Volume I—A To Elba (continued 28)

W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiquity, chapter 12.

CASTRICUM, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

CASTRIOTS, The.

See ALBANIANS: A. D. 1443-1467.

CASTRUCCIO CASTRACANI, The despotism of.

See ITALY: A. D. 1313-1330.

CAT NATION, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: HURONS, &c., and IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY: THEIR CONQUESTS, &c.

CATACOMBS OF ROME, The.

"The Roman Catacombs—a name consecrated by long usage, but having no etymological meaning, and not a very determinate geographical one—are a vast labyrinth of galleries excavated in the bowels of the earth in the hills around the Eternal City; not in the hills on which the city itself was built, but in those beyond the walls. Their extent is enormous, not as to the amount of superficial soil which they underlie, for they rarely, if ever, pass beyond the third milestone from the city, but in the actual length of their galleries; for these are often excavated on various levels, or piani, three, four, or even five, one above the other, and they cross and recross one another, some times at short intervals, on each of these levels; so that, on the whole, there are certainly not less that 350 miles of them; that is to say, if stretched out in one continuous line, they would extend the whole length of Italy itself. The galleries are from two to four feet in width, and vary in height according to the nature of the rock in which they are dug. The walls on both sides are pierced with horizontal niches, like shelves in a book-case, or berths in a steamer, and every niche once contained one or more dead bodies. At various intervals this succession of shelves is interrupted for a moment, that room may be made for a doorway opening into a small chamber; and the walls of these chambers are generally pierced with graves in the same way as the galleries. These vast excavations once formed the ancient Christian cemeteries of Rome; they were begun in apostolic times, and continued to be used as burial-places of the faithful until the capture of the city by Alaric in the year 410. In the third century, the Roman Church numbered twenty-five or twenty-six of them, corresponding to the number of her titles or parishes within the city; and besides these, there are about twenty others, of smaller dimensions, isolated monuments of special martyrs, or belonging to this or that private family. Originally they all belonged to private families or individuals, the villas or gardens in which they were dug being the property of wealthy citizens who had embraced the faith of Christ, and devoted of their substance to His service. Hence their most ancient titles were taken merely from the names of their lawful owners, many of which still survive. … It has always been agreed among men of learning who have had an opportunity of examining these excavations, that they were used exclusively by the Christians as places of burial and of holding religious assemblies. Modern research has placed it beyond a doubt, that they were also originally designed for this purpose and for no other."

J. S. Northcote and W. R. Brownlow, Roma Sotterranea, book 1, chapter 1.

ALSO IN: A. P. Stanley, Christian Institutions, chapter 13.

CATALAN GRAND COMPANY, The.

The Catalan Grand Company was a formidable body of military adventurers—mercenary soldiers—formed in Sicily during the twenty years of war that followed the Sicilian Vespers. "High pay and great license drew the best sinews in Catalonia and Aragon into the mercenary battalions of Sicily and induced them to submit to the severest discipline." The conclusion of peace in 1302 threw this trained army out of employment, and the greater part of its members were enlisted in the service of Andronicus II., of the restored Greek empire at Constantinople. They were under the command of one Roger de Flor, who had been a Templar, degraded from his knighthood for desertion, and afterwards a pirate; but whose military talents were undoubted. The Grand Company soon quarrelled with the Greek emperor; its leader was assassinated, and open war declared. The Greek army was terribly defeated in a battle at Apros, A. D. 1307, and the Catalans plundered Thrace for two years without resistance. Gallipoli, their headquarters, to which they brought their captives, became one of the great slave marts of Europe. In 1310 they marched into the heart of Greece, and were engaged in the service of Walter de Brienne, Duke of Athens. {399} He, too, found them dangerous servants. Quarrels were followed by war; the Duke perished in a battle (A. D. 1311) with his Catalan mercenaries on the banks of the Cephissus; his dukedom, embracing Attica and Bœotia, was the prize of their victory. The widows and daughters of the Greek nobles who had fallen were forced to marry the officers of the Catalans, who thus settled themselves in family as well as estate. They elected a Duke of Athens; but proceeded afterwards to make the duchy an appanage of the House of Aragon. The title was held by sons of the Aragonese kings of Sicily until 1377, when it passed to Alphonso V., king of Aragon, and was retained by the kings of Spain after the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile. The titular dukes were represented at Athens by regents. "During the period the duchy of Athens was possessed by the Sicilian branch of the house of Aragon, the Catalans were incessantly engaged in wars with all their neighbours." But, gradually, their military vigor and discipline were lost, and their name and power in Greece disappeared about 1386, when Athens and most of the territory of its duchy was conquered by Nero Acciainoli, a rich and powerful Florentine, who had become governor of Corinth, but acted as an independent prince, and who founded a new ducal family.

G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires, book 4, chapter 2, section 2.

ALSO IN: G. Finlay, History of Greece from its Conquest by the Crusaders, chapter 7, section 3.

CATALANS: A. D. 1151.

The County of Barcelona united by marriage to Aragon.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1035-1258.

CATALANS: A. D. 12th-15th Centuries. Commercial importance and municipal freedom of Barcelona.

See BARCELONA: 12th-16th CENTURIES.

CATALANS: A. D. 1461-1472. Long but unsuccessful revolt against John II. of Aragon.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1368-1479.

CATALANS: A. D. 1639-1640. Causes of disaffection and revolt.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1637-1640.

CATALANS: A. D. 1640-1652. Revolt. Renunciation of allegiance to the Spanish crown. Annexation to France offered and accepted. Re-subjection to Spain.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1640-1642; 1644-1646; 1648-1652.

CATALANS: A. D. 1705. Adhesion to the Allies in the War of the Spanish Succession.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1705.

CATALANS: A. D. 1713-1714. Betrayed and deserted by the Allies.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1713-1714.

—————CATALANS: End—————

CATALAUNIAN PLAINS.

See HUNS: A. D. 451.

CATALONIA.

See CATALANS.

CATANA, OR KATANA, Battle of.

See SYRACUSE: B. C. 397-396.

CATANIA. Storming and capture by King Ferdinand (1849).

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

CATAPAN.

See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 800-1016.

CATAWBAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

CATEAU-CAMBRESIS, Treaty of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1547-1559.

CATERANS.

"In 1384 an act was passed [by the Scotch parliament] for the suppression of masterful plunderers, who get in the statute their Highland name of 'cateran.' … This is the first of a long succession of penal and denunciatory laws against the Highlanders."

J. H. Burton, History of Scotland, volume 3, chapter 27.

CATHARISTS, OR PATARENES.

"Among all the sects of the Middle Ages, very far the most important in numbers and in radical antagonism to the Church, were the Cathari, or the Pure, as with characteristic sectarian assumption they styled themselves. Albigenses they were called in Languedoc; Patarenes in North Italy; Good Men by themselves. Stretching through central Europe to Thrace and Bulgaria, they joined hands with the Paulicians of the East and shared their errors. Whether these Cathari stood in lineal historical descent from the old Manichæans, or had generated a dualistic scheme of their own, is a question hard to answer, and which has been answered in very different ways. This much, however, is certain, that in all essentials they agreed with them."

R. C. Trench, Lectures on Mediæval Church History, lecture 15.

"In Italy, men supposed to hold the same belief [as that of the Paulicians, Albigenses, etc.] went by the name of the Paterini, a word of uncertain derivation, perhaps arising from their willingness meekly to submit to all sufferings for Christ's sake (pati), perhaps from a quarter in the city of Milan named 'Pataria'; and more lately by that of Cathari (the Pure, Puritans), which was soon corrupted into Gazari, whence the German 'Ketzer,' the general word for a heretic."

L. Mariotti, Frà Dolcino and his Times, chapter 1.

See, also, PAULICIANS, and ALBIGENSES.

CATHAY.

See CHINA: THE NAMES OF THE COUNTRY.

CATHELINEAU AND, THE INSURRECTION IN LA VENDEE.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (MARCH-APRIL); (JUNE); and (JULY-DECEMBER).

CATHERINE I., Czarina of Russia, A. D. 1725-1727.

CATHERINE II., Czarina of Russia, A. D. 1762-1796.

CATHERINE and Jean d'Albret, Queen and King of Navarre, A. D. 1503-1512.

CATHERINE de Medici: her part in French history.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1532-1547, to 1584-1589.

CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION AND THE CATHOLIC RENT IN IRELAND.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1811-1829.

CATHOLIC DEFENDERS.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1760-1798.

CATHOLIC LEAGUE, The.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1530-1531.

CATHOLIC LEAGUE IN FRANCE, The.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1576-1585 and after.

CATHOLICS (England): A. D. 1572-1679. Persecutions.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1572-1603; 1585-1587; 1587-1588; 1678-1679.

CATHOLICS (Ireland): A. D. 1691-1782. Oppression of the Penal Laws.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1691-1782.

CATHOLICS (England): A. D. 1778-1780. Repeal of Penal laws. No-Popery Riots.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1778-1780.

CATHOLICS (Ireland): A. D. 1795-1796. Persecution by Protestant mobs. Formation of the Orange Society.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1795-1796.

CATHOLICS (Ireland): A. D. 1801. Pitt's promises broken by the King.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1801-1806.

CATHOLICS (England and Ireland): A. D. 1829. Emancipation from civil disabilities.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1811-1829.

{400}

CATHOLICS, Old.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1869-1870.

CATILINE, The Conspiracy of.

See ROME: B. C. 63.

CATINI, The.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CATO THE YOUNGER, and the last years of the Roman Republic.

See ROME: B. C. 63-58, to 47-46.

CATO STREET CONSPIRACY, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1820-1827.

CATRAIL, The.

An ancient rampart, the remains of which are found in southern Scotland, running from the south-east corner of Peeblesshire to the south side of Liddesdale. It is supposed to have marked the boundary between the old Anglian kingdom of Bernicia and the territory of the British kings of Alcluith (Dumbarton).

W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland, volume 1.

CATTANI. VASSALI. MASNADA. SERVI.

The feudal barons of northern Italy were called Cattani. In the Florentine territory, "many of these Cattani, after having been subdued and made citizens of Florence, still maintained their feudal following, and were usually attended by troops of retainers, half slaves, half freedmen, called 'Uomini di Masnada,' who held certain possessions of them by the tenure of military service, took oaths of fidelity, and appear to have included every rank of person in the different Italian states according to the quality of the chief; but without any degradation of character being attached to such employment. This kind of servitude, which could not be thrown off without a formal act of manumission, was common in the north of Italy, and began in the 11th century, when innumerable chieftains started up owning no superior but the emperor. Being at constant war with each other they sought every means of creating a military following by granting lands to all ranks of people, and it is probable that many slaves were then partly emancipated for the purpose: such a condition, though not considered dishonourable, was thus essentially tinged with the colours of slavery, and so far differed from the 'Vassi' and 'Vassali,' as well as from the 'Vavasours.' … Some slight, perhaps unnecessary distinction is made between the 'Vassi,' who are supposed to have been vassals of the crown, and the 'Vassali,' who were the vassals of great lords. The 'Vavasours' were the vassals of great vassals. … This union [as described above] of 'Servi,' slaves, or vassals of one chief, was called 'Masnada,' and hence the name 'Masnadieri,' so often recurring in early Italian history; for the commanders of these irregular bands were often retained in the pay of the republic and frequently kept the field when the civic troops had returned to their homes, or when the war was not sufficiently important to bring the latter out with the Carroccio. … Besides these military Villains, who were also called 'Fedeli,' there were two other kinds of slaves amongst the early Italians, namely prisoners of war and the labourers attached to the soil, who were considered as cattle in every respect except that of their superior utility and value: the former species of slavery was probably soon dissolved by the union of self-interest and humanity: the latter began to decline in the 12th century, partly continued through the 13th, and vanished entirely in the 14th century."

H. E. Napier, Florentine History, volume 1, page 624.

CATTI, The.

See CHATTI.

CATUVELLANI, The.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CAUCASUS AND THE CIRCASSIANS. The Russian conquest.

"The Caucasus has always possessed a certain fascination not for the Russians only, but also for western nations, and is peculiarly rich in historical traditions, and in memories of ancient times and ancient nations. Here to the rocks of Elbruz, Prometheus lay chained; and to Colchis, where the Phasis flowed towards the sea, through ever green woods, came the Argonauts. The present Kutais is the old capital of King Æetes, near which, in the sacred grove of Ares, hung the golden fleece. The gold mines which the Russians discovered in 1864 were apparently known to the Greeks, whose colony, Dioscurias, was an assemblage of 300 diverse nationalities. … Here on the coasts of the stormy and dangerous Black Sea arose the famous Pontine kingdom [see MITHRIDATIC WARS] which in spite of its valiant resistance under Mithridates, fell a victim to Roman aggression. Along the rivers Kura and Rion ran the old commercial road from Europe to Asia, which enriched the Venetians and the Genoese in the middle ages. Up to recent times this trade consisted not only of all sorts of other merchandise, but of slaves; numberless girls and women were conveyed to Turkish harems and there exercised an important influence on the character of the Tartar and Mongol races. In the middle ages the Caucasus was the route by which the wild Asiatic hordes, the Goths, Khasars, Huns, Avars, Mongols, Tartars, and Arabs crossed from Asia into Europe; and consequently its secluded valleys contain a population composed of more different and distinct races than any other district in the world. … It was in the 16th century, under Ivan the Terrible, that Russia first turned her attention to the conquest of the Caucasus; but it was not till 1859 that the defeat and capture of the famous Schamyl brought about the final subjugation of the country. … In 1785 [after the partial conquest of 1784—see TURKS: A. D. 1776-1792] the mountaineers had been incited to take arms by a so-called prophet Scheick Mansur, but he was seized and banished to Solovetsk, on the White Sea. In 1820 a Mollah, Kasi by name, made his appearance in Daghestan, and began to preach the 'Kasawat,' that is, holy war against the Russians. To him succeeded another equally fanatical adventurer, Hamset Beg. The work which they had begun was carried on by Schamyl, who far surpassed his predecessors in all the qualities which make up a successful guerilla chief, and who maintained the unequal conflict against the enemies of his country for 25 years with singular good fortune, undaunted courage, untiring energy, and conspicuous ability. He was of the tribe of the Lesghians in Daghestan, and was born in 1796, in the village of Gimri, of poor shepherd parents. In spite of his humble origin he raised himself to the rank of an Imaum, surrounded himself with a strong body-guard of devoted adherents, whom he named Murides, and succeeded in fanning to a flame the patriotic ardour of his fellow-countrymen. The capture of the mountain fastness of Achulgo in 1839 seemed to be the death-blow of Schamyl's cause, for it brought about the loss of the whole of Daghestan, the very focus of the Murides' activity. {401} Schamyl barely escaped being made a prisoner, and was forced to yield up his son, Djammel-Edden, only nine years of age as a hostage. The boy was sent to St. Petersburg and placed in a cadet corps, which he left at the conclusion of his military education somewhere about 1850 and returned to his native country in 1854 where he died a few years later. In 1840 the Tchetchens, who had previously been pacified, rose in arms once more, and Daghestan and other parts of the country followed their example. The country of the Tchetchens was a specially favourable theatre for the conflict with the Russians; its long mountain chains, rocky fastnesses, impenetrable forests, and wild precipices and gorges rendered ambuscades and surprises of constant and, to the Russians, fatal occurrence. During the earlier stages of the war, Russia had ransomed the officers taken prisoners by the mountaineers, but, subsequently, no quarter was given on either side. At last, by means of a great concentration of troops on all the threatened points, by fortifying the chief central stations, find by forming broad military roads throughout the district, the Russians succeeded in breaking down Schamyl's resistance. He now suffered one reverse after another. His chief fastnesses, Dargo, Weden, and Guni, were successively stormed and destroyed; and, finally, he himself and his family were taken prisoners. He was astonished and, it is said, not altogether gratified to find that a violent death was not to close his romantic career. He and his family were at first interned at Kaluga in Russia, both a house and a considerable sum of money for his maintenance being assigned to him. But after a few years he was allowed to remove to Mecca, where he died. His sons and grandsons, who have entirely adopted the manners of the Russians, are officers in the Circassian guard. In 1864 the pacification of the whole country was accomplished, and a few years later the abolition of serfdom was proclaimed at Tifiis. After the subjugation of the various mountain tribes, the Circassians had the choice given them by the Government of settling on the low country along the Kuban, or of emigrating to Turkey. The latter course was chosen by the bulk of the nation, urged, thereto, in great measure, by envoys from Turkey. As many as 400,000 are said to have come to the ports, where the Sultan had promised to send vessels to receive them; but delays took place, and a large number died of want and disease. Those who reached Turkey were settled on the west coasts of the Black Sea, in Bulgaria and near Varna, and proved themselves most troublesome and unruly subjects. Most of those who at first remained in Circassia followed their fellow-countrymen in 1874."

H. M. Chester, Russia, chapter 18.

ALSO IN: F. Mayne, Life of Nicholas I., part 1, chapters 11 and 14.

S. M. Schmucker, Life and Reign of Nicholas I., chapter 21.

CAUCASUS, The Indian.

"The real Caucasus was the most lofty range of mountains known to the Greeks before [Alexander's conquests], and they were generally regarded as the highest mountains in the world. Hence when the army of Alexander came in sight of the vast mountain barrier [of the Hindoo Koosh] that rose before them as they advanced northward from Arachosia, they seem to have at once concluded that this could be no other than the Caucasus." Hence the name Caucasus given by the Greeks to those mountains; "for the name of Hindoo Koosh, by which they are still known, is nothing more than a corruption of the Indian Caucasus."

E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, chapter 12, note Q.

CAUCI, The.

See IRELAND, TRIBES OF EARLY CELTIC INHABITANTS.

CAUCUS. In 1634—the fourth year of the colony of Massachusetts Bay—the freemen of the colony chose Dudley instead of Winthrop for governor. The next year they "followed up the doctrine of rotation in office by choosing Haynes as governor, a choice agreed upon by deputies from the towns, who came together for that purpose previously to the meeting of the court—the first instance of 'the caucus system' on record."

R. Hildreth, History of the United States, volume 1, page 224.

See also, CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES.

CAUDINE FORKS, The Romans at the.

See ROME: B. C. 343-290.

CAUSENNÆ, OR ISINÆ.

A town of some importance in Roman Britain. "There can be no doubt that this town occupied the site of the modern Ancaster, which has been celebrated for its Roman antiquities since the time of Leland."

T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5.

CAVALIERS, The party of the.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1641 (OCTOBER); also, ROUNDHEADS.

CAVE DWELLERS.

"We find a hunting and fishing race of cave-dwellers, in the remote pleistocene age, in possession of France, Belgium, Germany, and Britain, probably of the same stock as the Eskimos, living and forming part of a fauna in which northern and southern, living and extinct, species are strangely mingled with those now living in Europe. In the neolithic age caves were inhabited, and used for tombs, by men of the Iberian or Basque race, which is still represented by the small dark-haired peoples of Europe."

W. B. Dawkins, Cave Hunting, page 430.

CAVE OF ADULLAM.

See ADULLAM, CAVE OF.

CAVOUR, Count, and the unification of Italy.

See ITALY: A. D. 1856-1859, and 1859-1861.

CAVOUR, Treaty of (1561).

See SAVOY: A. D. 1559-1580.

CAWNPUR, OR CAWNPORE: A. D. 1857. Siege by the Sepoy mutineers. Surrender and massacre of the English.

See INDIA: A. D. 1857 (MAY-AUGUST), and 1857-1858 (JULY-JUNE).

CAXTON PRESS, The.

See PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1476-1491.

CAYENNE, Colonization of.

See GUIANA: A. D. 1580-1814.

CAYUGAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

CEADAS, The.

See BARATHRUM.

CEBRENES, The.

See TROJA.

CECIL, Sir William (Lord Burleigh), The reign of Elizabeth.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1558-1598.

CECORA, Battle of (1621).

See POLAND: A. D. 1590-1648.

CECROPIA. CECROPIAN HILL. The Acropolis of Athens.

See ATTICA.

{402}

CEDAR CREEK, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D.1864 (AUGUST-OCTOBER: VIRGINIA).

CEDAR MOUNTAIN OR CEDAR RUN, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JULY-AUGUST: VIRGINIA).

CELESTINE II., Pope, A. D. 1143-1144.

CELESTINE III., Pope, A. D. 1191-1198.

CELESTINE IV., Pope, A. D. 1241.

CELESTINE V., Pope, A. D. 1294, July to December.

CELTIBERIANS, The.

"The Celtiberi occupied the centre of Spain, and a large part of the two Castiles, an elevated table land bordered and intersected by mountains. They were the most warlike race in the Spanish peninsula."

G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, chapter 1.

"The appellation Celtiberians indicates that in the north-eastern part of the peninsula [Spain] there was a mixture of Celts and Iberians. Nevertheless the Iberians must have been the prevailing race, for we find no indications of Celtic characteristics in the people."

W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 6, note.

See, also, NUMANTIAN WAR.

CELTS, The.

"The Celts form a branch of the great family of nations which has been variously called Aryan, Indo-European, Indo-Germanic, Indo-Celtic and Japhetic, its other branches being represented by the Italians, the Greeks, the Litu-Slaves, the Armenians, the Persians and the chief peoples of Hindustan. … The Celts of antiquity who appeared first and oftenest in history were those of Gallia, which, having been made by the French into Gaule, we term Gaul. It included the France and Switzerland of the present day, and much territory besides. This people had various names. One of them was Galli, which in their language meant warriors or brave men; … but the Gauls themselves in Cæsar's time appear to have preferred the name which he wrote Celtæ. This was synonymous with the other and appears to have meant warriors. … The Celtic family, so far back as we can trace it into the darkness of antiquity consisted of two groups or branches, with linguistic features of their own which marked them off from one another. To the one belonged the ancestors of the people who speak Gaelic in Ireland, the Isle of Man and the Highlands of the North. … The national name which the members of this group have always given themselves, so far as one knows, is that of Gaidhel, pronounced and spelt in English Gael, but formerly written by themselves Goidel. … The other group is represented in point of speech by the people of Wales and the Bretons. … The national name of those speaking these dialects was that of Briton; but, since that word has now no precise meaning, we take the Welsh form of it, which is Brython, and call this group Brythons and Brythonic, whenever it is needful to be exact. The ancient Gauls must also be classified with them, since the Brythons may be regarded as Gauls who came over to settle in Britain."

J. Rhys, Celtic Britain, chapter 1.

See, also, ARYANS, and APPENDIX A, volume 1.

CELTS: Origin and first meaning of the name.

"Who were the Keltre of Spain? the population whose name occurs in the word Celtici and Celtiberi, Keltic Iberians or Iberian Kelts? … I think, that though used to denominate the tribe and nations allied to the Gauls, it [the word Celt or Kelt] was, originally, no Gallic word—as little native as Welsh is British. I also think that even the first populations to which it was applied were other than Keltic in the modern sense of the term. I think, in short, that it was a word belonging to the Iberian language, applied, until the time of Cæsar at least, to Iberic populations. … By the time of Cæsar, however, a great number of undoubted Gauls were included under the name Celtæ: in other words, the Iberian name for an Iberian population was first adopted by the Greeks as the name for all the inhabitants of south-western Gaul, and it was then extended by the Romans so as to include all the populations of Gallia except the Belgæ and Aquitanians."

R G. Latham, Ethnology of Europe, chapter 2.

—————CELTS: Origin: End—————

CELTS.

A name given among archæologists to certain prehistoric implements, both stone and bronze, of the wedge, chisel and axe kind. Mr. Thomas Wright, contends that the term is properly applied only to the bronze chisels, which the old antiquary Hearne identified with the Roman celtis, or chisel—whence the name. It has evidently no connection with the word Celt used ethnologically.

CELYDDON, Forest of (or Coed Celydon).

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CENABUM.

See GENABUM.

CENOMANIANS, The.

See INSUBRIANS.

CENSORS, The Roman.

"The censorship was an office so remarkable that, however familiar the subject may be to many readers, it is necessary here to bestow some notice on it. Its original business was to take a register of the citizens and of their property; but this, which seems at first sight to be no more than the drawing up of a mere statistical report, became in fact, from the large discretion allowed to every Roman officer, a political power of the highest importance. The censors made out the returns of the free population; but they did more; they divided it according to its civil distinctions, and drew up a list of the senators, a list of the equites, a list of the members of the several tribes, or of those citizens who enjoyed the right of voting, and a list of the ærarians, consisting of those freedmen, naturalized strangers, and others, who, being enrolled in no tribe, possessed no vote in the comitia, but still enjoyed all the private rights of Roman citizens. Now the lists thus drawn up by the censors were regarded as legal evidence of a man's condition. … From thence the transition was easy, according to Roman notions, to the decision of questions of right; such as whether a citizen was really worthy of retaining his rank. … If a man behaved tyrannically to his wife or children, if he was guilty of excessive cruelty even to his slaves, if he neglected his land, if he indulged in habits of extravagant expense, or followed any calling which was regarded as degrading, the offence was justly noted by the censors, and the offender was struck off from the list of senators, if his rank was so high; or, if he were an ordinary citizen, he was expelled from his tribe, and reduced to the class of the ærarians. … The censors had the entire management of the regular revenues of the state, or of its vectigalia. They were the commonwealth's stewards, and to their hands all its property was entrusted. … With these almost kingly powers, and arrayed in kingly state, for the censor's robe was all scarlet … the censors might well seem too great for a free commonwealth."

T. Arnold, History of Rome, chapter 17.

See, also, LUSTRUM.

{403}

CENTRAL AMERICA: Ruins of ancient civilization.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MAYAS, and QUICHES; also, MEXICO, ANCIENT.

CENTRAL AMERICA: Discovery and early settlement.

See AMERICAN: A. D. 1498-1505; 1500-1511; 1513-1517.

CENTRAL AMERICA: A. D. 1821-1871. Separation from Spain, and Independence. Attempted federation and its failures. Wars and revolutions of the five Republics.

"The central part of the American continent, extending from the southern boundary of Mexico to the Isthmus of Panama, consisted in the old colonial times of several Intendancies, all of which were united in the Captaincy-General of Guatemala. Like the West Indian Islands, it was a neglected part of the Spanish Empire. … Central America has no history up to the epoch of independence. … It was not until the success of the Revolution had become certain on both sides of them, both in Mexico and New Granada, that the Intendancies which made up the Captaincy-General of Guatemala declared themselves also independent of Spain. The cry of liberty had indeed been raised in Costa Rica in 1813, and in Nicaragua in 1815; but the Revolution was postponed for six years longer. Guatemala, the seat of government, published its declaration in September, 1821, and its example was speedily followed by San Salvador and Honduras. Nicaragua, on proclaiming its independence, together with one of the departments of Guatemala, declared its adhesion to what was known in Mexico as the plan of Ignala [see MEXICO: A. D. 1820-1826]. As there were no Spanish troops in Central America, the recusant Spanish official party could make no resistance to the popular movement; and many of them crossed the sea to Cuba or returned to Spain. … The Revolution of Central America thus stands alone in the history of independence, as having been accomplished without the shedding of blood." During the brief empire of Iturbide in Mexico [see as above] the Central American states were annexed to it, though with strong resistance on the part of all except Guatemala. "On the proclamation of the Federal Republic in Mexico [1824], the whole of Central America, except the district of Chiapas, withdrew from the alliance, and drove out the Mexican officials as only a year before they had driven out the Spanish officials. The people now had to face the task of forming a government for themselves: and … they now resolved on combining in a federation, in imitation of the great United States of North America. Perhaps no states were ever less suited to form a federal union. The petty territories of Central America lie on two Oceans, are divided by lofty mountains, and have scarcely any communication with each other: and the citizens of each have scarcely any common interest. A Central American federation, however, was an imposing idea, and the people clung to it with great pertinacity. The first effort for federation was made under the direction of General Filisola. All the Intendancies combined in one sovereign state; first under the name of the 'United Provinces,' afterwards (November 22, 1823) under that of the 'Federal Republic' of Central America. … A constitution of the most liberal kind was voted. This constitution is remarkable for having been the first which abolished slavery at once and absolutely and declared the slave trade to be piracy. … The clerical and oligarchic party set their faces stubbornly against the execution of the constitution, and began the revolt at Leon in Nicaragua. The union broke down in 1826, and though Morazan [of Honduras] reconstituted it in 1829, its history is a record of continual rebellion and reaction on the part of the Guatemaltec oligarchy. Of all South American conservative parties this oligarchy was perhaps the most despicable. They sank to their lowest when they raised the Spanish flag in 1832. But in doing this they went too far. Morazan's successes date from this time, and having beaten the Guatemaltecs, he transferred the Federal government in 1834 to San Salvador. But the Federal Republic of Central America dragged on a precarious existence until 1838, when it was overthrown by the revolt of Carrera in Guatemala. From the first the influence of the Federalists in the capital began to decay, and it was soon apparent that they had little power except in Honduras, San Salvador and Nicaragua. The Costa Ricans, a thriving commercial community, but of no great political importance, and separated by mountainous wastes from all the rest, soon ceased to take any part in public business. A second Federal Republic, excluding Costa Rica, was agreed to in 1842; but it fared no better than the first. The chief representative of the Federalist principle in Central America was Morazan, of Honduras, from whose government Carrera had revolted in 1838. On the failure of the Federation Morazan had fled to Chile, and on his return to Costa Rica he was shot at San José by the Carrerists. This was a great blow to the Liberals, and it was not until 1847 that a third Federation, consisting of Honduras, San Salvador, and Nicaragua, was organized. For some years Honduras, at the head of these states, carried on a war against Guatemala to compel it to join the union. Guatemala was far more than their match: San Salvador and Nicaragua soon failed in the struggle, and left Honduras to carry on the war alone. Under General Carrera Guatemala completely defeated its rival; and to his successes are due the revival of the Conservative or Clerical party all over Central America. … The government of each state became weaker and weaker: revolutions were everywhere frequent: and ultimately … the whole country was near falling into the hands of a North American adventurer [see NICARAGUA: A. D. 1855-1860]. In former times the English government had maintained some connection with the country [originating with the buccaneers and made important by the mahogany-cutting] through the independent Indians of the Mosquito coast, over whom, for the purposes of their trade with Jamaica, it had maintained a protectorate: and even a small English commercial colony, called Greytown, had been founded on this coast at the mouth of the river San Juan. Towards the close of Carrera's ascendancy this coast was resigned to Nicaragua, and the Bay Islands, which lie off the coast, to Honduras: and England thus retained nothing in the country but the old settlement of British Honduras, with its capital, Belize. After Carrera's death in 1865, the Liberal party began to reassert itself: and in 1871 there was a Liberal revolution in Guatemala itself."

E. J. Payne, History of European Colonies, chapter 21.

ALSO IN: H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States.

—————CENTRAL AMERICA: End—————

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CENTRAL ASIA.

See ASIA, CENTRAL.

CENTRE, The.

See RIGHT, &c.

CENTREVILLE, Evacuation of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861-1862 (DECEMBER-MARCH: VIRGINIA).

CENTURIES, Roman.

See COMITIA CENTURIATA.

CENTURION.

The officer commanding one of the fifty-five centuries or companies in a Roman legion of the empire.

See LEGION, ROMAN.

CENWULF, King of Mercia, A. D. 794-819.

CEORL.

See EORL, and ETHEL.

CEPEDA, Battle of(1859).

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1819-1874.

CEPHISSUS, Battle of the (A. D. 1311).

See CATALAN GRAND COMPANY.

CERAMICUS OF ATHENS.

The Ceramicus was originally the most important of the suburban districts of Athens and derived its name from the potters. "It is probable that about the time of Pisistratus the market of the ancient suburb called the Ceramicus (for every Attic district possessed its own market) was constituted the central market of the city. … They [the Pisistratidæ] connected Athens in all directions by roadways with the country districts: these roads were accurately measured, and all met on the Ceramicus, in the centre of which an altar was erected to the Twelve Gods. From this centre of town and country were calculated the distances to the different country districts, to the ports, and to the most important sanctuaries of the common fatherland. … [In the next century—in the age of Pericles—the population had extended to the north and west and] part of the ancient potters' district or Ceramicus had long become a quarter of the city [the Inner Ceramicus]; the other part remained suburb [the Outer Ceramicus]. Between the two lay the double gate or Dipylum, the broadest and most splendid gate of the city. … Here the broad carriage-road which, avoiding all heights, ascended from the market-place of Hippodamus directly to the city-market of the Ceramicus, entered the city; from here straight to the west led the road to Eleusis, the sacred course of the festive processions. … From this road again, immediately outside the gate, branched off that which led to the Academy. … The high roads in the vicinity of the city gates were everywhere bordered with numerous and handsome sepulchral monuments, in particular the road leading through the outer Ceramicus. Here lay the public burial-ground for the citizens who had fallen in war; the vast space was divided into fields, corresponding to the different battle-fields at home and abroad."

E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 2, chapter 2, and book 3, chapter 3.

ALSO IN: W. M. Leake, Topography of Athens, section 3.

CERESTES, OR KERESTES, Battle of (1596).

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1595-1606.

CERIGNOLA, Battle of (1503).

See ITALY: A. D. 1501-1504.

CERISOLES, Battle of (1544).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1532-1547.

CERONES, The.

See BRITAIN, CELTIC TRIBES.

CERRO GORDO, Battle of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1847 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).

CESS.

A word, corrupted from "assess," signifying a rate, or tax; used especially in Scotland, and applied more particularly to a tax imposed in 1678, for the maintenance of troops, during the persecution of the Covenanters.

J. H. Thompson, A Cloud of Witnesses, page 67.

The Imp. Diet.

CEUTA, A. D. 1415. Siege and capture by the Portuguese.

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1415-1460.

CEUTA: A. D. 1668. Ceded to Spain.

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1637-1668.

—————CEUTA: End—————

CÉVENNES, The prophets of the (or the Cévenol prophets). The Camisards.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1702-1710.

CEYLON, 3d Century B. C. Conversion to Buddhism.

See INDIA: B. C. 312-.

CEYLON: A. D. 1802. Permanent acquisition by England.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1801-1802.

—————CEYLON: End—————

CHACABUCO, Battle of (1817).

See CHILE: A. D. 1810-1818.

CHACO, The Gran.

See GRAN CHACO.

CHÆRONEA, Battles of (B. C. 338).

See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.

CHÆRONEA:(B. C. 86).

See MITHRIDATIC WARS.

CHAGAN.

See KUAN.

CHA'HTAS, OR CHOCTAWS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

CHALCEDON.

An ancient Greek city, founded by the Megarians on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus, nearly opposite to Byzantium, like which city it suffered in early times many changes of masters. It was bequeathed to the Romans by the last king of Bithynia.

CHALCEDON: A. D. 258. Capture by the Goths.

See GOTHS: A. D. 258-267.

CHALCEDON: A. D. 616-625. The Persians in possession.

See PERSIA: A. D. 226-627.

—————CHALCEDON: End—————

CHALCEDON, The Council of (A. D. 451).

See NESTORIAN AND MONOPHYSITE CONTROVERSY.

CHALCIS AND ERETRIA.

"The most dangerous rivals of Ionia were the towns of Eubœa, among which, in the first instance, Cyme, situated in an excellent bay of the east coast, in a district abounding in wine, and afterwards the two sister-towns on the Euripus, Chalcis and Eretria, distinguished themselves by larger measures of colonization. While Eretria, the 'city of rowers,' rose to prosperity especially by means of purple-fisheries and a ferry-navigation conducted on a constantly increasing scale, Chalcis, the 'bronze city,' on the double sea of the Bœotian sound, contrived to raise and employ for herself the most important of the many treasures of the island—its copper. … Chalcis became the Greek centre of this branch of industry; it became the Greek Sidon. Next to Cyprus there were no richer stores of copper in the Greek world than on Eubœa, and in Chalcis were the first copper-works and smithies known in European Greece."

E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 2, chapter 3.

The Chalcidians were enterprising colonists, particularly in Thrace, in the Macedonian peninsula, where they are said to have founded thirty-two towns, which were collectively called the Chalcidice, and in southern Italy and Sicily. It was the abundant wealth of Thrace in metallic ores which drew the Chalcidians to it. About 700 B. C. a border feud between Chalcis and Eretria, concerning certain "Lelantian fields" which lay between them, grew to such proportions and so many other states came to take part in it, that, "according to Thucydides no war of more universal importance for the whole nation was fought between the fall of Troja and the Persian war."

E. Curtius, History of Greece, volume 1, book 2, chapter 1.

Chalcis was subdued by the Athenians in B. C. 506.

See ATHENS: B. C. 509-506; also KLERUCHS, and EUBŒA.

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CHALCUS.

See TALENT.

CHALDEA. CHALDEES.

See BABYLONIA.

CHALDEAN CHURCH.

See NESTORIANS.

CHALDIRAN, Battle of (1514).

See TURKS: A. D. 1481-1520.

CHALGROVE FIELD, Fall of Hampden at.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1643 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).

CHALONS, Battles at (A. D. 271).

Among the many pretenders to the Roman imperial throne—"the thirty tyrants," as they were called—of the distracted reign of Gallienus, was Tetricus, who had been governor of Aquitaine. The dangerous honor was forced upon him, by a demoralized army, and he reigned against his will for several years over Gaul, Spain and Britain. At length, when the iron-handed Aurelian had taken the reins of government at Rome, Tetricus secretly plotted with him for deliverance from his own uncoveted greatness. Aurelian invaded Gaul and Tetricus led an army against him, only to betray it, in a great battle at Chalons (271), where the rebels were cut to pieces.

CHALONS: A. D. 366.

See ALEMANNI, INVASION OF GAUL BY THE.

CHALONS: A. D. 451.

See HUNS: A. D. 451, ATTILA'S INVASION OF GAUL.

—————CHALONS: End—————

CHALYBES, The.

The Chalybes, or Chalybians, were an ancient people in Asia Minor, on the coast of the Euxine, probably east of the Halys, who were noted as workers of iron.

E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, chapter 22, note A.

CHAMAVI, The.

See BRUCTERI; also, FRANKS; also, GAUL: A. D. 355-361.

CHAMBERS OF REANNEXATON, French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1679-1681.

CHAMBERSBURG, Burning of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (JULY: VIRGINIA-MARYLAND).

CHAMPAGNE: Origin of the county.

In the middle years of the revolt that dethroned the Carlovingians and raised the Capetians to a throne which they made the throne of a kingdom of France, Count Herbert of Vermandois allied himself with the party of the latter, and began operations for the expanding of his domain. "The Champaign of Rheims, the 'Campania Remensis'—a most appropriate descriptive denomination of the region—an extension of the plains of Flanders—but not yet employed politically as designating a province—was protected against Count Herbert on the Vermandois border by the Castrum Theodorici—Château Thierry. … Herbert's profuse promises induced the commander to betray his duty. … Herbert, through this occupation of Château Thierry, obtained the city of Troyes and all the 'Campania Remensis,' which, under his potent sway, was speedily developed into the magnificent County of Champagne. Herbert and his lineage held Champagne during three generations, until some time after the accession of the Capets, when the Grand Fief passed from the House of Vermandois to the House of Blois."

Sir F. Palgrave, History of Normandy and England, volume 2, page 192.

CHAMPEAUBERT, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).

CHAMPIGNY, Sortie of(1870).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870-1871.

CHAMPION'S HILL, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (APRIL-JULY: ON THE MISSISSIPPI).

CHAMPLAIN, Samuel. Explorations and Colonizations.

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1603-1605; 1608-1611; and 1611-1616.

CHAMPLAIN, Lake: A. D. 1776. Arnold's naval battle with Carleton.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776-1777.

CHAMPLAIN, Lake: A. D. 1814. Macdonough's naval victory.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1814 (SEPTEMBER).

—————CHAMPLAIN, End—————

CHAMPS DE MARS. CHAMPS DE MAI.

When the Merovingian kings of the Franks summoned their captains to gather for the planning and preparing of campaigns, the assemblies were called at first the Champs de Mars, because the meeting was in earliest spring—in March. "But as the Franks, from serving on foot, became cavaliers under the second [the Carlovingian] race, the time was changed to May, for the sake of forage, and the assemblies were called Champs de Mai."

E. E. Crowe, History of France, chapter 1.

See, also, MALLUM, and PARLIAMENT OF PARIS.

CHANCAS, The.

See PERU: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

CHANCELLOR, The.

"The name [of the Chancellor], derived probably from the cancelli or screen behind which the secretarial work of the royal household was carried on, claims a considerable antiquity; and the offices which it denotes are various in proportion. The chancellor of the Karolingian sovereigns, succeeding to the place of the more ancient referendarius, is simply the royal notary; the archi-cancellarius is the chief of a large body of such officers associated under the name of the chancery, and is the keeper of the royal seal. It is from this minister that the English chancellor derives his name and function. Edward the Confessor, the first of our sovereigns who had a seal, is also the first who had a chancellor; from the reign of the Conqueror the office has descended in regular succession. It seems to have been to a comparatively late period, generally if not always, at least in England, held by an ecclesiastic who was a member of the royal household and on a footing with the great dignitaries. The chancellor was the most dignified of the royal chaplains, if not the head of that body. The whole secretarial work of the household and court fell on the chancellor and the chaplains. … The chancellor was, in a manner, the secretary of state for all departments."

William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 11, section 121.

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"In the reign of Edward I. we begin to perceive signs of the rise of the extraordinary or equitable jurisdiction of the Chancellor. The numerous petitions addressed to the King and his Council, seeking the interposition of the royal grace and favour either to mitigate the harshness of the Common Law or supply its deficiencies, had been in the special care of the Chancellor, who examined and reported upon them to the King. … At length, in 1348, by a writ or ordinance of the 22d year of Edward III. all such matters as were 'of Grace' were directed to be dispatched by the Chancellor or by the Keeper of the Privy Seal. This was a great step in the recognition of the equitable jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery, as distinct from the legal jurisdiction of the Chancellor and of the Courts of Common Law; although it was not until the following reign that it can be said to have been permanently established."

T. P. Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History, pages 173-174.

"The Lord Chancellor is a Privy Councillor by his office; a Cabinet Minister; and, according to Lord Chancellor Ellesmere, prolocutor [chairman, or Speaker] of the House of Lords by prescription."

A. C. Ewald, The Crown and its Advisers, lecture 2.

ALSO IN: E. Fischel, The English Constitution, book 5, chapter 7.

CHANCELLOR'S ROLLS.

See EXCHEQUER. EXCHEQUER ROLLS.

CHANCELLORSVILLE, Battles of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (APRIL-MAY: VIRGINIA).

CHANCERY.

See CHANCELLOR.

CHANDRAGUPTA, OR CANDRAGUPTA, The empire of.

See INDIA: B. C. 327-312, and 312.

CHANEERS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

CHANTILLY, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER: VIRGINIA).

CHANTRY PRIESTS.

"With the more wealthy and devout [in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries] it was the practice to erect little chapels, which were either added to churches or enclosed by screens within them, where chantry priests might celebrate mass for the good of their souls in perpetuity. … Large sums of money were … devoted to the maintenance of chantry priests, whose duty it was to say mass for the repose of the testator's soul. … The character and conduct of the chantry priests must have become somewhat of a lax order in the 16th century."

R. R. Sharpe, Introduction to "Calendar of Wills in the Court of Husting, London," volume 2, page viii.

CHAOUANONS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SHAWANESE.

CHAPAS, OR CHAPANECS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ZAPOTECS, &c.

CHAPULTEPEC, Battle of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1847 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).

CHARCAS, Las.

The Spanish province which now forms the Republic of Bolivia. Also called, formerly, Upper Peru, and sometimes the province of Potosi.

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777; and BOLIVIA: A. D. 1825-1826.

CHARIBERT I., King of Aquitaine, A. D. 561-567. Charibert II., King of Aquitaine, A. D. 628-631.

CHARITON RIVER, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JULY-SEPTEMBER: MISSOURI-ARKANSAS).

CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE.

See FRANKS (CARLOVINGIAN EMPIRE): A. D. 768-814; ROMAN EMPIRE: A. D. 800; LOMBARDS: A. D. 754-774; SAXONS: A. D. 772-804; AVARS: 791-805; and SPAIN: A. D. 778.

CHARLEMAGNE'S SCHOOL OF THE PALACE.

See SCHOOL OF THE PALACE.

CHARLEROI: A. D. 1667. Taken by the French.

See NETHERLANDS (THE SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1667.

CHARLEROI: A. D. 1668. Ceded to France.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1668.

CHARLEROI: A. D. 1679. Restored to Spain.

See NIMEGUEN, THE PEACE OF.

CHARLEROI: A. D. 1693. Siege and capture by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1693 (JULY).

CHARLEROI: A. D. 1697. Restored to Spain.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1697.

CHARLEROI: A. D. 1713. Ceded to Holland.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

CHARLEROI: A. D. 1746-1748. Taken by French and ceded to Austria.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1746-1747, and AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, THE CONGRESS.

—————CHARLEROI: End—————

CHARLES (called The Great—Charlemagne), King of Neustria, A. D. 768; of all the Franks, A. D. 771; of Franks and Lombardy, 774; Emperor of the West, 800-814.

Charles of Austria, Archduke, Campaigns of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER); 1796-1797 (OCTOBER-APRIL); 1797 (APRIL-MAY); 1798-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL); 1799 (AUGUST-DECEMBER); also GERMANY: 1809 (JANUARY-.JUNE), (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

Charles of Bourbon, King of Naples or the Two Sicilies, 1734-1759.

Charles (called The Bold), Duke of Burgundy, 1467-1477.

Charles I., King of England, 1625-1649. Trial and execution.

See ENGLAND: A. D.1649 (JANUARY).

Charles I. (of Anjou), King of Naples and Sicily, 1266-1282; King of Naples, 1282-1285.

Charles I., King of Portugal, 1889-.

Charles II. (called The Bald), Emperor, and King of Italy, A. D. 875-877; King of Neustria and Burgundy, 840-877.

Charles II., King of England, 1660-1685. (By a loyal fiction, supposed to have reigned from 1649, when his father was beheaded; though the throne was in Cromwell's possession).

Charles II., King of Naples, 1285-1309.

Charles II., King of Navarre, 1349-1387.

Charles II., King of Spain, 1665-1700.

Charles III. (called The Fat), Emperor, King of the East Franks (Germany), and King of Italy, A. D. 881-888; King of the West Franks (France), 884-888.

Charles III. (called The Simple), King of France, A. D. 892-929.

Charles III., King of Naples, 1381-1386.

Charles III., King of Navarre, 1387-1425.

Charles III., King of Spain, 1759-1788.

Charles IV., Emperor, and King of Italy, 1355-1378; King of Bohemia, 1346-1378; King of Germany, 1347-1378; King of Burgundy, 1365-1378.

Charles IV., King of France, and of Navarre (Charles I.), 1322-1328.

Charles IV., King of Spain, 1788-1808.

Charles V., Emperor, 1519-1558; Duke of Burgundy, 1506-1555; King of Spain (as Charles I.) and of Naples, or the Two Sicilies, 1516-1556.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1496-1526.

Charles V. (called The Wise), King of France, 1364-1380.

Charles VI., Germanic Emperor, and King of Hungary and Bohemia, 1711-1740.

Charles VI. (called The Well-loved), King of France, 1380-1422.

Charles VII. (of Bavaria) Germanic Emperor, 1742-1745.

Charles VII., King of France, 1422-1461.

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Charles VIII., King of France, 1483-1498.

Charles IX., King of France, 1560-1574.

Charles IX., King of Sweden, 1604-1611.

Charles X., King of France (the last of the House of Bourbon), 1824-1830.

Charles X., King of Sweden, 1654-1660.

Charles XI., King of Sweden, 1660-1697.

Charles XII., King of Sweden, 1697-1718.

Charles XIII., King of Sweden, 1809-1818.

Charles XIV. (Bernadotte), King of Sweden, 1818-1844.

Charles XV., King of Sweden, 1859-1872.

Charles Albert, Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia, 1831-1849.

Charles Emanuel, Duke of Savoy, 1580-1630.

Charles Emanuel II., Duke of Savoy, 1638-1675.

Charles Emanuel III., Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia, 1730-1773.

Charles Emanuel IV., Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia, 1796-1802.

Charles Felix, Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia, 1821-1831.

Charles Martel, Duke of Austrasia and Mayor of the Palace (of the King of the Franks), A. D. 715-741.

Charles Robert, or Charobert, or Caribert, King of Hungary, 1308-1342.

Charles Swerkerson, King of Sweden, 1161-1167.

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1680. The founding of the city.

See SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1670-1696.

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1706. Unsuccessful attack by the French.

See SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1701-1706.

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1775-1776. Revolutionary proceedings.

See SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1775 and 1776.

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1776. Sir Henry Clinton's attack and repulse.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (JUNE).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1780. Siege by the British. Surrender of the city.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1780 (FEBRUARY-AUGUST).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1860. The splitting of the National Democratic Convention.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (APRIL-NOVEMBER).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1860. The adoption of the Ordinance of Secession.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1860. Major Anderson at Fort Sumter.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (DECEMBER).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1861 (April). The Beginning of war. Bombardment of Fort Sumter.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (MARCH-APRIL).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1863 (April). The attack and repulse of the Monitor fleet.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (APRIL: SOUTH CAROLINA).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1863 (July). The Union troops on Morris Island. Assault on Fort Wagner.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JULY: SOUTH CAROLINA).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1863 (August-December). Siege of Fort Wagner. Bombardment of the city.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-DECEMBER: SOUTH CAROLINA).

CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1865 (February). Evacuation by the Confederates. Occupation by Federal troops.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (FEBRUARY: SOUTH CAROLINA).

—————CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA: End—————

CHARLESTOWN, Massachusetts: A. D. 1623. The first settlement.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1629-1630.

CHARTER OAK, The.

See CONNECTICUT: A. D. 1685-1687.

CHARTER OF FORESTS.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1216-1274.

CHARTERHOUSE, OR CHARTREUSE.

See CARTHUSIAN ORDER.

CHARTISTS. CHARTISM.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1838-1842 and 1848.

CHARTRES, Defeat of the Normans at.

The Norman, Rollo, investing the city of Chartres, sustained there, on the 20th of July, A. D. 911, the most serious defeat which he and his pirates ever suffered.

Sir F. Palgrave, History of Normandy and England, book 1, chapter 5.

CHARTREUSE, La Grande.

See CARTHUSIAN ORDER.

CHASIDIM, OR CHASIDEES, OR ASSIDEANS, The.

A name, signifying the godly or pious, assumed by a party among the Jews, in the second century B. C., who resisted the Grecianizing tendencies of the time under the influence of the Græco-Syrian domination, and who were the nucleus of the Maccabean revolt. The later school of the Pharisees is represented by Ewald (History of Israel, book 5, section 2) to have been the product of a narrowing transformation of the school of the Chasidim; while the Essenes, in his view, were a purer residue of the Chasidim "who strove after piety, yet would not join the Pharisees"; who abandoned "society as worldly and incurably corrupt," and in whom "the conscience of the nation, as it were, withdrew into the wilderness."

H. Ewald, History of Israel, book 5, section 2.

A modern sect, borrowing the name, founded by one Israel Baal Schem, who first appeared in Podolia, in 1740, is said to embrace most of the Jews in Galicia, Hungary, Southern Russia, and Wallachia.

H. C. Adams, History of the Jews, page 333.

ALSO IN: H. Graetz, History of the Jews, volume 5, chapter 9.

CHASUARII, The.

See FRANKS: ORIGIN, ETC.

CHÂTEAU CAMBRESIS, Treaty of (1559):

See FRANCE: A. D. 1547-1559.

CHÂTEAU GALLAIRD.

This was the name given to a famous castle, built by Richard Cœur de Lion in Normandy, and designed to be the key to the defences of that important duchy. "As a monument of warlike skill, his 'Saucy Castle,' Château Gaillard, stands first among the fortresses of the Middle Ages. Richard fixed its site where the Seine bends suddenly at Gaillon in a great semicircle to the north, and where the Valley of Les Andèlys breaks the line of the chalk cliffs along its bank. The castle formed part of an intrenched camp which Richard designed to cover his Norman capital. … The easy reduction of Normandy on the fall of Chateau Gaillard at a later time [when it was taken by Philip Augustus, of France] proved Richard's foresight."

J. R. Green, Short History of the English People, chapter 2, section 9.

CHATEAU THIERRY, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).

CHATEAUVIEUX, Fête to the soldiers of.

See LIBERTY CAP.

CHATHAM, Lord; Administration of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1757-1760; 1760-1763, and 1765-1768.

And the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (JANUARY-MARCH).

CHATILLON, Battles of (1793).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER).

CHATILLON-SUR-SEINE, Congress of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).

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CHATTANOOGA: The name.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER: TENNESSEE).

CHATTANOOGA: A. D. 1862. Secured by the Confederates.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JUNE-OCTOBER: TENNESSEE-KENTUCKY).

CHATTANOOGA: A. D. 1863 (August). Evacuation by the Confederates.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER: TENNESSEE).

CHATTANOOGA: A. D. 1863 (October-November). The siege. The battle on Lookout Mountain. The assault of Missionary Ridge. The Routing of Bragg's army.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER: TENNESSEE).

—————CHATTANOOGA: End—————

CHATTI, OR CATTI, The.

"Beyond [the Mattiaci] are the Chatti, whose settlements begin at the Hercynian forest, where the country is not so open and marshy as in the other cantons into which Germany stretches. They are found where there are hills, and with them grow less frequent, for the Hercynian forest keeps close till it has seen the last of its native Chatti. Hardy frames, close-knit limbs, fierce countenances, and a peculiarly vigorous courage, mark the tribe. For Germans, they have much intelligence and sagacity. … Other tribes you see going to battle, the Chatti to a campaign."

"The settlements of the Chatti, one of the chief German tribes, apparently coincide with portions of Westphalia, Nassau, Hesse-Darmstadt and Hesse-Cassel. Dr. Latham assumes the Chatti of Tacitus to be the Suevi of Cæsar. The fact that the name Chatti does not occur in Cæsar renders this hypothesis by no means improbable."

Tacitus, Germany, translated by Church and Brodribb, and note.

See, also, SUEVI.

CHAUCER, and his times.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1350-1400.

CHAUCI AND CHERUSCI, The.

"The tribe of the Chauci … beginning at the Frisian settlements and occupying a part of the coast, stretches along the frontier of all the tribes which I have enumerated, till it reaches with a bend as far as the Chatti. This vast extent of country is not merely possessed but densely peopled by the Chauci, the noblest of the German races, a nation who would maintain their greatness by righteous dealing. Without ambition, without lawless violence, … the crowning proof of their valour and their strength is, that they keep up their superiority without harm to others. … Dwelling on one side of the Chauci and Chatti, the Cherusci long cherished, unassailed, an excessive and enervating love of peace. This was more pleasant than safe, … and so the Cherusci, ever reputed good and just, are now called cowards and fools, while in the case of the victorious Chatti success has been identified with prudence. The downfall of the Cherusci brought with it also that of the Fosi, a neighbouring tribe."

"The settlements of the Chauci … must have included almost the entire country between the Ems and the Weser—that is, Oldenburg and part of Hanover—and have taken in portions of Westphalia about Munster and Paderborn. The Cherusci … appear to have occupied Brunswick and the south part of Hanover. Arminius who destroyed the Roman army under Varus, was a Cheruscan chief. … The Fosi … must have occupied part of Hanover."

Tacitus, Minor Works, translated by Church and Brodribb: The Germany, with Geographical notes.

Bishop Stubbs conjectures that the Chauci, Cherusci, and some other tribes may have been afterwards comprehended under the general name "Saxon."

See SAXONS.

CHAZARS, The.

See KHAZARS.

CHEAT SUMMIT, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (AUGUST-DECEMBER: WEST VIRGINIA).

CHEBUCTO.

The original name of the harbor chosen for the site of the city of Halifax.

See NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1749-1755, and HALIFAX: A. D. 1749.

CHEIROTONIA.

A vote by show of hands, among the ancient Greeks.

G. F. Schömann, Antiquity of Greece: The State, part 3, chapter 3.

CHEMI.

See EGYPT: ITS NAMES.

CHEMNITZ, Battle of (1639).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

CHERBOURG. Destroyed by the English.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1758 (JULY-AUGUST).

CHEROKEE WAR, The.

See SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1759-1761.

CHEROKEES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CHEROKEES.

CHERRONESUS, The proposed State of.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1784.

CHERRY VALLEY, The massacre at. See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778 (JUNE-NOVEMBER)

CHERSON.

See BOSPHORUS: A. D. 565-574.

CHERSON: A. D. 988. Taken by the Russians.

"A thousand years after the rest of the Greek nation was sunk in irremediable slavery, Cherson remained free. Such a phenomenon as the existence of manly feeling in one city, when mankind everywhere else slept contented in a state of political degradation, deserved attentive consideration. … Cherson retained its position as an independent State until the reign of Theophilus [Byzantine emperor A. D. 829-842], who compelled it to receive a governor from Constantinople; but, even under the Byzantine government, it continued to defend its municipal institutions, and, instead of slavishly soliciting the imperial favour, and adopting Byzantine manners, it boasted of its constitution and self government. But it gradually lost its former wealth and extensive trade, and when Vladimir, the sovereign of Russia, attacked it in 988, it was betrayed into his hands by a priest, who informed him how to cut off the water. … Vladimir obtained the hand of Anne, the sister of the emperors Basil II. and Constantine VIII., and was baptised and married in the church of the Panaghia at Cherson. To soothe the vanity of the Empire, he pretended to retain possession of his conquest as the dowry of his wife. Many of the priests who converted the Russians to Christianity, and many of the artists who adorned the earliest Russian churches with paintings and mosaics, were natives of Cherson."

G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine Empire from 716 to 1057.

CHERSONESE, The Golden.

See CHRYSE.

CHERSONESUS.

The Greek name for a peninsula, or "land-island," applied most especially to the long tongue of land between the Hellespont and the Gulf of Melas.

CHERUSCI, The.

See CHAUCI.

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CHESAPEAKE AND SHANNON, The fight of the.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A.D. 1812-1813.

CHESS, Origin of the game of.

"If we wished to know, for instance, who has taught us the game of chess, the name of chess would tell us better than anything else that it came to the West from Persia. In spite of all that has been written to the contrary, chess was originally the game of Kings, the game of Shahs. This word Shah became in Old French eschac, Italian scacco, German Schach; while the Old French eschecs was further corrupted into chess. The more original form chec has likewise been preserved, though we little think of it when we draw a cheque, or when we suffer a check, or when we speak of the Chancellor of the Exchequer. The great object of the chess-player is to protect the king, and when the king is in danger, the opponent is obliged to say 'check,' i. e., Shah, the king. … After this the various meanings of check, cheque, or exchequer become easily intelligible, though it is quite true that if similar changes of meaning, which in our case we can watch by the light of history, had taken place in the dimness of prehistoric ages, it would be difficult to convince the sceptic that exchequer, or scaccarium, the name of the chess-board was afterwards used for the checkered cloth on which accounts were calculated by means of counters, and that a checkered career was a life with many cross-lines."

F. Max Müller, Biography of Words, chapter 4.

CHESTER, Origin of.

See DEVA.

CHESTER, The Palatine Earldom.

See PALATINE, THE ENGLISH COUNTIES; also WALES, PRINCE OF.

CHESTER, Battle of.

One of the fiercest of the battles fought between the Welsh and the Angles, A. D. 613. The latter were the victors.

CHEVY CHASE.

See OTTER BURN, BATTLE OF.

CHEYENNES, OR SHEYENNES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

CHIAPAS: Ruins of ancient civilization in.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MAYAS; and MEXICO, ANCIENT.

CHIARI, Battle Of(1701).

See ITALY (SAVOY AND PIEDMONT): A. D. 1701-1713.

CHIBCHAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CHIBCHAS.

CHICAGO: A. D. 1812.

Evacuation of the Fort Dearborn Post, and massacre of most of the retreating garrison.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-OCTOBER).

CHICAGO: A. D. 1860. The Republican National Convention. Nomination of Lincoln.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (APRIL-NOVEMBER).

CHICAGO: A. D. 1871. The great Fire.

"The greatest event in the history of Chicago was the Great Fire, as it is termed, which broke out on the evening of Oct. 8, 1871. Chicago was at that time [except in the business centre] a city of wood. For a long time prior to the evening referred to there had been blowing a hot wind from the southwest, which had dried everything to the inflammability of tinder, and it was upon a mass of sun and wind-dried wooden structures that the fire began its work. It is supposed to have originated from the accidental upsetting of a kerosene lamp in a cow barn [Mrs. O'Leary's] on De Koven Street, near the corner of Jefferson, on the west side of the river. This region was composed hugely of shanties, and the fire spread rapidly, very soon crossing the river to the South Side, and fastening on that portion of the city which contained nearly all the leading business houses, and which was built up very largely with stone and brick. But it seemed to enkindle as if it were tinder. Some buildings were blown up with gunpowder, which, in connection with the strong southwest gale, prevented the extension of the flames to the south. The fire swept on Monday steadily to the north, including everything from the lake to the South Branch, and then crossed to the North Side, and, taking in everything from the lake to the North Branch, it burned northward for a distance of three miles, where it died out at the city limits, when there was nothing more to burn. In the midst of this broad area of devastation, on the north side of Washington Square, between Clark Street and Dearborn Avenue, the well-known Ogden house stands amid trees of the ancient forest and surrounded by extensive grounds, the solitary relic of that section of the city before the fiery flood. The total area of the land burned over was 2,100 acres. Nearly 20,000 buildings were consumed; 100,000 people were rendered homeless; 200 lives were lost, and the grand total of values destroyed is estimated at $200,000,000. Of this vast sum, nearly one-half was covered by insurance, but under the tremendous losses many of the insurance companies were forced to the wall, and went into liquidation, and the victims of the conflagration recovered only about one-fifth of their aggregate losses. Among the buildings which were burned were the court-house, custom-house and post office, chamber of commerce, three railway depots, nine daily newspaper offices, thirty-two hotels, ten theatres and halls, eight public schools and some branch school buildings, forty-one churches, five elevators, and all the national banks. If the Great Fire was an event without parallel in its dimensions and the magnitude of its dire results, the charity which followed it was equally unrivalled in its extent. … All the civilized world appeared to instantly appreciate the calamity. Food, clothing, supplies of every kind, money, messages of affection, sympathy, etc., began pouring in at once in a stream that appeared endless and bottomless. In all, the amount contributed reached over $7,000,000. … It was believed by many that the fire had forever blotted out Chicago from the list of great American cities, but the spirit of her people was undaunted by calamity, and, encouraged by the generous sympathy and help from all quarters, they set to work at once to repair their almost ruined fortunes. … Rebuilding was at once commenced, and, within a year after the fire, more than $40,000,000 were expended in improvements. The city came up from its ruins far more palatial, splendid, strong and imperishable than before. In one sense the fire was a benefit. Its consequence was a class of structures far better, in every essential respect, than before the conflagration. Fire-proof buildings became the rule, the limits of wood were carefully restricted, and the value of the reconstructed portion immeasurably exceeded that of the city which had been destroyed."

Marquis' Handbook of Chicago, page 22.

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"Thousands of people on the North Side fled far out on the prairie, but other thousands, less fortunate, were hemmed in before they could reach the country, and were driven to the Sands, a group of beach-hillocks fronting on Lake Michigan. These had been covered with rescued merchandise and furniture. The flames fell fiercely upon the heaps of goods, and the miserable refugees were driven into the black waves, where they stood neck-deep in chilling water, scourged by sheets of sparks and blowing sand. A great number of horses had been collected here, and they too dashed into the sea, where scores of them were drowned. Toward evening the Mayor sent a fleet of tow-boats which took off the fugitives at the Sands. When the next day [Tuesday, October 10] dawned, the prairie was covered with the calcined ruins of more than 17,000 buildings. … This was the greatest and most disastrous conflagration on record. The burning of Moscow, in 1812, caused a loss amounting to £30,000,000; but the loss at Chicago was in excess of this amount. The Great Fire of London, in 1006, devastated a tract of 430 acres, and destroyed 13,000 buildings; but that of Chicago swept over 1,900 acres, and burned more than 17,000 buildings."

M. F. Sweetser, Chicago ("Cities of the World," volume 1).

The following is the statement of area burned over, and of property destroyed, made by the Chicago Relief and Aid Society, and which is probably authoritative: "The total area burned over in the city, including streets, was 2,124 acres, or nearly three and one-third square miles. This area contained about 73 miles of streets, 18,000 buildings, and the homes of 100,000 people."

A. T. Andreas, History of Chicago, volume 2, page 760.

ALSO IN: E. Colbert and E. Chamberlain, Chicago and the Great Conflagration.

CHICAGO: A. D. 1886-1887. The Haymarket Conspiracy. Crime of the Anarchists. Their trial and execution.

"In February, 1886, Messrs. McCormick, large agricultural-machine makers of Chicago, refusing to yield to the dictation of their workmen, who required them to discharge some non-Union hands they had taken on, announced a 'lock-out,' and prepared to resume business as soon as possible with a new staff. Spies, Lingg, and other German Anarchists saw their opportunity. They persuaded the ousted workmen to prevent the 'scabs,'—anglicé, 'blacklegs,'—from entering the works on the day of their reopening. Revolvers, rifles, and bombs were readily found, the latter being entrusted principally to the hands of professional 'Reds.' The most violent appeals were made to the members of Unions and the populace generally; but though a succession of riots were got up, they were easily quelled by the resolute action of the police, backed by the approval of the immense majority of the people of Chicago. Finally, a mass meeting in arms was called to take place on May 4th, 1886, at 7.30 p.m., in the Haymarket, a long and recently widened street of the town, for the express purpose of denouncing the police. But the intention of the Anarchists was not merely to denounce the police: this was the pretext only. The prisons were to be forced, the police-stations blown up, the public buildings attacked, and the onslaught on property and capital to be inaugurated by the devastation of one of the fairest cities of the Union. By 8 p. m. a mob of some three or four thousand persons had been collected, and were regaled by speeches that became more violent as the night wore on. At 10 p. m. the police appeared in force. The crowd were commanded to disperse peaceably. A voice shouted: 'We are peaceable.' Captain Schaack says this was a signal. The words were hardly uttered when a spark flashed through the air. It looked like the lighted remnant of a cigar, but hissed like a miniature sky-rocket.' It was a bomb, and fell amid the ranks of the police. A terrific explosion followed, and immediately afterwards the mob opened fire upon the police. The latter, stunned for a moment, soon recovered themselves, returned the fire, charged the mob, and in a couple of minutes dispersed it in every direction. But eight of their comrades lay dead upon the pavement, and scores of others were weltering in their blood around the spot. Such was the Chicago outrage of May 4th, 1886."

The Spectator, April 19, 1890 (reviewing Shaack's "Anarchy and Anarchists").

The Anarchists who were arrested and brought to trial for this crime were eight in number,—August Spies, Michael Schwab, Samuel Fielden, Albert H. Parsons, Adolph Fischer, George Engel, Louis Lingg, and Oscar W. Neebe. The trial began July 14, 1886. The evidence closed on the 10th of August; the argument of council consumed more than a week, and on the 20th of August the jury brought in a verdict which condemned Neebe to imprisonment for fifteen years, and all the other prisoners to death. Lingg committed suicide in prison; the sentences of Schwab and Fielding were commuted by the Governor to imprisonment for life; the remaining four were hanged on the 11th of November, 1887.

Judge Gary, The Chicago Anarchists of 1886 (Century Magazine, April, 1893).

ALSO IN: M. T. Schaack, Anarchy and Anarchists.

CHICAGO: A. D. 1892-1893. The World's Columbian Exposition.

"As a fitting mode of celebrating the four hundredth anniversary of the landing of Columbus on Oct. 12, 1492, it was proposed to have a universal exhibition in the United States, The idea was first taken up by citizens of New York, where subscriptions to the amount of $5,000,000 were obtained from merchants and capitalists before application was made for the sanction and support of the Federal Government. When the matter came up in Congress the claims of Chicago were considered superior, and a bill was passed and approved on April 25, 1890, entitled 'An Act to provide for celebrating the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, by holding an international exhibition of arts, industries, manufactures, and the products of the soil, mine, and sea in the city of Chicago, in the State of Illinois.' The act provided for the appointment of commissioners who should organize the exposition. … When the organization was completed and the stipulated financial support from the citizens and municipality of Chicago assured, President Harrison, on December 24, 1890, issued a proclamation inviting all the nations of the earth to participate in the World's Columbian Exposition. Since the time was too short to have the grounds and buildings completed for the summer of 1892, as was originally intended, the opening of the exposition was announced for May, 1893. When the work was fairly begun it was accelerated, as many as 10,000 workmen being employed at one time, in order to have the buildings ready to be dedicated with imposing ceremonies on Oct. 12. 1892. in commemoration of the exact date of the discovery of America."

Appleton's Annual Cyclopædia, 1891, page 837.

On May 1, 1893, the Fair was opened with appropriate ceremonies by President Cleveland.

{411}

CHICASAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY; also, LOUISIANA: A. D. 1719-1750.

CHICHIMECS, The.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1325-1502.

CHICKAHOMINY, Battles on the (Gaines' Mill, 1862; Cold Harbor, 1864).

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JUNE-JULY: VIRGINIA); and 1864 (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA).

CHICKAMAUGA, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER: TENNESSEE).

CHICORA.

The name given to the region of South Carolina by its Spanish discoverers.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1519-1525.

CHILDEBERT I. King of the Franks, at Paris, A. D. 511-558.

Childebert II., King of the Franks (Austrasia), A. D. 575-596;

(Burgundy), 593-596.

Childebert III., King of the Franks (Neustria and Burgundy), A. D. 695-711.

CHILDERIC II., King of the Franks (Austrasia), A. D. 660-673. Childeric III., King of the Franks (Neustria), A. D. 742-752.

CHILDREN OF REBECCA.

See REBECCAITES.

CHILDREN'S CRUSADE, The.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1212.

CHILE: The Araucanians.

"The land of Chili, from 30° Ssouth latitude, was and is still in part occupied by several tribes who speak the same language. They form the fourth and most southern group of the Andes people, and are called Araucanians. Like almost all American tribal names, the term Araucanian is indefinite; sometimes it is restricted to a single band, and sometimes so extended as to embrace a group of tribes. Some regard them as a separate family, calling them Chilians, while others, whom we follow, regard them as the southern members of the Andes group, and still others class them with the Pampas Indians. The name Araucanian is an improper one, introduced by the Spaniards, but it is so firmly fixed that it cannot be changed. The native names are Moluche (warriors) and Alapuche (natives). Originally they extended from Coquimbo to the Chonos Archipelago and from ocean to ocean, and even now they extend, though not very far, to the east of the Cordilleras. They are divided into four (or, if we include the Picunche, five) tribes, the names of which all end in 'tche' or 'che,' the word for man. Other minor divisions exist. The entire number of the Araucanians is computed at about 30,000 souls, but it is decreasing by sickness as well as by vice. They are owners of their land and have cattle in abundance, pay no taxes, and even their labor in the construction of highways is only light. They are warlike, brave, and still enjoy some of the blessings of the Inca civilization; only the real, western Araucanians in Chili have attained to a sedentary life. Long before the arrival of the Spaniards the government of the Araucanians offered a striking resemblance to the military aristocracy of the old world. All the rest that has been written of their high stage of culture has proved to be an empty picture of fancy. They followed agriculture, built fixed houses, and made at least an attempt at a form of government, but they still remain, as a whole, cruel, plundering savages."

The Standard Natural History (J. S. Kingsley, editor), volume 6, pages 232-234.

"The Araucanians inhabit the delightful region between the Andes and the sea, and between the rivers Bio-bio and Valdivia. They derive the appellation of Araucanians from the province of Arauco. …. The political division of the Araucanian state is regulated with much intelligence. It is divided from north to south into four governments. … Each government is divided into five provinces, and each province into nine counties. The state consists of three orders of nobility, each being subordinate to the other, and all having their respective vassals. They are the Toquis, the Apo-Ulmenes, and the Ulmenes. The Toquis, or governors, are four in number. They are independent of each other, but confederated for the public welfare. The Arch-Ulmenes govern the provinces under their respective Toquis. The Ulmenes govern the counties. The upper ranks, generally, are likewise comprehended under the term Ulmenes."

R. G. Watson, Spanish and Portuguese South America, volume 1, chapter 12.

ALSO IN: J. I. Molina, Geographical, Natural and Civil History of Chili, volume 2, book 2.

CHILE: A. D. 1450-1724. The Spanish conquest. The Araucanian War of Independence.

"In the year 1450 the Peruvian Inca, Yupanqui, desirous of extending his dominions towards the south, stationed himself with a powerful army at Atacama. Thence he dispatched a force of 10,000 men to Chili, under the command of Chinchiruca, who, overcoming almost incredible obstacles, marched through a sandy desert as far as Copiapo, a distance of 80 leagues. The Copiapins flew to arms, and prepared to resist this invasion. But Chinchiruca, true to the policy which the Incas always observed, stood upon the defensive, trusting to persuasion rather than to force for the accomplishment of his designs. … While he proffered peace, he warned them of the consequences of resisting the 'Children of the Sun.'" After wavering for a time, the Copiapins submitted themselves to the rule of the Incas. "The adjoining province of Coquimbo was easily subjugated, and steadily advancing, the Peruvians, some six years after their first entering the country, firmly established themselves in the valley of Chili, at a distance of more than 200 leagues from the frontier of Atacama. The 'Children of the Sun' had met thus far with little resistance, and, encouraged by success, they marched their victorious armies against the Purumancians, a warlike people living beyond the river Rapel." Here they were desperately resisted, in a battle which lasted three days, and from which both armies withdrew, undefeated and unvictorious. On learning this result, the Inca Yupanqui ordered his generals to relinquish all attempts at further conquest, and to "seek, by the introduction of wise laws, and by instructing the people in agriculture and the arts, to establish themselves more firmly in the territory already acquired. To what extent the Peruvians were successful in the endeavor to ingraft their civilization, religion, and customs upon the Chilians, it is at this distant day impossible to determine, since the earliest historians differ widely on the subject. {412} Certain it is, that on the arrival of the Spaniards the Incas, at least nominally, ruled the country, and received an annual tribute of gold from the people. In the year 1535, after the death of the unfortunate Inca Atahuallpa, Diego Almagro, fired by the love of glory and the thirst for gold, yielded to the solicitations of Francisco Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, and set out for the subjection of Chili, which, as yet, had not been visited by any European. His army consisted of 570 Spaniards, well equipped, and 15,000 Peruvian auxiliaries. Regardless of difficulties and dangers this impetuous soldier selected the near route that lay along the summits of the Andes, in preference to the more circuitous road passing through the desert of Atacama. Upon the horrors of this march, of which so thrilling an account is given by Prescott in the 'Conquest of Peru,' it is unnecessary for us to dwell; suffice it to state that, on reaching Copiapo no less than one-fourth of his Spanish troops, and two-thirds of his Indian auxiliaries, had perished from the effects of cold, fatigue and starvation. … Everywhere the Spaniards met with a friendly reception from the natives, who regarded them as a superior race of beings, and the after conquest of the country would probably have been attended with no difficulty had a conciliatory policy been adopted; but this naturally inoffensive people, aroused by acts of the most barbarous cruelty, soon flew to arms. Despite the opposition of the natives, who were now rising in every direction to oppose his march, Almagro kept on, overcoming every obstacle, until he reached the river Cachapoal, the northern boundary of the Purumancian territory." Here he met with so stubborn and effective a resistance that he abandoned his expedition and returned to Peru, where, soon after, he lost his life [see PERU: A. D. 1533-1548] in a contest with the Pizarros. "Pizarro, ever desirous of conquering Chili, in 1540 dispatched Pedro Valdivia for that purpose, with some 200 Spanish soldiers and a large body of Peruvians;" The invasion of Valdivia was opposed from the moment he entered the country; but he pushed on until he reached the river Mapoclio, and "encamped upon the site of the present capital of Chili. Valdivia, finding the location pleasant, and the surrounding plain fertile, here founded a city on the 24th of February, 1541. To this first European settlement in Chili he gave the name of Santiago, in honor of the patron saint of Spain. He laid out the town in Spanish style; and as a place of refuge in case of attack, erected a fort upon a steep rocky hill, rising some 200 feet above the plain." The Mapochins soon attacked the infant town, drove its people to the fort and burned their settlement; but were finally repulsed with dreadful slaughter. "On the arrival of a second army from Peru, Valdivia, whose ambition had always been to conquer the southern provinces of Chili, advanced into the country of the Purumancians. Here history is probably defective, as we have no account of any battles fought with these brave people. … We simply learn that the Spanish leader eventually gained their good-will, and established with them an alliance both offensive and defensive. … In the following year (1546) the Spanish forces crossed the river Maulé, the southern boundary of the Purumancians, and advanced toward the Itata. While encamped near the latter river, they were attacked at dead of night by a body of Araucanians. So unexpected was the approach of this new enemy, that many of the horses were captured, and the army with difficulty escaped total destruction. After this terrible defeat, Valdivia finding himself unable to proceed, returned to Santiago." Soon afterwards he went to Peru for reinforcements and was absent two years; but came back, at the end of that time, with a large band of followers, and marched to the South. "Reaching the bay of Talcahuano without having met with any opposition, on the 5th of October, 1550, he founded the city of Concepcion on a site at present known as Penco." The Araucanians, advancing boldly upon the Spaniards at Concepcion, were defeated in a furious battle which cost the invaders many lives. Three years later, in December, 1553, the Araucanians had their revenge, routing the Spaniards utterly and pursuing them so furiously that only two of their whole army escaped. Valdivia was among the prisoners taken and was slain. Again and again, under the lead of a youthful hero, Lautaro, and a vigorous toqui, or chief, named Caupolican, the Araucanians assailed the invaders of their country with success; but the latter increased in numbers and gained ground, at last, for a time, building towns and extending settlements in the Araucanian territory. The indomitable people were not broken in spirit, however; and in 1598, by an universal and simultaneous rising, they expelled the Spaniards from almost every settlement they had made. "In 1602 … of the numerous Spanish forts and settlements south of the Bio-Bio, Nacimiento and Arauco only had not fallen. Valdivia and Osorno were afterward rebuilt. About the same time a fort was erected at Boroa. This fort was soon after abandoned. Valdivia, Osorno, Nacimiento, and Arauco still remain. But of all the 'cities of the plain' lying within the boundaries of the haughty Araucanians, not one ever rose from its ashes; their names exist only in history; and the sites where they once flourished are now marked by ill-defined and grass-grown ruins. From the period of their fall dates the independence of the Araucanian nation; for though a hundred years more were wasted in the vain attempt to reconquer the heroic people … the Spaniards, weary of constant war, and disheartened by the loss of so much blood and treasure, were finally compelled to sue for peace; and in 1724 a treaty was ratified, acknowledging their freedom, and establishing the limits of their territory."

E. H. Smith, The Araucanians, chapters 11-14.

ALSO IN: R. G. Watson, Spanish and Portuguese South America, volume 1, chapters 12-14.

J. I. Molina; Geographical, Natural and Civil History of Chili, volume 2, books 1, 3-4.

CHILE: A. D. 1568. The Audiencia established.

See AUDIENCIAS.

{413}

CHILE: A. D. 1810-1818. The achievement of independence. San Martin, the Liberator.

"Chili first threw off the Spanish yoke in September, 1810 [on the pretext of fidelity to the Bourbon king dethroned by Napoleon], but the national independence was not fully established till April 1818. During the intermediate period, the dissensions of the different parties; their disputes as to the form of government and the law of election; with other distracting causes, arising out of the ambition of turbulent individuals, and the inexperience of the whole nation in political affairs; so materially retarded the union of the country, that the Spaniards, by sending expeditions from Peru, were enabled, in 1814, to regain their lost authority in Chili. Meanwhile the Government of Buenos Ayres, the independence of which had been established in 1810 [see ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1806-1820], naturally dreaded that the Spaniards would not long be confined to the western side of the Andes; but would speedily make a descent upon the provinces of the River Plate, of which Buenos Ayres is the capital. In order to guard against this formidable danger, they bravely resolved themselves to become the invaders, and by great exertions equipped an army of 4,000 men. The command of this force was given to General Don José de San Martin, a native of the town of Yapeyu in Paraguay; a man greatly beloved by all ranks, and held in such high estimation by the people, that to his personal exertions the formation of this army is chiefly due. With these troops San Martin entered Chili by a pass over the Andes heretofore deemed inaccessible, and on the 12th of February, 1817, attacked and completely defeated the royal army at Chacabuco. The Chilians, thus freed from the immediate presence of the enemy, elected General O'Higgins [see PERU: A. D. 1550-1816] as Director; and he, in 1818, offered the Chilians a constitution, and nominated five senators to administer the affairs of the country. This meritorious officer, an Irishman by descent, though born in Chili, has ever since [1825] remained at the head of the government. It was originally proposed to elect General San Martin as Director; but this he steadily refused, proposing his companion in arms, O'Higgins, in his stead. The remnant of the Spanish army took refuge in Talcuhuana, a fortified sea-port near Conception, on the southern frontier of Chili. Vigorous measures were taken to reduce this place, but, in the beginning of 1818, the Viceroy of Peru, by draining that province of its best troops, sent off a body of 5,000 men under General Osorio, who succeeded in joining the Spaniards shut up in Talcuhuana. Thus reinforced, the Royal army, amounting in all to 8,000, drove back the Chilians, marched on the capital, and gained other considerable advantages; particularly in a night attack at Talca, on the 19th of March 1818, where the Royalists almost entirely dispersed the Patriot forces. San Martin, however, who, after the battle of Chacabuco, had been named Commander-in-chief of the united armies of Chili and Buenos Ayres," rallied his army and equipped it anew so quickly that, "on the 5th of April, only 17 days after his defeat, he engaged, and, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict, completely routed the Spanish army on the plains of Maypo. From that day Chili may date her complete independence; for although a small portion of the Spanish troops endeavoured to make a stand at Conception, they were soon driven out and the country left in the free possession of the Patriots. Having now time to breathe, the Chilian Government, aided by that of Buenos Ayres, determined to attack the Royalists in their turn, by sending an armament against Peru [see PERU; A. D. 1820-1826]—a great and bold measure, originating with San Martin."

Captain B. Hall, Extracts from a Journal, volume 1, chapter 1.

ALSO IN: J. Miller, Memoirs of General Miller, chapters 4-7 (volume 1).

T. Sutcliffe, Sixteen Years in Chili and Peru, chapters 2-4.

General B. Mitre, The Emancipation of South America: History of San Martin.

CHILE: A. D. 1820-1826. Operations in Peru.

See PERU: A. D. 1820-1826.

CHILE: A. D. 1833-1884. A successful oligarchy and its constitution. The war with Peru and Bolivia.

"After the perfection of its national independence, the Chilean government soon passed into the permanent control of civilians, 'while the other governments of the west coast remained prizes for military chieftains.' Its present constitution was framed in 1833, and though it is only half a century old 'it is the oldest written national constitution in force in all the world except our own, unless the Magna Charta of England be included in the category.' The political history of Chile during the fifty years of its life has been that of a well ordered commonwealth, but one of a most unusual and interesting sort. Its government has never been forcibly overthrown, and only one serious attempt at revolution has been made. Chile is in name and in an important sense a republic, and yet its government is an oligarchy. Suffrage is restricted to those male citizens who are registered, who are twenty-five years old if unmarried and twenty-one if married, and who can read and write; and there is also a stringent property qualification. The consequence is that the privilege of voting is confined to an aristocracy: in 1876, the total number of ballots thrown for president was only 46,114 in a population of about two and a quarter millions. The president of Chile has immense powers of nomination and appointment, and when he is a man of vigorous will he tyrannically sways public policy, and can almost always dictate the name of his successor. The government has thus become practically vested in a comparatively small number of leading Chilean families. There is no such thing as 'public opinion' in the sense in which we use the phrase, and the newspapers, though ably conducted, do not attempt, as they do not desire, to change the existing order of things. 'History,' says Mr. Browne, 'does not furnish an example of a more powerful political "machine" under the title of republic; nor, I am bound to say, one which has been more ably directed so far as concerns the aggrandizement of the country, or more honestly administered so far as concerns pecuniary corruption.' The population of Chile doubled between 1843 and 1875; the quantity of land brought under tillage was quadrupled; … more than 1,000 miles of railroad were built; a foreign export trade of $31,695,039 was reported in 1878; and two powerful iron-clads, which were destined to playa most important part in Chilean affairs, were built in England. Meanwhile, the constitution was officially interpreted so as to guarantee religious toleration, and the political power of the Roman Catholic priesthood diminished. Almost everything good, except home manufactures and popular education, flourished. The development of the nation in these years was on a wonderful scale for a South American state, and the contrast between Chile and Peru was peculiarly striking. … Early in 1879 began the great series of events which were to make the fortune of Chile. We use the word 'great,' in its low, superficial sense, and without the attribution of any moral significance to the adjective. {414} The aggressor in the war between Chile and Peru was inspired by the most purely selfish motives, and it remains to be seen whether the just gods will not win in the long run, even though the game of their antagonists be played with heavily plated iron-clads. … At the date last mentioned Chile was suffering, like many other nations, from a general depression in business pursuits. Its people were in no serious trouble, but as a government it was in a bad way. … The means to keep up a sinking fund for the foreign debt had failed, and the Chilean five per cents were quoted in London at sixty-four. 'A political cloud also was darkening again in the north, in the renewal of something like a confederation between Peru and Bolivia.' In this state of things the governing oligarchy of Chile decided, rather suddenly, Mr. Browne thinks, upon a scheme which was sure to result either in splendid prosperity or absolute ruin, and which contemplated nothing less than a war of conquest against Peru and Bolivia, with a view to seizing the most valuable territory of the former country. There is a certain strip of land bordering upon the Pacific and about 400 miles long, of which the northern three quarters belonged to Peru and Bolivia, the remaining one quarter to Chile. Upon this land a heavy rain never falls, and often years pass in which the soil does not feel a shower. … Its money value is immense. 'From this region the world derives almost its whole supply of nitrates—chiefly saltpetre—and of iodine;' its mountains, also, are rich in metals, and great deposits of guano are found in the highlands bordering the sea. The nitrate-bearing country is a plain, from fifty to eighty miles wide, the nitrate lying in layers just below a thin sheet of impacted stones, gravel, and sand. The export of saltpetre from this region was valued in 1882 at nearly $30,000,000, and the worth of the Peruvian section, which is much the largest and most productive, is estimated, for government purposes, at a capital of $600,000,000. Chile was, naturally, well aware of the wealth which lay so close to her own doors, and to possess herself thereof, and thus to rehabilitate her national fortunes, she addressed herself to war. The occasion for war was easily found. Bolivia was first attacked, a difficulty which arose at her port of Antofagasta, with respect to her enforcement of a tax upon some nitrate works carried on by a Chilean company, affording a good pretext; and when Peru attempted intervention her envoy was confronted with Chile's knowledge of a secret treaty between Peru and Bolivia, and war was formally declared by Chile upon Peru, April 5, 1879. This war lasted, with some breathing spaces, for almost exactly five years. At the outset the two belligerent powers—Bolivia being soon practically out of the contest—seemed to be about equal in ships, soldiers, and resources; but the supremacy which Chile soon gained upon the seas substantially determined the war in her favor. Each nation owned two powerful iron-clads, and six months were employed in settling the question of naval superiority. … On the 21st of May, 1879, the Peruvian fleet attacked and almost destroyed the Chilean wooden frigates which were blockading Iquique; but in chasing a Chilean corvette the larger Peruvian iron-clad—the Independencia—ran too near the shore, and was fatally wrecked. 'So Peru lost one of her knights. The game she played with the other—the Huascar—was admirable, but a losing one;' and on the 8th of October of the same year the Huascar was attacked by the Chilean fleet, which included two iron-clads, and was finally captured' after a desperate resistance.'… From this moment the Peruvian coast was at Chile's mercy: the Chilean arms prevailed in every pitched battle, at San Francisco [November 16, 1879], at Tacna [May 26, 1880], at Arica [June 7, 1880]; and finally, on the 17th of January, 1881, after a series of actions which resembled in some of their details the engagements that preceded our capture of the city of Mexico [ending in what is known as the Battle of Miraflores], the victorious army of Chile took possession of Lima, the capital of Peru. … The results of the war have thus far exceeded the wildest hopes of Chile. She has taken absolute possession of the whole nitrate region, has cut Bolivia off from the sea, and achieved the permanent dissolution of the Peru-Bolivian confederation. As a consequence, her foreign trade has doubled, the revenue of her government has been trebled, and the public debt greatly reduced. The Chilean bonds, which were sold at 64 in London in January, 1879, and fell to 60 in March of that year, at the announcement of the war, were quoted at 95 in January, 1884."