Part 2 — Chapter IV.—Of Provincial and Communal Institutions. (continued 7)

1227. Election of Pope Gregory IX. Death of Genghis Khan. Birth of Thomas Aquinas [Uncertain date] (d. 1274).

1228. Crusade led by the Emperor Frederick II. His treaty with the Sultan recovering Jerusalem.

1229.

Cession, by treaty, of two thirds of the dominions of the expelled Count of Toulouse to the king of France. Frederick II. in Jerusalem.

1230. Castile and Leon united under Ferdinand III.

1235. Recovery of Cordova from the Moors by Ferdinand III. of Leon and Castile.

1236. Defeat of the Lombard League by Frederick II. at Cortenuova.

1238. Founding of the Moorish kingdom of Granada, in Spain.

1240. Birth of Cimabue (d. 1302 [Uncertain date]).

1241. Election and death of Celestine IV. Invasion and desolation of Russia, Hungary and Poland by the Mongols, or Tatars.

1242. Sack of Jerusalem by the Carismians.

1243. Election of Pope Innocent IV.

1244. Earliest use of the name Parliament in England.

1245. Decree of the Council at Lyons, held by Pope Innocent IV., deposing Frederick II.

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1248. Expulsion of the Guelfs from Florence. Crusade of Saint Louis. Recovery of Seville from the Moors by King Ferdinand III. of Leon and Castile.

1249. Commencement of the building of Cologne cathedral.

1250. Death of the Emperor Frederick II. Rising of the people and establishing of a popular constitution in Florence. Defeat and captivity of Saint Louis and his crusaders in Egypt.

1252. Crusading movement of "the Pastors" in France.

1254. Election In Germany of William of Holland to be King of the Romans. Election of Pope Alexander IV. Return of the Guelfs to Florence, driving out the Ghibellines.

1257. Double election in Germany of Richard, Earl of Cornwall, and King Alfonso X. of Castile, rival Kings of the Romans.

1258. Formulation in England of the Provisions of Oxford. Founding of the Mongol empire of the Ilkhans, embracing Persia and Mesopotamia.

1259. Beginning of the reign of the great Mongol sovereign, Kublai Khan, whose empire covered most of Asia.

1260. Defeat of the Florentine Guelfs at Montaperte by the exiled Ghibellines; expulsion of Guelfs from Florence and Lucca.

1261. Fall of the Latin Empire of Romania; recovery of Constantinople by the Greeks of Nicæa. Election of Pope Urban IV.

1263. Norwegian invasion of Scotland and defeat at Largs.

1264. Battle of Lewes, in England; victory of the Barons. Summoning of Simon de Montfort's Parliament.

1263. Election of Pope Clement IV. Battle of Evesham in England; defeat and death of Simon de Montfort. Birth of Dante (d. 1321). Birth of Duns Scotus (d. 1308).

1266. Conquest of Sicily by Charles of Anjou. Exclusion of the Florentine Grandi, or nobles, from all part in the government of the commonwealth.

1268. Execution of Conradin, the last Hohenstaufen, in Sicily.

1269. Restoration of the Guelfs in Florence, with help from Charles of Anjou.

1270. Second Crusade of Saint Louis; his attack on Tunis; his death; accession in France of Philip III.

1271. Election of Pope Gregory X. Crusade of Prince Edward, of England.

1272. End of the Great Interregnum in the Empire; election of Rudolf of Hapsburg, King of the Romans. Death of Henry III. king of England, during the absence in the Holy Land of his son and successor, Edward I.

1276. Election and death of Popes Innocent V. and Hadrian V.; election of Pope John XXI. Birth of Giotto (d. 1337 [Uncertain date]).

1277. Election of Pope Nicholas III.

1278. Defeat, at Marschfeld, of Ottocar, king of Bohemia, by Rudolf of Hapsburg. Ghibellines permitted to return to Florence.

1281. Election of Pope Martin IV.

1282. Settlement of Austria, Styria and Carniola on the Hapsburg family, thus founding the House of Austria. Massacre of French in Sicily, called "the Sicilian Vespers"; acquisition of the crown of Sicily by Pedro of Aragon.

1284. Completed conquest of Wales by Edward I. of England.

1285. Election of Pope Honorius IV. Death of Philip III., in France, and accession cf Philip IV.

1288. Election of Pope Nicholas IV.

1289. Victory of the Florentines at Campaldino over the Ghibellines of Arezzo and their allies.

1290. Expulsion of Jews from England by Edward I. Death of Margaret, queen of Scotland, called "The Maid of Norway"; disputed succession to the Scottish throne. Birth of John Tauler (d. 1361).

1291. Death of Rudolf of Hapsburg; election of Adolf of Nassau, King of the Romans. Siege and conquest of Acre by the Sultan of Egypt and Syria; end of the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem; rally of the Knights Hospitallers in Cyprus. Confederation of the three Forest Cantons of Switzerland.

1294. Election and abdication of Pope Celestine V.; election of Boniface VIII.

1295. The "first perfect and model Parliament" of England summoned by King Edward I.

1296. Fulmination of the bull "Clericis laicos" by Pope Boniface VIII. against the taxation of the clergy by Philip the Fair of France. Invasion and conquest of Scotland by Edward I. of England.

1297. Defeat of the English at Stirling by the Scottish hero Wallace.

1298. Deposition of Adolf of Nassau by the German Electors, and election of Albert of Austria.

1299. Alliance of the Templars with the Mongols, and defeat of the Turks at Hems; momentary recovery of Jerusalem. Invasion of the Greek Empire by the Ottoman Turks.

1300. Institution of the Jubilee by Pope Boniface VIII. Rise of the factions of the Neri and Bianchi at Florence. Birth of William Occam (d. 1347).

Fourteenth Century.

1301. The papal bulls, "Salvator mundi" and "Ausculta fill," launched by Pope Boniface VIII. against Philip IV., king of France. First meeting of the States-General of France, convened by the king. Death of Andrew III., king of Hungary, ending the Arpad line of sovereigns, and leaving the crown contested for several years.

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1302. Banishment of Dante and his party from Florence.

1303. Seizure of Pope Boniface VIII. at Agnani; his death; election of Benedict XI. Submission of Scotland to Edward I. of England.

1304. Birth of Petrarch (d. 1374).

1305. Election of Pope Clement V. Establishment of the papal court at Lyons, France; beginning of the so-called "Babylonish Captivity."

1306. Rising in Scotland under Robert Bruce against the rule of the English king.

1307. Arrest of the Knights Templars in France by King Philip V. Death of Edward 1., king of England, and accession of Edward II. Ravages of the Catalan Grand Company in Greece.

1308. Election in Germany of Henry of Luxemburg (Henry VII.).

1309. Removal of the papal court to Avignon.

1310. The burning of 59 Templars at Paris. Expedition of Henry VII. into Italy. Acquisition of the crown of Hungary by the Neapolitan House of Anjou, in the person of Charles Robert, or Charobert. Conquest of Rhodes from the Turks by the Knights Hospitallers of St. John.

1311. Sovereignty of Milan secured by Matteo Visconti.

1312. Abolition of the Order of the Templars. Imperial coronation of Henry VII. at Rome.

1313. Death of the Emperor Henry VII. at Pisa. Birth of Boccaccio (d. 1375).

1314. Death in France of Philip IV., called "the Fair," and accession of Louis X., called "Hutin." Election in Germany of rival Kings of the Romans, Frederick of Austria and Louis of Bavaria (Louis V.). Great defeat of the English by the Scots at Bannockburn. Invasion of Ireland by Edward Bruce.

1315. Edict of the French king, Louis Hutin, emancipating all serfs within the royal domains, on payment of a just composition. Defeat of Frederick of Austria by the Swiss at Morgarten.

1316. Election of Pope John XXII. Death, in France, of Louis Hutin, and accession of his brother Philip V.

1318. Defeat and death of Edward Bruce, in the battle of Dundalk, Ireland.

1320. Establishment of the tyranny of Castruccio at Lucca. Composition of the Old English poem, "Cursor Mundi." [Uncertain date]

1322. Death of the French king, Philip V., and accession of his brother, Charles IV. Triumph of Louis V. over Frederick at the battle of Muhldorf in Germany; excommunication of Louis. Departure of Sir John Maundeville on his travels in the East.

1324. Birth of Wyclif [Uncertain date] (d. 1384). Birth of William of Wykeham (d. 1404).

1325. Birth of John Gower [Uncertain date] (d. 1408).

1326. First admission of burgesses into the Scottish parliament.

1327. Death of Edward II., king of England, and accession of Edward III. Expedition of Louis V., of Germany, into Italy; his Imperial coronation at Rome.

1328. Death of Charles IV., king of France, and accession of Philip VI., the first of the House of Valois. Peace of Northampton between the English and the Scotch. Death of Castruccio, of Lucca. Birth of Chaucer [Uncertain date] (d. 1400).

1329. Death of Robert Bruce, king of Scotland and accession of his infant son, David.

1330. Surrender of Nicæa to the Ottoman Turks.

1332. Acquisition of the throne of Scotland by Edward Balliol, with English aid.

1333. Defeat of the Scots by Edward III. of England, at Halidon Hill. Accession in Poland of Casimir the Great, last king of the Piast line.

1334. Election of Pope Benedict XII.

1336. Birth of Timour, or Tamerlane (d. 1405).

1337. Revolt of the Flemings under Jacques Van Arteveld. Birth of Froissart, the chronicler (d. 1410 [Uncertain date]).

1338. Declaration by the German Diet of the independence of the Empire in temporal matters.

1339. Beginning of the Hundred Years War between the English and French kings.

1340. Successful war of the Hanseatic League with Denmark.

1341. Return of King David II. to Scotland, Edward Balliol retiring.

1342. Walter de Brienne, Duke of Athens, proclaimed sovereign lord of Florence. Death of Charles Robert, king of Hungary, and accession of Louis, called the Great. Election of Pope Clement VI.

1343. Expulsion of the duke of Athens from Florence. Death of Robert, king of Naples. Accession of Queen Joanna I.

1345. Downfall and death of Jacques Van Arteveld at Ghent.

1346. Great English victory over the French at Crecy. Defeat of the Scots by the English at Neville's Cross, and captivity of King David II.

1347. Outbreak in Europe of the plague called "the Black Death." Death, in Germany, of Louis V. and election of Charles IV. Revolution of Rienzi, in Rome.

1348. Purchase of the sovereignty of Avignon by Pope Clement VI. from Joanna, queen of Naples and countess of Provence. Founding of the University of Prague.

1350. Death of Philip VI. of France and accession of King John.

1352. Election of Pope Innocent VI.

1353. Downfall and death of Rienzi, at Rome.

1356. Defeat of the French by the English Black Prince at Poitiers. Promulgation in Germany of the Golden Bull of Charles IV.

1357. Meeting of the States-General of France and popular movement in Paris under Stephen Marcel.

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1358. Insurrection of the Jacquerie in France.

1360. The Peace of Bretigny between England and France, suspending for a time the Hundred Years War. Outbreak of the Children's Plague in England. First distinct appearance of Wycliffe in English history, as an Oxford lecturer.

1361. Adrianople taken by the Turks and made the capital of Solyman.

1362. Election of Pope Urban V. Conjectured composition or beginning of Langland's "Piers Plowman," in its first form. [Uncertain date]

1364. Death of King John of France; accession of Charles V.

1366. Birth of the painter Hubert van Eyck (d. 1426).

1367. Victory of the Black Prince at Navarette, in Spain, restoring Peter the Cruel to the throne of Castile. Passage of the Kilkenny Act, in Ireland.

1369. Reopening of the Hundred Years War in France. Death, in Poland, of Casimir the Great, passing the crown to Louis of Anjou, king of Hungary.

1370. Beginning of the Stuart dynasty on the Scottish throne.

1371. Election of Pope Gregory XI.

1373. Birth of John Huss [Uncertain date] (d. 1415).

1374. Appearance in Europe of the Dancing Mania.

1375. Appointment at Florence of the Eight Saints of War.

1376. Death, in England, of the Black Prince.

1377. Return of the papal court to Rome from Avignon. Death, in England, of Edward III., and accession of Richard II. Birth of Brunelleschi (d. 1444).

1378. Election of rival popes, Urban VI. and Clement VII.; beginning of the Great Schism. Death of the Emperor Charles IV., in Germany, and succession of Wenceslaus (elected King of the Romans in 1376). Tumult of the Ciompi in Florence.

1379. War of the factions of the rival popes In Rome. Revolt of the White Hoods in Flanders.

1380. Death, in France, of Charles V., and accession of Charles VI. Post messengers established in Germany by the Teutonic Knights. Birth of Thomas a Kempis [Uncertain date] (d. 1471).

1381. Capture of Naples by Charles of Durazzo, who became king as Charles III. Insurrection of the Maillotins in Paris. Rise to power in Flanders of Philip Van Arteveld. Wat Tyler's rebellion in England.

1382. Death of Louis the Great, king of Hungary and Poland; accession of his daughter Mary in Hungary, and of Hedvige, daughter of Casimir the Great, in Poland. Death, in prison, of Queen Joanna, of Naples. Defeat and death of Philip Van Arteveld at Rosebecque.

1383. Incorporation of Flanders in the dominions of the Duke of Burgundy. Birth of Donatello (d. 1466).

1385. Acquisition of the crown of Portugal by John I., founder of the House of Avis.

1386. Marriage of the Emperor Sigismund to Mary, Queen of Hungary. Assassination, in Hungary, of Charles III. of Naples; accession in Naples of Ladislas, contested by Louis of Anjou. Marriage of Hedvige, queen of Poland, to Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, uniting the states and founding the Jagellon dynasty. Victory of the Swiss over the Austrians at Sempach.

1387. Birth of Fra Angelico (d. 1455 [Uncertain date]).

1388. Battle of Otterburn between the Scots and the English. Defeat of the Austrians by the Swiss at Naefels. Death of the Persian poet Hafiz. [Uncertain date]

1389. Turkish conquest of Bulgaria and Servia by Amurath I.; decisive battle of Kossova. Election, at Rome, of Pope Boniface IX.

1390. War of Florence with the duke of Milan. Birth of Jan van Eyck [Uncertain date] (d. 1440 [Uncertain date]).

1392. Appearance of insanity in the young French king, Charles VI.

1394. Birth of the Portuguese Prince Henry, "the Navigator" (d. 1460).

1395. The Milanese dominion of the Visconti created a duchy of the Empire by the Emperor Wenceslaus.

1396. Great defeat at Nicopolis of the Christian defenders of Hungary by the Turkish Sultan Bajazet.

1397. Union of the three crowns of Sweden, Denmark and Norway, called the Union of Calmar.

1398. Invasion of India by Timour, or Tamerlane.

1399. Deposition of Richard II. from the English throne by Henry of Bolingbroke, duke of Lancaster, who became king as Henry IV.

1400. Deposition of Wenceslaus by the electoral college of Germany. Invasion of Scotland by Henry IV. of England.

Fifteenth Century.

1402. Birth of Masaccio (d. 1428).

1403. Hotspur's rebellion in England.

1405. Sale of Pisa to Florence by the Visconti. Capture by the English of the heir to the Scottish crown, afterwards James I.

1406. Surrender of the Pisans to Florence after a year of war.

1407. Founding of the Bank of St. George at Genoa.

1409. Chartering of the University of Leipsic. Meeting of the Council of Pisa.

1411. Defeat of the Scottish Lord of the Isles and the Highland clans at the battle of Harlaw. Founding of the University of St. Andrew's.

1412. Meeting of the Council called at Rome by Pope John XXIII. Birth of Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans (d. 1431). Birth of Filippo Lippi (d. 1469).

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1414. Meeting of the Council of Constance; summons to John Huss to appear before the Council.

1415. Condemnation and martyrdom of Huss. Renewal of the Hundred Years War with France by Henry V. of England; his great victory at Agincourt. Capture of Ceuta from the Moors by the Portuguese.

1417. Massacre of Armagnacs at Paris. Creation of the Electorate of Brandenburg by the Emperor Sigismund and its bestowal on Frederick, Count of Zollern, or Hohenzollern. Deposition of the rival popes by the Council of Constance, and ending of the Great Schism; election of Pope Martin V.

1419. Rising of the Hussites in Bohemia. Assassination of the duke of Burgundy, at the Bridge of Montereau, and alliance of the Burgundians with the English invaders of France.

1420. First crusade against the Bohemian Hussites summoned by the Pope. Treaty of Troyes between the English king, Henry V., in France, and the Burgundians; marriage of Henry V. to Princess Catherine, of France.

1421. Second crusade against the Bohemians.

1422. Date of the first in the collection of Paston Letters. Death of Henry V., king of England, and claiming to be king of France; accession of his infant son Henry VI. Death of Charles VI., king of France; the succession of his son, Charles VII., disputed in favor of the Infant Henry VI. of England.

1424. Release of James I. of Scotland from his long captivity in England.

1429. Siege of Orleans by the English, repelled, under the influence of Jeanne d'Arc; coronation of Charles VII., king of France.

1430. Capture of Jeanne d'Arc by the English. Acquisition of the greater part of the Netherlands by Philip of Burgundy.

1431. Condemnation and burning of Jeanne d'Arc for witchcraft by the English. Election of Pope Eugenius IV. Meeting of the Council of Basle. Birth of Mantegna (d. 1506).

1433. Treaty of the Council of Basle with the insurgent Bohemians.

1434. Organization of the Utraquist national church in Bohemia. Attainment of power in Florence by Cosmo de' Medici. First expedition sent out by the Portuguese Prince Henry to explore the western coast of Africa. Birth of Boiardo [Uncertain date] (d. 1494).

1437. Recovery of Paris from the English by the French king, Charles VII. Death of Sigismund, emperor, and king of Hungary; election of Albert of Austria to the Hungarian throne.

1438. Election of Albert II. of Austria by the German electoral princes.

1439. Death of Albert II., of Germany and Hungary; election of Ladislaus III., king of Poland, to the Hungarian throne.

1440. Election of Frederick III., of Austria, by the electoral princes of Germany.

1442. Ladislaus, posthumous son of Albert of Austria, acknowledged king of Bohemia, and prospective king of Hungary, on the attainment of his majority. First modern Importation of negro slaves into Europe, by the Portuguese.

1444. Defeat of the Hungarians by the Turks at Varna and death of Ladislaus III., king of Poland and Hungary; government in Hungary entrusted to John Huniades, during the minority of Ladislaus Posthumus.

1445. Destruction of Corinth by the Turks. Birth of Comines, the chronicler (d. 1509).

1446. Birth of Perugino (d. 1524).

1447. Election of Pope Nicholas V., founder of the Vatican Library. Death of the last of the ducal family of Visconti, leaving the duchy in dispute.

1450. Rebellion of Jack Cade in England. Possession of Milan and the duchy won by Francesco Sforza.

1451. Rebellion of Ghent against Philip of Burgundy. Founding of the University of Glasgow.

1452. Birth of Savonarola (d. 1498). Birth of Leonardo da Vinci (d. 1519).

1453. Conquest of Constantinople by the Turks. Defeat of the men of Ghent at Gaveren and their submission to the duke of Burgundy. Austria raised to the rank of an archduchy by the Emperor Frederick III. Unsuccessful rising in Rome, against the Papacy, under Stefano-Porcaro.

1454. Production of the first known Printing with movable type by Gutenberg and Fust, at Mentz. Treaty of Venice with the Turks, securing trade privileges and certain possessions in Greece.

1455. Beginning of the Wars of the Roses in England.

1456. The Turks in possession of Athens. Siege of Belgrade by the Turks and their defeat by Huniades; death of Huniades. Publication at Mentz of the first printed Bible, now called the Mazarin Bible. [Uncertain date]

1457. Organization of the church of the Unitas Fratrum in Bohemia. Death of Ladislaus Posthumus, king of Bohemia and of Hungary and archduke of Austria.

1458. Submission of Genoa to the king of France. Election of Matthias, son of Huniades, king of Hungary, and George Podiebrad, leader of the church-reform party, king of Bohemia. Division of the crowns of Naples and Sicily (the Two Sicilies) on the death of Alfonso of Aragon.

1460. Death of Prince Henry the Navigator.

1461. Death of Charles VII., king of France, and accession of Louis XI. Emancipation of Genoa from the yoke of France. Surrender of Trebizond, the last Greek capital, to the Ottoman Turks. Deposition of Henry VI. declared by a council of lords in England and Edward Duke of York crowned king (Ed ward IV.); defeat of Lancastrians at Towton.

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1463. War between Turks and Venetians in Greece. Birth of Pico della Mirandola (d. 1494).

1464. Submission of Genoa to the duke of Milan.

1465. League of the Public Weal, in France, against Louis XI.; battle of Montlehery. Siege, capture and pillage of Athens by the Venetians.

1467. Accession of Charles the Bold to the dukedom of Burgundy; beginning of his war with the Liégois. Crusade against George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, proclaimed by the Pope. Birth of Erasmus [Uncertain date] (d. 1536).

1468. Visit of Louis XI. to Charles the Bold, at Peronne; capture and destruction of Liege by Charles. War of the king of Bohemia with Austria and Hungary.

1469. Beginning of the rule of Lorenzo de' Medici (the Magnificent) in Florence. Marriage of Isabella of Castile to Ferdinand of Aragon. Birth of Machiavelli (d. 1527).

1470. Restoration of Henry VI. to the English throne by Earl Warwick; flight of Edward IV. Siege and capture of Negropont by the Turks, and massacre of the inhabitants.

1471. Acquisition of Cyprus by the Venetians. Return of Edward IV. to England; his victories at Barnet and Tewksbury and recovery of the throne; death of Henry VI. in the Tower. Death of George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, and election of Ladislaus, son of the king of Poland, to succeed him. Translation by Caxton of "Recueil des Histoires de Troyes," by Raoul le Fèvre. Birth of Albert Durer (d. 1528). Birth of Cardinal Wolsey (d. 1530).

1473. Birth of Copernicus (d. 1543).

1474. Birth of Las Casas (d. 1566). Birth of Ariosto (d. 1533).

1475. Birth of the Michael Angelo (d. 1564). Birth of the Chevalier Bayard (d. 1524).

1477. Marriage of Maximilian, son of the Emperor Frederick III., to Mary of Burgundy. Invasion of Italy by the Turks, approaching to within sight of Venice. Production from Caxton's press of the "Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophers," the first book printed in England. War with the Swiss, defeat and death of Charles the Bold. Grant of the Great Privilege of Holland and Zealand by Duchess Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold. Birth of Giorgione (d. 1511). Birth of Titian (d. 1576).

1478. Conspiracy of the Pazzi in Florence. Overthrow of the city-republic of Novgorod by Ivan III. of Russia.

1480. Birth of Sir Thomas More (d. 1535).

1481. Founding of the Holy Office of the Inquisition at Seville. Printing in England of Caxton's translation of "Reynard the Fox." [Uncertain date]

1482. Death of Mary of Burgundy and succession of her infant son, Duke Philip, to the sovereignty of the Netherlands.

1483. Death of Edward IV. king of England; murder of the princes, his sons, and usurpation of the throne by his brother Richard. Death of Louis XI., of France, and accession of Charles VIII. Appointment of Torquemada Inquisitor General for Castile and Aragon. Birth of Luther (d. 1546). Birth of Raphael (d. 1520).

1484. Birth of the Swiss reformer, Zwingli (d. 1531).

1485. Arrival of Columbus in Spain, seeking help for a westward voyage to find the Indies. Overthrow and death of Richard III. in England, on Bosworth Field; accession of Henry VII., the first of the Tudor line. Appearance in England of the Sweating Sickness. Capture of Vienna by Matthias of Hungary and expulsion of the Emperor Frederick III. from his hereditary dominions. Printing of Malory's "Morte d' Arthur." [Uncertain date]

1486. Election of Maximilian, son of the Emperor, Frederick III., King of the Romans. Unconscious doubling of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz.

1487. Rebellion of Lambert Simnel in England. Birth of Andrea del Sarto (d. 1531).

1488. Capture and confinement for four months of Maximilian, then King of the Romans, by the citizens of Bruges. Rebellion in Scotland and defeat and death of James III. at Sauchie Burn.

1490. Beginning of the preaching of Savonarola at Florence. Death of Matthias, king of Hungary, and election to the Hungarian throne of the Bohemian king, Ladislaus II. Birth of Thomas Cromwell [Uncertain date] (d. 1540). Birth of Vittoria Colonna (d. 1547).

1491. Union of Brittany with France, by marriage of the Duchess Anne to Charles VIII. Conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella; end of Moorish dominion in Spain. Birth of Loyola (d. 1556).

1492. First voyage of Columbus westward, resulting in the discovery of the Bahamas, Cuba and Hayti. Death of Lorenzo de' Medici at Florence. Outbreak of the Bundschuh insurrection in Germany. Expulsion of Jews from Spain. Election of Pope Alexander VI. (Roderigo Borgia).

1493. Papal bull granting to Spain the New World found by Columbus and defining the rights of Spain and Portugal. Second voyage of Columbus. Death of the Emperor Frederick III.; assumption of the title (without coronation at Rome), of "emperor elect" by his son Maximilian, already elected King of the Romans. Birth of Paracelsus (d. 1541).

1494. Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal, partitioning the ocean. Expedition of Charles VIII. into Italy. Expulsion of Pietro de' Medici, son of Lorenzo, from Florence; formation of the Christian Commonwealth at Florence under Savonarola. Passage of the Poynings Laws in Ireland. Birth of Hans Sachs (d. 1578 [Uncertain date]). Birth of Correggio Granada (d. 1534).

1495. Abolition of the right of private warfare (diffidation) in Germany. Easy conquest of Naples by Charles VIII. of France, and his quick retreat. Birth of Rabelais [Uncertain date] (d. 1553). Birth of Clement Marot [Uncertain date] (d. 1544).

1496. Marriage of Philip, son of Maximilian of Austria and Mary of Burgundy, to Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Rebellion of Perkin Warbeck in England. Establishing of the Estienne or Stephanus press in Paris.

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1497. Discovery of the continent of North America by John Cabot. Disputed first voyage of Americus Vespucius to the New World. Discovery of the passage to India round the Cape of Good Hope by Vasco da Gama. Excommunication of Savonarola by the Pope. Birth of Melancthon (d. 1560).

1498. Third voyage of Columbus, to the northern coast of South America; his arrest and return to Spain in irons. Arrest and execution of Savonarola at Florence. Death of Charles VIII., king of France, and accession of Louis XIII. Birth of Hans Holbein (d. 1559).

1499. Voyage of Americus Vespucius, with Ojeda, to the Venezuela coast. Conquest of Milan and the duchy by Louis XII. of France. Founding of the Sefavean dynasty in Persia and establishment of the Shiah sect in ascendancy.

1500. Voyage of the Cortereals to Newfoundland. Discovery of Brazil by the Portuguese navigator, Cabral. Birth of Charles, eldest son of Philip of Burgundy and Joanna of Spain, who became, the Emperor Charles V. and who united the sovereignties of Austria, Burgundy and Spain. Birth of Benvenuto Cellini (d. 1570).

Sixteenth Century.

1501. Voyage of Americus Vespucius, in the Portuguese service, to the Brazilian coast. Creation of the Aulic Council by the Emperor Maximilian. Joint conquest and partition of the kingdom of Naples by Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of Aragon.

1502. Fourth and last voyage of Columbus coasting Central America. Election of Montezuma to the military chieftainship of the Aztecs. Marriage of King James IV. of Scotland to Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. of England, which brought the Stuarts to the English throne. Quarrel and war between the French and Spaniards in Naples.

1503. Election of Pope Julius II. Birth of Garcilaso de la Vega (d. 1536).

1504. Expulsion of the French from Naples by the Spaniards, under the Great Captain. Suppression of the independence of the Scottish Lord of the Isles.

1505. Birth of John Knox (d. 1572).

1506. Death of Columbus. Death of Philip, consort of Queen Joanna of Castile, and acting sovereign. Beginning of the building of St. Peter's at Rome by Pope Julius II. Birth of Saint Francis Xavier (d. 1552).

1507. Unsuccessful revolt of Genoa against the French.

1508. Formation of the League of Cambrai against Venice by the kings of France and Aragon, the Emperor, the Pope and the republic of Florence. Birth of the duke of Alva, or Alba (d. 1582).

1509. First Spanish settlement on the American mainland. Death of Henry VII., king of England, and accession of Henry VIII. Publication of Barclay's "Ship of Fools." Birth of Calvin (d. 1564).

1510. Portuguese occupation of Goa on the coast of India. Dissolution of the League of Cambrai, and alliance of Pope Julius II. with Venice and the Swiss against France. Birth of Palissy the potter (d. 1590).

1511. Spanish conquest of Cuba. Formation of the Holy League of Pope Julius II. with Venice, Aragon and England against France.

1512. Discovery of Florida by Ponce de Leon. Restoration of the Medici to power in Florence. Birth of Tintoretto (d. 1594).

1513. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Vasco Nunez de Balboa. Beginning of the ministry of Wolsey in England. Invasion of France by Henry VIII. of England, and his victory in the Battle of the Spurs. War of the Scots and English and defeat of the Scots at Flodden. Peasant insurrection of the Kurucs in Hungary. Complete expulsion of the French from Italy. Death of Pope Julius II. and election of the Medicean, Leo X.

1515. Death of Louis XII., king of France, and accession of Francis I.; his invasion of Italy, victory over the Swiss at Marignano, and occupation of Milan. Death of Ladislaus II., king of Hungary and of Bohemia, and succession of his son. Louis II., on both thrones. Birth of Saint Philip Neri (d. 1595).

1516. Founding of the piratical power of the Barbarossas at Algiers. Treaty and Concordat of Francis I. of France with the Pope, guaranteeing to the former the duchy of Milan and securing to him the duchies of Parma and Piacenza, and taking away the liberties of the Gallican Church. Appointment of Las Casas Protector of the Indians by Cardinal Ximenes. Publication of the "Utopia" of Sir Thomas More.

1517. Appearance of Tetzel in Germany, selling papal indulgences; Luther's denunciation of the traffic; posting of the Ninety-five Theses on the church-door at Wittenberg. Preaching of reformed doctrines at Zurich by Zwingli. Execution of Balboa by Pedrarias Davila, in the colony of Darien. Discovery of Yucatan by Cordova. Birth of Camoëns [Uncertain date] (d. 1579).

1519. Landing of Cortes in Mexico and advance to the capital. Sailing of Magellan on his voyage of circumnavigation. Luther's disputation with Eck. Death of the Emperor Maximilian and election of his grandson, Charles V., already sovereign of Spain, the Two Sicilies, the Netherlands, and the Austrian possessions. Cession of the Austrian sovereignty by Charles V. to his brother Ferdinand. Discovery of the mouth of the Mississippi by Garay.

1520. Long battle of Cortés with the Aztecs in the city of Mexico; death of Montezuma; retreat of the Spaniards. Rebellion of the Holy Junta in Spain. Birth of William Cecil, Lord Burleigh (d. 1598).

1521. Siege and conquest of the Mexican capital by Cortés and the Spaniards. Conquest of Belgrade by the Turks. Promulgation of the first of the edicts of Charles V. against heresy in the

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Netherlands, called Placards. Excommunication of Luther by the Pope; his appearance before the Diet at Worms; his abduction by friends and concealment at Wartburg.

1522. Appointment of Cortés to be Governor, Captain-General, and Chief Justice of New Spain (Mexico). Conquest of Rhodes by the Turks from the Knights of St. John. Election of Pope Adrian VI.

1523. Treason of the Constable of Bourbon, escaping from France to take command of the Imperial army. Abrogation of the mass and image worship at Zurich. Organization of the reformed Church in northern Germany. Election of Pope Clement VII. Publication of Lord Berner's translation of Froissart. Publication of Luther's translation of the New Testament.

1524. Voyage of Verrazano, in the service of France, to the North American coast. Death of the Chevalier Bayard in battle with the imperialists under Bourbon. Invasion of Italy by Francis I. of France; Outbreak of the Peasants' War, in Thuringia.

1525. Bloody suppression of the Peasants' revolt, in Germany, and execution of Münzer. Battle of Pavia; defeat and captivity of Francis I. of France. Marriage of Luther to Catherine Bora. Protestant League of Torgau.

1526. Great defeat of the Hungarians by the Turks at Mohacs and death of King Louis II. Election of John Zapolya to the vacant throne of Hungary, and rival election of Ferdinand of Austria. Treaty of Madrid, for the release of Francis I. from his captivity, and its perfidious repudiation by the king of France when free. Victory of Babar the Mongol at Panipat in India. Printing (at Worms) of Tyndale's English version of the New Testament.

1527. Expulsion of Zapolya from Hungary by Ferdinand, archduke of Austria, who wins the Hungarian crown. Capture and sack of Rome by the Spanish and German imperialists, commanded by the Constable Bourbon. The republic restored in Florence by a popular rising.

1528. Alliance of John Zapolya, king of Hungary, with the Turkish sultan Solyman, against his rival, Ferdinand of Austria. Deliverance of Genoa from the French by Andrea Doria. Marriage of Marguerite d'Angoulême, sister of Francis I. of France, to the king of Navarre. Birth of Paul Veronese (d. 1588).

1529. Fall of Wolsey from power in England. Unsuccessful siege of Vienna by the Turkish sultan, Solyman. Siege of Florence by the imperialists; surrender of the city and restoration of the Medici. Peace of Cambrai, or the Ladies' Peace, between Francis I. of France and the Emperor Charles V. Protest of the German reformers (against action of the Diet of Spires) which caused them to be called Protestants.

1530. German Diet at Augsburg; formulation of the Protestant Confession of Faith; the condemnatory Augsburg Decree; formation of the Protestant League of Smalkalde. Cession of Malta by the Emperor to the Knights Hospitallers of St. John. Siege of Buda by the Austrians.

1531. Breach of Henry VIII. with the Pope on the question of the annulling of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.

1532. Religious peace, with freedom of worship, restored in Germany by the Pacification of Nuremberg. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro.

1533. Annulment of the marriage of Henry VIII. to Catherine of Aragon by Cranmer; marriage of the English king to Anne Boleyn. Murder of the Ynca, Atahualpa, by Pizarro. Birth of Montaigne (d. 1592).

1534. First voyage of Jacques Cartier, to the St. Lawrence. The Anabaptist seizure of the city of Munster. Passage by the English Parliament of the Act of Supremacy, establishing independence of Rome in the English Church. Beginning of fierce persecution of the reformers in France. Election of Pope Paul III.

1535. Expedition of Charles V. against Tunis. Execution of Sir Thomas More in England. Suppression of the English monasteries. Establishing of Protestantism in Geneva. Printing of Coverdale's English version of the Bible. Second voyage of Jacques Cartier and exploration of the St. Lawrence to Montreal.

1536. Trial and execution of Anne Boleyn, and marriage of Henry VIII. to Jane Seymour. Martyrdom of Tyndale. Renewed war between Charles V. and Francis I. Publication of the "Institutions" of Calvin.

1537. Death in childbed of Jane Seymour, the English queen. Brief of Pope Paul III. forbidding further enslavement of Indians in America.

1538. Treaty of Peace between Charles V. and Francis I. Formation of the Holy League of the Catholic Princes of Germany. Birth of Cardinal Borromeo (d. 1584).

1539. Enactment of the Bill of the Six Articles in England. Landing of Hernando de Soto in Florida and beginning of his explorations. Revolt of Ghent against the exactions of the Emperor Charles V.

1540. Marriage and divorce of Anne of Cleves by Henry VIII. and his marriage to Catherine Howard. Submission of Ghent to the Emperor, annulling of its charter and removal of the great bell Roland. Death of John Zapolya, king of Hungary, and support given by the Turkish sultan to the claims of his son, against Ferdinand (now emperor). Expedition of Coronado from Mexico into New Mexico, seeking the "Seven Cities of Cibola." Papal sanction of the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola. First known Printing done in America (in Mexico).

1541. Disastrous expedition of Charles V. against Algiers. Buda occupied by the Turks, becoming the seat of a pasha who ruled the greater part of Hungary. Assassination of Pizarro. Third and last voyage of Cartier to the St. Lawrence.

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1542. Execution of Catherine Howard, fifth queen of Henry VIII. Death of Hernando de Soto on the shores of the Mississippi. Renewed war between Charles V. and Francis I. Alliance of the latter with the Turks, who ravaged the coasts of Italy. Organization of Calvin's religious state in Geneva. Mission of Saint Francis Xavier to Goa. War of the Scots and English; Scottish panic at Solway Firth; death of James V.; birth of Mary Stuart. Promulgation of the "New Laws" of Charles V., prohibiting the enslavement of Indians in America.

1543. Marriage of Henry VIII. to Catherine Parr.

1544. Victory of the French at Cerisoles over the Imperialists; treaty of Crespy, terminating the war. Birth of Torquato Tasso (d. 1595).

1545. Assembling of the Council of Trent (called in 1542).

1546. Massacre of Waldenses in southeastern France. Death of Luther. Treaty of the Emperor Charles V. with the Pope, binding the former to make war on the Protestants of Germany. Murder of Cardinal Beatoun in Scotland. Birth of Tycho Brahe (d. 1601).

1547. Death of Henry VIII. and accession of Edward VI., in England; repeal of the Six Articles and completion of the English Reformation. Death of Francis I. king of France, and accession of Henry II. Defeat of the Elector of Saxony by the Emperor, at the battle of Muhlberg; his imprisonment and deposition; bestowal of the Electorate of Saxony on Duke Maurice of Saxony. The Interim of Augsburg. Marriage of Jeanne d'Albret, heiress to the crown of Navarre, to Antoine de Bourbon. Assumption of the title of Czar, or Tzar, by the Grand Prince of Moscow, Ivan IV., called the Terrible. Siege of the Castle of St. Andrew's in Scotland; captivity and condemnation of John Knox to the French galleys. Birth of Cervantes (d. 1616).

1549. Mission of Xavier to Japan. Election of Pope Julius III. Publication of the English Book of Common Prayer (First Book of Edward VI).

1550. Promulgation of the most infamous of the edicts of Charles V. against heresy in the Netherlands. Election of Pope Julius III. Birth of Coke (d. 1634).

1551. Alliance of the French king, Henry II., with the Protestants of Germany. Narrow escape of the Emperor Charles V. from capture by Maurice of Saxony.

1552. French seizure of Les Trois Évéchés, Metz, Toul and Verdun. Treaty of Passau between the Emperor and the German Protestants. Unsuccessful efforts of the Emperor to recover Metz from the French. Ravages of the Turks on the coast of Italy and blockade of Naples by their galleys. Birth of Sir Walter Raleigh (d. 1618). Birth of Paolo Sarpi (d. 1623). Birth of Spenser [Uncertain date] (d. 1599 [Uncertain date]).

1553. Death of Edward VI. and accession of Queen Mary, in England; unsuccessful attempt to place Lady Jane Grey on the throne. Battle of Sievershausen in Germany and death of Maurice of Saxony; religious Peace of Augsburg, giving religious supremacy to each German prince in his own dominions.

1554. Wyat's insurrection in England; execution of Lady Jane Grey; marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain. Birth of Sir Philip Sidney (d. 1586).

1555. Beginning of Queen Mary's persecution of Protestants in England; burning of Rogers, Latimer and Ridley. Return of John Knox to Scotland. First act of the abdication of the Emperor, Charles V., performed in Brussels; accession of his son Philip in the Netherlands. Election of Pope Paul IV. (Cardinal Caraffa).

1556. Burning of Cranmer in England. Unsuccessful expedition of the duke of Guise against Naples. Completed abdication of all his crowns by Charles V.; succession of his son Philip II. in Spain, Naples and Milan; succession of his brother, Ferdinand I., to the imperial throne. Second Mongol victory at Panipat, by Akbar, founder of the Mongol or Mogul empire in India.

1557. Battle and siege of St. Quentin, with success for the Spaniards, invading France. Signing of the first Scottish Covenant by the Lords of the Congregation.

1558. Recovery of Calais by the French from the English. Death of Queen Mary and accession of Queen Elizabeth, in England. Marriage of Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, to the French dauphin, afterwards Francis II.

1559. Passage of the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity in England. Treaties of Cateau Cambresis, restoring peace between France, Spain and England. Death of Henry II., king of France, and accession of Francis II.; dominating influence of the Guises in France. Institution of the Papal Index of prohibited books. Election of Pope Pius IV.

1560. Huguenot Conspiracy of Amboise, in France; death of Francis II. and accession of Charles IX., under the controlling influence of Catherine de' Medici. Death of Melancthon. Election of Pope Pius V. Successful rebellion of the Scottish Lords of the Congregation; adoption in Scotland of the Geneva Confession of Faith. Printing of the Geneva Bible. Birth of the Duke of Sully (d. 1641).

1561. Return of Queen Mary Stuart from France to Scotland. Birth of Francis Bacon, Baron Verulam (d. 1626).

1562. First slave-trading voyage of John Hawkins. First attempt of Coligny to found a Huguenot colony in Florida. Massacre of Huguenots at Vassy, beginning the War of Religion in France; capture of Orleans by Condé for the Huguenots; battle of Dreux. Birth of Lope de Vega (d. 1635).

1563. Assassination of the Duke of Guise while besieging Orleans; treaty and Edict of Amboise, restoring peace between Catholics and Huguenots in France. Closing of the Council of Trent. Publication of Foxe's "Book of Martyrs."

1564. Huguenot colony settled on the St. John's river in Florida. Death of the Emperor, Ferdinand I., and accession of his son Maximilian II., the tolerant emperor. Birth of Shakespeare (d. 1616). Birth of Marlowe (d. 1593). Birth of Galileo (d. 1642).

1565. Destruction of the Huguenot colony in Florida by the Spaniards; Spanish settlement of St. Augustine. Great defense of Malta against the Turks by the Knights of St. John. Marriage of Mary Queen of Scots to Lord Darnley.

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1566. Beginning of organized resistance to Philip II. in the Netherlands by the signing of "The Compromise" and formation of the league of the Gueux, or Beggars; rioting of image-breakers in Flemish cities. Sack of Moscow by the Crim Tatars. Murder of Rizzio, secretary to the queen of Scots. Publication of Udall's "Ralph Royster Doyster," the first printed English comedy.

1567. Renewal of the religious civil war in France; battle of St. Denis, before Paris, in which the Constable Montmorency was slain. Peace in Hungary with the Turks, and between the Emperor and Zapolya, rival claimants of the crown. Arrival of the duke of Alva, with his army, in the Netherlands; arrest of Egmont and Horn, and retirement of the Prince of Orange into Germany. Creation of Alva's Council of Blood. Murder of Lord Darnley, husband of the queen of Scots; marriage of the queen to Earl Bothwell; rising of the Scottish barons, imprisonment and deposition of the queen, and accession of her son, James VI. Birth of Saint Francis de Sales (d. 1622).

1568. Treacherous Peace of Longjumeau and gathering of Huguenots at Rochelle, joined there by Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre. Decree of the Inquisition condemning the whole population of the Netherlands to death; opening of war against the Spaniards by the Prince of Orange. Escape of Mary, queen of Scots, to England. Printing of the Bishop's Bible in England.

1569. Creation of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, under the sovereignty of the Medici. Defeat of the French Huguenots at Jarnac and murder of Condé; choice of young Henry of Navarre for the Huguenot command; second Huguenot defeat at Moncontour.

1570. Peace of St. Germain-en-Laye between the warring religions in France. Assassination of the regent, Murray, in Scotland, and outbreak of civil war. Publication of Ascham's "Scholemaster."

1571. Holy League of Venice, Spain and the Pope against the Turks; Turkish conquest of Cyprus; sea-fight of Lepanto and defeat of the Turks by Don John of Austria. Death of Zapolya in Hungary. The Thirty-nine Articles of the English Church made binding on the clergy. Birth of Kepler (d. 1630).

1572. Marriage of Henry of Navarre to Margaret of Valois; massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day in France; death of Jeanne d'Albret; submission of Henry of Navarre and the young Prince of Condé to the Catholic Church. Election to the Hungarian throne of Rudolph, eldest son of the Emperor Maximilian. Capture of Brill by the "Beggars of the Sea," and rapid expulsion of the Spaniards from Holland and Zealand. Election of Pope Gregory XIII. Restoration of episcopacy in Scotland.

1573. Siege of the Huguenots gathered in Rochelle, followed by the Peace of Rochelle. Election of Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou, to the throne of Poland. Spanish siege and capture of Haarlem. Retirement of Alva from the Spanish command in the Netherlands and appointment of Requesens. Publication of Tusser's "Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry."

1574. Death of Charles IX. of France and accession of his brother, Henry III. (the lately crowned king of Poland). Siege and relief of Leyden, commemorated by the founding of the University. Birth of Ben Jonson (d. 1637).

1575. Election of Rudolph, the Emperor's son, to the throne of Bohemia, and, as King of the Romans, to the imperial succession. Election of Stephen Batory to the throne of Poland. Offer of the sovereignty of the Netherlands to Queen Elizabeth of England.

1576. Escape of Henry of Navarre from the French court and return to the Huguenots and their faith; negotiation of the Peace of Monsieur; rise of the Catholic League in France. Death of the Emperor, Maximilian II., and accession of his son Rudolph. Death of Requesens; the "Spanish Fury" at Antwerp and elsewhere; union of the Protestant and Catholic provinces of the Netherlands by the treaties called the Pacification of Ghent and the Union of Brussels; appointment of Don John of Austria to the Spanish government of the Netherlands. Birth of St. Vincent de Paul (d. 1660).

1577. The sailing of Sir Francis Drake on his voyage which encompassed the world. Renewed war and renewed peace between the religious factions in France. Publication, in England, of Holinshed's "Chronicle." Birth of Rubens (d. 1640).

1578. Death of Don John of Austria and appointment of Alexander Farnese, of Parma, Spanish governor of the Netherlands.

1579. Treaty of Nerac arranged by Catherine de' Medici with Henry of Navarre. Constitution of the United Provinces or Dutch Republic by the Union of Utrecht; submission of the Walloon provinces of the Netherlands to the Spanish king.

1580. Final founding of the city of Buenos Ayres. Jesuit mission dispatched to England from the continent. Protestant persecution of Jesuits and Seminary priests in England. War of the Lovers, reopening the civil conflict in France; suspended by the Treaty of Fleix. Outlawry of the Prince of Orange by Philip II. of Spain, inviting his assassination. Seizure of the crown of Portugal by Philip II. of Spain. Publication of the first two books of Montaigne's Essays.

1581. Formal declaration of independence by the Dutch provinces of the Netherlands. The Second Covenant, or first National Covenant, in Scotland. Publication of Tasso's "Gerusalemme Liberata."

1582. Sovereignty of Brabant and other Netherland provinces conferred on the French duke of Anjou. Raid of Ruthven and confinement of King James, in Scotland. Founding of the University of Edinburgh.

1583. Colonizing expedition of Sir Humphrey Gilbert to Newfoundland, returning from which he perished. Treacherous attempt of Anjou to seize Antwerp. Introduction of the Gregorian Calendar in most Catholic countries of Europe. Birth of Grotius (d. 1645). Birth of Oxenstiern (d. 1654). Birth of Wallenstein (d. 1634).

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1584. Assassination of the Prince of Orange by instigation of Philip II. of Spain.

1585. First colonizing attempt of Sir Walter Raleigh in America, at Roanoke. Alliance of the Catholic League of France with Philip II. of Spain, and renewal of war with the Huguenots; the War of the Three Henrys. Siege and capture of Antwerp by Parma. Practical recovery of Flanders and Brabant by the Spaniards. Arrival of the Earl of Leicester in the Netherlands with delusive aid from England. Election of Pope Sixtus V. Birth of Cardinal Richelieu (d. 1642).

1586. Battle of Zutphen in the Netherlands and death of Sir Philip Sidney. Beginning of the reign in Persia of Shah Abbass, called the Great. Election of Sigismund of Sweden to the Polish throne. Publication of Camden's "Britannia."

1587. Second colony planted by Raleigh on Roanoke island. Execution of Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, in England. Defeat of the Catholic League by Henry of Navarre at Coutras.

1588. Destruction of the Spanish Armada. Insurrection in Paris in favor of the duke of Guise; escape of the king (Henry III.) from Paris; assassination of the duke of Guise at Blois by order of the king; alliance of Henry III. with Henry of Navarre against the League. Birth of Hobbes (d. 1679).

1589. Death of Catherine de' Medici; siege of Paris by Henry III. and Henry of Navarre; assassination of Henry III., the last of the Valois, leaving Henry of Navarre (first of the Bourbons) the nearest heir to the French crown. Publication of the first volume of Hakluyt's "Voyages and Discoveries. "

1590. Continued war of the League, in France, against Henry of Navarre; his victory at Ivry and siege of Paris; summons of the duke of Parma from the Netherlands to save Paris from Henry. Publication of the first three books of Spenser's "Faerie Queene," Sidney's "Arcadia," and part of Marlowe's "Tamburlane."

1591. Siege of Rouen by Henry of Navarre and second interference by the Spaniards in aid of the League. Death of the duke of Parma.

1592. Election of Pope Clement VIII. Birth of Sir John Eliot [Uncertain date] (d. 1632).

1593. Abjuration of the Protestant religion by Henry of Navarre. Publication of Shakespeare's "Venus and Adonis."

1594. Coronation of Henry of Navarre as Henry IV., king of France, and his reception in Paris. Publication of four books of Hooker's" Ecclesiastical Polity" and Shakespeare's "Lucrece."

1595. Expulsion of Jesuits from Paris. War of the French king with Spain. First expedition of Sir Walter Raleigh in search of El Dorado.

1596. Frightful defeat of the Austrians and Transylvanians by the Turks, on the plain of Cerestes, in Hungary. Capture of Cadiz by the Dutch and English. Birth of Descartes (d. 1650).

1597. Abolition of the privileges of the Hansa merchants in England. Irish rebellion under Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone. Annexation of Ferrara to the States of the Church. Publication of Bacon's Essays, also of a pirated copy of Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet," and of the first editions of "King Richard II." and "King Richard III."

1598. The Edict of Nantes, issued by Henry IV., of France, securing religious freedom to the Huguenots; peace with Spain by the Treaty of Vervins. Publication of Shakespeare's" Love's Labor Lost," of Stowe's" Survey of London," and of Drayton's "England's Heroical Epistles."

1599. Birth of Oliver Cromwell (d. 1658). Birth of Van Dyck (d. 1641). Birth of Velasquez (d. 1660).

1600. First charter granted to the English East India companies. Gowrie Plot in Scotland. Publication of Shakespeare's "King Henry V." (pirated and imperfect), "King Henry IV.," part 2, "Much Ado about Nothing," "Midsummer Night's Dream," and "Merchant of Venice." Death of Giordano Bruno at the stake. Birth of Calderon de la Barca (d. 1683 [Uncertain date]). Birth of Claude Lorraine (d. 1682).

Seventeenth Century.

1601. Suppression of the rebellion in Ireland. Enactment of the first English Poor Law.

1602. Chartering of the Dutch East India Company. Beginning of the long imprisonment of Sir Walter Raleigh in the Tower on charge of treason. First acting of Shakespeare's "Hamlet." Founding of the Bodleian Library. Birth of Cardinal Mazarin (d. 1661).

1603. Death of Queen Elizabeth of England and accession of the Scottish king, James I. of England and VI. of Scotland. First publication of "Hamlet."

1604. Founding of a French colony at Port Royal in Acadia (Nova Scotia). The Hampton Court Conference of King James with the English Puritans.

1605. Gunpowder plot of English Catholics against King and Parliament. Election of Pope Paul V. Death of Akbar, founder of the Mogul empire in India, and accession of Jahangir. Publication of Bacon's "Advancement of Learning," and part 1 of Cervantes' "Don Quixote."

1606. Charter granted by King James I. of England to the London and Plymouth companies, for American colonization. Venice placed under interdict by the Pope; beginning of the public service of Fra Paolo Sarpi. Peace of Sitvatorok, ending the war with the Turks in Hungary. Deposition of the Emperor Rudolph from the headship of the House of Austria, by a family conclave, in favor of his brother Matthias. Surrender of Austria and Hungary to Matthias by Rudolph. Organization of the Independent church of Brownists at Scrooby, England. Birth of Corneille (d. 1684). Birth of Rembrandt (d. 1669).

1607. Settlement of Jamestown, Virginia. Migration of the Independents of Scrooby to Holland. Birth of Roger Williams [Uncertain date] (d. 1683).

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1608. Formation of the Evangelical Union among the Protestant princes of Germany. First French settlement, by Champlain, at Quebec. Publication of Shakespeare's "King Lear." Birth of Milton (d. 1674). Birth of Thomas Fuller (d. 1661). Birth of Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon (d. 1674).

1609. Discovery of the Hudson River by Henry Hudson. Arrangement of a twelve years truce between Spain and the United Provinces. Final expulsion of the Moriscoes from Spain. Opening of the Julich-Cleve contest in Germany. Settlement of the exiled Pilgrims of Scrooby at Leyden. Publication of the Douay translation of the Bible. The royal charter called the Letter of Majesty granted to Bohemia by Rudolph. Founding of the Bank of Amsterdam. Discovery by Champlain of the lake which bears his name. Construction of the telescope by Galileo and discovery of Jupiter's moons. [Uncertain date]

1610. Assassination of Henry IV. of France and accession of Louis XIII., under the regency of Marie de Medici. Formation of the Catholic League in Germany. Beginning of trade with the Indians on the Hudson by the Dutch. First acting of Shakespeare's "Macbeth"; publication of twelve books of Chapman's translation of the Iliad.

1611. Founding of Montreal by Champlain. Death of Charles IX., king of Sweden, and accession of Gustavus Adolphus. Publication in England of the King James or Authorized version of the Bible. Plantation of Ulster by English courtiers and London livery companies. Birth of Turenne (d. 1675).

1612. Death of the Emperor Rudolph and coronation of Matthias. Birth of Samuel Butler (d. 1680).

1613. Destruction of the French colony at Port Royal, Acadia, by Argall of Virginia. Election to the throne of Russia of Michael Romanoff, founder of the reigning dynasty. Birth of Jeremy Taylor (d. 1667). Birth of Gerard Dow (d. 1680 [Uncertain date]).

1614. Last meeting of the States General of France before the Revolution. Beginning of the extermination of Christianity in Japan. Publication of Raleigh's "History of the World." Birth of Cardinal de Retz (d. 1679).

1615. Visit of the first English ambassador to the court of the Great Mogul. Appearance at Frankfort-on-the-Main of the first known weekly newspaper, regularly printed and published. Birth of Salvator Rosa (d. 1673).

1616. Opening of war between Sweden and Poland. Death of Shakespeare and Cervantes.

1617. Election of Ferdinand, duke of Styria, to the thrones of Bohemia and Hungary. Cession of territory on the Baltic to Sweden by Russia. Second expedition of Sir Walter Raleigh in search of El Dorado. Opening of the famous reunions at the Hotel de Rambouillet.

1618. Rising of Protestants in Bohemia, beginning the Thirty Years War. Union of Prussia with the electorate of Brandenburg. Execution of Sir Walter Raleigh. Adoption of the Five Articles of Perth by the Assembly of the Scottish Church. Birth of Murillo (d. 1682).

1619. Death of the Emperor Matthias, and succession in the Empire of his cousin, Ferdinand II., already for several years his imperial colleague, and also king of Bohemia and Hungary. Deposition of Ferdinand in Bohemia and election of Frederick, elector palatine, to the Bohemian throne. Meeting of the Synod of Dort and condemnation of Arminianism in the United Provinces. Trial and execution of John of Barneveldt. Introduction of slavery in Virginia. Birth of Colbert (d. 1683).

1620. Decisive defeat of the Protestants of Bohemia in the battle of the White Mountain, and flight of Frederick, the newly elected king. Annexation of Navarre and Bearn to France. Rising of the French Huguenots at Rochelle. Final migration of the Pilgrims from Leyden to America, landing at Plymouth in New England. Incorporation by King James I. of England of the Council for New England, successor to the Plymouth Company of 1606. Publication of Bacon's "Novum Organum."

1621. The Elector Palatine under the ban of the Empire. Invasion and subjugation of the Palatinate. Dissolution of the Evangelical Union. Peace of Montauban between the French king and the Huguenots. Renewed war of the United Provinces with Spain. Grant of Nova Scotia to Sir William Alexander. Formation of the Dutch West India Company. The first Thanksgiving Day in New England.

1622. Founding of the College of the Propaganda at Rome. Grant to Sir Ferdinando Gorges and Captain John Mason of a province embracing parts of New Hampshire and Maine. Appearance of the first known printed newspaper in England—"The Weekly Newes." Birth of Molière (d. 1673).

1623. Conquest and transfer of the Palatine electorate to Maximilian, duke of Bavaria. Erection of a fort on Manhattan Island by the Dutch West India Company. Publication of "The First Folio" edition of Shakespeare's plays. Birth of Pascal (d. 1662).

1624. Alliance of England, Holland and Denmark, to support the Protestants of Germany. Beginning of Richelieu's ministry, in France. Birth of George Fox (d. 1690).

1625. First Jesuit mission to Canada. Death of James I. of England, and accession of Charles I. Beginning of the English struggle between King and Parliament. Opening of the Valtelline War by Richelieu, to expel the Austrians and Spaniards from the Valtelline passes. Fresh insurrection of the French Huguenots. Engagement of Wallenstein and his army in the service of the Emperor against the Protestants.

1626. Peace of Monzon between France and Spain. End of the Valtelline War. Purchase of Manhattan Island from the Indians by the Dutch West India Company.

1627. Seizure of a part of Brazil by the Dutch. Death of the Mogul Emperor Jahangir and accession of Shah Jahan, builder of the Taj Mahal, at Agra. Alliance of England with the French Huguenots. Siege of Rochelle by Richelieu. Birth of Bossuet (d. 1704).

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1628. Unsuccessful siege of Stralsund by Wallenstein. Passage by the English Parliament of the act called the Petition of Right. Assassination of the duke of Buckingham. Surrender of Rochelle to Richelieu. Outbreak of the war of the Mantuan succession between France, Spain, Savoy and the Emperor. Publication of Harvey's discovery of the circulation of the blood. Birth of Bunyan (d. 1688).

1629. The Emperor's Edict of Restitution, requiring the Protestant princes of Germany to surrender sequestrated church property. Tumult in the English Parliament and forcible detention of the Speaker; dissolution by the king and arrest of Eliot and others. Division of the grant made in New England to Gorges and Mason, giving New Hampshire to the latter. Introduction of the Patroon system in New Netherland by the Dutch West India Company. First conquest of Canada by the English.

1630. Dismissal of Wallenstein by the Emperor. Appearance in Germany of Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, as the champion of Protestantism. Settlement of the colony of Massachusetts Bay, in New England, and founding of Boston. The Day of the Dupes in France and triumph of Richelieu.

1631. Siege, capture and sack of Magdeburg by the imperial general, Tilly. Treaty of Bärwalde between Gustavus Adolphus and the king of France. Defeat of Tilly on the Breitenfeld, at Leipzig, by Gustavus Adolphus. End of the war concerning Mantua. Appearance of the first printed newspaper in France. Birth of Dryden (d. 1700).

1632. Defeat and death of Tilly, in battle with the Swedish king on the Lech. Victory and death of Gustavus Adolphus in battle with Wallenstein at Lützen; accession in Sweden of Queen Christina; Chancellor Oxenstiern invested with the supreme direction of Swedish affairs in Germany. Patent to Lord Baltimore by James I., king of England, granting him as a palatine principality the territory in America called Maryland. Restoration of Canada and Nova Scotia by England to France. First Jesuit mission to Canada. Birth of John Locke (d. 1704). Birth of Spinoza (d. 1677). Birth of Bourdaloue (d. 1704). Birth of Christopher Wren (d. 1723).

1633. Union of Heilbronn formed by Oxenstiern, consolidating Protestant interests. Appointment of Wentworth to be Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland.

1634. Conspiracy against Wallenstein, resulting in his assassination. Defeat of the Swedish army in Germany, by imperialists and Spaniards, at Nördlingen. Terms of peace with the Emperor made by Saxony and Brandenburg. Levy of Ship-money in England. Naming the town on Manhattan island New Amsterdam. Acting of Milton's "Comus."

1635. Active interference of Richelieu in the Thirty Years War. Unsuccessful French expedition into Italy for the expulsion of the Spaniards from Milan. First settlements in the Connecticut valley. Dissolution of the Council for New England and partitioning of its territory.

1636. Banishment of Roger Williams from Massachusetts, and his founding of Providence. Migration of the Newtown congregation from Massachusetts to the Connecticut valley, founding Hartford. Founding of Harvard College in Massachusetts. Campaign of Duke Bernhard of Weimar in Alsace and Lorraine, in the pay of France. Success of the Swedish general, Baner, at Wittstock, over Saxons and imperialists. Birth of Boileau (d. 1711).

1687. Death of the Emperor Ferdinand II. and accession of his son Ferdinand III. The Pequot War in New England. Introduction of Land's Service-book in Scotland; tumult in St. Giles' church. Publication of Descartes' "Discours de la Méthode."

1638. Planting of the Swedish colony on the Delaware river in America. Banishment of Anne Hutchinson from Massachusetts. Settlement and naming of Rhode Island. Opening of New Netherland to free colonization and trade. Rising in Scotland against the Service-book; organization of the Tables; signing of the National Covenant. Planting of New Haven colony in New England. Turkish siege and capture of Bagdad and horrible massacre of its people.

1639. Adoption of the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut and the Fundamental Agreement of New Haven. Grant of Maine as a palatine principality to Sir Ferdinando Gorges. The First Bishops' War of the Scotch with King Charles I. Birth of Racine (d. 1699).

1640. Meeting of the Long Parliament in England. English settlement of Madras in India. Recovery of national independence by Portugal, with the House of Braganza on the throne. Extraordinary double siege of Turin. Introduction in Europe of Peruvian bark (cinchona).

1641. Impeachment and execution of Strafford and adoption of the Grand Remonstrance by the English Parliament. Catholic rising in Ireland and alleged massacres of Protestants.

1642. King Charles' attempt, in England, to arrest the Five Members, and opening of the Civil War at Edgehill. Conspiracy of Cinq Mars in France. Death of Cardinal Richelieu. Second battle of Breitenfeld in Germany, won by the Swedes under Torstenson. Birth of Sir Isaac Newton (d. 1727).

1643. Confederation of the United Colonies of New England. Meeting of the Westminster Assembly of Divines. Subscription of the Solemn League and Covenant between the Scotch and English nations. Siege of Gloucester and first battle of Newbury. Death of Louis XIII. of France and accession of Louis XIV. under the regency of his mother, Anne of Austria, and the ministry of Cardinal Mazarin. Victory of the Duke d' Enghien (afterwards called the Great Condé) over the Spaniards at Rocroi. Alliance of Denmark with the Emperor and disastrous war with Sweden.

1644. Battles of Marston Moor and the second Newbury, and siege of Lathom House, in the English civil war. Charter granted to the colony of Providence Plantations. Invention of the barometer by Torricelli. Birth of William Penn (d. 1718).

1645. Oliver Cromwell placed second in command of the English Parliamentary army. His victory at Naseby. The storming of Bridgewater and Bristol. Exploits of Montrose in Scotland. Victory of Torstenson and the Swedes over the imperialists at Jankowitz in Bohemia. Defeat of the imperialists by the French near Allerheim. Peace of Bromsebro between Sweden and Denmark. Beginning of the War of Candia (Crete).

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1646. Adoption of Presbyterianism by the English Parliament. Surrender of King Charles to the Scottish army. Capture of Dunkirk from the Spaniards by the French and Dutch. Birth of Leibnitz (d. 1716).

1647. Surrender of King Charles by the Scots to the English, his imprisonment at Holdenby House and his seizure by the Army. Insurrection of Masaniello at Naples. Truce of the Elector of Bavaria with the Swedes and French. Election of Ferdinand, son of the Emperor, to the throne of Hungary. Beginning of the administration of Peter Stuyvesant in New Netherland.

1648. The second Civil War in England. Cromwell's victory at Preston. Treaty of Newport with the king, Grand Army Remonstrance, and Pride's Purge of Parliament, reducing it to "the Rump." Conflict of the French crown with the Parliament of Paris, and defeat of the crown. Last campaigns of the Thirty Years War. Peace of Westphalia; cession of Alsace to France; separation of Switzerland from the Empire; division of the Palatinate; acknowledgment of the independence of the United Provinces by Spain. Election of John Casimir king of Poland.

1649. Trial and execution of King Charles I., of England, and establishment of the Commonwealth. Mutiny of the Levellers in the Parliamentary Army. Campaign of Cromwell in Ireland. First civil war of the Fronde in France, ended by the treaty of Reuil. Passage of the Act of Toleration in Maryland.

1650. Charles II. in Scotland. War between the English and the Scotch. Victory of Cromwell at Dunbar. The new Fronde in France, in alliance with Spain. Its defeat by Mazarin at Rethel. Suspension of the Stadtholdership in the United Provinces. Publication of Baxter's "Saint's' Everlasting Rest," and Jeremy Taylor's "Holy Living." Birth of Marlborough (d. 1722).

1651. Invasion of England by Charles II. and the Scots; Cromwell's victory at Worcester; complete conquest of Scotland. Passage of the Navigation Act by the English Parliament. Banishment of Mazarin from France and restoration of peace. Renewal of civil war by Condé. Adoption of the Cambridge Platform in Massachusetts. Beginning of the rule, in the United Provinces, of John De Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland. Publication of Hobbes' "Leviathan," and Jeremy Taylor's "Holy Dying." Birth of Fenelon (d. 1715).

1652. Victorious naval war of the English with the Dutch. Battle of Porte St. Antoine, Paris, between the armies of Condé and Turenne. End of the Fronde, and departure of Conde to enter the service of Spain. Recovery of Dunkirk by the Spaniards. Institution of the Liberum Veto in Poland. Transfer of the allegiance of the Cossacks of the Ukraine from Poland to Russia. Legislation to restrict and diminish slavery in Rhode Island. Settlement of a Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope.

1653. Expulsion of "the Rump" by Cromwell, and establishment of the Protectorate in England. Adoption of the Instrument of Government. Return of Mazarin to power in France. The Cromwellian settlement of Ireland. Concession of municipal government to New Amsterdam (New York). Establishment of a penny post in Paris by M. de Velayer. Publication of Walton's "Complete Angler."

1654. Incorporation of Scotland with the English Commonwealth, under Cromwell. Peace between the English and Dutch. Conquest of Nova Scotia by the New England colonists. Death of Ferdinand, king of Hungary, and election of his brother Leopold. Abdication of Queen Christina of Sweden; accession of Charles X.

1655. Conquest of the Swedish colony on the Delaware by the Dutch of New Netherland. Alliance of England and France against Spain. English conquest of Jamaica from Spain. Occurrence in the Russian Church of the great schism called the Raskol. Publication of the first of Pascal's" Provincial Letters."

1656. Beginning of the Persecution of the Quakers in Massachusetts.

1657. Death of the Emperor Ferdinand III. Intrigues of Louis XIV. of France to secure the imperial crown.

1658. Siege and capture of Dunkirk from the Spaniards and possession given by the French to the English. Death of Cromwell and succession of his son Richard as Protector. Election of Leopold I., son of the late emperor, to the imperial throne. Seizure of the Mogul throne in India by Aurungzebe.

1659. Meeting of a new Parliament in England; its dissolution; resuscitation and re-expulsion of the Rump, and formation of a provisional government by the Army. Treaty of the Pyrenees between France and Spain, and marriage of Louis XIV. to the Spanish infanta. Production of Molière's "Les Précieuses Ridicules."

1660. March of the English army under Monk from Scotland to London. Call of a new Parliament by Monk, and restoration of the monarchy, in the person of Charles II. Abrogation of the incorporated union with Scotland. Renewed war of Austria with the Turks. Closing of the schools of Port Royal through Jesuit influence. Death of Charles X. of Sweden and accession of Charles XI. Publication of Dryden's "Astræa Redux."

1661. Restoration of the Church of England and passage of a new Act of Uniformity, ejecting 2,000 nonconformist ministers. Personal assumption of government by Louis XIV. in France. Beginning of the ministry of Colbert. Cession of Bombay by the Portuguese to the English. Birth of Defoe (d. 1731).

1662. Royal charter to Connecticut colony, annexing New Haven. Sale of Dunkirk to France by Charles II. Beginning of the attacks of the Mahrattas on the Mogul empire. Restoration of episcopacy in Scotland and persecution of the Covenanters. Publication of Fuller's "Worthies of England."

1663. Grant of the Carolinas by Charles II. of England to Clarendon and others. Erection of New France (Canada) into a royal province. Publication of the first part of Butler's "Hudibras." Birth of Prince Eugene of Savoy (d. 1736).

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1664. Passage of the Conventicle Act in England, for suppression of the nonconformists. Seizure of New Netherland (henceforth New York) by the English from the Dutch and grant of the province to the duke of York. Grant of New Jersey to Berkeley and Carteret, by the duke of York. War by France upon the piratical Barbary states. Great defeat of the Turks by the Austrians and French, in the battle of St. Gothard. Publication of the first Tariff of Colbert, in France.

1665. Passage of the Five Mile Act, in continued persecution of the English nonconformists. Outbreak of the great Plague in London. Formal declarations of war between the English and the Dutch.

1666. The great fire in London. Tremendous naval battles between Dutch and English and defeat of the former. Production of Molière's "Le Misanthrope."

1667. Ravages by a Dutch fleet in the Thames. Peace treaties of Breda, between England, Holland, France and Denmark. War of Louis XIV., called the War of the Queen's Rights, in the Spanish Netherlands. Restoration of Nova Scotia to France. Augmentation of Colbert's Protective Tariff in France. Publication of Milton's "Paradise Lost," and Dryden's "Annus Mirabilis." Production of Racine's "Andromaque." Birth of Swift. (d. 1745).

1668. Triple alliance of England, Holland and Sweden against France. Abdication of John Casimir, king of Poland. Birth of Vico (d. 1744). Birth of Boerhaave (d. 1738).

1669. First exploring journey of La Salle from the St. Lawrence to the West. Adoption of the fundamental constitutions framed by John Locke for the Carolinas. Surrender of Candia to the Turks.

1670. Treaty of the king of England with Louis XIV. of France, betraying his allies, the Dutch, and engaging to profess himself a Catholic. Publication of Spinoza's "Tractatus Theologico-politicus."

1671. Publication of Milton's "Paradise Regained." Birth of Steele (d. 1729).

1672. Declaration of Indulgence by Charles II. of England. Alliance of England and France against the Dutch. Restoration of the Stadtholdership in Holland to the Prince of Orange, and murder of the DeWitts. Birth of Joseph Addison (d. 1719}. Birth of Peter the Great (d. 1725).

1673. Discovery of the Upper Mississippi by Joliet and Marquette. Recovery of New Netherland by the Dutch from the English. Sale of West Jersey by Lord Berkeley to Quakers.

1674. Treaty of Westminster, restoring peace between the Dutch and English and ceding New Netherland to the latter. Purchase of Pondicherry, on the Carnatic coast of India, by the French. Election of John Sobieski to the throne of Poland. Birth of Isaac Watts (d. 1748).

1675. War with the Indians in New England, known as King Philip's War. Defeat of the Swedes by the Elector of Brandenburg at the battle of Fehrbellin.

1676. Bacon's rebellion in Virginia. Birth of Sir Robert Walpole (d. 1745).

1677. Tekeli's rising in Hungary against oppression and religions persecution. Production of Racine's" Phèdre."

1678. The pretended Popish Plot in England. Treaties of Nimeguen between France, Rolland and Spain. Publication of the first part of Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress." Birth of Bolingbroke (d. 1751).

1679. Passage of the Habeas Corpus Act in England. Oppression of Scotland and persecution of the Covenanters. Murder of Archbishop Sharp. Defeat of Claverhouse by the Covenanters at Drumclog. Defeat of Covenanters by Monmouth at Bothwell Bridge. Treaty of Nimeguen between France and the Emperor. Building of the Griffon on Niagara river by La Salle.

1680. First naming of the Whig and Tory parties in England. Complete incorporation of Alsace and Les Trois Évéchés, and seizure of Strasburg, by France. Imprisonment of the Man with the Iron Mask. Founding of Charleston, S. C.

1681. Merciless despotism of the duke of York in Scotland. Beginning of "dragonnade" persecution of Protestants in France. Alliance of Tekeli and the Hungarian insurgents with the Turks and the French. Proprietary grant of Pennsylvania by Charles II. to William Penn. Publication of Dryden's "Absalom and Achitophel."

1682. Exploration of the Mississippi to its mouth by La Salle. Purchase of East Jersey by Penn and other Quakers. Penn's treaty with the Indians. Accession of Peter the Great in association with his brother Ivan.

1683. The Rye-house Plot, and execution of Lord Russell and Algernon Sidney, in England. Great invasion of Hungary and Austria by the Turks; their siege of Vienna, and the deliverance of the city by John Sobieski, king of Poland. Establishment of a penny post in London by Robert Murray. Founding of Philadelphia by William Penn.

1684. Forfeiture of the Massachusetts charter. Holy League of Venice, Poland, the Emperor and the Pope against the Turks. Birth of Bishop Berkeley (d. 1753}. Birth of Händel (d. 1759).

1685. Death of Charles II., king of England, and accession of his brother James II., an avowed Catholic. Rebellion of the duke of Monmouth, crushed at Sedgemoor and in the Bloody Assizes of Judge Jeffreys. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. of France. First lighting of the streets of London. Demand upon Connecticut for the surrender of its charter; concealment of the instrument in the Charter Oak. Birth of Johann Sebastian Bach (d. 1750).

1686. Revival of the Court of High Commission in England. Consolidation of New England under a royal governor-general. League of Augsburg against Louis XIV. of France, formed by the Prince of Orange and including Holland, Spain, Sweden, the Emperor, and several German princes. Recovery of Buda by the Austrians from the Turks and end of the Hungarian insurrection. Introduction of Bradford's Printing Press in Pennsylvania.

1687. Action of the Hungarian diet making the crown of Hungary hereditary in the Hapsburg family. Second battle of Mohacs, disastrous to the Turks. Siege of Athens by the Venetians; bombardment of the Acropolis and partial destruction of the Parthenon. Rule in Ireland of Richard Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel. Publication of Newton's "Principia."

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1688. Declaration of Indulgence by James II. of England, and imprisonment and trial of the seven bishops for refusing to publish it. Invitation to William and Mary of Orange to accept the English crown. Arrival in England of the Prince of Orange and flight of James. Battle of Enniskillen in Ireland. Recovery of Belgrade from the Turks by the Austrians. Union of New York and New Jersey with New England under Governor-general Sir Edmund Andros. Birth of Swedenborg (d. 1772). Birth of Pope (d. 1744).

1689. Completion of the English Revolution. Settlement of the crown on William and Mary. Passage of the Toleration Act and the Bill of Rights. Landing of James II. in Ireland and war in that island; siege and successful defense of Londonderry; battle of Newton Butler. Battle of Killiecrankie, in Scotland, and death of Claverhouse. Revolution in New York led by Jacob Leisler. Birth of Montesquieu (d. 1755).

1690. Destruction of Schenectady, New York, by French and Indians. The first congress of the American colonies. The League of Augsburg against Louis XIV. of France developed into the Grand Alliance of England, Holland, Spain, Savoy and the Emperor. Second devastation of the Palatinate by the French. Reconquest of Belgrade by the Turks. English conquest of Acadia and unsuccessful attempt against Quebec. French naval victory off Beachy Head, over the English and Dutch fleets. Battle of the Boyne in Ireland; defeat and flight of James II. Publication of Locke's "Essay concerning Human Understanding."

1691. Battle of Aughrim and surrender of Limerick, completing the Orange conquest of Ireland. The violated Treaty of Limerick. Execution of Jacob Leisler in New York.

1692. Ernst Augustus, duke of Hanover and of Brunswick, raised to the rank of Elector. New Hampshire settlements, in New England, separated from Massachusetts. Defeat of King William by the French at Steinkirk. Beginning of the Salem Witchcraft madness in Massachusetts. Massacre of Glencoe in Scotland. Attempted invasion of England from France defeated by the English and Dutch fleets at the battle of La Hogue. Destructive earthquake in Jamaica.

1693. Founding of the College of William and Mary in Virginia. Removal of Bradford's Press from Philadelphia to New York. French victories at Neerwinden and Marsaglia. Absolutism established in Sweden by Charles XI. Discovery of the fixed temperature of boiling water.

1694. The founding of the Bank of England. Birth of Voltaire (d. 1778).

1695. Passage of the first of the Penal Laws, oppressing Catholics in Ireland. Expiration of the Press-censorship law in England.

1696. Death of John Sobieski and purchase of the Polish crown by Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony.

1697. Peace of Ryswick, ending the war of the Grand Alliance. Cession of Strasburg and restoration of Acadia to France. Campaign of Prince Eugene against the Turks and his decisive victory at Zenta. Death of Charles XI. of Sweden and accession of Charles XII. Sojourn of Peter the Great in Holland. Publication of Bayle's Dictionary. Birth of Hogarth (d. 1764).

1698. Grant to the English by the Mogul of the site on which Calcutta grew up. Undertaking, in Scotland, of the Darien scheme of colonization and commerce. Visit of Peter the Great to England. Publication of Algernon Sidney's "Discourse on Government." Birth of Metastasio (d. 1782).

1699. Peace of Carlowitz, between Turkey, Russia, Poland, Venice, and the Emperor, which reduced the European dominions of the Sultan nearly half. Settlement of Iberville's French colony in Louisiana. Publication of Fénélon's "Télémaque."

1700. Prussia raised in rank to a kingdom. First campaigns of Charles XII. of Sweden, against the Danes and the Russians. Death of Charles II. of Spain, bequeathing his crown to Philip, duke of Anjou, second son of the Dauphin of France.

Eighteenth Century.

1701. English Act of Settlement, fixing the succession to the throne in the Electress Sophia of Hanover and her heirs. Death of James II., of England, at St. Germains. Possession of the crown of Spain taken by Philip of Anjou, as Philip V. Founding of Yale College at New Haven, Connecticut.

1702. Death of William III., king of England and stadtholder of Holland. Accession in England of Queen Anne. The Camisard rising in France. Beginning of the War of the Spanish Succession (called in America Queen Anne's War). Battle of Friedlingen in Germany. Dutch and English expedition against Cadiz. Attack on the treasure fleet in Vigo Bay. Victories of Prince Eugene in Italy, followed by reverses and retreat into the Tyrol. Savoy overrun by the French. Union of rival English East India Companies. Publication of the first daily newspaper in England, the "Courant." Legislative separation of Delaware from Pennsylvania. Union of East and West Jersey in one royal province.

1703. The Methuen Treaty between England and Portugal. The Aylesbury Election case in England. Birth of Jonathan Edwards (d. 1758). Birth of John Wesley (d. 1791).

1704. Campaign of Marlborough and Prince Eugene on the Danube. Victory of Blenheim. Capture of Gibraltar by the English from Spain. Insurrection in Hungary under Rakoczy. Publication (at Boston) of the first newspaper in the English American colonies. Completed subjugation of Poland by Charles XII. of Sweden. Publication of Swift's "Tale of a Tub," and of the first part of Clarendon's "History of the Great Rebellion" (England).

1705. Capture of Barcelona by the Earl of Peterborough.

1706. Marlborough's victory at Ramillies over the French under Villeroy. Expulsion of the French from Antwerp, Ghent, and other strong places of Flanders. Madrid lost and regained by the Bourbon king of Spain. French siege of Turin. Deliverance of the city by Prince Eugene. Birth of Benjamin Franklin (d. 1790).

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1707. Union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland. Victories of Marlborough and Prince Eugene at Oudenarde and Malplaquet, over Vendôme and Villars. Victory of Berwick, for the French and Spaniards, at Almanza. Disastrous expedition of Prince Eugene against Toulon. Death of Aurungzebe, the last important Mogul emperor. Subjugation of Saxony by Charles XII. Birth of Buffon (d. 1788). Birth of Fielding (d. 1754).

1708. English conquest of Majorca and Minorca, by General Stanhope. Renewed persecution of the Jansenists. Dispersion of the nuns of Port Royal of the Fields. Invasion of Russia by Charles XII. Birth of Charles Wesley (d. 1788). Birth of William Pitt, Lord Chatham (d. 1778).

1709. The first Barrier Treaty between Holland and Great Britain. Dispersion of the nuns of Port Royal. Defeat of Charles XII. at Pultowa by the Russians and his escape into Turkish territory. Publication of the first numbers of Steele and Addison's "Tatler," and of Berkeley's "New Theory of Vision." Birth of Dr. Samuel Johnson (d. 1784).

1710. Trial of Dr. Sacheverell in England. Peace conferences at Gertruydenberg between France, Great Britain, Holland, Spain and Austria. Madrid again lost and recovered by Philip V. Franco-Spanish victories of Villa Viciosa and Brihuega. Capture of Port Royal, Acadia, by the New Englanders; final English conquest of Acadia and change of name to Nova Scotia.

1711. Fall of the Whigs from power, in England. Passage of the Occasional Conformity Act. Death, in Austria, of the Emperor Joseph I. Election and coronation of Charles VI. Opening of negotiations for peace between England and France. Peace of Szathmar, ending the revolt in Hungary. Publication of the first numbers of "The Spectator," by Addison, Steele, and others; also of Pope's "Essay on Criticism." Birth of David Hume (d. 1776).

1712. Dismissal of Marlborough from his command, by the British Government. Peace Conference at Utrecht. Imposition of the Stamp Tax on newspapers in England. Birth of Frederick the Great (d. 1786). Birth of Jean Jacques Rousseau (d. 1778).

1713. The Peace of Utrecht, ending the War of the Spanish Succession except as between France and the Emperor; cession of Sicily by Spain to the duke of Savoy, with the title of king; restoration of Savoy and Nice to the same prince, by France, with cessions of certain valleys and forts; exchange by the king of Prussia of the principality of Orange and the lordship of Châlons for Spanish Guelderland and the sovereignty of Neufchatel and Valengin; cession by Spain to the House of Austria of the kingdom of Naples, the duchy of Milan, the Spanish Tuscan territories, and the sovereignty of the Spanish Netherlands, reserving certain rights of the elector of Bavaria; agreement for the destruction of the fortifications and harbor of Dunkirk; relinquishment to Great Britain of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Gibraltar, Minorca, Hudson Bay, and the island of St. Christopher; concession of the Assiento or Spanish slave-trading contract to Great Britain for thirty years. Second Barrier Treaty between Great Britain and Holland. The papal Bull Unigenitus against the doctrines of the Jansenists. Production of Addison's "Cato." Birth of Sterne (d. 1768). Birth of Diderot (d. 1784).

1714. Death of Queen Anne of England; accession of George I. Treaty of Rastadt or Baden, establishing peace between France and the Emperor; relinquishment of Sardinia by the Elector of Bavaria to the Emperor, in return for the Upper Palatinate. Opening of war with the Turks by the Emperor, Charles VI. Return of Charles XII. to Sweden. Invention of Fahrenheit's Thermometer. Birth of Condillac (d. 1780). Birth of Helvetius (d. 1771). Birth of Vauvenargues (d. 1747).

1715. Jacobite rising in Great Britain. Death of Louis XIV. in France; accession of Louis XV., under the regency of the duke of Orleans. Barrier treaty of Holland with the Emperor. Publication of the first books of Pope's translation of the "Iliad," and the first books of Le Sage's "Gil Blas."

1716. Passage of the Septennial Act, extending the term of the British Parliament to seven years. Victory of Prince Eugene over the Turks, at Petervardein.

1717. Launching of the Mississippi scheme of John Law, in France. Triple Alliance of France, Great Britain and Holland to oppose the projects of Alberoni and Queen Elizabeth Farnese, in Spain. Spanish capture of Sardinia. Final recovery of Belgrade from the Turks by the Austrians. Birth of D' Alembert (d. 1783).

1718. Promulgation of the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI., defining the Austrian succession in favor of his daughter, Maria Theresa. Spanish conquest of Sicily from the duke of Savoy. Quadruple Alliance of France, Great Britain, Holland and the Emperor against Spain. Peace of Passarowitz between the Emperor and the Porte. Removal of the capital of Russia to St. Petersburg. Death of Charles XII. of Sweden. Founding of the city of New Orleans by Bienville.

1719. French and English attacks on Spain. Submission of Philip V. to the Quadruple Alliance. Banishment of Alberoni. Spanish evacuation of Sicily and Sardinia. Restoration of the oligarchical constitution of Sweden. Publication of the first part of De Foe's "Robinson Crusoe," and of Watts' "Psalms and Hymns."

1720. The South Sea Bubble in England. Forced exchange by the duke of Savoy, with the Emperor, of Sicily for Sardinia, the latter being raised to the rank of a kingdom. Reversion of the duchies of Parma and Placentia and of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany to Don Carlos, son of the king of Spain. Publication of Vico's "Jus Universale."

1721. Rise of Walpole to ascendancy in the British Government. Introduction of preventive inoculation against smallpox in England by Lady Montague. Election of Pope Innocent XIII.

1722. Grant of Wood's patent for supplying Ireland with a copper coinage. Conquest of Persia by the Afghans. Birth of Samuel Adams (d. 1803).

1723. Majority of Louis XV., king of France. Termination of the Regency. Publication of Ramsay's "Gentle Shepherd." Birth of Adam Smith (d. 1790).

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1724. Election of Pope Benedict XIII. Publication of Swift's "Drapier's Letters" against Wood's halfpence, in Ireland. Birth of Kant (d. 1804).

1725. Treaty of Spain with Austria guaranteeing the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI. Alliance of Hanover between France, Great Britain and Holland. Death of Peter the Great, of Russia, and accession of his empress, Catherine I. Birth of Clive (d. 1774).

1726. Treaty of Russia with Austria guaranteeing the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI. Publication of Swift's "Gulliver's Travels."

1727. Death of George I. of England. Accession of George II. Hostilities without formal war between Great Britain and Spain. Siege of Gibraltar by the Spaniards. Deliverance of Persia from the Afghans by Nadir Kuli. Birth of Turgot (d. 1781).

1728. Treaty of Prussia with Austria guaranteeing the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI. Birth of Goldsmith (d. 1774).

1729. End of proprietary government in the Carolinas. Birth of Edmund Burke (d. 1797). Birth of Lessing (d. 1781). Birth of Moses Mendelssohn. (d. 1786).

1730. Election of Pope Clement XII. Founding of Baltimore in Maryland. Opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway; accidental death of Mr. Huskisson, prime minister of England. Birth of Edmund Burke [Uncertain date] (d. 1797).

1731. Treaty of Seville between Great Britain, France, and Spain. Don Carlos established in the duchies of Parma and Placentia. Treaties of England and Holland with Austria, guaranteeing the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI. Founding of the "Gentleman's Magazine." Birth of William Cowper (d. 1800).

1732. Usurpation of the Persian throne by Nadir Kuli, thenceforward entitled Nadir Kuli Khan, or Nadir Shall. Grant of Georgia in America to General Oglethorpe by George II., of England. Founding, at Philadelphia, of the first Subscription Library in the United States, by Franklin. Publication of the first part of Pope's" Essay on Man." Birth of Washington (d. 1799). Birth of Haydn (d. 1809).

1733. The first Bourbon Family Compact between the French and Spanish sovereigns. Death of Augustus II. of Poland. War of the Polish Succession between France and Austria. John Kay's invention of the fly-shuttle for weaving. Founding of Savannah, Georgia, by General Oglethorpe. Birth of Wieland (d. 1813). Birth of Joseph Priestley (d. 1804).

1734. Conquest of Naples and Sicily by Don Carlos, son of the king of Spain, and assumption by him of the kingship of the Two Sicilies, under the name and style of Charles III. Zenger's trial in New York and vindication of the freedom of the English colonial press.

1735. Treaty of Vienna between France, Austria and Spain, confirming Charles III. in possession of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies; ceding Lorraine to France and Tuscany in reversion to the former duke of Lorraine. First Moravian (Unitas Fratrum) settlement in America planted in Georgia. Birth of John Adams (d. 1826).

1736. Founding of the short-lived realm of King Theodore in Corsica. Publication of Butler's "Analogy of Religion." Porteous riots in Edinburgh. Birth of Lagrange (d. 1813).

1737. Birth of Edward Gibbon (d. 1794).

1738. Treaty of France with Austria guaranteeing the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI.

1739. War of Jenkins' Ear, between Great Britain and Spain. Capture of Delhi, in India, with sack and massacre, by Nadir Shah, the Persian conqueror.

1740. Accession of Frederick the Great in Prussia. Death of the Emperor Charles VI. Treachery of the Powers which had guaranteed the Austrian succession to Maria Theresa. Opening of the War of the Succession. Invasion of Silesia by Frederick of Prussia. Election of Pope Benedict XIV. Settlement of the Moravians (Unitas Fratrum) in Pennsylvania, at Bethlehem. First performance of Händel's "Messiah."

1741. Battle of Mollwitz. Alliance of Prussia, France and Bavaria. Appeal of Maria Theresa to the Hungarians. Franco-Bavarian invasion of Bohemia and Austrian invasion of Bavaria. Secret bargain of Frederick with Maria Theresa, and abandonment of his allies. Pretended Negro Plot in New York. Publication of the first volume of Hume's "Essays Moral and Political."

1742. Resignation of Walpole from the British Ministry. Imperial election and coronation of the elector of Bavaria as Charles VII. Reversing of the treachery of Frederick and renewal of his war with Austria. Battle of Chotusitz. Treaty of Breslau between Austria and Prussia. Cession of Silesia and Glatz to Frederick. Continuation of the war of Austria and France. Expulsion of the French from Bohemia. Birth of Scheele (d. 1786).

1743. The second Bourbon Family Compact between the sovereigns of France and Spain. Great Britain involved in the War of the Austrian Succession, supporting the cause of Maria Theresa. Victory of the "Pragmatic Army" (English and Hanoverian) at Dettingen. Birth of Thomas Jefferson (d. 1826). Birth of Toussaint L' Ouverture (d. 1803). Birth of Lavoisier (d. 1794).

1744. Renewal of war with Austria by Frederick of Prussia. His invasion of Bohemia, his capture of Prague and his forced retreat. Birth of Herder (d. 1803).

1745. The last Jacobite rebellion in Great Britain. Death of Sir Robert Walpole. Capture of Louisburg and the island of Cape Breton from France by the New England colonists. Death of the Emperor Charles VII. Defeat of the British and Dutch by the French at Fontenoy. Peace made by Austria with Bavaria, and alliance with Saxony against the king of Prussia. Prussian victories at Hohenfriedberg, Sohr, Hennersdorf, and Kesselsdorf. Election of the husband of Maria Theresa to the Imperial throne, as Francis I. Peace between Austria and Prussia. Success of the French, Spaniards, and Genoese in Lombardy, expelling the Austrians from every part except the citadel of Milan and the fortress of Mantua. Invention of the Leyden jar.

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1746. French conquest of the Austrian Netherlands. Retreat of Spaniards and French from North Italy. Surrender of Genoa to the Austrians, and their expulsion by a popular rising. Capture of Madras by the French. Birth of Pestalozzi (d. 1827). Birth of Henry Grattan (d. 1820).

1747. French invasion of the United Provinces (Holland); risings of the Orange party; restoration of the Stadtholdership, in the person of William IV. Unsuccessful siege of Genoa by the Austrians and Sardinians. Franklin's identification of lightning with electricity. Murder of Nadir Shah, the Persian conqueror.

1748. Treaty of Aix-Ia-Chapelle, ending the War of the Austrian Succession; general restoration of conquests made during the war; confirmation of Silesia and Glatz to Frederick of Prussia; general guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI. Beginning of excavations at Pompeii. Birth of Jeremy Bentham (d. 1832).

1749. Formation of the Ohio Company, with a royal grant of lands in the Ohio Valley. Founding of Halifax, Nova Scotia. Publication of Montesquieu's "Esprit des Lois"; of Fielding's "Tom Jones," and of John Wesley's "Plain account of the people called Methodists." Birth of Charles James Fox (d. 1806). Birth of Goethe (d. 1832). Birth of Mirabeau (d. 171)1). Birth of Vittorio Alfieri (d. 1803). Birth of Laplace (d. 1827). Birth of Jenner (d. 1823).

1751. Beginning of the military career of Clive in India by the taking of Arcot from the French. Introduction of the Gregorian Calendar, or change from Old Style to New, in England. Publication of Gray's "Elegy in a Country Churchyard," and of the first volume of "L' Encyclopedie." Birth of R. B. Sheridan (d. 1816). Birth of James Madison (d. 1836).

1754. Founding of King's College (now Columbia) at New York. Congress of the American Colonies at Albany and plans of Union. Building of Fort Duquesne by the French and Washington's expedition against them. Publication of the first volume of Hume's "History of England." Birth of Talleyrand (d. 1838).

1755. Beginning of the Seven Years War, called in America the French and Indian War; Braddock's defeat by the French and Indians in America; battle of Lake George and defeat of the French; dispersion in exile of the French Acadians from Nova Scotia. Birth of Hahnemann, the originator of Homœopathy. Great earthquake at Lisbon. Birth of John Marshall (d. 1835).

1756. Formal declarations of war by Great Britain and France; conquest of Minorca by the French from the English. Invasion and occupation of Saxony by Frederick of Prussia. Frederick under the Ban of the Empire. Capture of Delhi by the Afghan Durances; capture of Calcutta by Shrajah Dowlah, and tragedy of the Black Hole. Birth of Mozart (d. 1791 [Uncertain date]).