Part 2 — Chapter III. (These four articles abrogated by the four articles following them, 118-122.) Article 118. The Federal Constitution may at any time be amended. (continued 115)

P. Tucker, Origin, Rise and Progress of Mormonism, chapters 1-5, and preface.

It is believed by many that the groundwork of the Book of Mormon was supplied by an ingenious romance, written about 1814 by the Rev. Solomon Spalding, a Presbyterian minister of some learning and literary ability, then living at New Salem (now Conneaut), Ohio. This romance, which was entitled "The Manuscript Found," purported to narrate the history of a migration of the lost ten tribes of Israel to America. It was never published; but members of Mr. Spalding's family, and other persons, who read it or heard it read, in manuscript, claimed confidently, after the appearance of the Book of Mormon that the main body of the narrative and the notable names introduced in it were identical with those of the latter. Some circumstances, moreover, seemed to indicate a probability that Mr. Spalding's manuscript, being left during several weeks with a publisher named Patterson, at Pittsburgh, came there into the hands of one Sidney Rigdon, a young printer, who appeared subsequently as one of the leading missionaries of Mormonism, and who is believed to have visited Joseph Smith, at Palmyra, before the Book of Mormon came to light. {2232} On the other hand, Mormon believers have, latterly, made much of the fact that a manuscript romance without title, by Solomon Spalding, was found, not many years since, in the Sandwich Islands, by President Fairchild of Oberlin College, Ohio, and proved to bear no resemblance to the Book of Mormon. Spalding is said, however, to have written several romances, and, if so, nothing is proved by this discovery.

T. Gregg, The Prophet of Palmyra, chapters 1-11 and 41-45.

ALSO IN: E. E. Dickinson, New Light on Mormonism.

J. M. Kennedy, Early Days of Mormonism, chapters 1-2.

MORMONISM: A. D. 1830-1846. The First Hegira to Kirtland, Ohio, the Second to Missouri, the Third to Nauvoo, Illinois. The Danites. The building of the city and its Temple. Hostility of the Gentiles. The slaying of the Prophet.

"Immediately after the publication of the Book the Church was duly organized at Manchester. On April 6, 1830, six members were ordained elders—Joseph Smith, Sr., Joseph Smith, Jr., Hyrum Smith, Samuel Smith, Oliver Cowdery and Joseph Knight. The first conference was held at Fayette, Seneca county, in June. A special 'revelation' at this time made Smith's wife 'the Elect Lady and Daughter of God,' with the high-sounding title of 'Electa Cyria.' In later years this lady became disgusted with her husband's religion. … Another revelation was to the effect that Palmyra was not the gathering-place of the Saints, after all, but that they should proceed to Kirtland, in Ohio. Consequently, the early part of 1831 saw them colonized in that place, the move being known as 'The First Hegira.' Still another revelation (on the 6th of June) stated that some point in Missouri was the reliable spot. Smith immediately selected a tract in Jackson county, near Independence. By 1833 the few Mormons who had moved thither were so persecuted that they went into Clay county, and thence, in 1838, into Caldwell county, naming their settlement 'Far West.' The main body of the Mormons, however, remained in Kirtland from 1831 till they were forced to join their Western brethren in 1838. Brigham Young, another native of Vermont, joined at Kirtland in 1832, and was ordained an elder. The conference of elders on May 3, 1833, repudiated the name of Mormons and adopted that of 'Latter-Day Saints.' The first presidency consisted of Smith, Rigdon, and Frederick G. Williams. In May, 1835, the Twelve Apostles—among them Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball and Orson Hyde—left on a mission for proselytes. … The Mormons were driven from Missouri by Governor Boggs's 'Extraordinary Order,' which caused them to gain sympathy as having been persecuted in a slave State. They moved to Hancock county, Illinois, in 1840, and built up Nauvoo [on the Mississippi River, 14 miles above Keokuk] by a charter with most unusual privileges."

F. G. Mather, The Early Days of Mormonism (Lippincott's Magazine, August 1880).

In the midst of the troubles of Smith and his followers in Missouri, and before their removal to Nauvoo, there arose among them "the mysterious and much dreaded band that finally took the name of Danites, or sons of Dan, concerning which so much has been said while so little is known, some of the Mormons even denying its existence. But of this there is no question. Says Burton: 'The Danite band, a name of fear in the Mississippi Valley, is said by anti-Mormons to consist of men between the ages of 17 and 49. They were originally termed Daughters of Gideon, Destroying Angels—the gentiles say devils—and, finally, Sons of Dan, or Danites, from one of whom was prophesied he should be a serpent in the path. They were organized about 1837 under D. W. Patten, popularly called Captain Fearnot, for the purpose of dealing as avengers of blood with gentiles; in fact they formed a kind of death society, desperadoes, thugs, hashshashiyun—in plain English, assassins in the name of the Lord. The Mormons declare categorically the whole and every particular to be the calumnious invention of the impostor and arch apostate, Mr. John C. Bennett. John Hyde, a seceder, states that the Danite band, or the United Brothers of Gideon, was organized on the 4th of July, 1838, and was placed under the command of the apostle David Patten, who for the purpose assumed the name of Captain Fearnot. It is the opinion of some that the Danite band, or Destroying Angels as again they are called, was organized at the recommendation of the governor of Missouri as a means of self-defence against persecutions in that State."

H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States, volume 21, pages 124-126.

"The Mormons first attracted national notice about the time they quitted Missouri to escape persecution and took refuge in Illinois. In that free State a tract of land was granted them and a charter too carelessly liberal in terms. The whole body, already numbering about 15,000, gathered into a new city of their own, which their prophet, in obedience to a revelation, named Nauvoo; here a body of militia was formed under the name of the Nauvoo legion; and Joe Smith, as mayor, military commander, and supreme head of the Church, exerted an authority almost despotic. The wilderness blossomed and rejoiced, and on a lofty height of this holy city was begun a grotesque temple, built of limestone, with huge monolithic pillars which displayed carvings of moons and suns. … Nauvoo was well laid out, with wide streets which sloped towards well-cultivated farms; all was thrift and sobriety, no spirituous liquors were drunk, and the colonists here, as in their former settlements, furnished the pattern of insect industry. The wonderful proselyting work of this new sect abroad had already begun, and recruits came over from the overplus toilers in the British factory towns. … But there was something in the methods of this sect, not to speak of the jealousy they excited by their prosperity, which bred them trouble here as everywhere else where they came in contact with American commonplace life. It was whispered that the hierarchy of impostors grew rich upon the toils of their simple followers. Polygamy had not yet received the sanction of a divine revelation; and yet the first step towards it was practised in the theory of 'sealing wives' spiritually, which Smith had begun in some mysterious way that it baffled the gentile to discover. Sheriffs, too, were forbidden to serve civil process in Nauvoo without the written permission of its mayor. {2233} All these strange scandals of heathenish pranks, and more, besides, stirred up the neighboring gentiles, plain Illinois backwoodsmen; and the more so that, besides his 3,000 militia, the Mormon prophet controlled 6,000 votes, which, in the close Presidential canvass of 1844, might have been enough to decide the election. Joe Smith, indeed, whose Church nominated him for President, showed a fatal but thoroughly American disposition at this time to carry his power into politics. This king of plain speech, who dressed as a journeyman carpenter, suppressed a newspaper which was set up by seceding Mormons. When complaint was made he resisted Illinois process and proclaimed martial law; the citizens of the surrounding towns armed for a fight. Joe Smith was arrested and thrown into jail at Carthage with his brother Hiram. The rumor spreading that the governor was disposed to release these prisoners, a disorderly band gathered at the jail and shot them [June 27, 1844]. Thus perished Smith, the Mormon founder. His death at first created terror and confusion among his followers, but Brigham Young, his successor, proved a man of great force and sagacity. The exasperated gentiles clamored loudly to expel these religious fanatics from Illinois as they had been expelled from Missouri; and finally, to prevent a civil war, the governor of the State took forcible possession of the holy city, with its unfinished temple, while the Mormon charter of Nauvoo was repealed by the legislature. The Mormons now determined [1846] upon the course which was most suited to their growth, and left American pioneer society to found their New Jerusalem on more enduring foundations west of the Rocky Mountains."

J. Schouler, History of the United States, volume 4, pages 547-549.

ALSO IN: T. Ford, History of Illinois, chapters 8 and 10-11.

A. Davidson and B. Stuvé, History of Illinois, chapter 41.

J. Remy and J. Brenchley, Journey to Great Salt Lake City, book 2, chapters 2-3 (volume 1).

R. F. Burton, The City of the Saints, page 359.

MORMONISM: A. D. 1846-1848. The gentile attack on Nauvoo. Exodus of "the Saints" into the wilderness of the West. Their settlement on the Great Salt Lake.

"During the winter of 1845-46 the Mormons made the most prodigious preparations for removal. All the houses in Nauvoo, and even the temple, were converted into work-shops; and before spring more than 12,000 wagons were in readiness. The people from all parts of the country flocked to Nauvoo to purchase houses and farms, which were sold extremely low, lower than the prices at a sheriff's sale, for money, wagons, horses, oxen, cattle, and other articles of personal property which might be needed by the Mormons in their exodus into the wilderness. By the middle of May it was estimated that 16,000 Mormons had crossed the Mississippi and taken up their line of march with their personal property, their wives and little ones, westward across the continent to Oregon or California; leaving behind them in Nauvoo a small remnant of 1,000 souls, being those who were unable to sell their property, or who having no property to sell were unable to get away. The twelve apostles went first with about 2,000 of their followers. Indictments had been found against nine of them in the circuit court of the United States for the district of Illinois at its December term, 1845, for counterfeiting the current coin of the United States. The United States Marshal had applied to me [the writer being at that time Governor of Illinois] for a militia force to arrest them; but in pursuance of the amnesty agreed on for old offences, believing that the arrest of the accused would prevent the removal of the Mormons, and that if arrested there was not the least chance that any of them would ever be convicted, I declined the application unless regularly called upon by the President of the United States according to law. … It was notorious that none of them could be convicted; for they always commanded evidence and witnesses enough to make a conviction impossible."

T. Ford, History of Illinois, chapter 13.

"The Saints who had as yet been unable to leave Nauvoo continued to labour assiduously at the completion of the temple, so as to accomplish one of the most solemn prophecies of their well-beloved martyr. The sacred edifice was ultimately entirely finished, at the end of April, 1846, after having cost the Saints more than a million dollars. It was consecrated with great pomp on the 1st and 2nd of May, 1846. … The day after the consecration of the temple had been celebrated, the Mormons withdrew from the building all the sacred articles which adorned it, and satisfied with having done their duty in accomplishing, though to no purpose otherwise, a Divine command, they crossed the Mississippi to rejoin those who had gone before them. Nauvoo was abandoned. There remained within its deserted walls but some hundred families, whom the want of means and the inability to sell their effects had not allowed as yet to start upon the road to emigration. The presence of those who were thus detained, together with the bruit caused by the ceremony of dedication, raised the murmurs of the gentiles, and seemed to keep alive their animosity and alarm. Their eager desire to be entirely rid of the Mormons made them extremely sensitive to every idle story respecting the projects of the latter to return. They imagined that the Saints had only left in detachments to seek recruits among the red-skins, meaning to come back with sufficient force once more to take possession of their property in Illinois. These apprehensions rose to such a pitch that the anti-Mormons plunged into fresh acts of illegality and barbarism. … On the 10th of September, 1846, an army of 1,000 men, possessing six pieces of artillery, started to begin the attack under the direction of a person named Carlin, and of the Reverend Mr. Brockman. Nauvoo had only 300 men to oppose to this force, and but five small cannon, made from the iron of an old steamboat. The fire opened on the afternoon of the 10th, and continued on the 11th, 12th and 13th of September." Every attack of the besiegers was repulsed, until they consented to terms under which the remnant of the Mormons was to evacuate the town at the end of five days. "The Mormons had only three men killed and a few wounded during the whole affair; the loss of their enemies is unknown, but it would seem that it was heavy. It was agreed that a committee of five persons should remain at Nauvoo to attend to the interests of the exiles, and on the 17th of September, while the enemy, to the number of 1,625, entered the city to plunder, the remnant of the Mormons crossed the Mississippi to follow 'the track of Israel towards the west.' … {2234} About the end of June, 1846, the first column of the emigrants arrived on the banks of the Missouri, a little above the point of confluence of this immense river with the Platte, in the country of the Pottawatamies, where it stopped to await the detachments in its rear. This spot, now known by the name of Council Bluffs, was christened Kanesville by the Mormons. … At this place, in the course of July, the federal government made an appeal to the patriotism of the Mormons, and asked them to furnish a contingent of 500 men for the Mexican war. Did the government wish to favour the Saints by affording them an opportunity of making money by taking service, or did it merely wish to test their fidelity? This we cannot decide. … The Saints generally regarded this levy as a species of persecution; however … they furnished a battalion of 520 men, and received $20,000 for equipment from the war department." The head quarters of the emigration remained at Kanesville through the winter of 1846-47, waiting for the brethren who had been left behind. There were several encampments, however, some of them about 200 miles in advance. The shelters contrived were of every kind—huts, tents, and caves dug in the earth. The suffering was considerable and many deaths occurred. The Indians of the region were Pottawatamies and Omahas, both hostile to the United States and therefore friendly to the Mormons, whom they looked upon as persecuted foes of the American nation. "On the 14th of April [1847], Brigham Young and eight apostles, at the head of 143 picked men and 70 carts laden with grain and agricultural implements, started in search of Eden in the far-west. … The 23rd of July, 1847, Orson Pratt, escorted by a small advanced guard, was the first to reach the Great Salt Lake. He was joined the following day by Brigham Young and the main body of the pioneers. That day, the 24th of July, was destined to be afterwards celebrated by the Mormons as the anniversary of their deliverance. … Brigham Young declared, by divine inspiration, that they were to establish themselves upon the borders of the Salt Lake, in this region, which was nobody's property, and wherein consequently his people could follow their religion without drawing upon themselves the hatred of any neighbours. He spent several weeks in ascertaining the nature of the country, and then fixed upon a site for the holy city. … When he had thus laid the foundations of his future empire, he set off on his return to Council Bluffs, leaving on the borders of the Salt Lake the greater portion of the companions who had followed him in his distant search. During the summer, a convoy of 566 waggons, laden with large quantities of grain, left Kanesville and followed upon the tracks of the pioneers. … On their arrival at the spot indicated by the president of the Church, they set to work without a moment's repose. Land was tilled, trees and hedges planted, and grain sown before the coming frost." The main body of the emigrants, led by Brigham Young, moved from the banks of the Missouri about the 1st of May, 1848, and arrived at the Salt Lake the following autumn.

J. Remy and J. Brenchley, Journey to Great-Salt-Lake City, book 2, chapter 4 (volume 1).

"On the afternoon of the 22d [August, 1847] a conference was held, at which it was resolved that the place should be called the City of the Great Salt Lake. The term 'Great' was retained for several years, until changed by legislative enactment. It was so named in contradistinction to Little Salt Lake, a term applied to a body of water some 200 miles to the south."

H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States, volume 21, chapter 10.

MORMONISM: A. D. 1850. Organization of the Territory of Utah.

See UTAH: A. D. 1849-1850.

MORMONISM: A. D. 1857-1859. The rebellion in Utah.

See UTAH: A. D. 1857-1859.

MORMONISM: A. D. 1894. Admission of Utah to the Union as a State.

See UTAH: A. D. 1894.

—————MORMONISM: End—————

MOROCCO.

See MAROCCO.

MORONA, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

MORRILL TARIFF, The.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION: A. D. 1861-1864 (UNITED STATES).

MORRIS, Gouverneur, The framing of the Federal Constitution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787.

The origin of the Erie Canal.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1817-1825.

MORRIS, Robert, and the finances of the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1784.

MORRIS-DANCE, The.

"Both English and foreign glossaries, observes Mr. Douce, uniformly ascribe the origin of this dance to the Moors, although the genuine Moorish or Morisco dance was, no doubt, very different from the European morris. … It has been supposed that the morris-dance was first brought into England in the reign of Edward III., and when John of Gaunt returned from Spain: but it is much more probable that we had it from our Gallic neighbours, or the Flemings."

H. Smith, Festivals, Games, etc., chapter 18.

MORRIS ISLAND, Military operations on.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JULY: SOUTH CAROLINA).

MORRIS'S PURCHASE.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1786-1799.

MORRISTOWN, N. J.: Washington in winter quarters (1777-1778).

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776-1777; and 1777 (JANUARY-DECEMBER).

MORTARA, Battle of (1849).

See ITALY; A. D. 1848-1849.

MORTEMER, Battle of.

The French army invading Normandy, A. D. 1054, was surprised by the Normans, in the town of Mortemer and utterly routed. The town was destroyed and never rebuilt.

E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, chapter 12, section 2 (volume 3).

MORTIMER'S CROSS, Battle of (1461).

One of the battles in the "Wars of the Roses," fought February 2, 1461, on a small plain called Kingsland Field, near Mortimer's Cross, in Herefordshire, England. The Yorkists, commanded by young Edward, Earl of March (soon afterwards King Edward IV.) were greatly superior in numbers to the Lancastrians, under the Earl of Pembroke, and won a complete victory.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1455-1471.

MORTMAIN, The Statute of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1279.

MORTON, Thomas, at Merrymount.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1622-1628.

MORTUATH, The.

See TUATH, THE.

MOSA, The.

The ancient name of the river Meuse.

{2235}

—————MOSCOW: Start————

MOSCOW: A. D. 1147. Origin of the city.

"The name of Moscow appears for the first time in the chronicles at the date of 1147. It is there said that the Grand Prince George Dolgorouki, having arrived on the domain of a boyard named Stephen Koutchko, caused him to be put to death on some pretext, and that, struck by the position of one of the villages situated on a height washed by the Moskowa, the very spot whereon the Kremlin now stands, he built the city of Moscow. … During the century following its foundation, Moscow remained an obscure and insignificant village of Souzdal. The chroniclers do not allude to it except to mention that it was burned by the Tartars (1237), or that a brother of Alexander Nevski, Michael of Moscow, was killed there in a battle with the Lithuanians. The real founder of the principality of the name was Daniel, a son of Alexander Nevski, who had received this small town and a few villages as his appanage. … He was followed, in due course, by his brothers George and Ivan."

A. Rambaud, History of Russia, volume 1, chapter 12.

MOSCOW: A. D. 1362-1480. Rise of the duchy which grew to be the Russian Empire.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1237-1480.

MOSCOW: A. D. 1571. Stormed and sacked by the Crim Tartars.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1569-1571.

MOSCOW: A. D. 1812. Napoleon in possession. The burning of the city.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1812 (SEPTEMBER); and (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

—————MOSCOW: End————

MOSKOWA, BORODINO, Battle of the.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER).

MOSLEM.

See ISLAM; also MAHOMETAN CONQUEST AND EMPIRE.

MOSQUITO INDIANS AND MOSQUITO COAST.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSQUITO, or MOSQUITO INDIANS; also NICARAGUA: A. D. 1850; and CENTRAL AMERICA: A. D. 1821-1871.

MOTASSEM, Al, Caliph, A. D. 833-841.

MOTAWAKKEL, Al, Caliph, A. D. 847-861.

MOTYE, Siege of.

See SYRACUSE: B. C. 397-396.

MOUGOULACHAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

MOULEY-ISMAEL, Battle of (1835).

See BARBARY STATES: A. D. 1830-1846.

MOULTRIE, Colonel, and the defense of Charleston.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (JUNE).

MOUND-BUILDERS OF AMERICA, The.

See AMERICA, PREHISTORIC.

MOUNT BADON, Battle of.

This battle was fought A. D. 520 and resulted in a crushing defeat of the West Saxons by the Britons, arresting the advance of the latter in their conquest of southwestern England for a generation. It figures in some legends among the victories of King Arthur.

J. R. Green, The Making of England, chapter 3.

MOUNT CALAMATIUS, Battle of.

See SPARTACUS, RISING OF.

MOUNT ETNA, Battle of (1849).

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

MOUNT GAURUS, Battle of.

See ROME: B. C. 343-290.

MOUNT TABOR, Battle of (1799).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (AUGUST-AUGUST).

MOUNT VESUVIUS, Battle of (B. C. 338).

See ROME: B. C. 339-338.

MOUNTAIN, The Party of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1791 (OCTOBER); 1792 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER); and after, to 1794-1795 (JULY-APRIL).

MOUNTAIN MEADOWS MASSACRE, The (1857).

See UTAH: A. D. 1857-1859.

MOURU.

See MARGIANA.

MOXO, The Great.

See EL DORADO.

MOXOS, MOJOS, The.

See BOLIVIA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS; also, AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

MOYTURA, Battle of.

Celebrated in the legendary history of Ireland and represented as a fatal defeat of the ancient people in that country called the Firbolgs by the new-coming Tuatha-de-Danaan. "Under the name of the 'Battle of the Field of the Tower' [it], was long a favourite theme of Irish song."

T. Moore, History of Ireland, chapter 5 (volume 1).

MOZARABES, MOSTARABES.

The Christian people who remained in Africa and southern Spain after the Moslem conquest, tolerated in the practice of their religion, "were called Mostarabes or Mozarabes; they adopted the Arabic language and customs. … The word is from the Arabic 'musta'rab,' which means one 'who tries to imitate or become an Arab in his manners and language.'"

H. Coppée, History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arab-Moors, book 4, chapter 3 (volume 1), with foot-note.

ALSO IN: E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 51.

MOZART HALL.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1863-1871.

MUFTI.

See SUBLIME PORTE.

MUGELLO, Battle of (A. D. 542).

See ROME: A. D. 535-553.

MUGGLETONIANS.

See RANTERS.

MUGHAL OR MOGUL EMPIRE.

See INDIA: A. D. 1399-1605.

MUGWUMPS.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1884.

MUHAJIRIN, The.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 609-632.

MUHLBERG, Battle of (1547).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1546-1552.

MÜHLDORF, OR MAHLDORF, Battle of (1322).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1314-1347.

MULATTO.

See MESTIZO.

MULE, Crompton's, The invention of.

See COTTON MANUFACTURE.

MÜLHAUSEN, Battle of (1674).

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674-1678.

MULLAGHMAST, The Massacre of.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1559-1603.

MULLIGAN, Colonel James A.: Defense of Lexington, Missouri.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JULY-SEPTEMBER: MISSOURI).

MULTAN, OR MOOLTAN: Siege and capture by the English (1848-1849).

See INDIA: A. D. 1845-1849.

MUNDA, Battle of.

See ROME: B. C. 45.

MUNDRUCU, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: TUPI.

MUNERA GLADIATORIA.

See LUDI.

—————MUNICH: Start————

MUNICH: 13th Century. First rise to importance.

See BAVARIA: A. D. 1180-1356.

MUNICH: A. D. 1632. Surrender to Gustavus Adolphus.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

MUNICH: A. D. 1743. Bombardment and capture by the Austrians.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1743.

—————MUNICH: End————

MUNICIPAL CONSTITUTIONS AND FORMS.

See COMMUNE; BOROUGH; and GUILD.

{2236}

MUNICIPAL CURIA OF THE LATER ROMAN EMPIRE.

See CURIA, MUNICIPAL.

MUNICIPIUM.

"The term Municipium appears to have been applied originally to those conquered Italian towns which Rome included in her dominion without conferring on the people the Roman suffrage and the capacity of attaining the honours of the Roman state. … If the inhabitants of such Municipia had everything Roman except the right to vote and to be eligible to the Roman magistracies, they had Commercium and Connubium. By virtue of the first, such persons could acquire property within the limits of the Roman state, and could dispose of it by sale, gift, and testament. By virtue of the second, they could contract a legal marriage with the daughter of a Roman citizen."

G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 2, chapter 14.

MUNSEES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: DELAWARES, and ALGONQUIAN FAMILY; also, MANHATTAN ISLAND.

—————MÜNSTER: Start————

MÜNSTER: A. D. 1532-1536. The reign of the Anabaptists.

See ANABAPTISTS OF MÜNSTER.

MÜNSTER: A. D. 1644-1648. Negotiation of the Peace of Westphalia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1648; and NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1646-1648.

—————MÜNSTER: End————

MUNYCHIA.

See PIRÆUS.

MUNYCHIA, Battle of (B. C. 403).

See ATHENS: B. C. 404-403.

MURA, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

MURAD V., Turkish Sultan, A. D. 1876 (MAY-AUGUST).

MURAT, King of Naples, The career of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1800-1801 (JUNE-FEBRUARY), 1806 (JANUARY-OCTOBER); GERMANY: A. D. 1806 (OCTOBER), to 1807 (FEBRUARY-JUNE); SPAIN: A. D. 1808 (MAY-SEPTEMBER); ITALY: A. D. 1808-1809; RUSSIA: A. D. 1812; GERMANY: A. D. 1812-1813, 1813 (AUGUST), to (OCTOBER); ITALY: A. D. 1814, and 1815.

MURCI.

A name given to degenerate Romans, in the later days of the Empire, who escaped military service by cutting off the fingers of their right hands.

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 17.

MURET, Battle of (A. D. 1213).

See ALBIGENSES: A. D. 1210-1213; and SPAIN: A. D. 1035-1258.

MURFREESBOROUGH, STONE RIVER, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862-1863 (DECEMBER-JANUARY: TENNESSEE).

MURRAY, The Regent, Assassination of.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1561-1568.

MURRHINE VASES.

"The highest prices were paid for the so-called Murrhine vases (vasa Murrhina) brought to Rome from the East. Pompey, after his victory over Mithridates, was the first to bring one of them to Rome, which he placed in the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter. Augustus, as is well known, kept a Murrhine goblet from Cleopatra's treasure for himself, while all her gold plate was melted. The Consularis T. Petronius, who owned one of the largest collections of rare vases, bought a basin from Murrha for 300,000 sestertii; before his death he destroyed this matchless piece of his collection, so as to prevent Nero from laying hold of it. Nero himself paid for a handled drinking-goblet from Murrha a million sestertii. Crystal vases also fetched enormous prices. There is some doubt about the material of these Murrhine vases, which is the more difficult to solve, as the only vase in existence which perhaps may lay claim to that name is too thin and fragile to allow of closer investigation. It was found in the Tyrol in 1837.

See Neue Zeitschrift des Ferdinandeums, volume v. 1839.

Pliny describes the colour of the Murrhine vases as a mixture of white and purple; according to some ancient writers, they even improved the taste of the wine drunk out of them."

E. Guhl and W. Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans, section 91.

"I believe it is now understood that the murrha of the Romans was not porcelain, as had been supposed from the line, 'Murrheaque in Parthis pocula cocta focis' (Propert. iv. 5. 26.), but an imitation in coloured glass of a transparent stone."

C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 39, foot-note.

MURSA, Battle of (A. D. 351).

See ROME: A. D. 337-361.

MUSCADINS.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794-1795 (JULY-APRIL).

MUSCULUS, The.

A huge movable covered way which the Romans employed in siege operations. Its construction, of heavy timbers, with a roof-covering of bricks, clay and hides, is described in Cæsar's account of the siege of Massilia.

Cæsar, The Civil War, book 2, chapter 10.

MUSEUM, British.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: ENGLAND.

MUSEUM OF ALEXANDRIA, The.

See ALEXANDRIA: B. C. 282-246.

MUSKHOGEES, OR MASKOKALGIS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

MUSSULMANS.

See ISLAM.

MUSTAPHA I., Turkish Sultan, A. D. 1617-1618; and 1622-1623.

Mustapha II., Turkish Sultan, 1695-1703.

Mustapha III., Turkish Sultan, 1757-1774.

Mustapha IV., Turkish Sultan, 1807-1808.

MUTA, Battle of.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 609-632.

MUTHUL, Battle of the.

See NUMIDIA: B. C. 118-104.

MUTINA, Battle of (B. C. 72).

See SPARTACUS, RISING OF.

MUTINA, Battle of (B. C. 43).

See ROME: B. C. 44-42.

MUTINA AND PARMA.

On the final conquest of Cisalpine Gaul by the Romans, about 220 B. C. the Senate planted the colonies of Mutina (Modena) and Parma on the line of the Æmilian Road and assigned the territory of the Apuans to the new colony of Luca (Lucca).

H. G. Liddell, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 41 (volume 2).

MUTINY ACTS, The English.

In 1689 the Parliament (called a Convention at first) which settled the English crown upon William of Orange and Mary, "passed the first Act for governing the army as a separate and distinct body under its own peculiar laws, called 'The Mutiny Act.' … The origin of the first Mutiny Act was this. France had declared war against Holland, who applied under the treaty of Nimeguen to England for troops. Some English regiments refused to go, and it was felt that the common law could not be employed to meet the exigency. The mutineers were for the time by military force compelled to submit, happily without bloodshed; but the necessity for soldiers to be governed by their own code and regulations became manifest. Thereupon the aid of Parliament was invoked, but cautiously. {2237} The first Mutiny Act was very short in enactments and to continue only six months. It recited that standing armies and courts martial were unknown to English law, and enacted that no soldier should on pain of death desert his colours, or mutiny. At the expiration of the six months another similar Act was passed, also only for six months: and so on until the present practice was established of regulating and governing the army, now a national institution, by an annual Mutiny Act, which is requisite for the legal existence of a recognised force, whereby frequent meeting of Parliament is indirectly secured, if only to preserve the army in existence."

W. H. Torriano, William the Third, chapter 7.

"These are the two effectual securities against military power: that no pay can be issued to the troops without a previous authorisation by the commons in a committee of supply, and by both houses in an act of appropriation; and that no officer or soldier can be punished for disobedience, nor any court-martial held, without the annual re-enactment of the mutiny bill."

H. Hallam, Constitutional History of England, chapter 15 (volume 3).

ALSO IN: Lord Macaulay, History of England, chapter 11 (volume 3).

MUTINY OF THE ENGLISH FLEET.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1797.

MUTINY OF THE PHILADELPHIA LINE.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781 (JANUARY).

MUTINY OF THE SEPOYS.

See INDIA: A. D. 1857, to 1857-1858 (JULY-JUNE).

MUYSCAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: CHIBCHAS.

MYCALE, Battle of.

See GREECE: B. C. 479.

MYCENÆ.

See GREECE: MYCENÆ: AND ITS KINGS; also ARGOS; HERACLEIDÆ; and HOMER.

MYCIANS, The.

A race, so-called by the Greeks, who lived anciently on the coast of the Indian Ocean, east of modern Kerman. They were known to the Persians as Maka.

G. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies: Persia, chapter 1.

MYLÆ, Naval battle at (B. C. 260).

See PUNIC WAR, THE FIRST.

MYONNESUS, Battle of (B. C. 190).

See SELEUCIDÆ: B. C. 224-187.

MYRMIDONS, The.

"Æakus was the son of Zeus, born of Ægina, daughter of Asopus, whom the god had carried off and brought into the island to which he gave her name. … Æakus was alone in Ægina: to relieve him from this solitude, Zeus changed all the ants in the island into men, and thus provided him with a numerous population, who, from their origin, were called Myrmidons."

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 1, chapter 10.

According to the legends, Peleus, Telamon and Phocus were the sons of Æakus; Peleus migrated, with the Myrmidons, or some part of them, to Thessaly, and from there the latter accompanied his son Achilles to Troy.

MYSIANS, The.

See PHRYGIANS.—MYSIANS.

MYSORE, The founding of the kingdom of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1767-1769.

MYSORE WARS, with Hyder Ali and Tippoo Saib.

See INDIA: A. D. 1767-1769; 1780-1783; 1785-1793; and 1798-1805.

MYSTERIES, Ancient Religious.

See ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES.

MYSTICISM. QUIETISM.

"The peculiar form of devotional religion known under these names was not, as most readers are aware, the offspring of the 17th century. It rests, in fact, on a substratum of truth which is coeval with man's being, and expresses one of the elementary principles of our moral constitution. … The system of the Mystics arose from the instinctive yearning of man's soul for communion with the Infinite and the Eternal. Holy Scripture abounds with such aspirations—the Old Testament as well as the New; but that which under the Law was 'a shadow of good things to come,' has been transformed by Christianity into a living and abiding reality. The Gospel responds to these longings for intercommunion between earth and heaven by that fundamental article of our faith, the perpetual presence and operation of God the Holy Ghost in the Church, the collective 'body of Christ,' and in the individual souls of the regenerate. But a sublime mystery like this is not incapable of misinterpretation. … The Church has ever found it a difficult matter to distinguish and adjudicate between what may be called legitimate or orthodox Mysticism and those corrupt, degrading, or grotesque versions of it which have exposed religion to reproach and contempt. Some Mystics have been canonized as saints; others, no less deservedly, have been consigned to obloquy as pestilential heretics. It was in the East—proverbially the fatherland of idealism and romance—that the earliest phase of error in this department of theology was more or less strongly developed. We find that in the 4th century the Church was troubled by a sect called Massalians or Euchites, who placed the whole of religion in the habit of mental prayer; alleging as their authority the Scripture precept 'That men ought always to pray, and not to faint.' They were for the most part monks of Mesopotamia and Syria; there were many of them at Antioch when St. Epiphanius wrote his Treatise against heresies, A. D. 376. They held that every man is from his birth possessed by an evil spirit or familiar demon, who can only be cast out by the practice of continual prayer. They disparaged the Sacraments, regarding them as things indifferent: they rejected manual labor; and, although professing to be perpetually engaged in prayer, they slept, we are told, the greater part of the day, and pretended that in that state they received revelations from above. … The Massalians did not openly separate from the Church; they were condemned, however, by two Councils—one at Antioch in 391, the other at Constantinople in 426. Delusions of the same kind were reproduced from time to time in the Oriental Church; and, as is commonly the case, the originators of error were followed by a race of disciples who advanced considerably beyond them. The Hesychasts, or Quietists of Mount Athos in the 14th century, seem to have been fanatics of an extreme type. They imagined that, by a process of profound contemplation, they could discern internally the light of the Divine Presence—the 'glory of God'—the very same which was disclosed to the Apostles on the Mount of Transfiguration. Hence they were also called Thaborites. {2238} The soul to which this privilege was vouchsafed had no need to practise any of the external acts or rites of religion. … The theory of abstract contemplation, with the extraordinary fruits supposed to be derived from it, travelled in due course into the West, and there gave birth to the far-famed school of the Mystics, of which there were various ramifications. The earliest exponent of the system in France was John Scotus Erigena, the contemporary and friend of Charles the Bald. … Erigena incurred the censures of the Holy See; but the results of his teaching were permanent. … The Mystics, or Theosophists as some style them, attained a position of high renown and influence at Paris towards the close of the 12th century. Here two of the ablest expositors of the learning of the middle age, Hugh and Richard of St. Victor, initiated crowds of ardent disciples into the mysteries of the 'via interna,' and of 'pure love'—that marvellous quality by which the soul, sublimated and etherialized, ascends into the very presence-chamber of the King of kings. … The path thus traced was trodden by many who were to take rank eventually as the most perfect masters of spiritual science; among them are the venerated names of Thomas à Kempis, St. Bonaventure, John Tauler of Strasburg, Gerson, and St. Vincent Ferrier. … But, on the other hand, it is not less true that emotional religion has been found to degenerate, in modern as well as in ancient times, into manifold forms of moral aberration. … To exalt above measure the dignity and privileges of the spiritual element in man carries with it the danger of disparaging the material part of our nature; and this results in the preposterous notion that, provided the soul be absorbed in the contemplation of things Divine, the actions of the body are unimportant and indifferent. How often the Church has combated and denounced this most insidious heresy is well known to all who have a moderate acquaintance with its history. Under the various appellations of Beghards, Fratricelli, Cathari, Spirituals, Albigenses, Illuminati, Guerinets, and Quietists, the self-same delusion has been sedulously propagated in different parts of Christendom, and with the same ultimate consequences. A revival of the last-named sect, the Quietists, took place in Spain about the year 1675, when Michel de Molinos, a priest of the diocese of Saragossa, published his treatise called 'The Spiritual Guide,' or, in the Latin translation, 'Manuductio spiritualis.' His leading principle, like that of his multifarious predecessors, was that of habitual abstraction of the mind from sensible objects, with a view to gain, by passive contemplation, not only a profound realisation of God's presence, but so perfect a communion with Him as to end in absorption into His essence. … Persons of the highest distinction—Cardinals, Inquisitors, nay, even Pope Innocent himself—were suspected of sharing these dangerous opinions. Molinos was arrested and imprisoned, and in due time the Inquisition condemned sixty-eight propositions from his works; a sentence which was confirmed by a Papal bull in August, 1687. Having undergone public penance, he was admitted to absolution; after which, in 'merciful' consideration of his submission and repentance, he was consigned for the rest of his days to the dungeons of the Holy Office. Here he died in November, 1692. … 'The principles of Quietism had struck root so deeply, that they were not to be soon dislodged either by the terrors of the Inquisition, or by the well-merited denunciations of the Vatican. The system was irresistibly fascinating to minds of a certain order. Among those who were dazzled by it was the celebrated Jeanne Marie De la Mothe Guyon," whose ardent propagation of her mystic theology in the court circles of France—where Fenelon, Madame de Maintenon, and other important personages were greatly influenced—gave rise to bitter controversies and agitations. In the end, Madame Guyon was silenced and imprisoned and Fenelon was subjected to humiliating papal censures.

W. H. Jervis, History of the Church of France, volume 2, chapter 4.

ALSO IN: R. A. Vaughan, Hours with the Mystics.

J. Bigelow, Miguel Molinos, the Quietist.

T. C. Upham, Life of M'me Guyon.

H. L. S. Lear, Fenelon, chapters 3-5.

S. E. Herrick, Some Heretics of Yesterday, chapter 1.

H. C. Lea, Chapters from the Religious History of Spain: Mystics.

MYTILENE, Siege of.

See LESBOS.

N

N. S. New Style.

See CALENDAR, GREGORIAN.

NAARDEN: A. D. 1572. Massacre by the Spaniards.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1572-1573.

NABATHEANS, The.

"Towards the seventh century B. C., the name Edomite suddenly disappears, and is used only by some of the Israelitish prophets, who, in doing so, follow ancient traditions. Instead of it is found the hitherto unknown word, Nabathean. Nevertheless the two names, Nabathean and Edomite, undoubtedly refer to the same people, dwelling in the same locality, possessing the same empire, with the same boundaries, and the same capital, Selah [Petra]. Whence arose this change of name? According to an appearances from an internal revolution, of which we have no record, a change in the royal race and in the dominant tribe."

F. Lenormant, Manual of Ancient History, book 7, chapter 4.

"This remarkable nation [the Nabatheans, or Nabatæans] has often been confounded with its eastern neighbours, the wandering Arabs, but it is more closely related to the Aramæan branch than to the proper children of Ishmael. This Aramæan or, according to the designation of the Occidentals, Syrian stock must have in very early times sent forth from its most ancient settlements about Babylon a colony, probably for the sake of trade, to the northern end of the Arabian gulf; these were the Nabatæans on the Sinaitic peninsula, between the gulf of Suez and Aila, in the region of Petra (Wadi Mousa). In their ports the wares of the Mediterranean were exchanged for those of India; the great southern caravan-route, which ran from Gaza to the mouth of the Euphrates and the Persian gulf, passed through the capital of the Nabatæans—Petra—whose still magnificent rock-palaces and rock-tombs furnish clearer evidence of the Nabatæan civilization than does an almost extinct tradition."

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 4.

ALSO IN: H. Ewald, History of Israel, volume 5, page 351.

{2239}

NABOB. NAWAB.

Under the Moghul empire, certain viceroys or governors of provinces bore the title of Nawab, as the Nawab Wuzeer or Vizier of Oude, which became in English speech Nabob, and acquired familiar use in England as a term applied to rich Anglo-Indians.

NADIR SHAH, sovereign of Persia, A. D. 1736-1747.

NAEFELS, OR NÖFELS, Battle of (1388).

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1386-1388.

Battle of (1799).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (AUGUST-DECEMBER).

NAGPUR: The British acquisition and annexation.

See INDIA: A. D. 1816-1819, and 1848-1856.

NAHANARVALI, The.

See LYGIANS.

NAHUA PEOPLES. NAHUATL.

See MEXICO, ANCIENT.

NAIRS, The.

See INDIA: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

NAISSUS, The Battle of.

See GOTHS: A. D. 268-270.

NAJARA, Battle of.

See NAVARETTE.

NAMANGAN, Battle of (1876).

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1859-1876.

NAMAQUA, The.

See SOUTH AFRICA: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

NAMNETES, NANNETES, The.

See VENETI OF WESTERN GAUL.

—————NAMUR: Start————

NAMUR: A. D. 1692. Siege and capture by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1692.

NAMUR: A. D. 1695. Siege and recovery by William of Orange.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1695-1696.

NAMUR: A. D. 1713. Ceded to Holland.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714; and NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1713-1715.

NAMUR: A. D. 1746-1748. Taken by the French and ceded to Austria.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1746-1747; and AIX-LA-CHAPELLE: CONGRESS.

—————NAMUR: End————

NANA SAHIB, and the Sepoy Revolt.

See INDIA: A. D. 1848-1856; 1857 (MAY-AUGUST); and 1857-1858 (JULY-JUNE).

NANCY: Defeat and death of Charles the Bold (1477).

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 1476-1477.

—————NANKING: Start————

NANKING: A. D. 1842. Treaty ending the Opium War and opening Chinese ports.

See CHINA: A. D. 1839-1842.

NANKING: A. D. 1853-1864. The capital of the Taiping Rebels.

See CHINA: A. D. 1850-1864.

—————NANKING: End————

—————NANTES: Start————

NANTES: Origin of the name.

See VENETI OF WESTERN GAUL.

NANTES: A. D. 1598. The Edict of Henry IV.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1598-1599.

NANTES: A. D. 1685. The Revocation of the Edict.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1681-1698.

NANTES: A. D. 1793. Unsuccessful attack by the Vendeans. The crushing of the revolt and the frightful vengeance of the Terrorists. The demoniac Carrier and his Noyades.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER); THE CIVIL WAR; and 1793-1794 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

—————NANTES: End————

NANTICOKES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

NANTWICH, Battle of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1644 (JANUARY).

NAO.

See CARAVELS.

NAPATA.

See ETHIOPIA.

—————NAPLES: Start————

NAPLES: Origin of the city.

See NEAPOLIS AND PALÆPOLIS.

NAPLES: A. D. 536-543. Siege and capture by Belisarius. Recovery by the Goths.

See ROME: A. D. 535-553.

NAPLES: A. D. 554-800. The dukedom.

See ROME: A. D. 554-800.

NAPLES: 8-9th Centuries. The duchy of Beneventum.

See BENEVENTUM; also, AMALFI.

NAPLES: A. D. 1000-1080. The Norman Conquest. Grant by the Pope as a fief of the Church.

See ITALY: A. D. 1000-1090.

NAPLES: A. D. 1127. Union of Apulia with Sicily and formation of the kingdom of Naples or the Two Sicilies.

See ITALY: A. D. 1081-1194.

NAPLES: A. D. 1282-1300. Separation from Sicily. Continuance as a separate kingdom under the House of Anjou. Adhesion to the name "Sicily."

See ITALY: A. D. 1282-1300; also, TWO SICILIES.

NAPLES: A. D. 1312-1313. Hostilities between King Robert and the Emperor, Henry VII.

See ITALY: A. D. 1310-1313.

NAPLES: A. D. 1313-1328. King Robert's leadership of the Guelf interest in Italy. His part in the wars of Tuscany.

See ITALY: A. D. 1313-1330.

NAPLES: A. D. 1343-1389. The troubled reign of Joanna I. Murder of her husband, Andrew of Hungary. Political effects of the Great Schism in the Church. War of Charles of Durazzo and Louis of Anjou. Interfering violence of Pope Urban VI.

See ITALY: A. D. 1343-1389.

NAPLES: A. D. 1386-1414. Civil war between the Durazzo and the Angevin parties. Success of Ladislas. His capture, loss, and recapture of Rome.

See ITALY: A. D. 1386-1414.

NAPLES: A. D. 1414-1447. Renewal of civil war. Defeat of the Angevins and acquisition of the crown by Alfonso, king of Aragon and Sicily. League with Florence and Venice against Milan.

See ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.

NAPLES: A. D.1447-1454. Claim of King Alfonso to the duchy of Milan. War with Milan and Florence.

See MILAN: A. D. 1447-1454.

NAPLES: A. D. 1458. Separation of the crown from those of Aragon and Sicily. Left to an illegitimate son of Alfonso. Revived French claims.

See ITALY: A. D. 1447-1480.

NAPLES: A. D. 1494-1496. Invasion and temporary conquest by Charles VIII. of France. Retreat of the French. Venetian acquisitions in Apulia.

See ITALY: A. D. 1492-1494, 1494-1496; and VENICE: A. D. 1494-1503.

NAPLES: A. D. 1501-1504. Perfidious treaty of partition between Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of Aragon. Their joint conquest. Their quarrel and war. The French expelled. The Spaniards in possession.

See ITALY: A. D. 1501-1504.

NAPLES: A. D. 1504-1505. Relinquishment of French claims.

See ITALY: A. D. 1504-1506.

NAPLES: A. D. 1508-1509. The League of Cambrai against Venice.

See VENICE: A. D. 1508-1509.

NAPLES: A. D. 1528. Siege by the French and successful defense.

See ITALY: A. D. 1527-1529.

NAPLES: A. D. 1528-1570. Under the Spanish viceroys. Ravages of the Turks along the coast. The blockade and peril of the city. Revolt against the Inquisition. Alva's repulse of the French.

See ITALY: A. D. 1528-1570; and FRANCE: A. D. 1547-1559.

{2240}

NAPLES: A. D. 1544. Repeated renunciation of the claims of Francis I.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1532-1547.

NAPLES: A. D. 1647-1654. Revolt of Masaniello. Undertakings of the Duke of Guise and the French.

See ITALY: A. D. 1646-1654.

NAPLES: A. D. 1713. The kingdom ceded to the House of Austria.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

NAPLES: A. D. 1734-1735. Occupation by the Spaniards. Cession to Spain, with Sicily, forming a kingdom for Don Carlos, the first of the Neapolitan Bourbons.

See ITALY: A. D. 1715-1735; and FRANCE: A. D. 1733-1735.

NAPLES: A. D. 1742. The neutrality of the kingdom in the War of the Austrian Succession enforced by England.

See ITALY: A. D. 1741-1743.

NAPLES: A. D. 1744. The War of the Austrian Succession. Neutrality broken.

See ITALY: A. D. 1744.

NAPLES: A. D. 1749-1792. Under the Spanish-Bourbon regime.

See ITALY: A. D. 1749-1792.

NAPLES: A. D. 1769. Seizure of Papal territory. Demand for the suppression of the Order of the Jesuits.

See JESUITS: A. D. 1761-1769.

NAPLES: A. D. 1793. Joined in the Coalition against Revolutionary France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).

NAPLES: A. D. 1796. Armistice with Bonaparte. Treaty of Peace.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER), and (OCTOBER).

NAPLES: A. D. 1798-1799. The king's attack upon the French at Rome. His defeat and flight. French occupation of the capital. Creation of the Parthenopeian Republic.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL).

NAPLES: A. D. 1799. Expulsion of the French. Restoration of the king.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (AUGUST-DECEMBER).

NAPLES: A. D. 1800-1801. The king's assistance to the Allies. Saved from Napoleon's vengeance by the intercession of the Russian Czar. Treaty of Foligno.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1800-1801 (JUNE-FEBRUARY).

NAPLES: A. D. 1805 (April). Joined in the Third Coalition against France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1805 (JANUARY-APRIL).

NAPLES: A. D. 1805-1806. Napoleon's edict of dethronement against the king and queen. Its enforcement by French arms. Joseph Bonaparte made king of the Two Sicilies.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1805-1806 (DECEMBER-SEPTEMBER)

NAPLES: A. D. 1808. The crown resigned by Joseph Bonaparte (now king of Spain), and conferred on Joachim Murat.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1808 (MAY-SEPTEMBER).

NAPLES: A. D. 1808-1809. Murat on the throne. Expulsion of the English from Capri. Popular discontent. Rise of the Carbonari. Civil war in Calabria.

See ITALY: A. D. 1808-1809.

NAPLES: A. D. 1814. Desertion of Napoleon by Murat. His treaty with the Allies.

See ITALY: A. D. 1814.

NAPLES: A. D. 1815. Murat's attempt to head an Italian national movement. His downfall and fate. Restoration of the Bourbon Ferdinand.

See ITALY: A. D. 1815.

NAPLES: A. D. 1815. Accession to the Holy Alliance.

See HOLY ALLIANCE.

NAPLES: A. D. 1820-1821. Insurrection. Concession of a Constitution. Perjury and duplicity of the king. Intervention of Austria to overthrow the Constitution. Merciless re-establishment of despotism.

See ITALY: A. D. 1820-1821.

NAPLES: A. D. 1820-1822. The Congresses of Troppau, Laybach and Verona. Austrian intervention sanctioned.

See VERONA, THE CONGRESS OF.

NAPLES: A. D. 1830. Death of Francis I. Accession of Ferdinand II.

See ITALY: A. D.1830-1832.

NAPLES: A. D. 1848. Abortive revolt.

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

NAPLES: A. D. 1859-1861. Death of Ferdinand II. Accession of Francis II. The overthrow of his kingdom by Garibaldi. Its absorption in the kingdom of Italy.

See ITALY: A. D. 1856-1859; and 1859-1861.

—————NAPLES: End————

NAPO, QUIJO, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

NAPOLEON I.: His career.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER); and 1795 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER), to 1815 (JUNE-AUGUST).

NAPOLEON III.: His career as conspirator, President of the French Republic, and Emperor.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1830-1840; and 1848 (APRIL-DECEMBER), to 1870 (SEPTEMBER).

—————NARBONNE: Start————

NARBONNE: Founding of the city.

"In the year B. C. 118 it was proposed to settle a Roman colony in the south of France at Narbo (Narbonne). … The Romans must have seized some part of this country, or they could not have made a colony, which implies the giving of land to settlers. Narbo was an old native town which existed at least as early as the latter part of the sixth century before the Christian era. … The possession of Narbo gave the Romans easy access to the fertile valley of the Garonne, and it was not long before they took and plundered Tolosa (Toulouse), which is on that river. … Narbo also commanded the road into Spain."

G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 1, chapter 22.

NARBONNE: A. D. 437. Besieged by the Goths.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 419-451.

NARBONNE: A. D. 525-531. The capital of the Visigoths.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 507-711.

NARBONNE: A. D. 719. Capture and occupation by the Moslems.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 715-732.

NARBONNE: A. D. 752-759. Siege and recovery from the Moslems.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 752-759.

—————NARBONNE: End————

NARISCI, The.

See MARCOMANNI.

NARRAGANSETTS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY; RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1636; and NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1637, 1674-1675, 1675, and 1676-1678.

NARSES, Campaigns of.

See ROME: A. D. 535-553.

NARVA, Siege and Battle of (1700).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1697-1700.

NARVAEZ, Expedition of.

See FLORIDA: A. D. 1528-1542.

NASEBY, Battle of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1645 (JUNE).

—————NASHVILLE, Tennessee: Start————

NASHVILLE, Tennessee: A. D. 1779-1784. Origin and name of the city.

See TENNESSEE: A. D. 1785-1796.

{2241}

NASHVILLE, Tennessee: A. D. 1862. Occupied by the Union forces.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY: KENTUCKY-TENNESSEE); and (FEBRUARY-APRIL: TENNESSEE).

NASHVILLE, Tennessee: A. D. 1864. Under siege. Defeat of Hood's army.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A D. 1864 (DECEMBER: TENNESSEE).

—————NASHVILLE, Tennessee: End————

NASI, The.

This was the title of the President of the Jewish Sanhedrin.

NASR-ED-DEEN, Shah of Persia, A. D. 1848-.

NASSAU, The House of.

"We find an Otho, Count of Nassau, so long ago as the beginning of the 10th century, employed as general under the Emperor Henry I … in subduing a swarm of savage Hungarians, who for many years had infested Germany. … The same fortunate warrior had a principal hand afterwards in reducing the Vandals, Danes, Sclavonians, Dalmatians, and Bohemians. Among the descendants of Otho of Nassau, Walram I and III more particularly distinguished themselves in the cause of the German Emperors; the former under the victorious Otho I, the latter under Conrad II. It was to these faithful services of his progenitors that, in a great measure, were owing the large possessions of Henry, surnamed the Rich, third in descent from the last mentioned Walram, and grandfather to the brave but unhappy Emperor Adolphus [deposed and slain at the battle of Gelheim, in 1298.]

See GERMANY: A. D. 1273-1308.

The accession, by marriage, of Breda, Vianden, and other lordships in the Netherlands, gave the Nassaus such a weight in those provinces that John II of Nassau-Dillemburg, and his son Engelbert II, were both successively appointed Governors of Brabant by the Sovereigns of that State [Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, and his son-in-law, the Emperor Maximilian]. … The last, who was likewise honoured with the commission of Maximilian I's Lieutenant-General in the Low-Countries, immortalized his fame, at the same time that he secured his master's footing there, by the glorious victory of Guinegaste,"—or Guinegate, or the "Battle of the Spurs."

See FRANCE: A. D. 1513—1515.

J. Breval, History of the House of Nassau, pages 2-3.

Engelbert II. dying childless, "was succeeded by his brother John, whose two sons, Henry and William, of Nassau, divided the great inheritance after their father's death. William succeeded to the German estates, became a convert to Protestantism, and introduced the Reformation into his dominions. Henry, the eldest son, received the family possessions and titles in Luxembourg, Brabant, Flanders and Holland, and distinguished himself as much as his uncle Engelbert, in the service of the Burgundo-Austrian house. The confidential friend of Charles V., whose governor he had been in that Emperor's boyhood, he was ever his most efficient and reliable adherent. It was he whose influence placed the imperial crown upon the head of Charles. In 1515 he espoused Claudia de Chalons, sister of Prince Philibert of Orange, 'in order,' as he wrote to his father, 'to be obedient to his imperial Majesty, to please the King of France, and more particularly for the sake of his own honor and profit.' His son Rene de Nassau-Chalons succeeded Philibert. The little principality of Orange, so pleasantly situated between Provence and Dauphiny, but in such, dangerous proximity to the seat of the 'Babylonian captivity' of the popes at Avignon, thus passed to the family of Nassau. The title was of high antiquity. Already in the reign of Charlemagne, Guillaume au Court-Nez, or 'William with the Short Nose,' had defended the little town of Orange against the assaults of the Saracens. The interest and authority acquired in the demesnes thus preserved by his valor became extensive, and in process of time hereditary in his race. The principality became an absolute and free sovereignty, and had already descended, in defiance of the Salic law, through the three distinct families of Orange, Baux, and Chalons. In 1544, Prince Rene died at the Emperor's feet in the trenches of Saint Dizier. Having no legitimate children, he left all his titles and estates to his cousin-german, William of Nassau [the great statesman and soldier, afterwards known as William the Silent], son of his father's brother William, who thus at the age of eleven years became William the Ninth of Orange."

J. L. Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic, part 2, chapter 1 (volume 1).

The Dutch branch of the House of Nassau is now represented by the royal family of Holland. The possessions of the German branch, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, after frequent partitioning, was finally gathered into a duchy, which Prussia extinguished and absorbed in 1866.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.

ALSO IN: E. A. Freeman, Orange (Macmillan's Magazine, February, 1875).

Baron Maurier, Lives of all the Princes of Orange.

See, also, ORANGE; and GUELDERLAND: A. D. 1079-1473.

NAT TURNER'S INSURRECTION.

See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D. 1828-1832.

—————NATAL: Start————

NATAL: The Name.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1486-1806.

NATAL: A. D. 1834-1843. Founding of the colony as a Dutch republic. Its absorption in the British dominions.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1806-1881.

—————NATAL: End————

NATALIA, Queen of Servia.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: A. D. 1879-1889.

NATCHEZ, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: NATCHESAN FAMILY, and MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

NATCHEZ: A. D. 1862. Taken by the National forces.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MAY-JULY: ON THE MISSISSIPPI).

NATCHITOCHES, The.

See TEXAS: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, French Revolution.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1789 (JUNE).

NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, German Revolution.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1848 (MARCH-SEPTEMBER).

NATIONAL BANK SYSTEM.

See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1861-1878.

NATIONAL CONVENTION, French, End of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

NATIONAL LIBRARY OF FRANCE.

See LIBRARIES, MODERN: FRANCE.

NATIONAL REPUBLICAN PARTY OF THE UNITED STATES.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1825-1828.

NATIONALISTS, OR HOME RULERS, Irish.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1885-1886.

{2242}

NATIONALITY, The Principle of.

"Among the French a nationality is regarded as the work of history, ratified by the will of man. The elements composing it may be very different in their origin. The point of departure is of little importance; the only essential thing is the point reached. The Swiss nationality is the most complete. It embraces three families of people, each of which speaks its own language. Moreover, since the Swiss territory belongs to three geographical regions, separated by high mountains, Switzerland, which has vanquished the fatality of nature, from both the ethnographical and geographical point of view, is a unique and wonderful phenomenon. But she is a confederation, and for a long time has been a neutral country. Thus her constitution has not been subjected to the great ordeal of fire and sword. France, despite her diverse races—Celtic, German, Roman, and Basque—has formed a political entity that most resembles a moral person. The Bretons and Alsacians, who do not all understand the language of her government, have not been the least devoted of her children in the hour of tribulation. Among the great nations France is the nation par excellence. Elsewhere the nationality blends, or tends to blend, with the race, a natural development and, hence, one devoid of merit. All the countries that have not been able to unite their races into a nation, have a more or less troubled existence. Prussia has not been able to nationalize (that is the proper word to use) her Polish subjects; hence she has a Polish question, not to mention at present any other. England has an Irish question. Both Turkey and Austria have a number of such questions. Groups of people in various parts of the Austrian Empire demand from the Emperor that they may be allowed to live as Germans, Hungarians, Tsechs, Croatians, in fact, even as Italians. They do not revolt against him; on the contrary, each of them offers him a crown. The time is, however, past when a single head can wear several crowns; to-day every crown is heavy. These race claims are not merely a cause of internal troubles; the agitations that they arouse may lead to great wars. Evidently no state will ever interpose between Ireland and England, but, while quarrels take place between Germans and Slavs, there will intervene the two conflicting forces of Pan-Germanism and Pan-Slavism, formidable results and final consequences of ethnographical patriotism. Pan-Germanism and Pan-Slavism are, indeed, not forces officially acknowledged and organized. The Emperor of Germany can honestly deny that he is a Pan-Germanist, and the Tsar that he is a Pan-Slavist. Germans and Slavs of Austria, and Slavs of the Balkans, may, for their part, desire to remain Austrian or independent, as they are to-day. It is none the less true, however, that there is in Europe an old quarrel between two great races, that each of them is represented by a powerful empire, and that these empires cannot forever remain unconcerned about the quarrels of the two races. … The chief application of the principle of nationality has been the formation of the Italian and German nations. In former times the existence, in the centre of the Continent, of two objects of greed was a permanent cause of war. Will the substitution of two important states for German anarchy and Italian polyarchy prove a guaranty of future peace?"

E. Lavisse, General View of the Political History of Europe, chapter 5, sections 6-7.

NATIONALRATH, The.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1848-1890.

NATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITIES.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL.

NATIVE STATES OF INDIA.

See INDIA: A. D. 1877.

NATIVI.

See SLAVERY, MEDIÆVAL, &c.: ENGLAND.

NAUARCHI.

The title given in ancient Sparta to the commanders of the fleet. At Athens "the term Nauarchi seems to have been officially applied only to the commanders of the so-called sacred triremes."

G. Schömann, Antiquities of Greece: The State, part 3, chapters 1, and 3.

NAUCRATIS.

See NAUKRATIS.

NAUKRARIES.

See PHYLÆ.

NAUKRATIS.

"Naukratis was for a long time the privileged port [in Egypt] for Grecian commerce with Egypt. No Greek merchant was permitted to deliver goods in any other part (port), or to enter any other of the mouths of the Nile except the Kanôpic. If forced into any of them by stress of weather, he was compelled to make oath that his arrival was a matter of necessity, and to convey his goods round by sea into the Kanôpic branch to Naukratis; and if the weather still forbade such a proceeding, the merchandise was put into barges and conveyed round to Naukratis by the internal canals of the delta. Such a monopoly, which made Naukratis in Egypt something like Canton in China or Nangasaki in Japan, no longer subsisted in the time of Herodotus. … At what precise time Naukratis first became licensed for Grecian trade, we cannot directly make out. But there seems reason to believe that it was the port to which the Greek merchants first went, so soon as the general liberty of trading with the country was conceded to them; and this would put the date of such grant at least as far back as the foundation of Kyrene, … about 630 B. C., during the reign of Psammetichus. … [About a century later, Amasis] sanctioned the constitution of a formal and organised emporium or factory, invested with commercial privileges, and armed with authority exercised by presiding officers regularly chosen. This factory was connected with, and probably grew out of, a large religious edifice and precinct, built at the joint cost of nine Grecian cities: four of them Ionic,—Chios, Teos, Phokæa and Klazomenæ; four Doric,—Rhodes, Knidus, Halikarnassus, and Phaselis; and one Æolic,—Mitylene. By these nine cities the joint temple and factory was kept up and its presiding magistrates chosen; but its destination, for the convenience of Grecian commerce generally, seems revealed by the imposing title of The Hellênion."

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 20.

The site of Naukratis has been determined lately by the excavations of Mr. W. M. Flinders Petrie, begun in 1885, the results of which are appearing in the publications of the "Egypt Exploration Fund." The ruins of the ancient city are found buried under a mound called Nebireh. Its situation was west of the Canobic branch of the Nile, on a canal which connected it with that stream.

See EGYPT: B. C. 670-525.

NAULOCHUS, Battle of.

A naval battle fought near Naulochus, on the coast of Sicily, in which Agrippa, commanding for the triumvir Octavius, defeated and destroyed the fleet of Sextus Pompeius, B. C. 36.

C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 27.

{2243}

NAUMACHIÆ.

The naumachiæ of the Romans were structures resembling excavated amphitheatres, but having the large central space filled with water, for the representation of naval combats. "The great Naumachia of Augustus was 1,800 feet long and 1,200 feet broad."

R. Burn. Rome and the Campagna, introduction.

NAUPACTUS.

See MESSENIAN WAR, THE THIRD; and GREECE: B. C. 357-336.

NAUPACTUS, Battle of (B. C. 429).

See GREECE: B. C. 429-427.

NAUPACTUS, Treaty of.

A treaty, concluded B. C. 217, which terminated what was called the Social War, between the Achæan League, joined with Philip of Macedonia, and the Ætolian League, in alliance with Sparta.

C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapter 63.

ALSO IN: E. A. Freeman, History of Federal Government, chapter 8, section 1.

NAUPLIA.

See ARGOS.

NAURAGHI.

See SARDINIA, THE ISLAND: NAME AND EARLY HISTORY.

NAUSETS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

NAUVOO, The Mormon city of.

See MORMONISM: A. D. 1830-1846, and 1846-1848.

NAVAJOS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ATHAPASCAN FAMILY and APACHE GROUP.

NAVARETTE NAJARA, Battle of.

Won, April 3, 1367, by the English Black Prince over a Spanish and French army, in a campaign undertaken to restore Peter the Cruel to the throne of Castile.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1366-1369, and FRANCE: A. D. 1360-1380.

—————NAVARINO: Start————

NAVARINO: B. C. 425. An ancient episode in the harbor.

See GREECE: B. C. 425.

NAVARINO: A. D. 1686. Taken by the Venetians.

See TURKS: A. D. 1684-1696.

NAVARINO: A. D. 1827. Battle and destruction of the Turkish fleet.

See GREECE: A. D. 1821-1829.

—————NAVARINO: End————

—————NAVARRE: Start———— NAVARRE: Aboriginal inhabitants.

See BASQUES.

NAVARRE: Origin of the kingdom.

"No historical subject is wrapt in greater obscurity than the origin and early history of the kingdom of Navarre. Whether, during a great portion of the eighth and ninth centuries, the country was independent or tributary; and, if dependent, whether it obeyed the Franks, the Asturians, or the Arabs, or successively all three, are speculations which have long exercised the pens of the peninsular writers. … It seems undoubted that, in just dread of the Mohammedan domination, the inhabitants of these regions, as well as those of Catalonia, applied for aid to the renowned emperor of the Franks [Charlemagne]; and that he, in consequence, in 778, poured his legions into Navarre, and seized Pamplona. It seems no less certain that, from this period, he considered the country as a fief of his crown; and that his pretensions, whether founded in violence or in the voluntary submission of the natives, gave the highest umbrage to the Asturian kings: the feudal supremacy thenceforth became an apple of discord between the two courts, each striving to gain the homage of the local governors. … Thus things remained until the time of Alfonso III., who … endeavoured to secure peace both with Navarre and France by marrying a princess related to both Sancho Iñigo, count of Bigorre, and to the Frank sovereign, and by consenting that the province should be held as an immovable fief by that count. This Sancho Iñigo, besides his lordship of Bigorre, for which he was the vassal of the French king, had domains in Navarre, and is believed, on apparently good foundation, to have been of Spanish descent. He is said, however, not to have been the first count of Navarre; that his brother Aznar held the fief before him, nominally dependent on king Pepin, but successfully laying the foundation of Navarrese independence. If the chronology which makes Sancho succeed Aznar in 836, and the event itself, be correct, Alfonso only confirmed the count in the lordship. In this case, the only remaining difficulty is to determine whether the fief was held from Charles or Alfonso. … But whichever of the princes was acknowledged for the time the lord paramount of the province, there can be little doubt that both governor and people were averse to the sway of either; both had long aspired to independence, and that independence was at hand. The son of this Sancho Iñigo was Garcia, father of Sancho Garces, and the first king of Navarre [assuming the crown about 885-891]; the first, at least, whom … historic criticism can admit."

S. A. Dunham, History of Spain and Portugal, book 3, section 2, chapter 2.

See, also, SPAIN: A. D. 713-910.

NAVARRE: A. D. 1026. Acquisition of the crown of Castile by King Sancho el Mayor.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1026-1230.

NAVARRE: A. D. 1234. Succession of Thibalt, Count of Champagne, to the throne.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1212-1238.

NAVARRE: A. D. 1284-1328. Union with France, and separation.

In 1284, the marriage of Jeanne, heiress of the kingdom of Navarre and of the counties of Champagne and Brie, to Philip IV. of France, united the crown of Navarre to that of France. They were separated in 1328, on the death of her last surviving son, Charles IV., without male issue. Philip of Valois secured the French crown, under the so called Salic law, but that of Navarre passed to Jeanne's grand-daughter, of her own name.

NAVARRE: A. D. 1442-1521. Usurpation of John II. of Aragon. The House of Foix and the D'Albrets. Conquest by Ferdinand. Incorporation in the kingdom of Castile.

Blanche, daughter of Charles III. of Navarre and heiress of the kingdom, married John II. of Aragon, to whom she gave three children, namely, Don Carlos, or Charles, "who, as heir apparent, bore the title of Prince of Viana, and two daughters, Blanche and Eleanor. Don Carlos is known by his virtues and misfortunes. At the death of his mother Blanche [1442], he should have succeeded to the throne of Navarre; but John II. was by no means disposed to relinquish the title which he had acquired by marriage, and Carlos consented to be his father's viceroy. But even this dignity he was not permitted to enjoy unmolested." Persecuted through life, sometimes imprisoned, sometimes in exile, he died at the age of forty, in 1461.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1368-1479.

{2244}

"By the death of Don Carlos, the succession to the crown of Navarre devolved to his sister Blanche, the divorced wife of Henry IV. of Castile; and that amiable princess now became an object of jealousy not only to her father but also to her younger sister, Eleanor, married to the Count of Foix, to whom John II. had promised the reversion of Navarre after his own death. Gaston de Foix, the offspring of this union, had married a sister of Louis XI.; and it had been provided in a treaty between that monarch and John II., that in order to secure the succession of the House of Foix to Navarre, Blanche should be delivered into the custody of her sister. John executed this stipulation without remorse. Blanche was conducted to the Castle of Orthès in Bearn (April 1462), where, after a confinement of nearly two years, she was poisoned by order of her sister Eleanor." After committing this crime, the latter waited nearly fifteen years for the crown which it was expected to win, and then enjoyed it but three weeks. Her father reigned until the 20th of January, 1479, when he died; the guilty daughter soon followed him. "After Eleanor's brief reign … the blood-stained sceptre of Navarre passed to her grandson Phœbus, 1479, who, however, lived only four years, and was succeeded by his sister Catherine. Ferdinand and Isabella [now occupying the thrones of Aragon and Castile] endeavoured to effect a marriage between Catherine and their own heir; but this scheme was frustrated by Magdalen, the queen-mother, a sister of Louis XI. of France, who brought about a match between her daughter and John d'Albret, a French nobleman who had large possessions on the borders of Navarre (1485). Nevertheless the Kings of Spain supported Catherine and her husband against her uncle, John de Foix, viscount of Narbonne, who pretended to the Navarese crown on the ground that it was limited to male heirs; and after the death of John, the alliance with Spain was drawn still closer by the avowed purpose of Louis XII. to support his nephew, Gaston de Foix, in the claims of his father. After the fall of that young hero at Ravenna [see ITALY: A. D. 1510-1513], his pretensions to the throne of Navarre devolved to his sister, Germaine de Foix, the second wife of King Ferdinand [see SPAIN: A. D. 1496-1517], an event which entirely altered the relations between the courts of Spain and Navarre. Ferdinand had now an interest in supporting the claims of the house of Foix-Narbonne; and Catherine, who distrusted him, despatched in May 1512, plenipotentiaries to the French court to negotiate a treaty of alliance." But it was too late. Ferdinand had already succeeded in diverting to Navarre an expedition which his son-in-law, Henry VIII. of England, acting in the Holy League against Louis XII., which Ferdinand now joined (see ITALY: A. D. 1510-1513), had sent against Guienne. With this aid he took possession of Upper Navarre. "In the following year, he effected at Orthès a year's truce with Louis XII. (April 1st 1513), by which Louis sacrificed his ally, the King of Navarre, and afterwards, by renewing the truce, allowed Ferdinand permanently to settle himself in his new conquest. The States of Navarre had previously taken the oath of allegiance to Ferdinand as their King, and on the 15th of June 1515, Navarre was incorporated into the kingdom of Castile by the solemn act of the Cortès. The dominions of John d'Albret and Catherine were now reduced to the little territory of Bearn, but they still retained the title of sovereigns of Navarre." Six years later, in 1521, the French invaded Navarre and overran the whole kingdom. "Pampeluna alone, animated by the courage of Ignatius Loyola, made a short resistance. To this siege, the world owes the Order of the Jesuits. Loyola, whose leg had been shattered by a cannon ball, found consolation and amusement during his convalescence in reading the lives of the saints, and was thus thrown into that state of fanatical exaltation which led him to devote his future life to the service of the Papacy." Attempting to extend their invasion beyond Navarre, the French were defeated at Esquiros and driven back, losing the whole of their conquests.

T. H. Dyer, History of Modern Europe, book 1, chapters 4 and 7, and book 2, chapter 3 (volume 1).

ALSO IN: W. H. Prescott, History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, chapters 2 and 23 (volumes 1 and 3).

NAVARRE: A. D. 1528-1563. The kingdom remaining on the French side of the Pyrenees. Jeanne d'Albret's Bourbon marriage and the issue of it. Establishment of Protestantism in Béarn.

Besides the Spanish province which Ferdinand the Catholic appropriated and joined to Castile, and which gave its name to the Kingdom of Navarre, "that kingdom embraced a large tract of country lying on the French side of the Pyrenees, including the principality of Béarn and the counties of Foix, Armagnac, Albret, Bigorre, and Comminges. Catherine de Foix, the heiress of this kingdom, had in 1491 carried it by marriage into the house of D'Albret. Henry, the second king of Navarre belonging to this house, was in 1528 united to Marguerite d'Angoulême, the favourite and devoted sister of Francis I. of France. Pampeluna, the ancient capital of their kingdom, being in the hands of the King of Spain, Henry and Marguerite held their Court at Nérac, the chief town of the duchy belonging to the family of D'Albret. It was at Nérac that Marguerite, herself more than half a Huguenot, opened an asylum to her persecuted fellow-countrymen [see PAPACY: A. D. 1521-1535]. Farel, Calvin, Beza sought temporary refuge and found glad welcome there, while to Lefevre, Clement Marot, and Gerard Roussel it became a second home. Marguerite died in 1549, leaving only one child, a daughter, who, in the event of her father having no issue by any second marriage, became heiress to the crown of Navarre. Born in 1528, Jeanne d'Albret had early and bitter experience of what heirship to such a crown involved. The Emperor Charles V. was believed to have early fixed his eye on her as a fit consort for Philip, his son and successor." To prevent this marriage, she was shut up for years, by her uncle, the French king, Francis I., in the gloomy castle of Plessis-les-Tours. When she was twelve years old he affianced her to the Duke of Cleves, notwithstanding her vigorous protests; but the alliance was subsequently broken off. "The next hand offered to Jeanne, and which she accepted, was that of Antoine, elder brother of the Prince of Condé, and head of the Bourbon family. They were married in 1548, a year after the death of Francis I., and a year before that of his sister Marguerite, Jeanne's mother. The marriage was an unfortunate one. Ambitious, yet weak and vain; frivolous and vacillating, yet headstrong and impetuous, faithless to his wife, faithless to his principles, faithless to his party, Antoine became the butt and victim of the policy of the Court. But though unfortunate in so many respects, this marriage gave to France, if not the greatest, the most fortunate, the most popular, the most beloved of all her monarchs"—namely, Henry IV.—Henry of Navarre—the first of the Bourbon dynasty of French kings. {2245} "Antoine of Navarre died at the siege of Rouen in 1562. The first use that the Queen made of the increased measure of freedom she thus acquired was to publish an edict establishing the Protestant and interdicting the exercise of the Roman Catholic worship in Béarn. So bold an act by so weak a sovereign—by one whose political position was so perilous and insecure—drew down upon her the instant and severe displeasure of the Pope," who issued against her a Bull of excommunication, in October, 1563, and assumed the right to dispose of her kingdom. This assumption was more than the French Court could permit. "The Pope had to give way, and the Bull was expunged from the ecclesiastical ordinances of the Pontificate."

W. Hanna, The Wars of the Huguenots, chapter 4.

NAVARRE: A. D. 1568-1569. The queen joins the Huguenots in France, with Prince Henry. Invasion by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1563-1570.

NAVARRE: A. D. 1620-1622. Protestant intolerance. Enforcement of Catholic rights. The kingdom incorporated and absorbed in France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1620-1622.

NAVARRE: A. D. 1876. Disappearance of the last municipal and provincial privileges of the old kingdom.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1873-1885.

—————NAVARRE: End————

NAVE. NAVIO.

See CARAVELS.

—————NAVIGATION LAWS: Start————

NAVIGATION LAWS: A. D. 1651. The first English Act.

"After the triumph of the parliamentary cause [in the English Civil War], great numbers of the royalists had sought refuge in Virginia, Barbadoes, and the other West India settlements; so that the white population of these dependencies was in general fiercely opposed to the new government, and they might be said to be in a state of rebellion after all the rest of the empire had been reduced to submission and quiet. Barbadoes, indeed, had actually received Lord Willoughby as governor under a commission from Charles II., then in Holland, and had proclaimed Charles as king. It was in these circumstances that the English parliament in 1651, with the view of punishing at once the people of the colonies and the Dutch, who had hitherto enjoyed the greater part of the carrying-trade between the West Indies and Europe, passed their famous Navigation Act, declaring that no merchandise either of Asia, Africa, or America, except only such as should be imported directly from the place of its growth or manufacture in Europe, should be imported into England, Ireland, or any of the plantations, in any but English-built ships, belonging either to English or English-plantation subjects, navigated by English commanders, and having at least three-fourths of the sailors Englishmen. It was also further enacted that no goods of the growth, production, or manufacture of any country in Europe should be imported into Great Britain except in British ships, or in such ships as were the real property of the people of the country or place in which the goods were produced, or from which they could only be, or most usually were, exported. Upon this law, which was re-enacted after the Restoration, and which down to our own day has been generally regarded and upheld as the palladium of our commerce, and the maritime Magna Charta of England, we shall only at present observe that one of its first consequences was undoubtedly the war with Holland which broke out the year after it was passed."

G. L. Craik, History of British Commerce, chapter 7 (volume 2).

ALSO IN: Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, book 4, chapter 2.

J. A. Blanqui, History of Political Economy, chapter 29.

NAVIGATION LAWS: A. D. 1660-1672. Effect upon the American colonies, and their relation to Great Britain.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1651-1672.

NAVIGATION LAWS: A. D. 1849. Complete repeal of the British restrictive Acts.

"The question of the navigation laws was … brought forward [in the British Parliament, at the commencement of the session of 1849] … with a fair prospect of being settled!" The stringency of the original act of 1651 had been "slightly mitigated by another act passed in the reign of Charles II.; but the modifications thus introduced were of slight importance. A farther relaxation, made at the conclusion of the war of independence, allowed the produce of the United States to be imported in ships belonging to citizens of those states. The last amendment of the original law was obtained in the year 1825 by Mr. Huskisson, who made some important changes in it. The law, then, which the legislature had to reconsider in the year 1849 stood thus: the produce of Asia, Africa, and America might be imported from places out of Europe into the United Kingdom, if to be used therein, in foreign as well us in British ships, provided that such ships were the ships of the country of which the goods were the produce, and from which they were imported. Goods which were the produce of Europe, and which were not enumerated in the act, might be brought thence in the ships of any country. Goods sent to or from the United Kingdom to any of its possessions, or from one colony to another, must be carried in British ships, or in ships of the country in which they were produced and from which they were imported. Then followed some stringent definitions of the conditions which constituted a vessel a British ship in the sense of the act. These restrictions were not without their defenders. Even the great founder of economic science, Adam Smith, while admitting that the navigation laws were inconsistent with that perfect freedom of trade which he contended for, sanctioned their continuance on the ground that defence is much more important than opulence. But as it was more and more strongly felt that these laws were part and parcel of that baneful system of monopoly which, under the name of protection, had so long been maintained and was now so completely exploded, it began also to be seriously doubted whether they were necessary to the defence of the nation. … Therefore, on the 14th of February in this year, Mr. Labouchere, as president of the board of trade, proposed a resolution on the subject couched in the following terms: 'That it is expedient to remove the restrictions which prevent the free carriage of goods by sea to and from the United Kingdom and the British possessions abroad, and to amend the laws regulating the coasting trade of the United Kingdom, subject nevertheless to such control by her Majesty in council as may be necessary; and also to amend the laws for the registration of ships and seamen.' {2246} A long debate took place on the question of the second reading of the government measure. … 214 members followed Mr. Disraeli into the lobby, while 275 voted with the government, which therefore had a majority of 61. In the upper house Lord Brougham astonished friend and foe by coming forward as the strenuous and uncompromising opponent of the ministerial measure. … The second reading was carried by a majority of 10. The smallness of this majority caused some anxiety to the supporters of the measure with regard to its ultimate fate; but this anxiety was relieved by the withdrawal of the most conspicuous opponents of the bill, which consequently passed without farther opposition."

W. N. Molesworth, History of England, 1830-1874, volume 2, chapter 5.

ALSO IN: J. D. J. Kelley, The Question of Ships, chapter 4.

S. Walpole, History of England from 1815, chapter 20 (volume 4).

—————NAVIGATION LAWS: End—————

NAWAB-VIZIER, NEWAB-WU-ZEER, of Oude.

See OUDE; also NABOB.

—————NAXOS: Start————

NAXOS: B. C. 490. Destruction by the Persians.

See GREECE: B. C. 490.

NAXOS: B. C. 466. Revolt from the Delian Confederacy. Subjugation by Athens.

See ATHENS: B. C. 470-466.

NAXOS: B. C. 376. Battle between the Spartans and Athenians.

A battle was fought in September, B. C. 376, off Naxos, between a Lacedæmonian fleet of 60 triremes and an Athenian fleet of 80. Forty-nine of the former were disabled or captured. "This was the first great victory … which the Athenians had gained at sea since the Peloponnesian war."

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 77.

NAXOS: A. D. 1204-1567. The mediæval dukedom.

"In the partition of the [Byzantine] empire [after the conquest of Constantinople, in 1204, by the Crusaders and the Venetians], the twelve islands of the Archipelago, which had formed the theme of the Egean sea in the provincial division of the Byzantine empire, fell to the share of the crusading barons; but Mark Sanudo, one of the most influential of the Venetian nobles in the expedition, obtained possession of the principal part of the ancient theme—though whether by purchase from the Frank barons to whom it had been allotted, or by grant to himself from the emperor, is not known. Sanudo, however, made his appearance at the parliament of Ravenika as one of the great feudatories of the empire of Romania, and was invested by the emperor Henry with the title of Duke of the Archipelago, or Naxos. It is difficult to say on what precise footing Sanudo placed his relations with the republic. His conduct in the war of Crete shows that he ventured to act as a baron of Romania, or an independent prince, when he thought his personal interests at variance with his born allegiance to Venice. … The new duke and his successors were compelled by their position to acknowledge themselves, in some degree, vassals both of the empire of Romania and of the republic of Venice; yet they acted as sovereign princes." Nearly at the close of the fourteenth century the dukedom passed from the Sanudo family to the Crispo family, who reigned under the protection of Venice until 1537, when the Duke of Naxos was reduced to vassalage by the Turkish sultan Suleiman. Thirty years later, his title and authority were extinguished by the sultan, on the petition of the Greek inhabitants, who could not endure his oppressive and disgraceful government.

G. Finlay, History of Greece from its Conquest by the Crusaders, chapter 10, sections 1-3.

ALSO IN: Sir J. E. Tennent, History of Modern Greece, chapter 3.

H. F. Tozer, The Islands of the Aegean, chapter 4.

—————NAXOS: End—————

NAZARETH, Battle of (1799).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (AUGUST-AUGUST).

NEANDERTHAL MAN.

The race represented by a remarkable human skull and imperfect skeleton found in 1857, in a limestone cave in the Neanderthal, Rhenish Prussia, and thought to be the most primitive race of which any knowledge has yet been obtained.

J. Geikie, Prehistoric Europe, page 22.

ALSO IN: W. B. Dawkins, Cave Hunting, page 240.

NEAPOLIS, Schools of.

In the first century of the Roman empire, "Neapolis [modern Naples] had its schools and colleges, as well as Athens; its society abounded in artists and men of letters, and it enjoyed among the Romans the title of the learned, which comprehended in their view the praise of elegance as well as knowledge."

C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 40.

NEAPOLIS AND PALÆPOLIS.

"Palaepolis is mentioned only by Livy: it was an ancient Cumaean colony, the Cumaeans having taken refuge there across the sea. Neapolis derives its name from being a much later settlement of different Greek tribes, and was perhaps not founded till Olymp. 91, about the time of the Athenian expedition to Sicily, and as a fortress of the Greeks against the Sabellians. It is not impossible that the Athenians also may have had a share in it. Both towns, however, were of Chalcidian origin and formed one united state, which at that time may have been in possession of Ischia. Many absurdities have been written about the site of Palaepolis, and most of all by Italian antiquaries. We have no data to go upon except the two statements in Livy, that Palaepolis was situated by the side of Neapolis, and that the Romans [in the second Samnite war] had pitched their camp between the two towns. The ancient Neapolis was undoubtedly situated in the centre of the modern city of Naples above the church of Sta. Rosa; the coast is now considerably advanced. People have sought for Palaepolis likewise within the compass of the modern city. … I alone should never have discovered its true site, but my friend, the Count de Serre, a French statesman, who in his early life had been in the army and had thus acquired a quick and certain miliary eye, discovered it in a walk which I took with him. The town was situated on the outer side of Mount Posilipo, where the quarantine now is."

B. G. Niebuhr, Lectures on the History of Rome, lecture 40 (volume 1).

"Parthenopé was an ancient Greek colony founded by the Chalcidians of Cuma on the northern part of the Bay of Naples. In after years another city sprung up a little to the south, whence the original Parthenopé was called Palæpolis or Old-town, while the new town took the name of Neapolis. The latter preserves its name in the modern Naples." Palæpolis was taken by the Romans, B. C. 327, at the beginning of the second Samnite War, and is heard of no more. Neapolis made peace with them and lived.

H. G. Liddell, History of Rome, book 3, chapter 21 (volume 1).

{2247}

NEAPOLIS (Syracuse).

See TEMENITES.

NEARDA.

See JEWS: B. C. 536-A. D. 50.

—————NEBRASKA: Start————

NEBRASKA: The aboriginal inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

NEBRASKA: A. D. 1803. Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

NEBRASKA: A. D. 1854. Territorial organization. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Repeal of the Missouri Compromise.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1854.

NEBRASKA: A. D. 1867. Admission to the Union.

Nebraska was organized as a State and admitted to the Union in 1867.

—————NEBRASKA: End————

NECKER, Ministry of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1774-1788, to 1789 (JUNE).

NECTANSMERE, Battle of (A. D. 685).

See SCOTLAND: 7TH CENTURY.

NEERWINDEN, LANDEN, Battle of (1693).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1693 (JULY)

Battle of (1793).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (FEBRUARY-APRIL).

NEGRITO.

"The term Negrito, i. e. 'Little Negro,' [was] long applied by the Spaniards to the dark dwarfish tribes in the interior of Luzon, and some others of the Philippine Islands. Here it will be extended to the dwarfish negroid tribes in the Andaman Islands and interior of Malacca, but to no others."

A. H. Keane, Philology and Ethnology of the Interoceanic Races (appendix to Wallace's Hellwald's Australasia), section 4.

NEGRO, The.

See AFRICA: THE INHABITING RACES.

NEGRO PLOT, Imagined in New York.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1741.

NEGRO SLAVERY.

See SLAVERY: NEGRO.

NEGRO SUFFRAGE.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1867 (JANUARY), and (MARCH); and 1868-1870.

NEGRO TROOPS, in the American Civil War.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MAY: SOUTH CAROLINA).

—————NEGROPONT: Start————

NEGROPONT: The Name.

The ancient island of Eubœa received from the Venetians the name Negropont. "In the middle ages, Eubœa was called Egripo, a corruption of Euripus, the name of the town built upon the ruins of Chalcis. The Venetians, who obtained possession of the island upon the dismemberment of the Byzantine empire by the Latins, called it Negropont, probably a corruption of Egripo, and 'ponte,' a bridge."

W. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography.

NEGROPONT: A. D. 1470. Capture and Massacre by the Turks.

See GREECE: A. D. 1454-1479.

—————NEGROPONT: End————

NEGUS, OR NEGOOS, The.

See ABYSSINIA: 15-19TH CENTURIES.

NEHAVEND, Battle of.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 632-651.

NELSON'S FARM, OR GLENDALE, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JUNE-JULY: VIRGINIA).

NEMEDIANS, The.

It is among the legends of the Irish that their island was settled, about the time of the patriarch Jacob, by a colony of descendants from Japhet, led by one Nemedius, from whom they and their posterity took the name of Nemedians. The Nemedians were afterwards subjugated by a host of African sea-rovers, known as Fomorians, but were delivered from these in time by a fresh colony of their kindred from the East called the Fir Bolgs.