures were of more importance than commerce. The trade which existed was brisk enough as far as it went, but it aimed at little more than the satisfaction of local wants by the more or less direct exchange of commodities between producers. The limited development of internal traffic was due to two principal causes: the natural products of different parts of the country were too much alike for much intercourse to be necessary for purposes of exchange, and the conformation of the country, in itself scarcely larger than Belgium, was such as to give the longest possible distance from north to south. … The Nile was the only known highway, so much so that the language scarcely possessed a general word for travelling; going southward was called 'going up stream,' and a journey to the north, even by land into the desert, was described by a term meaning to sail with the current. … While internal traffic was thus brought to a minimum by natural causes, foreign commerce can scarcely be said to have existed, before the establishment of peaceable intercourse with Syria under the new empire. The importation of merchandize from foreign countries was a political rather than a commercial affair. Such foreign wares as entered the country came as tribute, as the spoil of war, or as memorials of peaceful embassies. … The list of the spoil taken by Thothmes III. gives a tolerably exhaustive account of the treasures of the time. It includes, of course, bulls, cows, kids, white goats, mares, foals, oxen, geese, and corn; then follow strange birds, negroes, men and maid-servants, noble prisoners and the children of defeated kings, chariots of copper, plated with gold and silver, iron armour, bows, swords and other accoutrements, leather collars ornamented with brass, gold and silver rings, cups, dishes and other utensils, vessels of iron and copper, statues with heads of gold, ell-measures with heads of ivory, ebony, and cedar inlaid with gold, chairs, tables and footstools of cedar wood and ivory, a plough inlaid with gold, blocks of bluestone, greenstone and lead, 'a golden storm-cap inlaid with bluestone,' jars of balsam, oil, wine and honey, various kinds of precious woods, incense, alabaster, precious stones and colours, iron columns for a tent with precious stones in them, bricks of pure brass, elephants' tusks, natron, and, finally, by way of curiosity, from the land of the kings of Ruthen, three battle-axes of flint."

E. J. Simcox, Primitive Civilizations, book 1, chapter 3, section. 1 (volume 1).

See, also, MONEY AND BANKING (page 2199).

COMMERCE: India.

"It is said in the Rig-Veda that 'merchants desirous of gain crowd the great waters with their ships.' And the activity in trade, thus early noted, has continued ever since to be characteristic of the country. Professor Lassen considers it remarkable that Hindus themselves discovered the rich, luxurious character of India's products. Many of the same beasts, birds, and fragrant oils are produced in other countries, but remain unnoticed until sought for by foreigners; whereas the most ancient of the Hindus had a keen enjoyment in articles of taste or luxury. Rajas and other rich people delighted in sagacious elephants, swift horses, splendid peacocks, golden decorations, exquisite perfumes, pungent peppers, ivory, pearls, gems, &c.; and, consequently, caravans were in constant requisition to carry these, and innumerable other matters, between the north and the south, and the east and the west, of their vast and varied country. These caravans, it is conjectured, were met at border stations, and at out-ports, by western caravans or ships bound to or from Tyre and Egypt, or to or from the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. To the appearance of India goods in Greece, Professor Lassen attributes the Greek invasion of India. … The indirect evidence afforded by the presence of India's products in other ancient countries, coincides with the direct testimony of Sanskrit literature, to establish the fact that ancient Hindus were a commercial people. The code of Manu requires the king to determine the prices of commodities, and also the trustworthiness of the weights and measures used. And that the transactions contemplated were not restricted to local products is evident from reference to the charges for freight for articles in river boats, and the undetermined and larger charges to which sea-borne goods were liable. The account of King Yudhishthira's coronation in the Mahâbhârata affords an instance of precious articles from distant lands brought into India. So also in the Ramayana, we read that when Rama and his brothers were married, the brides were clad in silk from China. … Merchants are constantly being introduced into Sanskrit fiction, and equally often into Buddhist legend. They seem to have been always at hand to give variety and movement to the monotony of daily life."

Mrs. Manning, Ancient and Mediæval India, chapter 40 (volume 2).

COMMERCE: Phœnicians and Carthaginians.

"The Phœnicians for some centuries confined their navigation within the limits of the Mediterranean, the Propontis, and the Euxine, land-locked seas, which are tideless and far less rough than the open ocean. But before the time of Solomon they had passed the pillars of Hercules, and affronted the dangers of the Atlantic. Their frail and small vessels, scarcely bigger than modern fishing-smacks, proceeded southwards along the West African coast, as far as the tract watered by the Gambia and Senegal, while northwards they coasted along Spain, braved the heavy seas of the Bay of Biscay, and passing Cape Finisterre, ventured across the mouth of the English Channel to the Cassiterides. {3698} Similarly, from the West African shore, they boldly steered for the Fortunate Islands (the Canaries), visible from certain elevated points of the coast, though at 170 miles distance. Whether they proceeded further, in the south to the Azores, Madeira, and the Cape de Verde Islands, in the north to the coast of Holland, and across the German Ocean to the Baltic, we regard as uncertain. It is possible that from time to time some of the more adventurous of their traders may have reached thus far; but their regular, settled and established navigation did not, we believe, extend beyond the Scilly Islands and coast of Cornwall to the north-west, and to the south-west Cape Non and the Canaries. The commerce of the Phœnicians was carried on, to a large extent, by land, though principally by sea. It appears from the famous chapter [xxvii] of Ezekiel which describes the 'riches and greatness of Tyre in the 6th century B. C., that almost the whole of Western Asia was penetrated by the Phœnician caravans, and laid under contribution to increase the wealth of the Phœnician traders. … Translating this glorious burst of poetry into prose, we find the following countries mentioned as carrying on an active trade with the Phœnician metropolis:—Northern Syria, Syria of Damascus, Judah and the laud of Israel, Egypt, Arabia, Babylonia, Assyria, Upper Mesopotamia, Armenia, Central Asia Minor, Ionia, Cyprus, Hellas or Greece, and Spain."

G. Rawlinson, History of Phœnicia, chapter 9.

"Though the invincible industry and enterprise of the Phenicians maintained them as a people of importance down to the period of the Roman empire, yet the period of their widest range and greatest efficiency is to be sought much earlier—anterior to 700 B. C. In these remote times they and their colonists [the Carthaginians especially] were the exclusive navigators of the Mediterranean: the rise of the Greek maritime settlements banished their commerce to a great degree from the Ægean Sea, and embarrassed it even in the more westerly waters. Their colonial establishments were formed in Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, the Balearic Isles, and Spain. The greatness as well as the antiquity of Carthage, Utica, and Gades, attest the long-sighted plans of Phenician traders, even in days anterior to the first Olympiad. We trace the wealth and industry of Tyre, and the distant navigation of her vessels through the Red Sea and along the coast of Arabia, back to the days of David and Solomon. And as neither Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, or Indians, addressed themselves to a sea-faring life, so it seems that both the importation and the distribution of the products of India and Arabia into Western Asia and Europe were performed by the Idumæan Arabs between Petra and the Red Sea—by the Arabs of Gerrha on the Persian Gulf, joined as they were in later times by a body of Chaldæan exiles from Babylonia—and by the more enterprising Phenicians of Tyre and Sidon in these two seas as well as in the Mediterranean."

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 18.

"The Commerce of Carthage may be conveniently considered under its two great branches—the trade with Africa, and the trade with Europe. The trade with Africa … was carried on with the barbarous tribes of the inland country that could be reached by caravans, and of the sea-coast. Of both we hear something from Herodotus, the writer who furnishes us with most of our knowledge about these parts of the ancient world. … The goods with which the Carthaginian merchants traded with the African tribes were doubtless such as those which civilized nations have always used in their dealings with savages. Cheap finery, gaudily coloured cloths, and arms of inferior quality, would probably be their staple. Salt, too, would be an important article. … The articles which they would receive in exchange for their goods are easily enumerated. In the first place comes … gold. Carthage seems to have had always at hand an abundant supply of the precious metal for use, whether as money or as plate. Next to gold would come slaves. … Ivory must have been another article of Carthaginian trade, though we hear little about it. The Greeks used it extensively in art. … Precious stones seem to have been another article which the savages gave in exchange for the goods they coveted. … Perhaps we may add dates to the list of articles obtained from the interior. The European trade dealt, of course, partly with the things already mentioned, and partly with other articles for which the Carthaginian merchants acted as carriers, so to speak, from one part of the Mediterranean to another. Lipara, and the other volcanic islands near the southern extremity of Italy, produced resin; Agrigentum, and possibly other cities of Sicily, traded in sulphur brought down from the region of Etna; wine was produced in many of the Mediterranean countries. Wax and honey were the staple goods of Corsica. Corsican slaves, too, were highly valued. The Iron of Elba, the fruit and the cattle of the Balearic islands, and, to go further, the tin and copper of Britain, and even amber from the Baltic, were articles of Carthaginian commerce. Trade was carried on not only with the dwellers on the coast, but with inland tribes. Thus goods were transported across Spain to the interior of Gaul, the jealousy of Massilia (Marseilles) not permitting the Carthaginians to have any trading stations on the southern coast of that country."

A. J. Church and A. Gilman, The Story of Carthage, part 3, chapter 3.

A high authority on questions of intercourse in ancient times throws doubt on the supposed African caravan trade of the Carthaginians—as follows: "There seems no doubt that the existing system of caravan trade dates only from the introduction of Islamism into Africa. It was the Arabs who first introduced the camel into Northern Africa, and without camels any extensive intercourse with the interior was impossible. The Negro races have never shown any disposition to avail themselves of this mode of transport, and at the present day the commerce of the interior is carried on almost entirely by Moorish, that is, by Mohammedan, traders. The spread of Islamism has doubtless led to increased communication from another cause, the necessity for the Mohammedan inhabitants of the outlying and detached regions of the continent to make the pilgrimage to Mecca. Even in the most flourishing times of the Carthaginians they do not appear to have made any use of camels; and as late as the days of Strabo the communications with the tribes of Western Africa who dwelt beyond the Sahara were scanty and irregular. In the time of Herodotus there is certainly no indication that either the Carthaginians or the Greeks of the Cyrenaica had any commercial intercourse with the regions beyond the Great Desert."

E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, chapter 8, note I (volume 1).

See, also, PHŒNICIANS (pages 2530-2534); and CARTHAGE (pages 392-395).

{3699}

COMMERCE: Jews.

Beginning early in his reign, Solomon made great and enlightened efforts to promote the commerce and industries of the people of Israel. "To increase the land traffic, he had small cities built in advantageous localities, in which goods of all sorts in large quantities were kept in suitable storehouses; a practice similar to that which had from ancient times prevailed in Egypt. … They were established chiefly in the most northern districts of Israel, towards the Phœnician boundaries, as well as in the territories of the kingdom of Hamath, which was first conquered by Solomon himself.—The main road for the land traffic between Egypt and the interior of Asia must have been the great highway leading past Gaza and further west of Jerusalem to the Northern Jordan and Damascus. Here it was joined by the road from the Phœnician cities, and continued as far as Thapsacus, on the Euphrates. This was entirely in the dominions of the king; and here, under the peaceful banner of a great and powerful monarchy, commerce could flourish as it had never flourished before. It was clearly for the improvement of this route, which had to traverse the Syrian desert on the north, that Solomon built, in a happily chosen oasis of this wilderness, the city of Thammor, or Tadmor, of which the Greek version is Palmyra. There is not a single indication that this city was of importance before Solomon's time, but from that era it flourished for more than a thousand years. … For any distant navigation, however, Solomon was obliged to rely on the aid of the Phœnicians, inasmuch as they were in that age the only nation which possessed the necessary ability and inclination for it. It is true that the idea of competing with the Phœnicians upon the Mediterranean could hardly have occurred to him, since they had long before that time attracted all the commerce upon it to themselves, and would scarcely have desired or even tolerated such a rival. … But the Red Sea, which had been thrown open to the kings of Israel by the conquest of the Idumeans, offered the finest opportunity for the most distant and lucrative undertakings, the profit of which might perfectly satisfy a nation in the position of Israel in the dawn of maritime activity; and on their part, the Phœnicians could not fail to be most willing helpers in the promotion of undertakings which it lay in the hands of the powerful king of Israel entirely to cut off from them, or at any rate to encumber with great difficulties. In this way the mutual desires and needs of two nations coincided without any injury to the one or the other. … Phœnician sailors were at first, it is true, the teachers of the Israelite. It was they who aided them in constructing and manning the tall ships, which, destined to distant voyages upon uncertain seas, needed to be strongly built; but yet how many new ideas and what varied knowledge the nation would in this way acquire! The ships were built in Ezion-geber, the harbour of the town of Elath (or Eloth), probably on the very spot where Akaba now stands. The cargo brought back each time from the three years' voyage consisted of 420 talents of gold, besides silver, ivory, red sandal-wood, apes, and peacocks, probably also nard and aloe."

H. Ewald, History of Israel, volume 3, page 261-264.

COMMERCE: Greeks.

"When the Greeks had established themselves, not only on the peninsula, but also on the islands and on the east coast of the Ægean Sea, their navigation was greatly extended. That this, even in the first half of the 8th century, was profitable in its results, we see from the instance of Dius of Cyme, the father of Hesiod, who maintained himself in this manner. The works of art in which Lydia and Caria excelled, together with the products and manufactures of the east, which reached the western coasts of Asia, the products of these coasts, and wine and oil from Lesbos and Samos—all these could be shipped from the Greek maritime cities of Asia Minor, and carried to the peninsula. It was through this commerce … that Chalcis and Eretria laid the foundation of their greatness. To what proportions it had attained, even in the course of the 8th century, we find from the mint marks of Phocæa and Cyme, the standards of Chalcis and Eretria, the coins and weights and measures of Phidon of Argos. … From the middle of the 8th century, the Greeks no longer merely practised navigation; they became, in an eminent sense, a maritime nation. At the time when Sinope and Trapezus were founded in the east, Naxos, Catana, and Syracuse in Sicily, and Cyme in Campania, a nautical discovery had already been made, by means of which the Greeks surpassed the Phœnicians, the ancient voyagers of Syria; this was the building of triremes. To what an extent and proficiency must seamanship have attained, what importance naval battles must have assumed, to give rise to the attempt to replace the ancient war vessels by others of a far more powerful kind! When the first triremes were built at Corinth and Samos, about the year 700 B. C., Greek cities already existed on the southern shore of the Black Sea, on the coasts of Thrace, in Corcyra and Sicily; the southern coast of Italy had also been colonised. The products of Greek industry, pottery, implements, and weapons, were advantageously bartered on the coasts of the Thracians, Scythians, Illyrians, Sicilians, and Oscans, for the fruits of the soil, and for the cattle of those regions. The need of the means of exchange must have given great encouragement and impetus to manufactures in the Greek cities of the peninsula, on the coasts of Asia, and in the newly-founded Asiatic settlements themselves. … Navigation and commerce must have become permanent occupations. And the great increase of manufactures must also have given employment to numbers of the country people. Thus there grew up under the very rule of the aristocracy a powerful rival to itself; a nautical, artisan, commercial class, side by side with the land population. If the protecting walls of the chief place of the canton had previously been sought only in time of need, in case of surprises or hostile landings, the new industrial classes were now settled together in the harbours and centres of trade. Handicrafts, navigation, and commerce, could not exist without one another. In the maritime cantons on the east of the peninsula, and in the cantons on the coasts of the Peloponnesus, there sprang up simultaneously with the burgher class a town population."

M. Duncker, History of Greece, book 4, chapter 2 (volume 2).

{3700}

"Between 700 B. C. and 530 B. C., we observe … an immense extension of Grecian maritime activity and commerce—but we at the same time notice the decline of Tyre and Sidon, both in power and traffic. The arms of Nebuchadnezzar reduced the Phenician cities to the same state of dependence as that which the Ionian cities underwent half a century later from Crœsus and Cyrus; while the ships of Miletus, Phokæa and Samos gradually spread over all those waters of the Levant which had once been exclusively Phenician. In the year 704 B. C., the Samians did not yet possess a single trireme: down to the year 630 B. C. not a single Greek vessel had yet visited Libya. But when we reach 550 B. C. we find the Ionic ships predominant in the Ægean, and those of Corinth and Korkyra in force to the west of Peloponnesus—we see the flourishing cities of Kyrene and Barka already rooted in Libya, and the port of Naukratis a busy emporium of Grecian commerce with Egypt. The trade by land—which is all that Egypt had enjoyed prior to Psammetichus, and which was exclusively conducted by Phenicians—is exchanged for a trade by sea, of which the Phenicians have only a share, and seemingly a smaller share than the Greeks. Moreover the conquest by Amasis of the island of Cyprus, half-filled with Phenician settlements and once the tributary dependency of Tyre—affords an additional mark of the comparative decline of that great city. In her commerce with the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf she still remained without a competitor, the schemes of the Egyptian king Nekos having proved abortive. Even in the time of Herodotus, the spices and frankincense of Arabia were still brought and distributed only by the Phenician merchant. But on the whole, both political and industrial development of Tyre are now cramped by impediments, and kept down by rivals, not before in operation. … The 6th century B. C., though a period of decline for Tyre and Sidon, was a period of growth for their African colony Carthage, which appears during this century in considerable traffic with the Tyrrhenian towns on the southern coast of Italy, and as thrusting out the Phokæan settlers from Alalia in Corsica."

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 21.

"It is a remarkable fact in the history of Greek colonies that the exploration of the extreme west of the Mediterranean was not undertaken either by the adventurers who settled at Cyme, or by the powerful cities of Sicily. A century or more elapsed from the foundation of Syracuse before any Greek vessel was seen on the coast of Spain or Liguria, and when the new beginning was made, it was not made by any of the colonies, Chalcidian, Dorian, or Rhodian, which had taken part in the discovery of the West. It was the Phocaeans of Ionia, Herodotus tells us, who first made the Greeks acquainted with the Hadriatic, with Tyrrhenia, Iberia (Spain), and Tartessus (the region round Cadiz). The first impulse to these distant voyages arose from a mere accident. At the time of the foundation of Cyrene, about the year 630 B. C., a Greek of Samos, by name Colaeus, when on his way to Egypt, was carried by contrary winds beyond the pillars of Heracles to Tartessus. There he found a virgin market, from which he returned to realise a profit of 60 talents (£12,000), an amount only surpassed by the gains of Sostratus of Aegina, who was the premier of Greek merchants. But this was the beginning and the end of Samian trade to the West; why they left it to the Phocaeans to enter into the riches which they had discovered, we cannot say, but within thirty years of this date, the enterprising Ionian town sent out a colony to Massilia near the mouth of the Rhone, in the district known as Liguria. … The mouth of the Rhone was the point where all the routes met which traversed France from the English Channel to the Gulf of Genoa. Of these Strabo specifies three. Merchandise was carried by boats up the Rhone and Saône, from which it was transferred to the Seine, and so passed down the river; or it was taken by land from Marseilles (or Narbo) to the Loire; or again carried up the Aude and transported thence to the Garonne. By one or other of these routes, the wares collected by the Gaulish merchants—more especially the tin, which they imported from Britain—was brought into the Greek market, if indeed it was not carried on pack-horses straight across the narrowest part of the country. The importance of these lines of transit at a time when the western Mediterranean was held by the Carthaginians, and the northern Hadriatic by the Tyrrhenians, can hardly be over-estimated. The colonists extended their borders by degrees, though not without severe contests with the Ligurians and Tyrrhenians by sea and land. New cities were founded to serve as outposts against the enemy; Agatha in the direction of the barbarians of the Rhone; Olbia, Antipolis, and Nicaea in the direction of the Salyans and Ligurians of the Alps. They also spread themselves down the coast of Spain."