Part 2 — Chapter IV.—Of Provincial and Communal Institutions. (continued 5)

JOSEPH II., Emperor: His character and his reforms.

See (in this Supplement) AUSTRIA: A. D. 1780-1790.

JUDICATURE ACTS, The.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1873 (page 1981).

JURY, Trial by.

See LAW, COMMON (page 1956, and after).

JUSTICES OF THE PEACE.

See LAW, CRIMINAL: A. D. 1344 (page 1983).

JUSTICIARY, Chief: Disappearance of the office.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1265 (page 1962).

K.

KANE, Dr. Elisha Kent, Polar expeditions and adventures of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851, and 1853-1855.

KARNATIC, The.

"Bishop Caldwell says: 'When the Muhammadans arrived in Southern India, they found that part of it with which they first became acquainted-the country above the Gháts, including Mysore and part of Telingána—called the Karnataka country. In course of time, by a misapplication of terms, they applied the same name Karnatak, or Carnatic, to designate the country below the Gháts, as well as that which was above. The English have carried the misapplication a step further, and restricted the name to the country below the Gháts, which never had any right to it whatever. Hence the Mysore country, which is properly the true Karnatic, is no longer called by that name; and what is now geographically termed "the Karnatic" is exclusively the country below the Gháts, on the Coromandel coast, including the whole of the Tamil country and the Telugu-speaking District of Nellore.'"

W. W. Hunter, Imperial Gazetteer of India: Karnatic (volume 5).

KASHGAR.

See TURKESTAN (page 3130), and YAKOOB BEG (page 3662).

KASSHITE, OR KASSITE, DYNASTY, The.

See SEMITES: THE FIRST BABYLONIAN EMPIRE (page 2890).

KENT, Chancellor, and American jurisprudence.

See LAW, EQUITY: A. D. 1814-1823 (page 19(3).

KILMAINHAM TREATY, The.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1881-1882 (page 1797).

KING'S LIBRARY, The.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2014).

KING'S PEACE, The.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 871-1066, 1100, 1135, and 1300 (pages 1956, 1958 and 1963).

KNIGHTS OF LABOR, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1869-1883 (page 2952).

KOCH, Dr. Robert, Bacteriological studies of.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 19TH CENTURY (page 2146).

KOLDEWY, Captain, Polar expedition of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1869-1870.

KOREA.

See (in this Supplement) COREA.

KULTURKAMPF, The.

See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1870-1874.

L.

LAFAYETTE, General: Visit to the United States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1824-1825 (page 3365).

LAND, Ultimate property in.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1776 (page 1974).

LAND, Indian right of occupancy.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1823 (page 1976).

LAND ACT OF 1881, The Irish.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1881-1882 (page 1797).

LAND REGISTRATION.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1630-1641 (page 1969).

LAND-TRANSFER REFORM.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1854-1882, and 1889 (pages 1980-1981).

LASSALLE, Ferdinand, and German Socialism.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1862-1864 (page 2949).

LATIN UNION, The.

See MONEY and BANKING: A. D. 1853-1874 (page 2218).

LAW, Roman.

See ROMAN LAW (page 2652).

LEE, Arthur, in France.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776-1778 (pages 3242-3244).

LEGAL TENDER NOTES.

See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1861-1878 (page 2219).

LEO THE GREAT, Pope.

See PAPACY: A. D. 42-461 (page 2421); and HUNS: A. D. 452 (page 1689).

L'ESTRANGE, Roger, and the early newspaper press in England.

See PRINTING AND PRESS: A. D. 1654-1694 (page 2596).

LEVANT, The.

A term applied to the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean, from the western part of Greece round to the western border of Egypt—more specifically to the coasts and islands of Asia Minor and Syria. The name—which signifies "rising" hence "the East"—was given to this region by the Italians.

LIBEL, The Criminal Law of.

See LAW, CRIMINAL: A. D. 1770, and 1843 (pages 1984 and 1986).

LIBERTY, Religious.

See in this Supplement: TOLERATION, RELIGIOUS. (page 3807)

LINCOLN, Abraham: Debate with Douglas.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1858 (page 3401).

First Inaugural Address.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3417).

First Message.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (pages 3421 and 3448).

First call for troops.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3423).

Proclamation of Blockade.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3427).

Suspensions of Habeas Corpus.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3447).

Message proposing compensated Emancipation.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3453).

{3791}

Letter to Horace Greeley.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3476).

Preliminary Proclamation of Emancipation.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3480).

Final Proclamation of Emancipation.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3487).

Letter to General Hooker.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3489).

Letters to New York and Ohio Democrats.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3407).

Address at Gettysburg.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3514).

Proclamation of Amnesty and Message.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3515).

Plan of Reconstruction.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3518).

Re-election.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3533).

Hampton Roads Peace Conference.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3546).

Second Inaugural Address.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3549).

Last Speech.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3551).

At Richmond.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3554).

Assassination.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 3(55).

LINE-OF-BATTLE SHIP.

See SHIP OF THE LINE (page 2901).

LISTER, and Antiseptic Surgery.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 10TH CENTURY (page 2145).

LIVINGSTONE, David, Explorations of.

See (in this Supplement) AFRICA: 1840, 1840, and after.

LOBENGULA, War of the English with.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1885-1893 (page 2965).

LOMBARD BANKERS AND MONEY-CHANGERS.

See MONEY AND BANKING (pages 2205 and 2206).

LORD KEEPER OF THE GREAT SEAL, The.

See LAW, EQUITY: A. D. 1538 (page 1000).

LOUIS IX., King of France (called St. Louis).

See (in this Supplement) FRANCE: A. D. 1226-1270.

LOUIS XV., King of France, Fatal foreign policy of the reign of.

See (in this Supplement) FRANCE: A. p. 1715-1770.

McCLINTOCK, Captain, Franklin search expeditions of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1852-1854, and 1857-1859.

McCLURE, Captain, Franklin search expedition of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1854.

McKINLEY TARIFF ACT, The.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION: A. D. 1890 (page 3085).

MADAGASCAR.

See (in this Supplement) AFRICA.

MANCHUS. MANCHURIA.

"The Manchus, from the earliest period of Chinese history, have occupied the country bounded on the east by the Japanese Sea, which is drained in its southern portion by the Tumun, by the right affluents of the Ya-lu-kiang, and by the upper portions of the left affluents of the Liau; and in its northern portion by the right affluents of the Upper Soongari, and the Lower Soongari, and Lower Amoor, with their affluents on both sides. This extent of country may be fitly called Manchuria Proper, to distinguish it from the present political Manchuria. This latter embraces not only the real Manchuria, but also a tract on the east side of the Liau, composed of the lower valleys of its left affluents, and of the Liau peninsula, and another on the west of the Liau, lying between its right bank and the Great Wall. Now these two tracts, known severally as Liau-tung or Liau East and Liau-se or Liau West, have, from the earliest historical periods, been occupied by a Chinese population, with the settled habits of their nation: agriculturists, artisans, and traders, dwellers in villages and cities. Hence, though situated beyond the Great Wall, it has always been a part, though a very exposed and often politically separated part, of China Proper. Manchuria Proper, as above defined, is a mountainous, well-watered tract, formerly altogether covered with forests, of which large portions still remain. The principal mountain range is the Chang-pih-shan, or Shan-a-lin, or Long White Mountains. … As the great arid plateau, the Shamo, has given to the Mongols their national characteristics, so the Long White Mountains, with their northerly spurs, separating the Upper Soongari, the Hurka, and the Usuri, have constituted the character-giving home and stronghold of the Manchus. These, unlike the Mongols, who have 'moved about after grass and water,' have always been a settled people, who in ancient times dwelt during the cold season in holes excavated in the sides of dry banks, or in pits in the earth, and during summer in huts formed of young trees and covered with bark or with long wild grass. They have, unlike the Mongols, from the earliest periods been somewhat of agriculturists; like them they have always reared domestic animals. … It has hitherto been the custom among Occidentals to speak of the Manchus as 'Tartars;' but if, as I believe, this name generally conveys the idea of a people of nomadic herdsmen, and usually large owners of camels, it will be seen from the foregoing sketch that it is altogether a misnomer as applied to the Manchus. … In the 11th century before Christ this nation appeared at the court of the Chow dynasty as Suh-chin, and presented tribute, a portion of which consisted of stone-headed arrows. In the 3d century after Christ they reappeared as Yih-low. … In the 5th, 6th, and 7th centuries after Christ we find them under the names of Wuh-keihs, and Mo-hos, still described as rude barbarians, but politically organized as a confederation of seven large tribes or seven groups of tribes. At length, in the beginning of the 8th century, a family named Ta, belonging to the Suhmo-Mo-hos, that member of the confederation whose territory lay immediately on the north of Corea and north-east of Liau East, established themselves as rulers over the whole of Manchuria Proper, over Liau East, and over a large portion of Corea. In A. D. 712, the then Whang-ti, or Emperor of China, conferred the title of Prince of Po-hae on the head of the family; but the immediate successors of this prince shook off even the form of vassalage, and by their conquest of Northern Corea and Liau East, assumed a position of hostility to the Whang-ti. Po-hac, the name adopted by the new rulers, became the name of the Manchu Nation; which under it for the first time takes a place in history, as constituting a civilized State with a centralized administration. … It was overthrown by the Ketans. About these the Chinese accounts conflict as to whether they were a Manchu or a Mongol tribe: I consider them more of the former than of the latter. They took their rise in the valleys of the Hu-lan, a small northern branch of the Soongari, which falls into the latter about 100 miles below its junction with the Nonni. {3792} The Ketans had possessed themselves of Eastern Mongolia, and been engaged in successful war on China before they, in A. D. 926, attacked the Po-hae state, which they speedily overthrew, incorporating into their own dominions all Manchuria Proper and the East of the Liau. Before the middle of the 10th century, they had conquered nearly all Mongolia and Northern China. … They assumed for their dynasty the name of Liau, that of the river which flows past this port. Under the eighth of the line, their power had sunk so much that it fell easily before the attacks of A-kuh-ta, the chief of a purely Manchu tribe or commune, the Neu-chins, whose original seat was the country between the Upper Soongari and the Hurka. The Neu-chins rebelled against the Ketans or Liaus in A. D. 1113. Within 15 years, they had possessed themselves of the whole of Manchuria, Mongolia, and Northern China, driving the Chinese Whang-ti to the south of the Great River, and themselves establishing a rival line under the name of Kin, or Golden; adopted because their own country Manchuria 'was a gold-producing one.' The Neu-chins or Kins were in their turn overthrown by the Mongols, under Ghenghis Khan and his immediate successors. Manchuria came under their power about A. D. 1217, Northern China, about A. D. 1233, and Southern China, about A. D. 1280, when they established—it was the first time the thing had happened—a line of non-Chinese Whang-tis in undisputed possession of that dignity. … The Mongol dynasty maintained itself in China for about 90 years, when (in A. D. 1368) the last Whang-ti of the line was driven to the north of the Great Wall by the forces of a Chinese rebel, who established himself at Nanking as the first Whang-ti of the Ming dynasty."

T. T. Meadows (Quoted in A. Williamson's "Journeys in North China," volume 2, chapter 4).

In 1644 the Ming dynasty was overthrown by a domestic rebellion in China, and a Manchu prince, called in by one of the generals of the fallen government, established himself on the throne, where his descendants have reigned to this day.

See CHINA:A. D. 1294-1882 (page 420) and after.

MANSFIELD, Lord, and Commercial Law.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1756-1788, and 1783 (page 1973).

MARSHALL, John, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1801 (page 3326).

MARX, Karl, and the socialistic movements of his time.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1839-1894, 1843-1883, 1862-1872 (pages 2941, 2945, 2951).

MASAILAND, Exploration of.

See (in this Supplement) AFRICA: 1860-1861, 1871 and after.

MASHONALAND, English occupation of.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1885-1893 (page 2965); also (in this Supplement) AFRICA.

MASSACHUSETTS, Free Libraries in.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2021).

MASTER OF THE ROLLS.

See LAW, EQUITY: A. D. 1066 (page 1988).

MATABELELAND, English occupation of.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1885-1893 (page 2965); also (in this Supplement) AFRICA: 1888.

MEDICAL PROFESSION, Women in the.

See WOMAN'S RIGHTS: A. D. 1842-1892 (page 3658).

MENNONITES, The.

"The Mennonites take their name from Menno Simons, born in Witmarsum, Holland, in 1492. He entered the priesthood of the Roman Catholic Church, and in 1524 was appointed chaplain in Pingium. Two years later he began to read the Scriptures, which he had hitherto ignored. Becoming a close student of them, his views on various doctrines soon changed, and he was known as an evangelical preacher. … He renounced Catholicism early in 1536, and was baptized at Leeuwarden. In the course of the following year he was ordained a minister in what was then known as the Old Evangelical or Waldensian Church. From this time on to his death, in 1559, he was active in the cause of evangelical truth, traveling through northern Germany, and preaching everywhere. The churches which he organized as a result of his labors rejected infant baptism and held to the principle of non-resistance. A severe persecution began to make itself felt against his followers, the Mennonites; and, having heard accounts of the colony established in the New World by William Penn, they began to emigrate to Pennsylvania near the close of the 17th century. … Successive immigrations from Holland, Switzerland, Germany, and, in the last twenty-five years, from southern Russia, have resulted in placing the great majority of Mennonites in the world on American soil, in the United States and Canada."

H. K. Carroll, The Religious Forces of the United States, chapter 28.

MICHIGAN WILD CAT BANKS.

See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1837-1841 (page 2215).

MIDDLE AGES, Commerce of the.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL.

MILLS TARIFF BILL, The.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION: A. D. 1884-1888 (page 3085).

MINNESOTA, University of.

"Two years after the organization of the territory, the Legislature petitioned Congress for a grant of 100,000 acres of land to endow a university, and on the very day of this petition two townships were set aside for that purpose. The Legislature went on to enact that the University of Minnesota should be established at or near the Falls of St. Anthony and should have the income from all land thereafter granted by the United States for University purposes. Under this grant the regents selected a large portion of the lands and erected a costly edifice, but they were soon obliged to mortgage both building and lands in order to meet the obligations incurred. Affairs were in this condition when Congress passed the act admitting Minnesota to the Union, by which two townships of land were granted for the use and support of a State university. … Efforts were at once made to open the university, but the financial crisis of 1857 and the Civil War checked further action and encumbered the university with debt. … The present organization of the university dates from 1868, when an act was passed 'to reorganize the University of Minnesota and to establish an agricultural college therein.' In the following year college classes were first organized. The act of 1868 provided that the university should have the income from the agricultural college grant. … From the university lands that have been sold something over $800,000 has been received, from which there is an annual income of about $37,000."

F. W. Blackmar, History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in the United States (Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1890, no. 1), pages 295-297.

{3793}

MISSIONS, Christian, in Africa.

See (in this Supplement) AFRICA.

MISSISSIPPI RIVER: The question of navigation in dispute with Spain.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1784-1788 (page 3293).

MORMONS: Abandonment of Polygamy.

See UTAH: A. D. 1882-1893 (page 3591).

MORRISON TARIFF BILL, The.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION: A. D. 1884-1888 (page 3083).

MORSE, SAMUEL F. B., Telegraphic inventions of.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: A. D. 1825-1874 (page 773).

MORTON, Dr., and the discovery of Anæsthetics.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 19th CENTURY (page 2144).

MOSQUITO COUNTRY.

See (in this Supplement) NICARAGUA.

N.

NANSEN, Dr., Arctic expeditions of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1888, and 1893.

NAPOLEON I., and Germany.

See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1796-1807.

NARES, Captain, Polar voyage of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1875-1876.

NATIONALIST MOVEMENT, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1888-1893 (page 2956).

NETHERLANDS, Commerce of the.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL, AND MODERN.

NEUTRALITY, The Queen of England's Proclamation of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (page 3428).

NEW CHURCH, The.

See (in this Supplement) SWEDENBORG.

NEW HARMONY COMMUNITY. The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1800-1824, and 1805-1827 (pages 2936-2937).

NEW JERSEY, College of.

See (in this Supplement) PRINCETON COLLEGE.

NEW LANARK, Robert Owen's experiment at.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1800-1824 (page 2935).

NEWNHAM HALL.

See EDUCATION (page 746).

NICARAGUA, AND THE MOSQUITO INDIANS.

The question of the sovereignty of Nicaragua over the Mosquito country was settled affirmatively by a convention concluded in November, 1894. Great Britain at the same time gave assurances to the United States that she asserts no rights of sovereignty or protection over the country in question.

NIHILISM.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1860-1870 (page 2948).

NILE, Exploration of the sources of the.

See (in this Supplement) AFRICA.

NON-INTERCOURSE, The Jefferson policy of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1804-1809. and 1808-1810 (pages 3332 and 3338).

NORDENSKIÖLD, Professor (Baron), Achievement of the Northeast Passage by.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878-1879.

NORTH AMERICA, The Bank of.

See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1780-1784 (page 2212).

NORTHEAST AND NORTHWEST PASSAGE, Search for.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION.

NORWAY, Libraries of.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).

O.

OBERLIN COLLEGE.

"Oberlin is a development from the missionary and reform movements of the early quarter of our century. Its direct impulse was the new spirit of active benevolence which tested old doctrines by experience and by their fitness for organized philanthropy. Its foundations were laid 23 years after the organization of the American Foreign Missionary Association, 7 years after the first American temperance society, 15 years before the first public move to extend the rights of women, and in the same year with the American Anti-Slavery Society. All of these reform movements were more or less united in the Oberlin movement. The founders were themselves home missionaries in the West and among the Indians, and Oberlin has ever since been vital with the missionary spirit. From the first, alcoholic beverages have been excluded. Although not adopting the extreme doctrine of woman's rights, yet Oberlin was the first college in the world to admit young women to all its privileges on equal terms with young men; and as for its anti-slavery leanings, it had received colored students into its classes 28 years before emancipation. Such bold disregard of the old landmarks was not attractive to the power and wealth of the country, and so for 50 years Oberlin owed its life to the sacrifice and devotion of its founders and instructors. … In 1831 John J. Shipherd, under commission from the American Home Missionary Society, entered upon his work as pastor of the church at Elyria, Ohio. … In the summer of 1832 he was visited by Philo P. Stewart, an old school friend in the days when they both attended the academy at Pawlet, Vermont. Stewart, on account of the failing health of his wife, had returned from mission work among the Choctaws in Mississippi, but his heart was still burning with zeal for extending Christian work in the West. The two men, after long consultations and prayer, finally concluded that the needs of the new country could best be met by establishing a community of Christian families with a Christian school, … the school to be conducted on the manual labor system, and to be open to both young men and young women. {3794} It was not proposed to establish a college, but simply an academy for instruction in English and useful languages, and, if Providence should favor it, in 'practical theology.' In accordance with this plan the corporate name 'Oberlin Collegiate Institute' was chosen. Not until 1851 was a new and broader charter obtained, this time under the name of 'Oberlin College.' The name 'Oberlin' was chosen to signify the hope that the members of the new enterprise might be moved by the spirit of the self-sacrificing Swiss colporteur and pastor, John Friederich Oberlin."

J. R Commons, Oberlin College (in Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1801, no. 5), pages 55-56.

OERSTED, and his discovery of the Electro-Magnet.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: A. D. 1820-1825 (page 772).

OHIO UNIVERSITY.

"Ohio University bears the double distinction of being the first college in the United States founded upon a land endowment from the national Government, and also of being the oldest college in the Northwest Territory. … The university owes its origin and endowment to the Ohio Company of Associates, who in 1787 purchased a large tract of land from the old board of treasury for the purpose of colonizing it with pioneers from New England. … The honor of obtaining this endowment belongs to Dr. [Manasseh] Cutler. … In 1795 the lands to be devoted to the support of the university were located. The townships selected were those now called Athens and Alexander, in Athens County. General Rufus Putnam, who was deeply interested in the proposed institution, used his influence to secure settlers for the college lands. … December 18, 1799, the Territorial legislature appointed Rufus Putnam, Benjamin Ives Gilman, and Jonathan Stone 'to lay off, in the most suitable place within the townships, a town plat, which should contain a square for the colleges; also lots suitable for house lots and gardens for a president, professors, tutors, etc., bordering on or encircled by spacious commons, and such a number of town lots adjoining the said commons and outlots as they shall think will be for the advantage of the university.' … In 1802 the legislature of the Northwest Territory passed an act establishing a university and giving to it in trust the land grant."

G. W. Knight and J. R. Commons, History of Higher Education in Ohio (Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1891, number 5).

ONEIDA COMMUNITY, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1848 (page 2946).

ONTARIO SCHOOL SYSTEM.

See EDUCATION, MODERN (page 733).

OTHO THE GREAT, and the restoration of the Empire.

See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 962.

OWEN, Robert, and his social experiments.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1800-1824, 1805-1827, and 1816-1886 (pages 2935, 2937, and 2938).

OYER AND TERMINER, Courts of.

See LAW, CRIMINAL: A. D. 1285 (page 1982).

P.

PAMIR, The.

The Pamir and Tibet, which converge north of India and east of the Oxus, form jointly the culminating land of the continent. Disposed at right angles, and parallel, the one to the equator, the other to the meridian, they constitute the so-called 'Roof,' or 'Crown of the World,' though this expression is more usually restricted to the Pamir alone. With its escarpments, rising above the Oxus and Tarim plains west and east, the Pamir occupies, in the heart of the continent, an estimated area of 30,000 square miles. With its counterforts projecting some 300 miles, it forms the western headland of all the plateaux and mountain systems skirting the Chinese Empire; it completely separates the two halves of Asia, and forms an almost impassable barrier to migration and war-like incursions. Yet notwithstanding its mean elevation of 13,000 feet above arable land, it has been frequently crossed by small caravans of traders or travellers, and by light columns of troops. The attempt could not fail to be frequently made to take the shortest route across the region separating the Oxus from Kashgaria, and Europe from China. Hence the Pamir has often been traversed by Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Italians, Chinese, some as traders, some as explorers, some inspired by religious zeal. But of these travellers very few have left any record of their journey, and all took the lowest routes across the plateau."

E. Reclus, The Earth and its Inhabitants: Asia, volume 1, chapter 3, section 2.

PANIC OF 1873, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1873 (page 3574).

—————PAPACY: Start————

PAPACY: 11th Century. The Church and the first Crusading movement.

See (in this Supplement) CRUSADES.

PAPACY: 11-12th Centuries. The Question of the Investitures.

"By investiture in mediaeval church law is meant the act of bestowing a church office, with the use of symbols, on the clergyman who has been appointed to fill it. It is especially to signify the act by which secular princes conferred on the chosen candidates the offices of bishop and abbot that the word is used since the eleventh century. The struggle which the papacy and the church carried on in the last half of the 11th and on into the 12th century for the purpose of doing away with this same right of the princes to confer such offices is called in consequence the war of the investitures. That the nomination of the bishops was a right pertaining to the sovereign was a view of the matter which had gained ground already in the time of the Frankish monarchy. The German kings up to the eleventh century insisted all the more on this right from the fact that the bishoprics and imperial abbacies had in course of time lost their original character of church organizations. They had been appanaged with imperial and other lands, with political and public rights, with immunities, rights of coinage etc. … They had, in consequence, become transformed into political districts, on a par with those of the secular princes and obliged, like the latter, to bear the public burdens, especially that of providing war-contingents and supplies. It Is true that in the period in question, although for the most part the king openly and freely filled the bishoprics and abbacies of his own accord, some elections had been carried through by the cathedral chapter, the other secular canons, the nobles, vassals and ministeriales of the bishopric. This was usually on the ground of royal privileges, of special royal permission, or of a designation of the candidate by the king. {3795} However the person might have been elected he could only enter into possession of the bishopric or abbacy after the king had formally conferred the office upon him. The death of a bishop would be announced to the king by envoys from the episcopal residence who at the same time, handing over the episcopal crosier and ring, would beg that the king would see to the refilling of the vacant office. It need hardly be said that any new candidate who might in the meantime have been elected presented himself likewise at court. The king discussed the matter of the bestowal of the vacant bishopric or abbacy with his secular and ecclesiastical nobles and councillors. His next step was to confer the office on the candidate he had chosen by means of investiture, that is by handing him the episcopal crosier and ring. The candidate in return had to take the oath of fealty and to perform the act of homage, the so-called hominium. This is how an episcopal office, at that time regarded as a conglomeration of ecclesiastical and secular rights, was regularly filled. … After the middle of the 11th century there began to show itself within the reform-party, which at that time gave the tone at Rome, a tendency, ever growing stronger, in favor of achieving the complete liberation of the church from the secular influence. The German kingdom and empire were to be subordinated to the papacy as to the proper controlling power. Those who held these views declared that the investiture of the bishops and abbots by the king was simony because, as was the custom on the part of those receiving other feudal grants, certain presents were made in return. It was demanded that the episcopal symbols, the ring and the crosier, should no longer be disposed of at the hand of a layman. As a matter of fact there had frequently been carried on an unworthy traffic with the bishoprics in consequence of the manner of conferring them. The ecclesiastical legislators, besides passing general laws against simony, came forward at first cautiously enough with the regulation that the clergy should accept no churches from the hands of a layman. The direct clash with the German court came later, in 1068, where the king had conferred the bishopric of Milan as usual through investiture, while the people, under the influence of the papal reform-party, demanded a bishop elected canonically and with Rome's consent. The king did not give way and Gregory VII, in the Roman synod of 1074, increased the severity of the earlier laws against simony, opening the struggle in a synod of the following year by ordaining that the people should not be present at ecclesiastical functions performed by those clergy who had gained office through simony, the reference being to those bishops who adhered to the king. Furthermore the royal right of conferring bishoprics by investiture was now directly denied. With this attack on an old and customary prerogative of the German king, one to which in earlier times had even been expressly acknowledged by the pope, an attempt was made to thoroughly undermine the foundations of the German empire and to rob the royal power of one of its chief supports. The bishops and abbots were princes of the realm, possessing, besides a number of privileges, the large feudal and allodial holdings which went with their churches. They had, on behalf of their bishoprics, to sustain the largest share of the empire's burdens. The crown found in them the chief props and supports of its power, for the ecclesiastical principalities could be freely granted to devoted adherents without regard to the hereditary dynastic claims of families. The only legal bond by which these princes were bound to the crown was the investiture with its oath of fealty and homage. The prohibition of this, then, denoted the cessation of the relationship which assured the dependence of the ecclesiastical princes on the king and on the empire and the performance of their duties to that empire. It delivered over the considerable material wealth and power of the imperial bishoprics and abbacies to a clergy that was loosed from all connection with the crown. With regard to the manner in which in future, according to the opinion of Gregory VII or the church-reform party, the bishoprics were to be filled, the above-mentioned synod does not express itself. The decrees of the Roman synod of 1080, as well as Gregory's own further attitude, however, make it appear unquestionable that, with the formal restoration of the old so-called canonical election by clergy and people in common with the metropolitan and his suffragans, he purposed the actual subjection to the pope of the episcopacy and of the resources which in consequence of its political position stood at its command. From the election of a secular clergy which should be freed from national and state interests by the carrying out of the celibacy laws—an election in which metropolitans who were to be kept in dependence on the papal throne were to play their part—there could result as a rule only bishops submissive to the papal court. All the more so as the Roman synod of 1080, in a form probably intentionally vague, gave the pope a right, concurrent with that of the archbishop, of testing the elections and of hindering any such as might be objectionable to the court of Rome. That the bishops and abbots elected in this way were to retain their former possessions and privileges in the empire was taken by Gregory VII as a matter of course. But were this the case their considerable resources stood wholly at the disposition of the papal chair; on the pope it depended what amount of services he would still allow for the benefit of the empire. Nay, more, as regards the ecclesiastical princes the pope would actually have taken the place of the emperor and king and could command the movements of the most insignificant vassal of a bishopric. … The dispute was finally ended by the concordat agreed to at Lobweisen (near Lorsch) and announced at Worms: … In the concordat the emperor renounced wholly the former investing with the bishop's and abbot's office by means of crosier and ring, and granted that in all churches these offices should be filled by canonical election and by the free consecration of the person elected. On the other hand the pope granted that the election of bishops and abbots belonging to the German kingdom might take place in presence of the emperor but without simony or violence, and that the emperor should have a right, employing the sceptre as a symbol and causing homage to be rendered, to perform the investiture—before the consecration, namely—with regard to the regalia, i. e. the totality of the landed possessions and rights which belonged to the individual bishopric or abbacy. … {3796} With the Concordat of Worms the church and the papacy, after a long struggle, had gained the victory over the empire. Even though the papal party had not been able to put through all its demands with regard to the question of investitures, yet the empire was compelled to renounce rights which had been exercised unassailed for centuries, and thereby to confirm the emancipation of the papacy from the former imperial overlordship, thus stamping its position as an independent political power. This success was the more considerable for the reason that the agreement of Worms had established the ecclesiastical and imperial rights only in the most general terms and in an equivocal form, but had left the further development of the new manner of conferring the offices to be decided by practice. … If already the Hohenstaufens of the 12th century had succeeded only with great efforts in protecting themselves against such interpretation of the Concordat as infringed on the imperial rights, there was, naturally, in the 13th century,—in view of the condition of the empire, the political situation of Germany, and the predominating supremacy of the papacy,—no further question of such an attitude. … In this form of interpretation, given to it by usage and derogatory to the imperial rights, the Concordat of Worms remained the basis of the German imperial law regarding the collation of bishoprics and imperial abbacies until the dissolution of the German empire in 1806."

Hinschius, Investiturstreit (Herzog's Realencyklopaedie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche, volume 6).

See, also, PAPACY: A. D. 1056-1122 (pages 2427-2431).

PAPACY: A. D. 1162-1177. The Pope and the Emperor.

"In this fullness of his power [after the destruction of Milan, 1162] the emperor came anew into conflict with the papacy. Reason enough for it was that the emperor intended to treat Rome also as a city of the empire like the rest. … Between the claims of the two powers there was an ineradicable fundamental difference which showed itself at every moment. What the papacy did, to continually bring forward and maintain new rights, the empire could, after all, do also. Among other ways the remarkable contradiction finds utterance thus, that the emperor claims to be above the law, the pope above tribunals; the one is the chief, unrestricted lawgiver, the other the chief judge over all. The emperor rose up in injured self-esteem when the pope used the word 'benefice' in speaking of his relations with the empire. The pope was forced to explain the word, which had two meanings, in its more harmless sense. The Lombard cities always maintained that they had been strengthened in their opposition by Adrian IV. It is probable that already between the emperor and this pope a struggle would have taken place; but Adrian died (at Anagni, September 1, 1159), and after his death there was a disputed papal election. There was a powerful imperial faction among the cardinals but a still more powerful anti-German one. At the election it came to a hand to hand fight, as it were, between the two candidates. The purple mantle was just about to be laid on the shoulders of the anti-imperial cardinal Roland when the imperial candidate Octavian rushed in and tore it away from him. The latter was first proclaimed in Rome as Victor IV, the former was consecrated in Ninfa as Alexander III. The emperor saw here an opportunity of extending his power, indirectly at least, over the papacy also. He ordered both popes to appear at a council which he called. He took occasion to recall to remembrance an old right of the empire, the right of holding councils and passing judgment on the papacy. He accordingly appointed a church assembly to be held in Pavia and invited to it, as he says in his summons, all the bishops of England, France, Hungary, Denmark and his own kingdom. What a conception he had of his own dignity is shown by the words: 'It is enough to have one God, one pope, one emperor, and it is proper that there should be only one church.' In venturing once more to pass judgment on Frederick's actions and to inquire, solely from a historical point of view, how far his ideas deviated from previous ones I find that in this case he went to work exactly as he did against the cities. From the oldest times church conflicts had been settled by the emperor with the assistance of a council; since the days of Otto I immense achievements had been made in this way; but never yet had a German emperor called together at the same time the bishops of all other kingdoms. Frederick's deviation lay herein, that he appropriated to himself this right. He did not stop at what was customary and a matter of precedent but, on the basis of his own ideal conception of the imperial rights, extended his claim until it became altogether universal. It might have been possible to maintain this claim; but, so much is certain, it could only have happened after previous arrangement with the other monarchs. The council was attended from all parts of the empire on the one side or the other of the Alps. The emperor left the deliberations in the hands of the clergy. They declared in a body for Victor; the emperor spoke last and accepted him. Thus did he understand the imperial power, thus did he wish to exercise it. But it is evident that herewith the whole conflict with the papacy came into an entirely new stage. The emperor with his council wished to decide which pope all Europe should obey. Naturally he met with opposition. John of Salisbury expresses the point at issue very well; 'who,' he says, 'has made the Germans judges over the nations?' One might almost say this had been their claim. In so far as they appointed the emperor they wished also to have the precedence over other nations. … Of the popes only one, the favored one, Victor, submitted; the other, Alexander III, declared the pope should summon and not be summoned, should judge and not be judged. He was not willing to plunge the church into a new slavery. For the time being Victor maintained the supremacy in Italy. … The Romans dated their legal documents according to the years of his pontificate. Meanwhile Alexander III fled to France. He found support here mainly from the fact that the western nations would not accord to the emperor the supremacy over Europe which was implied in his decision regarding the papacy. … For a moment the kingdom of England seemed about to join in the church policy of the German empire; they formed as it were a Germanic party. The strict papistical idea was more the Romanic; but at the same time it was that of the expanding freedom of the people. {3797} That is why Alexander III had also on his side the Lombard cities which were opposing the emperor. Here too it was not a mere faction but a grand idea. The cities, with their striving for a constitution to a certain degree autonomic and resting on a basis of free elections, sided with the idea of the independence of the European kingdoms. From the depths of European life arose mighty strivings which opposed the idea of the emperor to renew the Roman empire and its prerogatives. … In the year 1165 Alexander, coming from Salerno, was escorted by William I [of Sicily] into Rome. This great opposition against the German empire was joined also by the Greek emperor, Manuel. He wished himself to attain the rule of the Roman empire and in return the Greek and the Roman churches were to be united. All at once Emperor Frederick found himself involved in a most dangerous struggle, but he was determined to fight it out. And he had the empire of the Germans on his side in the matter. At a great diet in Wurzburg, at the especial prompting of the imperial chancellor Raynald, archbishop elect of Cologne, the emperor and the princes swore never to acknowledge either Alexander III or any pope elected by his party. Indeed no future emperor was to be elected who would not promise to act accordingly. Stern obligations were further attached to this oath. … In November 1166 the emperor began his expedition for the purpose of driving out Pope Alexander. But already under his very eyes the Lombard cities were bestirring themselves against him."

L. von Ranke, Weltgeschichte (translated from the German) volume 8, pages 179-185.

"The battle of Legnano, fought on May 29th, 1176, ended in disaster and defeat. Frederick himself, who was wounded and thrown from his horse, finally reached Pavia after days of adventurous flight, having meanwhile been mourned as dead by the remnant of his army. All was not yet lost, indeed, … but Frederick, although he at first made a pretense of continuing the war, was soon forced by the representations of his nobles to abandon the policy of twenty-four years, and to make peace on the best terms obtainable with Alexander III, and through him with the Lombard cities. The oath of Wurzburg was broken and the two treaties of Anagni and Venice put an end to the long war. … The terms of the treaty were finally assented to by the emperor at Chioggia, July 21st, 1177. Alexander now prepared to carry out his cherished project of holding a mighty peace congress at Venice; and there, at the news of the approaching reconciliation, nobles and bishops and their retinues came together from all parts of Europe. Now that the peace was to become an accomplished fact Venice outdid herself in preparing to honor the emperor. The latter, too, was determined to spare no expense that could add to the splendor of the occasion. He had negotiated for a loan with the rich Venetians, and he now imposed a tax of 1,000 marks of silver on his nobles. Frederick's coming was announced for Sunday, July 24th, and by that time the city had donned its most festive attire. … A platform had been constructed at the door of the church, and upon it was placed a raised throne for the pope. … Having reached the shore Frederick, in the presence of an immense crowd, approached the papal throne, and, throwing off his purple mantle, prostrated himself before the pope and kissed the latter's feet. Three red slabs of marble mark the spot where he knelt. It was a moment of world-wide importance; the empire and the papacy had measured themselves in mortal combat, and the empire, in form at least, was now surrendering at discretion. No wonder that later ages have fabled much about this meeting. The pope is said, with his foot on the neck of the prostrate king, to have exclaimed aloud, 'The lion and the young dragon shalt thou trample under thy feet!'"

E. F. Henderson, History of Germany in the Middle Ages, pages 277-279.

PAPACY: A. D. 1870-1874. The "Kulturkampf" in its first stages.

See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1870-1874.

—————PAPACY: End————

PARIS: A. D. 1788-1789. The city during the Revolution.

See (in this Supplement) FRANCE: A. D. 1788-1789.

PARIS: Municipal Libraries.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: (page 2011).

PARRY, Captain, Northern voyages of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1820, and after.

PATENT-RIGHT.

See LAW, EQUITY: A. D. 1875 (page 1994).

PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1866-1875 (page 2951).

PEARY ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1886, 1891-1892, and 1893-1894.

PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1785. The first Protective Tariff.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION: A. D. 1785 (page 3065).

PENNSYLVANIA BANK, The.

See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1780-1784 (page 2212).

PENNSYLVANIA GERMANS.

"At the close of the Thirty Years' war there ran through Protestant Germany a broad line; upon the one side of that line stood the followers of Luther and Zwingli, of Melanchthon and Calvin—these were the Church people; upon the other side stood Menno Simon and 'The Separatists'—these were the Sect people. It was a line which divided persecution by new boundaries, and left the faggot and the stake in new hands, for the Peace of Westphalia had thrown the guarantees of its powerful protection only over the one side of this Protestant division. … When 'the news spread through the Old World that William Penn, the Quaker, had opened an asylum to the good and the oppressed of every nation, and Humanity went through Europe gathering up the children of misfortune,' our forefathers came out from their hiding places in the forest depths and the mountain valleys which the sun never penetrated, clad in homespun, their feet shod with wood, their dialects ofttimes unintelligible to each other. There was scarcely a family among them which could not be traced to some ancestor burned at the stake for conscience sake. Judge Pennypacker says: 'Their whole literature smacks of fire. Beside a record like theirs the sufferings of Pilgrim and Quaker seem trivial.' … The thousands of Germans, Swiss and Dutch who migrated here on the invitation of Penn, came without ability to speak the English language, and without any knowledge, except that derived from general report, of the customs and habits of thought of the English people. {3798} They went vigorously to work to clear the wilderness and establish homes. They were sober, religious, orderly, industrious and thrifty. The reports the earlier settlers made to their friends at home of the prosperity and liberty they enjoyed in their new homes, induced from year to year many others to come. Their numbers increased so much as to alarm the proprietary officials. Logan wanted their immigration prevented by Act of Parliament, 'for fear the colony would in time be lost to the crown.' He wrote a letter in which he says: 'The numbers from Germany at this rate will soon produce a German colony here, and perhaps such a one as Britain received from Saxony in the 5th Century.' As early as 1747, one of the proprietary Governors attributed the prosperity of the Pennsylvania colony to the thrift, sobriety and good characters of the Germans. Numerous as they were, because this was in its government a purely English colony, the part they took in its public affairs was necessarily limited. The Government officials and the vast majority of the members of the Assembly were all English. During the long struggle in the Colonies to adjust the strained relations with Great Britain, the Germans were seemingly indifferent. They saw no practical gain in surrendering the Penn Charter, and Proprietary Government, under which they had obtained their homes, for the direct rule of the British King. They could not understand the distinction between King and Parliament. … When, therefore, in 1776, the issue was suddenly enlarged into a broad demand for final separation from Great Britain, and the creation of a Republic, all their traditional love of freedom was fully aroused. Under the Proprietary rule, although constituting nearly one-half the population of the colony, they were practically without representation in the General Assembly, and without voice in the Government. The right of 'electing or being elected' to the Assembly was confined to natural born subjects of England, or persons naturalized in England or in the province, who were 21 years old, and freeholders of the province owning fifty acres of seated land, and at least twelve acres improved, or worth clear fifty pounds and a resident for two years. Naturalization was not the simple thing it now is. The conditions were exceptionally severe, and comparatively few Germans qualified themselves to vote. The delegates to the Colonial Congress were selected by the General Assembly. In November, 1775, the Assembly instructed the Pennsylvania delegates not to vote for separation from Great Britain. The majority of the delegates were against separation. … At the election for new members in May, 1776, in Philadelphia, three out of four of those elected were opposed to separation. The situation was most critical. Independence and union were not possible without Pennsylvania. Geographically, she was midway between the Colonies. She was one of the wealthiest and strongest. Her government was in the hands of those opposed to separation. One course only remained. Peaceful efforts in the Assembly to enfranchise the Germans, by repealing the naturalization laws and oath of allegiance, had failed, and now this must be accomplished by revolution, because their enfranchisement would give the friends of liberty and union an overwhelming and aggressive majority. This was the course resolved on. The Philadelphia Committee called a conference of committees of the Counties. On the 18th of June, 1776, this provincial conference, numbering 104, met in Philadelphia. The German counties were represented no longer by English tories. There were leading Germans in the delegations from Philadelphia, Lancaster, Northampton, York, Bucks and Berks. In Berks, the royalist Biddle gives place to eight prominent Germans, headed by Governor Heister, Colonels Hunter, Eckert and Lutz. The proprietary government of Pennsylvania, with its Tory Assembly, was overthrown—foundation, pillar and dome. This conference called a Provincial Convention to frame a new Government. On the petition of the Germans, the members of that Convention were to be elected by persons qualified to vote for Assembly, and by the military associators (volunteers), being freemen 21 years of age, resident in the province one year. This gave the Germans the right to vote. Thus says Bancroft: 'The Germans were incorporated into the people and made one with them.' The 19th of June, 1776, enfranchised the Germans, and made the Declaration of Independence possible. … It is absolutely true, that, as the English people of the province were divided in 1776, the Germans were the potential factors in securing the essential vote of Pennsylvania for the Declaration of Independence. … Throughout the Revolution, these Germans … were the steadfast defenders of the new Republic. Dr. Stille, in his recent admirable 'Life of Dickinson,' concedes that 'no portion of the population was more ready to defend its homes, or took up arms more willingly in support of the American cause.' Washington, when in Philadelphia after the war, testified his high appreciation of the hearty support the Germans gave him, and the cause he represented, by worshiping with his family in the old German church on Race street. The descendants of the Pennsylvania-Germans have settled all over the West, contributing to Ohio, Illinois and other Western States, the same sturdy, honest population that characterizes Pennsylvania. From Revolutionary times until now, they have borne an honorable part In the Nation's history and progress."

E. K. Martin and G. F. Baer, Addresses (Proceedings, Pennsylvania-German Convention, April 15, 1891), pages 14-24.

PENNY NEWSPAPERS, The beginning of.

See PRINTING AND PRESS: A. D. 1830-1888, and 1853-1870 (page 2601).

PETER, ST., and the Church at Rome.

See PAPACY (page 2417).

PETER THE HERMIT, and the first Crusade.

See (in this Supplement) CRUSADES.

PHŒNICIAN COMMERCE.

See (In this Supplement) COMMERCE, ANCIENT; also PHŒNICIANS (page 2530).

PINEL, and the treatment of the Insane.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 18-19TH CENTURIES (page 2142).

PITT, William.

See CHATHAM.

{3799}

PLYMOUTH BRETHREN, The.

"The rise of Plymouth Brotherism was almost contemporaneous with that of Tractarianism, and, far apart as the two systems appear to be, they were partly due to the action of similar causes. In both cases there was a dissatisfaction with the state of spiritual life, and a longing for something more real, more elevated in tone, more practical in results. … The society or 'assembly,' as the Brethren love to call it, was a development. There was no purpose on the part of its founders of establishing any new sect or party. A few men with spiritual affinities, desiring a religious fellowship which they could not find in the ordinary services of their Church, grouped themselves in small companies and held periodical meetings for the study of the Scriptures, for Christian conference, and for prayer. From the very beginning the movement had attractions for devout men of high social position and some culture. Mr. Darby, who was one of the leading spirits in Dublin, and who is said by those who have had personal acquaintance with the inner life of the Brethren to wield a power over his followers to which there is no parallel among ecclesiastics, except in the case of the Pope himself, was originally a curate of the Church of Ireland. Mr. Benjamin W. Newton, who was one of the principal members of the similar society in Plymouth, which has given its name to the movement, was a fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Dr. Tregelles, another of the Plymouth company, was a distinguished Biblical scholar. Mr. A. Groves, who, perhaps, rather than Mr. Darby or Mr. Newton, may be regarded as the promoter of these meetings, but who early withdrew from the party when, on a return from a visit to the East, he found that their social religious gatherings were rapidly developing into a distinct sectarian organization, was a student for the Anglican ministry at Trinity College, Dublin. The Brethren despise culture, and yet apart from men of culture it is hard to see how the movement could have had such success."

J. G. Rogers, The Church Systems of England in the 19th Century, lecture 10.

POLAR EXPLORATION.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION.

POLARIS, Voyage of the.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1871-1872.

PORTUGAL: Commerce.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MEDIÆVAL, AND MODERN.

PORTUGAL: Exploration, and colonization in Africa.

See (in this Supplement) AFRICA.

PRINCETON COLLEGE.

The College of New Jersey, more commonly called Princeton College, "originated in the plan of Jonathan Dickinson, John Pierson, Ebenezer Pemberton, Aaron Burr, with others, to found an institution 'in which ample provision should be made for the intellectual and religious culture of youth desirous to obtain a liberal education, and more especially for the thorough training of such as were candidates for the holy ministry.' Its first charter was granted in 1746 by the Honorable John Hamilton, President of His Majesty's Council, and is noteworthy as the first college charter ever given in this country by a Governor or acting Governor with simply the consent of his Council. A second and more ample charter was granted September 14th, 1748, by the 'trusty and well-beloved' Jonathan Belcher, Esquire, Governor and Commander-in-chief of the province of New Jersey. After the war of the Revolution, the charter was confirmed and renewed by the Legislature of New Jersey. The Corporation is styled in that instrument 'the Trustees of the College of New Jersey.' … On April 27th, 1747, the Trustees made a public announcement that they had 'appointed the Rev. Jonathan Dickinson, President,' and that the college would be opened in the fourth week of May next at Elizabethtown. President Dickinson having died on the 7th of October following, the Rev. Aaron Burr assumed the duties of the Presidency and the college was removed from Elizabethtown to Newark. Soon after, it was removed from Newark to Princeton, where in 1754-1755 the first college building was erected. … The College of New Jersey, as now constituted, includes the John C. Green School of Science. This institution, which has its own professors and instructors, was founded in 1873 upon an endowment of Mr. John C. Green. The first college building, erected in 1754-5, was named Nassau Hall, at the request of Governor Belcher."

College of New Jersey, Catalogue, 1893-4, pages 8-9.

ALSO IN: J. F. Hageman, History of Princeton and its Institutions.

PROFIT-SHARING EXPERIMENTS.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1842-1889, and 1859-1887 (pages 2944 and 2947).

PROUDHON, and the doctrines of Anarchism.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1839-1894 (page 2941).

PROVISIONS OF OXFORD.

See LAW, COMMON: A. D. 1258 (page 1962).

PRUSSIA, The rise of.

See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1618-1700; also, page 309.

PULLMAN STRIKE, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1894 (page 2957).

R.

RAE, Dr., Franklin search expeditions of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1851, and 1853-1854.

RAILWAYS, in modern inland commerce.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MODERN.

RAPP, George, and the Rappites.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1805-1827 (page 2937).

REDWOOD LIBRARY.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: (page 2019).

REFORMATION, The Protestant: Outline sketch.

See EUROPE (pages 1053-1065).

REFORMATION, The Protestant: The beginning in Germany.

See (in this Supplement) GERMANY: 16TH CENTURY; also, page 1456.

RELIGIOUS LIBERTY.

See below: TOLERATION, RELIGIOUS.

RENAISSANCE, Libraries of the.

See LIBRARIES, RENAISSANCE (page 2008).

ROCHDALE SOCIETY, The Co-operative.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1816-1886 (page 2938).

ROME: Outline sketch of the history of the Republic and the Empire.

See EUROPE (pages 996-1013).

{3800}

ROME: Charlemagne's restoration of the Empire in the West. His imperial coronation and its significance.

"The Germans, who had destroyed the Western Empire, now, after having been received into Roman civilisation and the bosom of the Church, effected its restoration. And the Church, whose laws controlled the West, created anew from within herself the Roman Empire, as the political form of her cosmopolitan principle, and that spiritual unity within which the Popes had embraced so many nations. Her supremacy over all churches of the West could, moreover, only attain complete recognition through the Emperor and the Empire. The restoration of the Empire was rendered necessary by the formidable power of Islam, which not only harassed Byzantium, but, from the side of Sicily and Spain, also threatened Rome. The Greek Emperors could rule the West together with the East so long as the Roman Church was weak, so long as Italy lay sunk in lethargy, and the German West swarmed with lawless barbarians. It was no longer possible to do so when the Church attained independence, Italy consciousness of her nationality, and Europe had become united in the powerful Frankish Empire, at the head of which stood a great monarch. Thus the idea of proclaiming Charles Emperor arose, and thus was carried out the scheme with which the irate Italians had threatened Leo the Isaurian at the beginning of the Iconoclastic controversy. The West now demanded the occupation of the Imperial throne. True, the Byzantine Empire had, in the course of time, acquired a legal sanction. Byzantium, however, was but the daughter of Rome. From Rome the Imperium had proceeded; here the Cæsars had their seat. The illustrious mother of the Empire now resumed her rights, when, as in ancient times, she offered the Imperial crown to the most powerful ruler of the West. … A transaction so momentous, and rendered necessary by the ideas of the time and the demands of the West, but which, nevertheless, bore the semblance of a revolt against the rights of Byzantium, could scarcely have been the work of the moment, but more probably was the result of a sequence of historic causes and resolutions consequent upon them. Can we doubt that the Imperial crown had been the goal of Charles's ambition and the ideal of such of his friends as cherished Roman aspirations? He himself came to Rome evidently to take the crown, or, at least, to form some decisive resolution with regard to it, and during his sojourn in France the Pope had declared himself ready to help in the accomplishment of this great revolution. … We may suppose that Charles's clerical friends were the most zealous supporters of the scheme, which perhaps was not received by the Pope with a like degree of enthusiasm. Alcuin's letter proves that he, at least, had already been initiated into the idea; and the Frankish envoys, after a year spent in Rome, had doubtless come to an understanding with the Romans, on whose vote the election mainly depended. The Romans it was who, exercising the ancient suffrages of the Senate and people, had elected Charles their Patricius, and who now, in virtue of the same rights, elected him Emperor. And only as Emperor of the Romans and of Rome did he become Emperor of the entire State. A decree of the Roman nobility and people had undoubtedly preceded the coronation; and Charles's nomination as Roman Emperor (in strict accordance with the plan of a papal election) was effected by the three traditional elective bodies. The great revolution which extinguished the ancient rights of the Byzantines was not to appear the arbitrary deed of either King or Pope, but the act of God Himself, and therefore the legal transaction of Christendom, as expressed by the voice of the Roman people, of the parliament of the united clergy, optimates, and citizens assembled in Rome, Germans as well as Latins. The Frankish chroniclers themselves say that Charles was made Emperor by the election of the Roman people, quote the united parliament of the two nations, and enumerate the list of the members who took part in the parliament: the Pope, the entire assembly of bishops, clergy, and abbots, the Frankish senate, the Roman optimates, and the rest of the Christian people. The resolution of the Romans and Franks was announced to Charles in the form of a request. Are we to believe that, like Augustus in former days, he made a feint of reluctance to accept the supreme dignity, until it was forced upon him as an accomplished fact? Are we to receive as hypocritical the assurance of a man so pious and heroic, when he asserts that the Imperial crown came upon him wholly as a surprise, and adds that he would not have entered S. Peter's had he known of Leo's intention? Had not Charles's son, Pipin, been purposely recalled from the war against Benevento, in order to witness the Imperial coronation? An explanation of these conflicting statements has been sought in the statement of Eginhard, who maintains that Charles's hesitation was dictated by respect for Byzantium; that he had not yet assented to the scheme, and had sought by negotiations to gain the recognition of the Greeks to the election; that, therefore, the coronation really did take him by surprise, and, with regard to the time chosen, seemed inopportune. This view is supported by reasons of probability, which, however, solely concern the occasion chosen for the coronation, since to his elevation to the Imperial throne Charles had already long given his consent. … When, in later times, the German Empire came into conflict with the Papacy, doctors of canon law advanced the theory that the Emperor received the crown solely by favour of the Pope, and traced the investiture to Charles's coronation at the hands of Leo the Third. The Emperors, on the other hand, appealed to the shout of the people: 'Life and victory to the Emperor of the Romans, crowned by God,' and asserted that they derived the crown, the inalienable heritage of the Cæsars, from God alone. The Romans, on their side, maintained that Charles owed the crown entirely to the majesty of the Roman Senate and people. The dispute as to the actual source of Empire continued throughout the entire Middle Ages, and, while exercising no actual change in the world's history, revealed an indwelling need of mankind; the necessity, namely, of referring the world of facts back to a rudimentary right by which power becomes legalised. Pope Leo the Third as little possessed the right to bestow the crown of Empire, which was not his, as Charles did to claim it. {3801} The Pope, however, regarded himself as the representative of the Empire and of Romanism; and undoubtedly, as the head of Latin nationality, and still more as the recognised spiritual overseer of the Christian republic, he possessed the power of accomplishing that revolution which, without the aid of the Church, would have been impossible. Mankind at large regarded him as the sacred intercessor between the world and the Divinity; and it was only through his coronation and unction at the papal hands that the Empire of Charles received divine sanction in the eyes of men. The elective right of the Romans, on the other hand, in whatever form it may appear, was uncontested, and in no later Imperial election could it have been of so decisive legal significance."

F. Gregorovius, History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages, book 4, chapter 7, section 3 (volume 2).

ROME: Ancient commerce.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, ANCIENT.

ROME: Money and banking.

See MONEY AND BANKING: ROME (page 2203).

RONALDS, Sir Francis, The telegraphic experiments of.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: A. D. 1753-1820 (page 771).

ROSS, Captain, Polar Expeditions of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1829-1833 and 1848-1849.

RUSSIA, Libraries of.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).

RUTGERS COLLEGE.

"Rutgers College, located at New Brunswick, was chartered by George III. in 1770, and was called Queen's College, in honour of his consort. The present name was substituted by the legislature of the State, in 1825, at request of the trustees, in honour of Colonel Henry Rutgers, of New York, to whom the institution is indebted for liberal pecuniary benefactions. The charter was originally granted to such Protestants as had adopted the constitution of the reformed churches in the Netherlands, as revised by the national synod of Dordrecht, in the years 1618 and 1619. … The Theological College of the Reformed Dutch Church is established here and intimately blended with the literary institution."

T. F. Gordon, Gazetteer of the State of New Jersey. (bound with "History of New Jersey"), page 86.

S.

SAINT SIMON, and Saint-Simonism.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1817-1825 (page 2939).

SALVATION ARMY, The.

"Some people of to-day seem to have the idea that the Rev. William Booth was Jove, and that the Salvation Army sprang from his brain full-grown and fully armed. Far from it; a boy trained in the Church of England is converted among Wesleyan Methodists, and, believing thoroughly in what he professes, is constrained to feel interested in the salvation of others. He is much moved by some revival services that he hears conducted by the Rev. James Caughey, an American evangelist, and the effect of the straightforward, conversational style of preaching, makes an impression upon him that is never forgotten. Through all the years that follow, among all the scenes of his labors as a Methodist minister, he never forgets that simple, open-air preaching, that pushing home of the truth, with its wonderful results, and year after year only increases the conviction that the masses can only be reached by going to them, and never, never saved by waiting until they come to us. Years passed away before William Booth and his wife came to the point where they could step out, shake off traditional methods and means, and begin to carry out evangelistic work on lines forbidden by the churches. … 'Nothing succeeds like success,' and when the first results were between three and four thousand souls in four little towns of Cornwall, there was a decided leaning toward them, overpowered, though, at a meeting of the Wesleyan Conference, which promulgated the strange formula that 'evangelistic movements are unfavorable to Church order.' However, the work was carried on steadily, until that memorable Sunday [July 5th, 1865] on Mile End Waste, East London, from which William Booth consecrated himself to the salvation of the ignorant, and from which he dates all statistics referring to his work as an independent movement in the religious world. From this time forward, without interrupting in the least the open-air work, one shelter after another was secured and appropriated for mission work, here a tent or an old stable, there a carpenter's shop, until the movement was strong enough to warrant the lease of 'The Eastern Star,' a notorious beer-house, which was used as book-store, hall, and classroom. From this place, with its name of good hope, hundreds of souls went forth to make the wilderness blossom like the rose, so far as their humble homes were concerned. Sheds, lofts, alleys, tumble-down theatres, well-known places of resort or of refuge were preferred as being familiar to the class of men who were to be reached. Such was the Salvation Army in its early years, merely a 'mission.' with no more idea of development into an 'army,' with military rule and nomenclature, than we at the present time have of what may come to us in the next twenty years."

M. B. Booth, Beneath Two Flags, chapter 2.

"In 1873 Mrs. Booth, overcoming her own intense reluctance, began to preach. In 1874 and the two following years the work spread to Portsmouth, Chatham, Wellingborough, Hammersmith, Hackney, Leeds, Leicester, Stockton, Middlesborough, Cardiff, Hartlepool, and other towns, where recent converts of the humblest rank—tinkers, railway guards, navvies—took charge of new stations. In 1876, shaking itself more and more free from the trammels of custom and routine, the Army deliberately utilized the services of women. In 1877 it spread still further. In 1878 it 'attacked' no less than fifty towns, and—more by what we should call 'accident' than by design—assumed the title of the Salvation Army. It also adopted, for good or for evil, the whole vocabulary of military organization, which has caused it to be covered with ridicule, but which may undoubtedly have aided its discipline and helped its progress. In 1879 advance was marked by the imprisonment of three Salvationists—who refused, as always, to pay the alternative fine—for the offence of praying in a country road near a public-house, which was regarded as 'obstructing the thoroughfare.' {3802} In this year began also the establishment of training homes for the instruction and equipment of the young officers; the printing of the 'War Cry'; the use of uniforms and badges; and the extension of the work to Philadelphia and the United States. In 1880 the United Kingdom was mapped into divisions. In 1881 the work was extended to Australia and the colonies, and so stupendous had become the religious energy of the soldiers that they began to dream of the religious rescue of Europe as well as of Great Britain and its empire-colonies. Since that year its spread, in spite of all opposition, has been steady and continuous, until, in 1890, it excited the attention of the civilized world by that immense scheme of social amelioration into which we shall not here enter particularly. At the present moment [1891] the Army has no less than 9,349 regular officers, 13,000 voluntary officers, 30 training homes; with 400 cadets, and 2,864 corps scattered over 32 different countries. In England alone it has 1,377 corps, and has held some 160,000 open-air meetings. This represents a part of its religious work. Besides this it has in social work 30 rescue homes, 5 shelters, 3 food depots, and many other agencies for good."

F. W. Farrar, The Salvation Army (Harper's Magazine, May, 1891).

In one of his addresses, delivered during his visit to the United States, in February, 1895, General Booth said: "We have, with God's help, been able to carry our banner and hoist our flag in 45 different countries and colonies, and we are reaching out day by day. We have been able to create and bring into harmonious action, with self-supporting and self-guiding officers, something like 4,000 separate societies. We have been able to gather together something like 11,000 men and women, separated from their earthly affiliations, who have gone forth as leaders of this host." In the same address, General Booth gave the number of the Army newspapers as 27, with a circulation of 50,000,000,—presumably meaning the total issues of a year.

SARACENS, Medical Science of the.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE: 7-11TH CENTURIES (page 2129).

SARDANAPALUS.

See SEMITES: THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE (page 2892).

SCHULZE-DELITZSCH, and the Cooperative movement in Germany.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1848-1883 (page 2946).

SCHURZ, Carl. Report on affairs in the South.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (page 3562).

SCHWATKA, Lieutenant, Polar explorations of.

See (in this Supplement) ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879-1880.

SECESSION, The Federalist Movement of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1803-1804 (page 3329).

SERVIA, A. D. 1893. Royal Coup d'Etat.

"A great sensation was created by the announcement, January 19, that Milan and Natalie, the divorced parents of King Alexander, had become reconciled at Biarritz. Whether this had political significance was unknown, but rumor connected it with various incidents bearing on the pending elections. The Skupshtina was dissolved in November, and the Liberal government, by energetic measures, put the electoral machinery in such shape that at the voting in March a small Liberal majority was secured in the place of the enormous Radical majority that had controlled the former legislature. When the Skupshtina assembled, April 6, the Radicals, in resentment at certain proceedings of the government designed to increase its majority, left the hall and refused to take part in the session. The troublesome situation thus produced was wholly abolished by a coup d'etat of King Alexander, April 13. At a banquet in the palace, at which the regents and cabinet were present, the king suddenly accused them of misrule and demanded their resignations, saying that he would assume the government himself. On the refusal of the regents to resign he ordered them under guard, and on the following day a new ministry was appointed, with M. Dokitch, a Radical, at its head. Careful arrangement of the troops had insured that no resistance could be made to the king's acts, and no blood was shed. The constitution makes eighteen the age at which the king attains his majority, but Alexander is not yet seventeen. His action was greeted with general favor throughout the country. An explanation of the affair is found in the ill-disguised relations of the Radicals with the pretender Karageorgiewitch, and the dread of Milan and Natalie that the hostile policy of the regents toward the Radicals, who are in a majority in the land, would precipitate an overthrow of the reigning dynasty." The elections which followed the coup d' état gave the Radicals an overwhelming majority in the Skupshtina—122 members out of 134.

Political Science Quarterly, June and December, 1893.

SEWARD, William H., The "higher law" speech of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1850 (page 3387).

SIEMENS, Dr. W., and his dynamo-electric inventions.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: A. D. 1831-1872 (page 774).

SINGLE TAX MOVEMENT, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1880 (page 2955).

SLAVE TRADE: Abolition in the United States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1807 (page 3335).

SLAVERY, Petitions against, in the American Congress.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1835, 1836, 1837-1838, and 1842, (page 3373, and after).

SOCIAL PALACE AT GUISE, The.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1859-1887 (page 2947).

SOCIALIST PARTIES IN GERMANY.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1862-1864, and 1875-1893 (pages 2949 and 2953).

SOLOMON. SOLOMON'S TEMPLE.

See JEWS: (page 1902); and TEMPLE OF SOLOMON (page 3093).

SOMMERING'S TELEGRAPH.

See ELECTRICAL DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: A. D. 1753-1820 (page 771).

SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1861. Monarchical cravings.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (page 3426).

SPAIN: Outline Sketch of general history.

See EUROPE (pages 1016, 1034-1035, 1050-1051, 1055-1065, and after).

{3803}

SPAIN: A. D. 1034-1090. The exploits of the Cid.

"Rodrigo Diez de Bivar, who came of an old Castilian stock, was born in 1026—others say 1040—and was thus a contemporary of William the Conqueror, of England. Diez was his patronymic, meaning the son of Diego (in English James), and Bivar, the village of his birth, near Burgos, where the site of his house is still shown. His name of 'El Cid,' the Lord, or 'Mio Cid,' which is exactly 'Monseigneur,' was given him first by the Moors, his own soldiers and subjects, and universally adopted by all Spaniards from that day to this. Such a title is significant, not only of the relations between the two peoples, but of Rodrigo's position as at once a Moorish and a Spanish chief. 'El Campeador,' the name by which Rodrigo is also distinguished, means in Spanish something more special than 'champion.' A 'campeador' was a man who had fought and beaten the select fighting-man of the opposite side, in the presence of the two armies; which points to a custom derived, as much else of early Spanish, from the East. Rodrigo earned the name, not at the expense of any Moor but of a Christian, having when quite a youth slain a Navarrese champion in a war between Castile and Navarre. The first mention of his name occurs in a deed of Fernando I., of the year 1064."

H. E. Watts, Christian Recovery of Spain, chapter 3.

"Sancho III. of Navarre, who died in 1034, had united almost all the Christian states of the Peninsula under one dominion, having married the heiress of the county of Castile, and obtained the hand of the sister of Bermudez III., the last king of Leon, for his second son, Ferdinand. The Asturias, Navarre, and Aragon, were all subject to him, and he was the first who assumed the title of King of Castile. To him the sovereign houses of Spain have looked up as their common ancestor, for the male line of the Gothic Kings became extinct in Bermudez III. … D. Sancho divided his states amongst his children: D. Garcia became King of Navarre, D. Ferdinand, King of Castile, and D. Ramirez, King of Aragon. The Cid, who was a subject of D. Ferdinand, entered upon his military career under that monarch's banners, where he displayed that marvellous strength and prodigious valour, that constancy and coolness, which raised him above all the other warriors of Europe. Many of the victories of Ferdinand and the Cid were obtained over the Moors, who being at that time deprived of their leader and without a central government, were much exposed to the attacks of the Christians. … The arms of Ferdinand and the Cid were not, however, always directed against the infidels. The ambitious Monarch soon afterwards attacked his brother-in-law, Bermudez III. of Leon, the last of the descendants of D. Pelagius, whom he despoiled of his states, and put to death in 1037. He subsequently attacked and dethroned his eldest brother, D. Garcia, and afterwards his younger brother, D. Ramirez, the former of whom he likewise sacrificed. The Cid, who had received his earliest instructions under D. Ferdinand, made no scrupulous enquiries into the justice of that prince's cause, but combating blindly for him, rendered him glorious in the eyes of the vulgar by these iniquitous conquests. It is also in the reign of Ferdinand that the first romantic adventures of the Cid are said to have occurred; his attachment to Ximena, the only daughter of Count Gormaz; his duel with the Count, who had mortally injured his father; and lastly his marriage with the daughter of the man who had perished by his sword. The authenticity of these poetical achievements rests entirely on the romances [of the Chronicle of the Cid]; but though this brilliant story is not to be found in any historical document, yet the universal tradition of a nation seems to stamp it with sufficient credit. The Cid was in habits of the strictest friendship with the eldest son of Ferdinand, D. Sancho, surnamed the Strong, and the two warriors always combated side by side. During the lifetime of the father, the Cid, in 1049, had rendered tributary the Musulman Emir of Saragossa. He defended that Moorish prince against the Aragonese, in 1063; and when Sancho succeeded to the throne in 1065, he was placed, by the young King, at the head of all his armies, whence, without doubt, he acquired the name of 'Campeador.' D. Sancho, who merited the friendship of a hero, and who always remained faithful to him, was, notwithstanding, no less ambitious and unjust than his father, whose example he followed in endeavouring to deprive his brothers of their share of the paternal inheritance. To the valour of the Cid he owed his victories over D. Garcia, King of Galicia, and D. Alfonso, King of Leon, whose states he invaded. The latter prince took refuge amongst the Moors, with the King of Toledo, who afforded him a generous asylum. D. Sancho, after having also stripped his sisters of their inheritance, was slain in 1072, before Zamora, where the last of his sisters, D. Urraca, had fortified herself. Alfonso VI., recalled from the Moors to ascend the vacant throne, after having taken an oath, administered by the hands of the Cid, that he had been in no degree accessary to his brother's death, endeavoured to attach that celebrated leader to his interests by promising him in marriage his own niece Ximena, whose mother was sister-in-law to Ferdinand the Great and Bermudez III. the last King of Leon. This marriage, of which historical evidence remains, was celebrated on the 19th of July, 1074. The Cid was at that time nearly fifty years of age, and had survived his first wife Ximena, the daughter of Count Gormaz, so celebrated in the Spanish and French tragedies. Being soon afterwards despatched on an embassy to the Moorish princes of Seville and Cordova, the Cid assisted them in gaining a great victory over the King of Grenada; but scarcely had the heat of the battle passed away when he restored all the prisoners whom he had taken, with arms in their hands, to liberty. By these constant acts of generosity he won the hearts of his enemies as well as of his friends. He was admired and respected both by Moors and Christians. He had soon afterwards occasion to claim the protection of the former; for Alfonso VI., instigated by those who were envious of the hero's success, banished him from Castile. The Cid upon this occasion took refuge with his friend Ahmed el Muktadir, King of Saragossa, by whom he was treated with boundless confidence and respect. He was appointed by him to the post of governor of his son, and was in fact intrusted with the whole administration of the kingdom of Saragossa, during the reign of Joseph El Muktamam, from 1081 to 1085, within which period he gained many brilliant victories over the Christians of Aragon, Navarre, and Barcelona. Always generous to the vanquished, he again gave liberty to the prisoners. Alfonso VI. now began to regret that he had deprived himself of the services of the most valiant of his warriors; and being attacked by the redoubtable Joseph, the son of Teschfin, the Morabite, who had invaded Spain with a new army of Moors from Africa, and having sustained a defeat at Zalaka, on the 23d of October, 1087, he recalled the Cid to his assistance. {3804} That hero immediately repaired to his standard with 7,000 soldiers, levied at his own charge; and for two years continued to combat for his ungrateful sovereign; but at length, either his generosity in dismissing his captives, or his disobedience to the orders of a prince far inferior to himself in the knowledge of the art of war, drew upon him a second disgrace about the year 1090. He was again banished; his wife and son were imprisoned, and his goods were confiscated. It is at this period that the poem … commences. It is in fact the fragment of a complete history of the Cid, the beginning of which has been lost."

J. C. L. S. de Sismondi, Literature of the South of Europe, chapter 23 (volume 2).

ALSO IN: R. Southey, Chronicle of the Cid, from the Spanish.

R. Markham, Chronicle of the Cid, edited with introduction.

G. Ticknor, History of Spanish Literature, period 1, chapter 2 (volume 1).

SPAIN: 15-17th Centuries. The waste of the commercial opportunities of the Spaniards.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MODERN.

SPAIN: A. D. 1788-1808. Charles IV., Marie Louise, and Godoy.

"Charles III. had just died when the French Revolution commenced. He was the best sovereign that Spain had had in a long time; he left good ministers: Aranda, Campomanès, Florida Blanca; but it was not given to them to continue his work. This reparative reign was followed by one the most disintegrating. Spain, elevated anew for an instant by an intelligent prince, was, in a few years, under the government of an imbecile one, to founder in an ignoble intrigue. The web of this latter was begun immediately upon the accession of the new king. Charles IV. was forty years old; corpulent and weak-minded, simple and choleric, incapable of believing evil because he was incapable of conceiving it: amorous, chaste, devout, and consequently the slave of his wife even more than of his temperament, the first years of his marriage blinded him for his entire life. Scrupulous to the point of separating himself from the queen when he no longer hoped to have children by her, he took refuge in the chase, manual labor, violent exercise, caring only for the table, music and bull-fights, exhausted when he had followed his trade of king for half an hour. Small and without beauty, dark of complexion, but with some grace, with elegance and above all carriage, Marie Louise of Parma was at once superstitious and passionate, ignorant, uneasy, with a very frivolous soul as a foundation, with obstinacy without firmness, with artifice without intelligence, with intrigue leading to no result, more covetousness than ambition, much emptiness of mind, still more of heart. Her husband seemed to her coarse and brutish; she despised him. She detested her eldest son and cared moderately for her other children. She was thirty-four years old, of perturbed imagination, of uneasy senses, without any curb of religion or virtue, when she ascended the throne and the fortune of Godoy threw him in her way. He was a small provincial gentleman; for lack of something better, he had entered the life-guards at seventeen. He was then twenty-one. He was very handsome, with a grave beauty frequent in the men of the south, which gives to youth that air of restrained and imperious passion, to mature age that impenetrable and imposing exterior so well calculated to conceal mediocrity of mind, barrenness of heart, despotic selfishness, and all the artifices of a corruption the more insinuating because it seems to be unaware of itself. The queen fell in love with him, and abandoned herself wildly; he took advantage of it without shame. She was not satisfied to make of Godoy her lover, she desired to make a great man of him, a minister, to make him a partner in her power. She introduced him to the court and into the intimacy of the royal household, where Charles IV. tractably became infatuated with him. Marie Louise had at first some circumspection in the gradation of the honors which she lavished upon him, and which marked, by so many scandals, the progress of her passion; but she was very soon entirely possessed by it. Godoy obtained over her an ascendancy equal to that which she arrogated to herself over Charles IV. Thus on the eve of the French Revolution, these three persons, so strangely associated, began, in court costume, and under the austere decorum of the palace of Philip II., that comedy, as old as vice and stupidity, of the compliant husband duped by his wife and of the old mistress exploited by her lover. At the beginning of the reign, Charles IV. from scruple, the queen from hypocrisy, Godoy from policy, became devout. The queen wished power for Godoy, and Godoy wished it for lucre. It was necessary to set aside the old counsellors of Charles III. They were philosophers, the nation had remained catholic. Marie Louise and Godoy relied on the old Spanish fanaticism. The ministers very soon lost influence, and after having secluded them for some time, the queen disgraced them. A complete reaction took place in Spain. The church regained its empire; the Inquisition was re-established. It would appear then that the Revolution must necessarily have found Spain hostile; a Bourbon king and a devout government could but detest it. But before being a Bourbon the king was a husband, and Marie Louise was devout only to mask her intrigues. The same passions led her to desire by turns, war to make her lover illustrious and peace to render him popular. This debilitated and corrupt court found itself given over in advance to all the suggestions of fear, to all the temptations of avidity. Those who had to treat with it did not fail to profit by its feebleness to dominate it. We see it successively linked to England, then to France; treat the Revolution with consideration, condemn it with violence, combat it without vigor; seek an alliance with the Directory, and abandon itself to Napoleon who annihilated it. France found at Madrid only too much docility to her designs; the illusions that she conceived from it became more fatal for her than were for Spain the incapacity and turpitude of its rulers. The French were led by the habits and traditions of the 'ancien regime' to treat the Spaniards as a subordinate nation consigned to the role of auxiliary. Holding the court of Spain as cowardly and venal, the politicians of Paris neglected to take account of the Spanish people. They judged them to be divisible and governable at mercy. {3805} It was not that they despised them nor that they intended to reduce them to servitude as a conquered people; but they thought that the last Austrian kings had enervated and enfeebled them, that they had been uplifted from this decadence only by the Bourbons, that that dynasty was degenerating in its turn; that another foreign government, more intelligent, more enlightened, more resolute, alone could take up again the work of reparation and bring it to a successful result by means of rigorous treatment and appropriate applications. What Louis XIV. had undertaken solely in the interest of despotism, France, herself regenerated by the Revolution, had the right and the power to accomplish, for the highest good of Spain and of humanity. These calculations in which the essential element, that is to say the Spanish character, was suppressed, deceived the Convention, led the Directory astray, and ended by drawing Napoleon into the most fatal of his enterprises."

A. Sorel, L'Europe et la Revolution française (translated from the French), part 1, pages 373-377.

SPAIN: Libraries.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN (page 2013).

—————SPAIN: End————

STAMP TAX ON NEWSPAPERS, English.

See PRINTING AND PRESS: A. D. 1712, and 1853-1870 (pages 2599 and 2602).

STANLEY, Henry M., Explorations of.

See (in this Supplement) AFRICA: 1866-1873, and after.

SUEZ CANAL, Effects of the opening of the.

See (in this Supplement) COMMERCE, MODERN: THE RECENT REVOLUTION IN COMMERCE.

SUMERIAN.

See SEMITES: PRIMITIVE BABYLONIA (page 2888).

SUMNER, Senator Charles, The assault of Preston Brooks on.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1856 (page 3398).

SUMTER, Thomas, in the War of the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1780 (page 3273).

—————SWEDEN: Start————

SWEDEN: A. D. 1810. The election of Bernadotte.

"It was necessary to look out for a new successor to the throne. Adlersparre desired the brother of the deceased crown prince, Frederic Christian, duke of Augustenborg, thinking by this means to secure the fruits of the revolution and to keep in view the union between Sweden and Norway. He succeeded in persuading Charles XII. to give his voice for this prince, and the council of State even sustained this idea, with the exception of Adlercreutz who proposed the emperor Alexander's brother-in-law, the Duke of Oldenburg. A third candidate was King Frederic VI. of Denmark, and even Napoleon himself worked in secret for him as he had by this time realized the advantage of the formation of a strong Northern power as a balance against Russia. But the king of Denmark as a candidate was far from popular among the Swedes, and still less prospect was there of the election of prince Gustaf. The Swedish government which had made its determination sent a writing to Napoleon in order to gain his influence in favor of the prince. The message was sent in duplicate by different roads. The choice of the Swedish government did not meet his approval; still he declared that he would not oppose it. One of the couriers who brought the above writing to Paris, was lieutenant in Upland's regiment, baron Carl Otto Mörner. This young officer was no friend of the candidacy of the Duke of Augustenborg; like many other Swedes, especially in the army, he desired as a successor to the throne a warrior, above all a French marshal, persuaded that in that way Sweden would most readily gain the alliance with France, and revenge upon Russia. Among the French marshals Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo, was particularly known in Sweden through his contact with them during the last wars and to him their thoughts had turned in the first place. Young, bold, and forward, at the same time full of the wish to be useful to his country, Mörner had contrived to obtain the office of courier in order to find a successor to the crown at his own risk. He calls on a certain Captain La Pie whose acquaintance he had made on a former visit to Paris, and explains his plans, and La Pie strengthens him in his ideas, that Bernadotte would be preferable before Macdonald, Eugene Beauharnais, and others whom Mörner had in his mind. Through La Pie and the Swedish general consul Signeul, Mörner obtains the necessary information which enables him to meet the Marshal. He calls on Bernadotte and finds him, however careful in his utterance regarding the matter, not opposed to the project; nay Bernadotte hastens immediately after the conference with Mörner to the emperor to impart it to him. Napoleon, who had officially been informed of the thoughts of the Swedish government, looked on the whole matter as a ghost of the brain, but declared that he would not meddle with it. At Mörner's last visit (27 June 1810) Bernadotte gave him leave to communicate that the emperor had nothing against Bernadotte's election and that he himself was ready to accept if the choice fell on him. It is easy to imagine the astonishment of Engström, the minister of state, when he heard Mörner's description of his bold attempt in Paris. 'What do you bring from Paris?' Engström asked, when Mörner came into the foreign Minister's cabinet in Stockholm. 'That I have induced the prince of Ponte Corvo to accept the Swedish crown.' 'How could you speak to him about it without being commissioned?' 'Our only safety lies in the prince of Ponte Corvo.' 'Are you sure that he will receive it so that we are not doubly committed?' 'Certainly. I have a letter here.' 'From him to you?' 'No, from me to him.' 'Boy.' exclaimed Mörner's relation, his excellency Von Essen, at the end of the conference, 'You ought to sit where neither sun nor moon will shine on you.' But Mörner's project won more and more favor in the country though he himself was arrested in Orebro, whereby the government desired to prevent his presence as a member of the house of knights at the special diet called at Örebro for election. Through messengers and a pamphlet on the succession in Sweden he though absent worked for his plan even among the estates which met the 23d July 1810."