Part 2 — CHAPTER IV. Concerning the infallible teaching of the Roman Pontiff: (continued 10)

T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, book 4, chapter 3 (volume 3), and book 5, chapter 3 (volume 4).

PROVENCE: A. D. 877-933. The Kingdom.

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 843-933.

PROVENCE: A. D. 943-1092. The Kings become Counts. The Spanish connection.

"Southern France, … after having been the inheritance of several of the successors of Charlemagne, was elevated in 870 to the rank of an independent kingdom, by Bozon, who was crowned at Mantes under the title of King of Arles, and who reduced under his dominion Provence, Dauphiny, Savoy, the Lyonnese, and some provinces of Burgundy. The sovereignty of this territory exchanged, in 943, the title of King for that of Count, under Bozon II.; but the kingdom of Provence was preserved entire, and continued in the house of Burgundy, of which Bozon I. was the founder. This noble house became extinct in 1092, in the person of Gilibert, who left only two daughters, between whom his possessions were divided. One of these, Faydide, married Alphonso, Count of Toulouse; and the other, Douce, became the wife of Raymond Berenger, Count of Barcelona. … The accession of Raymond Berenger, Count of Barcelona and husband of Douce, to the throne of Provence, gave a new direction to the national spirit, by the mixture of the Catalans with the Provençals. … Raymond Berenger and his successors introduced into Provence the spirit both of liberty and chivalry, and a taste for elegance and the arts, with all the sciences of the Arabians. The union of these noble sentiments gave birth to that poetical spirit which shone out, at once, over Provence and all the south of Europe, like an electric flash in the midst of the most palpable darkness, illuminating all things by the brightness of its flame."

J. C. L. S. de Sismondi, Literature of the South of Europe, chapter 3 (volume l).

See, also, BURGUNDY: A. D. 1032.

PROVENCE: A. D. 1179-1207. Before the Albigensian Crusade.

"At the accession of Philippe Auguste [crowned as joint-king of France, 1179, succeeded his father, 1180], the greater part of the south of France was holden, not of him, but of Pedro of Arragon, as the supreme suzerain.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1035-1258.

To the Arragonese king belonged especially the counties of Provence, Forcalquier, Narbonne, Beziers, and Carcassonne. His supremacy was acknowledged by the Counts of Bearn, of Armagnac, of Bigorre, of Comminges, of Foix, of Roussillon, and of Montpellier; while the powerful Count of Toulouse, surrounded by his estates and vassals, maintained with difficulty his independence against him. To these extensive territories were given the names sometimes of Provence, in the larger and less exact use of that word, and sometimes of Languedoc, in allusion to the rich, harmonious, picturesque, and flexible language which was then vernacular there.

See LANGUE D'OC.

They who used it called themselves Provençaux or Aquitanians, to indicate that they were not Frenchmen, but members of a different and indeed of a hostile nation. Tracing their descent to the ancient Roman colonists and to the Gothic invaders of Southern Gaul, the Provençaux regarded with a mixture of contempt, of fear, and ill will, the inhabitants of the country north of the Loire, who had made far less progress than themselves, either in civil liberty, or in the arts and refinements of social life. … Toulouse, Marseilles, Arles, Beziers, and many other of their greater cities, emulous of the Italian republics, with whom they traded and formed alliances, were themselves living under a government which was virtually republican. Each of these free cities being, however, the capital of one of the greater lords among whom the whole of Aquitaine was parceled out, became the seat of a princely and luxurious court. {2612} A genial climate, a fertile soil, and an active commerce, rendered the means of subsistence abundant even to the poor, and gave to the rich ample resources for indulging in all the gratifications which wealth can purchase. … They lived as if life had been one protracted holiday. Theirs was the land of feasting, of gallantry, and of mirth. … They refined and enhanced the pleasures of appetite by the pleasures of the imagination. They played with the stern features of war in knightly tournaments. They parodied the severe toils of justice in their courts of love. They transferred the poet's sacred office and high vocation to the Troubadours, whose amatory and artificial effusions posterity has willingly let die, notwithstanding the recent labours of MM. Raynouard and Fauriel to revive them."

Sir J. Stephen, Lectures on the History of France, lecture 7.

"In the south of France, more particularly, peace, riches, and a court life, had introduced, amongst the nobility, an extreme laxity of manners. Gallantry seems to have been the sole object of their existence. The ladies, who only appeared in society after marriage, were proud of the celebrity which their lovers conferred on their charms. They were delighted with becoming the objects of the songs of their Troubadour; nor were they offended at the poems composed in their praise, in which gallantry was often mingled with licentiousness. They even themselves professed the Gay Science, 'el Gai Saber,' for thus poetry was called; and, in their turn, they expressed their feelings in tender and impassioned verses. They instituted Courts of Love, where questions of gallantry were gravely debated and decided by their suffrages. They gave, in short, to the whole south of France the character of a carnival, affording a singular contrast to the ideas of reserve, virtue, and modesty, which we usually attribute to those good old times."

J. C. L. S. de Sismondi, Literature of the South of Europe, chapter 3 (volume 1).

ALSO IN: C. C. Fauriel, History of Provençal Poetry.

See, also, TROUBADOURS.

PROVENCE: A. D. 1209-1242. The Albigensian Crusades.

See ALBIGENSES.

PROVENCE: A. D. 1246. The count becomes founder of the Third House of Anjou.

See ANJOU: A. D. 1206-1442.

PROVENCE: A. D. 1348. Sale and transfer of Avignon to the Pope.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1294-1348.

PROVENCE: A. D. 1536-1546. Invasion by Charles V. Defensive wasting of the country. Massacre of Waldenses.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1532-1547.

PROVENCE: 16th Century. Strength of Protestantism.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1559-1561.

—————PROVENCE: End————

PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND: The Plantation and the City.

See RHODE ISLAND.

PROVISIONS OF OXFORD AND WESTMINSTER.

See OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF.

PROVISORS, Statute of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1306-1393.

PROXENI.

In ancient Sparta, "the so-called Proxeni, whose number was fluctuating, served as the subordinates of the kings in their diplomatic communication with foreign States."

G. Schömann, Antiquity of Greece: The State, part 3, chapter 1, section 9.

PRUSA: A. D. 1326. The first capital of the Ottomans.

See TURKS (OTTOMANS): A. D. 1240-1326.

—————PRUSSIA: Start————

PRUSSIA: The original country and its name.

"Five–hundred miles, and more, to the east of Brandenburg, lies a Country then [10th century] as now called Preussen (Prussia Proper), inhabited by Heathens, where also endeavours at conversion are going on, though without success hitherto. … Part of the great plain or flat which stretches, sloping insensibly, continuously, in vast expanse, from the Silesian Mountains to the amber–regions of the Baltic; Preussen is the seaward, more alluvial part of this,—extending west and east, on both sides of the Weichsel (Vistula), from the regions of the Oder river to the main stream of the Memel. 'Bordering-on-Russia' its name signifies: Bor-Russia, B'russia, Prussia; or—some say it was only on a certain inconsiderable river in those parts, river Reussen, that it 'bordered,' and not on the great Country, or any part of it, which now in our days is conspicuously its next neighbour. Who knows?—In Henry the Fowler's time, and long afterwards, Preussen was a vehemently Heathen country; the natives a Miscellany of rough Serbic Wends, Letts, Swedish Goths, or Dryasdust knows not what;—very probably a sprinkling of Swedish Goths, from old time, chiefly along the coasts. Dryasdust knows only that these Preussen were a strong-boned, iracund herdsman-and-fisher people; highly averse to be interfered with, in their religion especially. Famous otherwise, through all the centuries, for the amber they had been used to fish, and sell in foreign parts. … Their knowledge of Christianity was trifling; their aversion to knowing anything of it was great."

T. Carlyle, Frederick the Great, book 2, chapter 2.

PRUSSIA: 13th Century. Conquered and Christianized by the Teutonic Knights.

The first Christian missionary who ventured among the savage heathen of Prussia Proper was Adalbert, bishop of Prague, who fell a martyr to his zeal in 997. For two centuries after that tragedy they were little disturbed in their paganism; but early in the 13th century a Pomeranian monk named Christian succeeded in establishing among them many promising churches. The heathen party in the country, however, was enraged by the progress of the Christians and rose furiously against them, putting numerous converts to the sword. "Other agencies were now invoked by Bishop Christian, and the 'Order of Knights Brethren of Dobrin,' formed on the model of that which we have already encountered in Livonia, was bidden to coerce the people into the reception of Christianity. But they failed to achieve the task assigned them, and then it was that the famous 'Order of Teutonic Knights,' united with the 'Brethren of the Sword' in Livonia, concentrated their energies on this European crusade. Originally instituted for the purpose of succouring German pilgrims in the Holy Land, the 'Order of Teutonic Knights,' now that the old crusades had become unpopular, enrolled numbers of eager adventurers determined to expel the last remains of heathenism from the face of Europe. After the union of the two Orders had been duly solemnized at Rome, in the presence of the Pope, in the year A. D. 1238, they entered the Prussian territory, and for a space of nearly fifty years continued a series of remorseless wars against the wretched inhabitants. {2613} Slowly but surely they made their way into the very heart of the country, and secured their conquests by erecting castles, under the shadow of which rose the towns of Culm, Thorn, Marienwerder, and Elbing, which they peopled with German colonists. The authority of the Order knew scarcely any bounds. Themselves the faithful vassals of the Pope, they exacted the same implicit obedience, alike from the German immigrant, or colonist, and the converted Prussians. … In A. D. 1243 the conquered lands were divided by the Pope into three bishoprics, Culm, Pomerania, and Ermeland, each of which was again divided into three parts, one being subject to the bishop, and the other two to the brethren of the Order."

G. F. Maclear, Apostles of Mediæval Europe, chapter 16.

"None of the Orders rose so high as the Teutonic in favour with mankind. It had by degrees landed possessions far and wide over Germany and beyond, … and was thought to deserve favour from above. Valiant servants, these; to whom Heaven had vouchsafed great labours and unspeakable blessings. In some fifty or fifty-three years they had got Prussian Heathenism brought to the ground; and they endeavoured to tie it well down there by bargain and arrangement. But it would not yet lie quiet, nor for a century to come; being still secretly Heathen; revolting, conspiring ever again, ever on weaker terms, till the Satanic element had burnt itself out, and conversion and composure could ensue."

T. Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great, book 2, chapter 6 (volume l).

See, also, LIVONIA: 12-13TH CENTURIES.

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1466-1618. Conquest and annexation to the Polish crown. Surrender by the Teutonic Knights. Erection into a duchy. Union with the electorate of Brandenburg.

See POLAND: A. D. 1333-1572; and BRANDENBURG: A. D. 1417-1640.

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1626-1629. Conquests of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in his war with Poland.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1611-1629.

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1656-1688. Complete sovereignty of the duchy acquired by the Great Elector of Brandenburg. His curbing of the nobles.

See BRANDENBURG: A. D. 1640-1688.

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1700. The Dukedom erected into a Kingdom.

In the last year of the 17th century, Europe was on the verge of the great War of the Spanish Succession. The Emperor was making ready to contest the will by which Charles II. of Spain had bequeathed his crown to Philip, Duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. of France.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1698-1700.

"He did not doubt that he would speedily involve England, Holland, and the Germanic diet in his quarrel. Already several German princes were pledged to him; he had gained the Duke of Hanover by an elector's hat, and a more powerful prince, the Elector of Brandenburg, by a royal crown. By a treaty of November 16, 1700, the Emperor had consented to the erection of ducal Prussia into a kingdom, on condition that the new King should furnish him an aid of 10,000 soldiers. The Elector Frederick III. apprised his courtiers of this important news at the close of a repast, by drinking 'to the health of Frederick I. King of Prussia'; then caused himself to be proclaimed King at Konigsberg, January 15, 1701."

H. Martin, History of France: Age of Louis XIV. (translated by M. L. Booth), volume 2, chapter 5.

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1713. Neufchatel and Spanish Guelderland acquired. Orange relinquished.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1717-1809. Abolition of serfdom.

See SLAVERY, MEDIÆVAL: GERMANY.

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1720. Acquisition of territory from Sweden, including Stettin.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1719-1721.

PRUSSIA: A. D. 1720-1794. Reign of Frederick William I., and after.

The later history of Prussia, under Frederick William, Frederick the Great, and their successors, will be found included in that of GERMANY.

—————PRUSSIA: End————

PRUSSIAN LANGUAGE, The Old.

"The Old Prussian, a member of the Lithuanic family of languages, was spoken here as late as the 16th century, remains of which, in the shape of a catechism, are extant. This is the language of the ancient Æstyi, or 'Men of the East,' which Tacitus says was akin to the British, an error arising from the similarity of name, since a Slavonian … would call the two languages by names so like as 'Prytskaia' and 'Brytskaia,' and a German … by names so like as 'Pryttisc' and 'Bryttisc.' The Guttones, too, of Pliny, whose locality is fixed from the fact of their having been collectors of the amber of East Prussia and Courland, were of the same stock."

R. G. Latham, The Ethnology of Europe, chapter 8.

PRUTH, The Treaty of the (1711).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1707-1718.

PRYDYN.

See SCOTLAND: THE PICTS AND SCOTS.

PRYTANES. PRYTANEUM.

The Council of Four Hundred, said to have been instituted at Athens by Solon, "was divided into sections, which, under the venerable name of prytanes, succeeded each other throughout the year as the representatives of the whole body. Each section during its term assembled daily in their session house, the prytaneum, to consult on the state of affairs, to receive intelligence, information, and suggestions, and instantly to take such measures as the public interest rendered it necessary to adopt without delay. … According to the theory of Solon's constitution, the assembly of the people was little more than the organ of the council, as it could only act upon the propositions laid before it by the latter."

C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapter 11.

"Clisthenes … enlarged the number of the senate, 50 being now elected by lot from each tribe, so as to make in all 500. Each of these companies of 50 acted as presidents of both the senate and the assemblies, for a tenth part of the year, under the name of Prytanes: and each of these tenth parts, of 35 or 36 days, so as to complete a lunar year, was called a Prytany."

G. F. Schömann, Dissertation on the Assemblies of the Athenians, page 14.

See, also, ATHENS: B. C. 594.

PRYTANIS.

A title frequently recurring among the Greeks was that of Prytanis, which signified prince, or supreme ruler. "Even Hiero, the king or tyrant of Syracuse, is addressed by Pindar as Prytanis. At Corinth, after the abolition of the monarchy, a Prytanis, taken from the ancient house of the Bacchiadæ, was annually appointed as supreme magistrate

See CORINTH: B. C. 745-725.

… The same title was borne by the supreme magistrate in the Corinthian colony of Corcyra. … In Rhodes we find in the time of Polybius a Prytany lasting for six months."

G. Schömann, Antiquity of Greece: The State, part 2, chapter 5.

{2614}

PSALTER OF CASHEL. PSALTER OF TARA.

See TARA, HILL AND FEIS OF.

PSEPHISM.

A decree, or enactment, in ancient Athens.

PSEUDO-ISIDORIAN DECRETALS, The.

See PAPACY: A. D. 829-847.

PTOLEMAIS, Syria.

See ACRE.

PTOLEMIES, The.

See EGYPT: B. C. 323-30.

PTOLEMY KERAUNOS, The intrigues and death of.

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 297-280; and GAULS: B. C. 280-279.

PTOLEMY SOTER, and the Wars of the Diadochi.

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 323-316, to 297-280; and EGYPT: B. C. 323-30.

PTOLEMY'S CANON.

An important chronological list of Chaldean, Persian, Macedonian and Egyptian kings, compiled or continued by Claudius Ptolemæus, an Alexandrian mathematician and astronomer in the reign of the Second Antoninus.

W. Hales, New Analysis of Chronology, volume I, book 1.

PUANS, OR WINNEBAGOES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

PUBLIC MEALS.

See SYSSITIA.

PUBLIC PEACE, The.

See LANDFRIEDE.

PUBLIC WEAL, League of the.

See FRANCE; A. D. 1461-1468; and 1453-1461.

PUBLICANI.

The farmers of the taxes, among the Romans.

See VECTIGAL.

PUBLICIANI, The.

See ALBIGENSES; and PAULICIANS.

PUEBLA: Capture by the French (1862).

See MEXICO: A. D. 1861-1867.

PUBLILIAN LAW OF VOLERO, The.

See ROME: B. C. 472-471.

PUBLILIAN LAWS, The.

See ROME: B. C. 340.

PUEBLOS.

The Spanish word pueblo, meaning town, village, or the inhabitants thereof, has acquired a special signification as applied, first, to the sedentary or village Indians of New Mexico and Arizona, and then to the singular villages of communal houses which they inhabit.

D. G. Brinton, The American Race, page 113.

"The purely civic colonies of California were called pueblos to distinguish them from missions or presidios. The term pueblo, in its most extended meaning, may embrace towns of every description, from a hamlet to a city. … However, in its special significance, a pueblo means a corporate town."

F. W. Blackmar, Spanish Institutions of the Southwest, chapter 8.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PUEBLOS.

PUELTS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

PUERTO CAVELLO, Spanish capitulation at (1823).

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1819-1830.

PUJUNAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PUJUNAN FAMILY.

PULASKI, Fort: A. D. 1861. Threatened by the Union forces.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER: SOUTH CAROLINA—GEORGIA).

PULASKI, Fort: A. D. 1862 (February-April). Siege and capture.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (FEBRUARY-APRIL: GEORGIA-FLORIDA).

PULLANI, The.

The descendants of the first Crusaders who remained in the East and married Asiatic women are represented as having been a very despicable half-breed race. They were called the Pullani. Prof. Palmer suggests a derivation of the name from "fulani," anybodies. Mr. Keightley, on the contrary, states that before the crusading colonists overcame their prejudice against Oriental wives, women were brought to them from Apulia, in Italy. Whence the name Pullani, applied indiscriminately to an the progeny of the Latin settlers.

W. Besant and E. H. Palmer, Jerusalem, chapter 7.

ALSO IN: T. Keightley, The Crusaders, chapter 2.

PULTNEY ESTATE, The.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1786-1799.

PULTOWA, Battle of (1709).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1707-1718.

PULTUSK, Battle of (1703).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1701-1707.

Battle of (1806).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1806-1807.

PUMBADITHA, The. School of.

See JEWS: 7TH CENTURY.

PUNCAS, OR PONCAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY, and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

PUNIC.

The adjective Punicus, derived from the name of the Phœnicians, was used by the Romans in a sense which commonly signified "Carthaginian,"—the Carthaginians being of Phœnician origin. Hence "Punic Wars," "Punic faith," etc., the phrase "Punic faith" being an imputation of faithlessness and treachery.

—————PUNIC WARS: Start————

PUNIC WARS, The First.

When Pyrrhus quitted Italy he is said to have exclaimed, "How fair a battle–field are we leaving to the Romans and Carthaginians." He may easily have had sagacity to foresee the deadly struggle which Rome and Carthage would soon be engaged in, and he might as easily have predicted, too, that the beginning of it would be in Sicily. Rome had just settled her supremacy in the whole Italian peninsula; she was sure to covet next the rich island that lies so near to it. In fact, there was bred quickly in the Roman mind such an eagerness to cross the narrow strait that it waited only for the slenderest excuse. A poor pretext was found in the year 264 B. C. and it was so despicably poor that the proud Roman senators turned over to the popular assembly of the Comitia the responsibility of accepting it. There came to Rome from Messene, in Sicily—or Messana, as the Romans called the city—an appeal. It did not come from the citizens of Messene, but from a band of freebooters who had got possession of the town. These were mercenaries from Campania (lately made Roman territory by the Samnite conquest) who had been in the pay of Agathocles of Syracuse. Disbanded on that tyrant's death, they had treacherously seized Messene, slain most of the male inhabitants, taken to themselves the women, and settled down to a career of piracy and robbery, assuming the name of Mamertinl,—children of Mamers, or Mars. Of course, all Sicily, both Greek and Carthaginian, was roused against them by the outrages they committed. Being hard pressed, the Mamertines invoked, as Italians, the protection of Rome; although one party among them appears to have preferred an arrangement of terms with the Carthaginians. {2615} The Roman Senate, being ashamed to extend a friendly hand to the Mamertine cutthroats, but not having virtue enough to decline an opportunity for fresh conquests, referred the question to the people at large. The popular vote sent an army into Sicily, and Messene, then besieged by Hiero of Syracuse on one side and by a Carthaginian army on the other, was relieved of both. The Romans thereon proceeded, in two aggressive campaigns, against Syracusans and Carthaginians alike, until Hiero bought peace with them, at a heavy cost, and became their half-subject ally for the remainder of his life. The war with the Carthaginians was but just commenced. Its first stunning blow was struck at Agrigentum, the splendid city of Phalaris, which the Carthaginians had destroyed, B. C. 405, which Timoleon had rebuilt, and which one of the Hannibals ("son of Gisco") now seized upon for his stronghold. In a great battle fought under the walls of Agrigentum (B. C. 262) Hannibal lost the city and all but a small remnant of his army. But the successes of the Romans on land were worth little to them while the Carthaginians commanded the sea. Hence they resolved to create a fleet, and are said to have built a hundred ships of the quinquereme order and twenty triremes within sixty days, while rowers for them were trained by all imitative exercise on land. The first squadron of this improvised navy was trapped at Lipara and lost; the remainder was successful in its first encounter with the enemy. But where naval warfare depended on good seamanship the Romans were no match for the Carthaginians. They contrived therefore a machine for their ships, called the Corvus, or raven, by which, running straight on the opposing vessel, they were able to grasp it by the throat, so to speak, and force fighting at close quarters. That accomplished, they were tolerably sure of victory. With their corvus they half annihilated the Carthaginian fleet in a great sea-fight at Mylæ, B. C. 260, and got so much mastery of the sea that they were able to attack their Punic foes even in the island of Sardinia, but without much result. In 257 B. C. another naval battle of doubtful issue was fought at Tyndaris, and the following year, in the great battle of Ecnomus, the naval power of the Carthaginians, for the time being, was utterly crushed. Then followed the invasion of Carthaginian territory by Regulus, his complete successes at first, his insolent proposal of hard terms, and the tremendous defeat which overwhelmed him at Adis a little later, when he, himself, was taken prisoner. The miserable remnant of the Roman army which held its ground at Clypea on the African coast was rescued the next year (B. C. 255) by a new fleet, but only to be destroyed on the voyage homeward, with 260 ships, in a great storm on the south coast of Sicily. Then Carthaginians reappeared in Sicily and the war in that unhappy island was resumed. In 254 B. C. the Romans took the strong fortified city of Panormus. In 253, having built and equipped another fleet, they were robbed of it again by a storm at sea, and the Carthaginians gained ground and strength in Sicily. In 251 the Roman consul, Cæcilius Metellus, drove them back from the walls of Panormus and inflicted on them so discouraging a defeat, that they sent Regulus, their prisoner, on parole, with an embassy, to solicit peace at Rome. How Regulus advised his countrymen against peace, and how he returned to Carthage to meet a cruel death—the traditional story is familiar to all readers, but modern criticism throws doubt upon it. In 250 B. C. the Romans undertook the siege of Lilybæum, which, with the neighboring port of Drepana, were the only strongholds left to the Carthaginians. The siege then commenced was one of the most protracted in history, for when the First Punic War ended, nine years later, Lilybæum was still resisting, and the Romans only acquired it with all the rest of Sicily, under the terms of the treaty of peace. Meantime the Carthaginians won a bloody naval victory at Drepana (B. C. 249) over the Roman fleet, and the latter, in the same year, had a third fleet destroyed on the coast by relentless storms. In the year 247 B. C. the Carthaginian command in Sicily was given to the great Hamilcar, surnamed Barca, who was the father of a yet greater man, the Hannibal who afterwards brought Rome very near to destruction. Hamilcar Barca, having only a few mutinous mercenary soldiers at his command, and almost unsupported by the authorities at Carthage, established himself, first, on the rocky height of Mount Ercte, or Hercte, near Panormus, and afterwards on Mount Eryx, and harassed the Romans for six years. The end came at last as the consequence of a decisive naval victory near the Ægatian Isles, which the Romans achieved, with a newly built fleet, in March B. C. 241. The Carthaginians, discouraged, proposed peace, and purchased it by evacuating Sicily and paying a heavy war indemnity. Thus Rome acquired Sicily, but the wealth and civilization of the great island had been ruined beyond recovery.

R. B. Smith, Carthage and the Carthaginians, chapters 4-7.

ALSO IN: W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 4, chapter 3.

Polybius, Histories, book l.

A. J. Church, The Story of Carthage, part 4, chapters 1-3.

See, also, ROME: B. C. 264-241.

PUNIC WARS: The Second.

Between the First Punic War and the Second there was an interval of twenty-three years. Carthage, meantime, had been brought very near to destruction by the Revolt of the Mercenaries and had been saved by the capable energy of Hamilcar Barca.

See CARTHAGE: B. C. 241-238.

Then the selfish faction which hated Hamilcar had regained power in the Punic capital, and the Barcine patriot could do no more than obtain command of an army which he led, on his own responsibility, into Spain, B. C. 237. The Carthaginians had inherited from the Phœnicians a considerable commerce with Spain, but do not seem to have organized a control of the country until Hamilcar took the task in hand. Partly by pacific influences and partly by force, he established a rule, rather personal than Carthaginian, which extended over nearly all southern Spain. With the wealth that he drew from its gold and silver mines he maintained his army and bought or bribed at Carthage the independence he needed for the carrying out of his plans. He had aimed from the first, no doubt, at organizing resources with which to make war on Rome. Hamilcar was killed in battle, B. C. 228, and his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, who succeeded him, lived only seven years more. Then Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar, in his twenty–sixth year, was chosen to the command in Spain. {2616} He waited two years, for the settling of his authority and for making all preparations complete, and then he threw down a challenge to the Romans for the war which he had sworn to his father that he would make the one purpose of his life. The provocation of war was the taking of the city of Saguntum, a Greek colony on the Spanish coast, which the Romans had formed an alliance with. It was taken by Hannibal after a siege of eight months and after most of the inhabitants had destroyed themselves, with their wealth. When Rome declared war it was with the expectation, no doubt, that Spain and Africa would be the battle grounds. But Hannibal did not wait for her attack. He led his Spanish army straight to Italy, in the early summer of B. C. 218, skirting the Pyrenees and crossing the Alps. The story of his passage of the Alps is familiar to every reader. The difficulties he encountered were so terrible and the losses sustained so great that Hannibal descended into Italy with only 20,000 foot and 6,000 horse, out of 50,000 of the one and 9,000 of the other which he had led through Gaul. He received some reinforcement and co-operation from the Cisalpine Gauls, but their strength had been broken by recent wars with Rome and they were not efficient allies. In the first encounter of the Romans with the dread invader, on the Ticinus, they were beaten, but not seriously. In the next, on the Trebia, where Scipio, the consul, made a determined stand, they sustained an overwhelming defeat. This ended the campaign of B. C. 218. Hannibal wintered in Cisalpine Gaul and passed the Apennines the following spring into Etruria, stealing a march on the Roman army, under the popular consul Flaminius, which was watching to intercept him. The latter pursued and was caught in ambush at Lake Trasimene, where Flaminius and 15,000 of his men were slain, while most of the survivors of the fatal field were taken prisoners and made slaves. Rome then seemed open to the Carthaginian, but he knew, without doubt, that his force was not strong enough for the besieging of the city, and he made no attempt. What he aimed at was the isolating of Rome and the arraying of Italy against her, in a great and powerfully handled combination of the jealousies and animosities which he knew to exist. He led his troops northward again, after the victory of Lake Trasimene, across the mountains to the Adriatic coast, and rested them during the summer. When cooler weather came he moved southward along the coast into Apulia. The Romans meantime had chosen a Dictator, Q. Fabius Maximus, a cautious man, whose plan of campaign was to watch and harass and wear out the enemy, without risking a battle. It was a policy which earned for him the name of "The Cunctator," or Lingerer. The Roman people were discontented with it, and next year (B. C. 216) they elected for one of the consuls a certain Varro who had been one of the mouth-pieces of their discontent. In opposition to his colleague, Æmilius Paullus, Varro soon forced a battle with Hannibal at Cannæ, in Apulia, and brought upon his countrymen the most awful disaster in war that they ever knew. Nearly 50,000 Roman citizens were left dead on the field, including eighty senators, and half the young nobility of the state. From the spoils of the field Hannibal was said to have sent three bushels of golden rings to Carthage, stripped from the fingers of Roman knights. Rome reeled under the blow, and yet haughtily refused to ransom the 20,000 prisoners in Hannibal's hands, while she met the discomfited Varro with proud thanks, because "he had not despaired of the Republic." Capua now opened its gates to Hannibal and became the headquarters of his operations. The people of Southern Italy declared generally in his favor; but he had reached and passed, nevertheless, the crowning point of his success. He received no effective help from Carthage; nor from his brother in Spain, who was defeated by the elder Scipios, that same year (B. C. 216) at Ibera, just as he had prepared to lead a fresh army into Italy. On the other hand, the energies of the Romans had risen with every disaster. Their Latin subjects continued faithful to them; but they lost at this time an important ally in Sicily, by the death of the aged Hiero of Syracuse, and the Carthaginians succeeded in raising most of the island against them. The war in Sicily now became for a time more important than that in Italy, and the consul Marcellus, the most vigorous of the Roman generals, was sent to conduct it. His chief object was the taking of Syracuse and the great city sustained another of the many dreadful sieges which it was her fate to endure. The siege was prolonged for two years, and chiefly by the science and the military inventions of the famous mathematician, Archimides. When the Romans entered Syracuse at last (B. C. 212) it was to pillage and slay without restraint, and Archimides was one of the thousands cut down by their swords. Meantime, in Italy, Tarentum had been betrayed to Hannibal, but the Romans still held the citadel of the town. They had gained so much strength in the field that they were now able to lay siege to Capua and Hannibal was powerless to relieve it. He attempted a diversion by marching on Rome, but the threat proved idle and Capua was left to its fate. The city surrendered soon after (B. C. 211) and the merciless conquerors only spared it for a new population. For three or four years after this the war in Italy was one of minor successes and reverses on both sides, but Hannibal lost steadily in prestige and strength. In Spain, Hannibal's brother, Hasdrubal, had opportunely beaten and slain (B. C. 212) both the elder Scipios; but another and greater Scipio, P. Cornelius, son of Publius, had taken the field and was sweeping the Carthaginians from the peninsula. Yet, despite Scipio's capture of New Carthage and his victories, at Bæcula, and elsewhere, Hasdrubal contrived, in some unexplained way, in the year 208, B. C., to cross the Pyrenees into Gaul and to recruit reinforcements there for a movement on Italy. The next spring he passed the Alps and brought his army safely into Cisalpine Gaul; but his dispatches to Hannibal fell into the hands of the Romans and revealed his plans. The swift energy of one of the consuls, C. Claudius Nero, brought about a marvellous concentration of Roman forces to meet him, and he and his army perished together in an awful battle fought on the banks of the Metaurus, in Umbria. The last hopes of Hannibal perished with them; but he held his ground in the extreme south of Italy and no Roman general dared try to dislodge him. When Scipio returned next year (B. C. 206) and reported the complete conquest of Spain, he was chosen consul with the understanding that he would carry the war into Africa, though the senate stood half opposed. {2617} He did so in the early months of the year 204 B. C. crossing from Sicily with a comparatively small armament and laying siege to Utica. That year he accomplished nothing, but during the next winter he struck a terrible blow, surprising and burning the camps of the Carthaginians and their Numidian allies and slaughtering 40,000 of their number. This success was soon followed by another, on the Great Plains, which lie 70 or 80 miles to the southwest of Carthage. The Numidian king, Syphax, was now driven from his throne and the kingdom delivered over to an outlawed prince, Massinissa, who became, thenceforth, the most useful and unscrupulous of allies to the Romans. Now pushed to despair, the Carthaginians summoned Hannibal to their rescue. He abandoned Italy at the call and returned to see his own land for the first time since as a boy he left it with his father. But even his genius could not save Carthage with the means at his command. The long war was ended in October of the year 202 B. C. by the battle which is called the battle of Zama, though it was fought at some distance westward of that place. The Carthaginian army was routed utterly, and Hannibal himself persuaded his countrymen to accept a peace which stripped them of their ships and their trade, their possessions in Spain and all the islands, and their power over the Numidian states, besides wringing from them a war indemnity of many millions. On those hard terms, Carthage was suffered to exist a few years longer.

R. B. Smith, Carthage and the Carthaginians.

ALSO IN: T. Arnold, History of Rome, chapters 43-47.

H. G. Liddell, History of Rome, chapters 31-34.

T. A. Dodge, Hannibal, chapters 11-39.

See, also, ROME: B. C. 218-211, to 211-202.

PUNIC WARS: The Third.

See CARTHAGE: B. C. 146; and ROME: B. C. 151-146.

—————PUNIC WARS: End————

PUNJAB, PUNJAUB, PANJAB, The.

"Everything has a meaning in India, and the Panjab is only another name for the Five Rivers which make the historic Indus. They rise far back among the western Himalayas, bring down their waters from glaciers twenty-five miles in length, and peaks 26,000 feet high, and hurl their mighty torrent into one great current, which is thrown at last into the Arabian Sea. It is a fertile region, not less so than the Valley of the Ganges. This Panjab is the open door, the only one by which the European of earlier days was able to descend upon the plains of India for conquest and a new home. … In the Panjab every foot of the land is a romance. No one knows how many armies have shivered in the winds of the hills of Afghanistan, and then pounced down through the Khaibar Pass into India, and overspread the country, until the people could rise and destroy the stranger within the gates. Whenever a European invader of Asia has reached well into the continent, his dream has always been India. That country has ever been, and still is, the pearl of all the Orient. Its perfect sky in winter, its plenteous rains in summer, its immense rivers, its boundless stores of wealth, an its enduring industries, which know no change, have made it the dream of every great conqueror."

J. F. Hurst, Indika, chapter 75.

"In form, the country is a great triangle, its base resting on the Himalayan chain and Cashmere, and its apex directed due south–west. … The five streams which confer its name, counting them from north to south, are the Upper Indus, the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravee and the Sutlej, the Indus and Sutlej constituting respectively the western and eastern boundary. … The four divisions enclosed by the five convergent streams are called doabs—lands of two waters. … Besides the territory thus delineated, the Punjab of the Sikhs included Cashmere, the Jummoo territory to Spiti and Tibet, the trans-Indus frontier and the Hazara highlands in the west; and to the east the Jullundhur Doab with Kangra and Noorpoor. These last, with the frontier, are better known as the cis- and trans-Sutlaj states."

E. Arnold, The Marquis of Dalhousie's Administration of British India, chapter 2 (volume 1).

The Sikhs established their supremacy in the Punjab in the 18th century, and became a formidable power, under the famous Runjet Singh, in the early part of the 19th century. (The English conquest of the Sikhs and annexation of the Punjab to British India took place in 1849.

See INDIA: A. D. 1845-1849, and SIKHS

PUNT, Land of.

"Under the name of Punt, the old inhabitants of Kemi [ancient Egypt] meant a distant land, washed by the great ocean, full of valleys and hills, abounding in ebony and other rich woods, in incense, balsam, precious metals, and costly stones; rich also in beasts, as cameleopards, hunting leopards, panthers, dog-headed apes, and long-tailed monkeys. … Such was the Ophir of the Egyptians, without doubt the present coast of the Somauli land in sight of Arabia, but separated from it by the sea. According to an old obscure tradition, the land of Punt was the original seat of the gods. From Punt the holy ones had travelled to the Nile valley, at their head Amon, Horus, Hathor."

H. Brugsch, History of Egypt under the Pharaohs, chapter 8.

PURCHASE IN THE ARMY, Abolition of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1871.

—————PURITANS: Start————

PURITANS: The movement taking form.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1559-1566.

PURITANS: First application of the Name.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1564-1565 (?).

PURITANS: In distinction from the Independents or Separatists.

"When, in 1603, James I. became king of England, he found his Protestant subjects divided into three classes,—Conformists, or High Ritualists; Nonconformists, or Broad-Church Puritans; and Separatists, popularly called Brownists [and subsequently called Independents]. The Conformists and the Puritans both adhered to the Church of England, and were struggling for its control. … The Puritans objected to some of the ceremonies of the Church, such as the ring in marriage, the sign of the cross in baptism, the promises of god-parents, the showy vestments, bowing in the creed, receiving evil-livers to the communion, repetitions, and to kneeling at communion as if still adoring the Host, instead of assuming an ordinary attitude as did the apostles at the Last Supper. The majority of the lower clergy and of the middle classes are said to have favored Puritanism. … Dr. Neal says that the Puritan body took form in 1564, and dissolved in 1644. {2618} During that term of eighty years the Puritans were ever 'in and of the Church of England'; as Dr. Prince says in his Annals (1736), those who left the Episcopal Church 'lost the name of Puritans and received that of the Separatists.' … The Separatists, unlike the Puritans, had no connection with the National Church, and the more rigid of them even denied that Church to be scriptural, or its ministrations to be valid. … The Pilgrim Fathers, the founders of our Plymouth, the pioneer colony of New England, were not Puritans. They never were called by that name, either by themselves or their contemporaries. They were Separatists, slightingly called Brownists, and in time became known as Independents or Congregationalists. As Separatists they were oppressed and maligned by the Puritans. They did not restrict voting or office-holding to their church-members. They heartily welcomed to their little State all men of other sects, or of no sects, who adhered to the essentials of Christianity and were ready to conform to the local laws and customs. … Though their faith was positive and strong, they laid down no formal creed."

J. A. Goodwin, The Pilgrim Republic, chapters 2 and 1.

"The reader of this history must have remarked that 'Puritan' and 'Separatist' were by no means convertible terms; that, in point of fact, they very often indicated hostile parties, pitted against each other in bitter controversies. And the inquiry may have arisen—How is this? Were not the Separatists all Puritans? … The term 'Puritan' was originally applied to all in the church of England who desired further reformation—a greater conformity of church government and worship to primitive and apostolic usages. But after awhile the term became restricted in its application to those who retained their respect for the church of England, and their connection with it, notwithstanding its acknowledged corruptions; in distinction from those who had been brought to abandon both their respect for that church and their connection with it, under the conviction that it was hopelessly corrupt, and could never be reformed. The Separatists, then, were indeed all Puritans, and of the most thorough and uncompromising kind. They were the very essence—the oil of Puritanism. But the Puritans were by no means all Separatists; though they agreed with them in doctrinal faith, being all thoroughly Calvinistic in their faith."

G. Punchard, History of Congregationalism, volume 3, appendix, note F.

ALSO IN: G. E. Ellis, The Puritan Age and Rule in the Colony of Massachusetts Bay, chapter 3.

See INDEPENDENTS OR SEPARATISTS.

D. Campbell, The Puritan in Holland, England, and America, chapter 16 (volume 2).

PURITANS: A. D. 1604. Hampton Court Conference with James I.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1604.

PURITANS: A. D. 1629. Incorporation of the Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1623-1629 THE DORCHESTER COMPANY.

PURITANS: A. D. 1629-1630. The exodus to Massachusetts Bay.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1623-1629; 1629-1630; and 1630.

PURITANS: A. D. 1631-1636. The Theocracy of Massachusetts Bay.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1631-1636; and 1636.

PURITANS: A. D. 1638-1640. At the beginning of the English Civil War.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1638-1640.

—————PURITANS: End————

PURUARAN, Battle of (1814).

See MEXICO: A. D. 1810-1819.

PURUMANCIANS, The.

See CHILE: A. D. 1450-1724.

PUT-IN-BAY, Naval Battle at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812-1813 HARRISON'S NORTHWESTERN CAMPAIGN.

PUTEOLI.

The maritime city of Puteoli, which occupied the site of the modern town of Pozzuoli, about 7 miles from Naples, became under the empire the chief emporium of Roman commerce in Italy. The vicinity of Puteoli and its neighbor Baiæ was one of the favorite resorts of the Roman nobility for villa residence. It was at Puteoli that St. Paul landed on his journey to Rome.

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 4, chapter 11.

PUTNAM, Israel, and the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (APRIL-MAY), (MAY-AUGUST); 1776 (AUGUST), (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).

PYDNA, Battle of (B. C. 168).

See GREECE: B. C. 214-146.

PYLÆ CASPIÆ.

See CASPIAN GATES.

PYLÆ CILICIÆ. See

CILICIAN GATES.

PYLUS, Athenian seizure of.

See GREECE: B. C. 425.

PYRAMID.

"The name 'pyramid'—first invented by the ancients to denote the tombs of the Egyptian kings, and still used in geometry to this day—is of Greek origin. The Egyptians themselves denoted the pyramid—both in the sense of a sepulchre and of a figure in Solid Geometry—by the word 'abumir;' while, on the other hand, the word' Pir-am-us' is equivalent to the 'edge of the pyramid,' namely, the four edges extending from the apex of the pyramid to each corner of the quadrangular base."

H. Brugsch History of Egypt, chapter 7.

PYRAMIDS, Battle of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798 (MAY-AUGUST).

PYRENEES, Battles of the (1813).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1812-1814.

PYRENEES, Treaty of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

PYRRHIC DANCE.

A spirited military dance, performed in armor, which gave much delight to the Spartans, and is said to have been taught to children only five years old. It was thought to have been invented by the Cretans.

G. Schömann, Antiquities of Greece: The State, part 3, chapters 1-2.

PYRRHUS, and his campaigns in Italy and Sicily.

See ROME: B. C. 282-275.

PYTHIAN GAMES.

See DELPHI.

PYTHO, The Sanctuary of.

According to the Greek legend, a monstrous serpent, or dragon, Pytho, or Python, produced from the mud left by the deluge of Deucalion, lived in a great cavern of Mount Parnassus until slain by the god Apollo. The scene of the exploit became the principal seat of the worship of Apollo, the site of his most famous temple, the home of the oracle which he inspired. The temple and its seat were originally called Pytho; the cavern, from which arose mephitic and intoxicating vapors was called the Pythium; the priestess who inhaled those vapors and uttered the oracles which they were supposed to inspire, was the Pythia; Apollo, himself, was often called Pythius. Subsequently, town, temple and oracle were more commonly known by the name of Delphi.

See DELPHI.

{2619}

—————QUADI, The: Start————

QUADI, The: Early place and history.

See MARCOMANNI.

QUADI, The: Campaigns of Marcus Aurelius against.

See SARMATIAN AND MARCOMANNIAN WARS OF MARCUS AURELIUS.

QUADI, The: A. D. 357-359. War of Constantius.

See LIMIGANTES.

QUADI, The: A. D. 374-375. War of Valentinian.

A treacherous outrage of peculiar blackness, committed by a worthless Roman officer on the frontier, in 374, provoked the Quadi to invade the province of Pannonia. They overran it with little opposition, and their success encouraged inroads by the neighboring Sarmatian tribes. In the following year, the Emperor Valentinian led a retaliatory expedition into the country of the Quadi and revenged himself upon it with unmerciful severity. At the approach of winter he returned across the Danube, but only to wait another spring, when his purpose was to complete the annihilation of the offending Quadi. The latter, thereupon, sent ambassadors to humbly pray for peace. The choleric emperor received them, but their presence excited him to such rage that a blood vessel was ruptured in his body and he died on the spot.

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 25.

QUADI, The: Probable Modern Representatives of.

See BOHEMIA: ITS PEOPLE.

—————QUADI, The: End————

QUADRILATERAL, The.

A famous military position in northern Italy, formed by the strong fortresses at Peschiera, Verona, Mantua, and Legnano, bears this name. "The Quadrilateral … fulfils all the requirements of a good defensive position, which are to cover rearward territory, to offer absolute shelter to a defending army whenever required, and to permit of ready offensive: first, by the parallel course of the Mincio and Adige; secondly, by the fortresses on these rivers; thirdly, by passages offered at fortified points which insure the command of the rivers."

Major C. Adams, Great Campaigns in Europe from 1790 to 1870, page 232.

QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE (A. D. 1718).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1713-1725; also, ITALY: A. D. 1715-1735.

QUÆSTIO PERPETUA.

See CALPURNIAN LAW.

QUÆSTOR, The Imperial.

In the later Roman empire, "the Quaestor had the care of preparing the Imperial speeches, and was responsible for the language of the laws. … His office is not unlike that of the Chancellor of a mediaeval monarch."

T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1).

QUÆSTORS, Roman.

"Probably created as assistants to the consuls in the first year of the republic. At first two; in 421 B. C., four; in 241, eight; in 81, twenty; in 45, forty. Thrown open to plebeians in 421 B. C. Elected in the Comitia Tributa. The quæstor's office lasted as long as the consul's to whom he was attached."

H. F. Horton, History of the Romans, appendix A.

"We have seen how the care of the city's treasures had been intrusted to two city quæstors, soon after the abolition of the monarchy. In like manner, soon after the fall of the decemvirate, the expenditures connected with military affairs, which had hitherto been in the hands of the consuls, were put under the control of new patrician officers, the military quæstors, who were to accompany the army on its march."

A. Tighe, Development of the Roman Constitution, chapter 6.

ALSO IN: W. Ihne, Researches into the History of the Roman Constitution, pages 70-84.

QUÆSTORS OF THE FLEET.

See ROME: B. C. 275.

—————QUAKERS: Start————

QUAKERS: Origin of the Society of Friends. George Fox and his early Disciples.

"The religious movement which began with the wandering preacher George Fox … grew into the Society of Friends, or, as they came to be commonly called, 'The Quakers.' George Fox was born in 1624, the year before Charles I. came to the throne: and he was growing up to manhood all through the troubled time of that king's reign, while the storms were gathering which at last burst forth in the civil wars. It was not much that he knew of all this, however. He was growing up in a little out-of-the-way village of Leicestershire—Fenny Drayton—where his father was 'by profession a weaver.'" While he was still a child, the companions of George Fox "laughed at his grave, sober ways, yet they respected him, too; and when, by-and-by, he was apprenticed to a shoemaker, his master found him so utterly trustworthy, and so true and unbending in his word, that the saying began to go about, 'If George says "verily" there is no altering him.' … He was more and more grieved at what seemed to him the lightness and carelessness of men's lives. He felt as if he were living in the midst of hollowness and hypocrisy. … His soul was full of great thoughts of something better and nobler than the common religion, which seemed so poor and worldly. … He wandered about from place to place—Northampton, London, various parts of Warwickshire —seeking out people here and there whom he could hear of as very religious, and likely to help him through his difficulties. … After two years of lonely, wandering life, he began to see a little light. It came to his soul that all these outward forms, and ceremonies, and professions that people were setting up and making so much ado about as 'religion,' were nothing in themselves; that priestly education and ordination was nothing—did not really make a man any nearer to God; that God simply wanted the hearts and souls of all men to be turned to Him, and the worship of their own thought and feeling. And with the sense of this there arose within him a great loathing of all the formalism, and priestcraft, and outward observances of the Churches. … But he did not find peace yet. … He writes: 'My troubles continued, and I was often under great temptations; I fasted much and walked abroad in solitary places many days.' … It was a time like Christ's temptations in the wilderness, or Paul's three years in Arabia, before they went forth to their great life-mission. But to him, as to them, came, at last, light and peace and an open way. … A voice seemed to come to him which said, 'There is one, even Christ Jesus, that can speak to thy condition.' 'And when I heard it,' he says, 'my heart did leap for joy.' Fixing his mind upon Christ, all things began to be clearer to him; he saw the grand simple truth of a religion of spirit and life. {2620} … It was at Dukinfield, near Manchester, in 1647, that he began to speak openly to men of what was in his heart. … In those days, when he was wandering away from men, and shrinking with a sort of horror from the fashions of the world, he had made himself a strong rough suit of leather, and this for many years was his dress. Very white and clean indeed was the linen under that rough leather suit, for he hated all uncleanness either of soul or body; and very calm and clear were his eyes, that seemed to search into men's souls, and quailed before no danger, and sometimes lighted up with wonderful tenderness. A tall, burly man he was, too, of great strength. … Everywhere he saw vanity and worldliness, pretence and injustice. It seemed laid upon him that he must testify against it all. He went to courts of justice, and stood up and warned the magistrates to do justly; he went to fairs and markets, and lifted up his voice against wakes, and feasts and plays, and also against people's cozening and cheating. … He testified against great things and small, bade men not swear, but keep to 'yea' and 'nay,' and this in courts of justice as everywhere else; he spoke against lip-honour—that men should give up using titles of compliment, and keep to plain 'thee' and 'thou'; 'for surely,' he said, 'the way men address God should be enough from one to another.' But all this was merely the side-work of his life, flowing from his great central thought of true, pure life in the light of the Spirit of God. That was his great thought, and that he preached most of all; he wanted men to give up all their forms, and come face to face with the Spirit of God, and so worship Him and live to Him. Therefore he spoke most bitterly of all against all priestcraft. … Gradually followers gathered to him; little groups of people here and there accepted his teachings—began to look to him as their leader. He did not want to found a sect; and as for a church—the Church was the whole body of Christ's faithful people everywhere; so those who joined him would not take any name as a sect or church. They simply called themselves 'friends'; they used no form of worship, but met together, to wait upon the Lord with one another; believing that His Spirit was always with them, and that, if anything was to be said, He would put it into their hearts to say it." From the first, Fox suffered persecution at the hands of the Puritans. They "kept imprisoning him for refusing to swear allegiance to the Commonwealth; again and again he suffered in this way: in Nottingham Castle, in 1648; then, two years later, at Derby, for six months, at the end of which time they tried to force him to enter the army; but he refused, and so they thrust him into prison again, this time into a place called the Dungeon, among 30 felons, where they kept him another half-year. Then, two years later, in 1653, he was imprisoned at Carlisle, in a foul, horrible hole. … He was again imprisoned in Launceston gaol, for eight long months. After this came a quieter time for him; for he was taken before Cromwell, and Cromwell had a long conversation with him. … During Cromwell's life he was persecuted no more, but with the restoration of Charles II. his dangers and sufferings began again. … His followers caught his spirit, and no persecutions could intimidate them. … They made no secret of where their meetings were to be, and at the time there they assembled. Constables and informers might be all about the place, it made no difference; they went in, sat down to their quiet worship; if anyone had a word to say he said it. The magistrates tried closing the places, locked the doors, put a band of soldiers to guard them. The Friends simply gathered in the street in front, held their meetings there; went on exactly as if nothing had happened. They might all be taken off to prison, still it made no difference. … Is it wonderful that such principles, preached with such noble devotion to truth and duty, rapidly made way? By the year 1665, when Fox had been preaching for 18 years, the Society of Friends numbered 80,000, and in another ten years it had spread more widely still, and its founder had visited America, and travelled through Holland and Germany, preaching his doctrine of the inward light, and everywhere founding Meetings. Fox himself did not pass away until [1690] he had seen his people past all the days of persecution."

B. Herford, The Story of Religion in England, chapter 27.

"At a time when personal revelation was generally believed, it was a pardonable self-delusion that he [Fox] should imagine himself to be commissioned by the Divinity to preach a system which could only be objected to as too pure to be practised by man: This belief, and an ardent temperament, led him and some of his followers into unseasonable attempts to convert their neighbours, and unseemly intrusions into places of worship for that purpose, which excited general hostility against them, and exposed them to frequent and severe punishments. … Although they, like most other religious sects, had arisen in the humble classes of society, … they had early been joined by a few persons of superior rank and education. … The most distinguished of their converts was William Penn, whose father, Admiral Sir William Penn, had been a personal friend of the King [James II.], and one of his instructors in naval affairs."

Sir J. Mackintosh, History of the Revolution in England in 1688, chapter 6.

"At one of the interviews between G. Fox and Gervas Bennet—one of the magistrates who had committed him at Derby—the former bade the latter 'Tremble at the word of the Lord'; whereupon Bennet called him a Quaker. This epithet of scorn well suited the tastes and prejudices of the people, and it soon became the common appellation bestowed on Friends."

C. Evans, Friends in the 17th Century, chapter 2.

ALSO IN: J. Gough, History of the People called Quakers.

W. R. Wagstaff, History of the Society of Friends.

T. Clarkson, Portraiture of Quakerism.

American Church History, volume 12.

QUAKERS: A. D. 1656-1661. The persecution in Massachusetts.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1656-1661.

QUAKERS: A. D. 1681. Penn's acquisition of Pennsylvania.

See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1681.

QUAKERS: A. D. 1682. Proprietary purchase of New Jersey.

See NEW JERSEY: A. D. 1673-1682.

QUAKERS: A. D. 1688-1776. Early growth of anti-slavery sentiment in the Society.

See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D. 1688-1780.

—————QUAKERS: End————

QUALIFICATION OF SUFFRAGE: In England.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1884-1885.

QUALIFICATION OF SUFFRAGE: In Rhode Island.

See RHODE ISLAND: A. D. 1888.

{2621}

QUANTRELL'S GUERRILLAS.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (AUGUST: MISSOURI-KANSAS).

QUAPAWS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

QUATRE BRAS, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1815 (JUNE).

—————QUEBEC, CITY: Start————

QUEBEC, CITY: A. D. 1535. Its Indian occupants. Its name.

"When Jacques Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence, in 1535, he found an Indian village called Stadacona occupying the site of the present city of Quebec. "The Indian name Stadacona had perished before the time of Champlain, owing, probably, to the migration of the principal tribe and the succession of others." The name Quebec, afterwards given to the French settlement on the same ground, is said by some to be likewise of Indian origin, having reference to the narrowing of the river at that point. "Others give a Norman derivation for the word: it is said that Quebec was so–called after Caudebec, on the Seine." La Potherie says that the Normans who were with Cartier, when they saw the high cape, cried "Quel bec!" from which came the name Quebec. "Mr. Hawkins terms this 'a derivation entirely illusory and improbable,' and asserts that the word is of Norman origin. He gives an engraving of a seal belonging to William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, dated in the 7th of Henry V., or A. D. 1420. The legend or motto is 'Sigillum Willielmi de la Pole, Comitis Suffolckiæ, Domine de Hamburg et de Quebec.'"

E. Warburton, The Conquest of Canada, volume 1, chapter 2, and foot-note.

QUEBEC, CITY: A. D. 1608. The founding of the city by Champlain.

See CANADA: A. D. 1608-1611.

QUEBEC, CITY: A. D. 1629-1632. Capture by the English, brief occupation and restoration to France.

See CANADA: A. D. 1628-1635.

QUEBEC, CITY: A. D. 1639. The founding of the Ursuline Convent.

See CANADA: A. D. 1637–1657.

QUEBEC, CITY: A. D. 1690. Unsuccessful attack by Sir Williams Phips and the Massachusetts colonists.

See CANADA: A. D. 1689-1690.

QUEBEC, CITY: A. D. 1711. Threatened by the abortive expedition of Admiral Walker.

See CANADA: A. D. 1711-1713.

QUEBEC, CITY: A. D. 1759. Wolfe's conquest.

See CANADA: A. D. 1759 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER).

QUEBEC, CITY: A. D. 1760. Attempted recovery by the French.

See CANADA: A. D. 1760.

QUEBEC, CITY: A. D. 1775-1776. Unsuccessful siege by the Americans. Death of Montgomery.

See 'CANADA: A. D. 1775-1776.

—————QUEBEC, CITY: End———————

—————QUEBEC, PROVINCE: Start————

QUEBEC, Province: A. D. 1763. Creation of the English province.

See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.

QUEBEC, Province: A. D. 1774. Vast extension of the province by the Quebec Act.

See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.

QUEBEC, Province: A. D. 1867.

On the formation of the confederated Dominion of Canada, in 1867, the eastern province formerly called Lower Canada received the name of Quebec.

See CANADA: A. D. 1867.

—————QUEBEC, PROVINCE: End————

QUEBEC ACT, The.

See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.

QUEBEC RESOLUTIONS, The.

See CANADA: A. D. 1867.

QUEBRADA-SECA, Battle of (1862).

See VENEZUELA: A. D. 1829-1886.

QUEEN, Origin of the word.

See King.

QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY.

"Her Majesty's [Queen Anne's] birthday, which was the 6th of February, falling this year [1704] on a Sunday, its celebration had been postponed till the next day. On that day, then, as well beseeming her pious and princely gift, Sir Charles Hedges as Secretary of State brought down to the House of Commons a message from the Queen, importing that Her Majesty desired to make a grant of her whole revenue arising out of the First Fruits and Tenths for the benefit of the poorer clergy. These First Fruits and Tenths had been imposed by the Popes some centuries ago for the support of the Holy Wars, but had been maintained long after those wars had ceased.

See ANNATES.

The broad besom of Henry VIII. had swept them from the Papal to the Royal treasury, and there they continued to flow. In the days of Charles II. they had been regarded as an excellent fund out of which to provide for the female favourites of His Majesty and their numerous children. … Upon the Queen's message the Commons returned a suitable address, and proceeded to pass a bill enabling Her Majesty to alienate this branch of the revenue, and to create a corporation by charter to apply it for the object she desired. … This fund has ever since and with good reason borne the name of 'Queen Anne's Bounty.' Its application has been extended to the building of parsonage-houses as well as to the increase of poor livings."

Earl Stanhope, History of England: Reign of Queen Anne, chapter 4.

QUEEN ANNE'S WAR.

The wide-ranging conflict which is known in European history as the War of the Spanish Succession, appears in American history more commonly under the name of Queen Anne's War.

See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1702-1710.

QUEENSBERRY PLOT, The.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1703-1704.

QUEENSLAND.

See AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1859.

QUEENSTOWN HEIGHTS, The battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).

QUELCHES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

QUERANDIS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

QUESNOY: A. D. 1659. Ceded to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

QUESNOY: A. D. 1794. Siege and capture by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794 (MARCH-JULY).

QUIBÉRON BAY, Naval battle of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1759 (AUGUST-NOVEMBER).

Defeat of French Royalists (1795).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794-1796.

QUICHES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: QUICHES.

QUICHUAS, The.

See PERU: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

{2622}

QUIDS, The.

John Randolph of Virginia. "had been one of the Republican leaders while the party was in opposition [during the second administration of Washington and the administration of John Adams, as Presidents of the United States], but his irritable spirit disqualified him for heading an Administration party. He could attack, but could not defend. He had taken offense at the President's [Jefferson's] refusal to make him Minister to England, and immediately took sides with the Federalists [1805] followed by a number of his friends, though not sufficient to give the Federalists a majority. … The Randolph faction, popularly called 'Quids,' gave fresh life to the Federalists in Congress, and made them an active and useful opposition party."

A. Johnston, History of American Politics, chapter 6, section 3.

QUIETISM.

See MYSTICISM.

QUIJO, OR NAPO, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ANDESIANS.

QUINARIUS, The.

See AS.

QUINCY RAILWAY, The.

See STEAM LOCOMOTION ON LAND.

QUINDECEMVIRS, The.

The quindecemvirs, at Rome, had the custody of the Sibylline books.

C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 31.

QUINNIPIACK.

See CONNECTICUT: A. D. 1638.

QUIPU. WAMPUM.

"The Peruvians adopted a … unique system of records, that by means of the quipu. This was a base cord, the thickness of the finger, of any required length, to which were attached numerous small strings of different colors, lengths, and textures, variously knotted and twisted one with another. Each of these peculiarities represented a certain number, a quality, quantity, or other idea, but what, not the most fluent quipu reader could tell unless he was acquainted with the general topic treated of. Therefore, whenever news was sent in this manner a person accompanied the bearer to serve as verbal commentator, and to prevent confusion the quipus relating to the various departments of knowledge were placed in separate storehouses, one for war, another for taxes, a third for history, and so forth. On what principle of mnemotechnics the ideas were connected with the knots and colors we are totally in the dark; it has even been doubted whether they had any application beyond the art of numeration. Each combination had, however, a fixed ideographic value in a certain branch of knowledge, and thus the quipu differed essentially from the Catholic rosary, the Jewish phylactery, or the knotted strings of the natives of North America and Siberia, to all of which it has at times been compared. The wampum used by the tribes of the North Atlantic coast was, in many respects, analogous to the quipu. In early times it was composed chiefly of bits of wood of equal size, but different colors. These were hung on strings which were woven into belts and bands, the hues, shapes, sizes, and combinations of the strings hinting their general significance. Thus the lighter shades were invariable harbingers of peaceful or pleasant tidings, while the darker portended war and danger. The substitution of beads or shells in place of wood, and the custom of embroidering figures in the belts were, probably, introduced by European influence."

D. G. Brinton, The Myths of the New World, chapter 1.

See, also, WAMPUM.

QUIRINAL, The.

"The Palatine city was not the only one that in ancient times existed within the circle afterwards enclosed by the Servian walls; opposite to it, in its immediate vicinity, there lay a second city on the Quirinal. … Even the name has not been lost by which the men of the Quirinal distinguished themselves from their Palatine neighbours. As the Palatine city took the name of 'the Seven Mounts,' its citizens called themselves the 'mount-men' ('montani'), and the term 'mount,' while applied to the other heights belonging to the city, was above all associated with the Palatine; so the Quirinal height—although not lower, but on the contrary somewhat higher, than the former—as well as the adjacent Viminal, never in the strict use of the language received any other name than 'hill' ('collis'). … Thus the site of the Roman commonwealth was still at this period occupied by the Mount-Romans of the Palatine and the Hill-Romans of the Quirinal as two separate communities confronting each other and doubtless in many respects at feud. … That the community of the Seven Mounts early attained a great preponderance over that of the Quirinal may with certainty be inferred."

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 1, chapter 4.

See, also, PALATINE HILL, and SEVEN HILLS OF ROME.

QUIRITES.

In early Rome the warrior-citizens, the full burgesses, were so-called. "The king, when he addressed them, called them 'lance-men' (quirites). … We need not … regard the name Quirites as having been originally reserved for the burgesses on the Quirinal. … It is indisputably certain that the name· Quirites denoted from the first, as well as subsequently, simply the full burgess."

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 1, chapters 4 and 5.

The term quirites, in fact, signified the citizens of Rome as a body. Whether it originally meant "men of the spear," as derived from a Sabine word, is a question in some dispute.

H. G. Liddell, History of Rome, book 1, chapter 5.

QUITO: The ancient kingdom and the modern city.

See ECUADOR.

QUIVIRA.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PUEBLOS.

QUORATEAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: QUORATEAN FAMILY.

R

RAAB, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JANUARY-JUNE).

RABBLING.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1688-1690.

RABELAIS, on Education.

See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE.

RAB-SHAKEH.

The title of the chief minister of the Assyrian kings. The Rab-Shakah of Sennacherib demanded the surrender of Jerusalem.

RACHISIUS, King of the Lombards, A. D. 744-750.

RADAGAISUS, RADAGAIS, RODOGAST; Invasion of Italy by.

"In the year 406, Italy was suddenly overrun by a vast multitude composed of Vandals, Sueves, Burgunds, Alans, and Goths, under the command of a king named Radagais. To what nation this king belonged is not certain, but it seems likely that he was an Ostrogoth from the region of the Black Sea, who had headed a tribe of his countrymen in a revolt against the Huns. {2623} The invading host is said to have consisted of 200,000 warriors, who were accompanied by their wives and families. These barbarians were heathens, and their manners were so fierce and cruel that the invasion excited far more terror than did that of Alaric. … Stilicho [the able minister and general of the contemptible Emperor of the West, Honorius] found it hard work to collect an army capable of opposing this savage horde, and Radagais had got as far as Florence before any resistance was offered to him. But while he was besieging that city, the Roman general came upon him, and, by surrounding his army with earthworks, compelled him to surrender. The barbarian king was beheaded, and those of the captives whose lives were spared were sold into slavery."

H. Bradley, Story of the Goths, chapter 10.

ALSO IN: T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, book 1, chapter 5.

See, also, ROME: A. D. 404-408.

RÆTIA.

See RHÆTIA.

RAGA, RAGHA, RHAGES.

"The Median city next in importance to the two Ecbatanas was Raga or Rhages, near the Caspian Gates, almost at the extreme eastern limits of the territory possessed by the Medes. The great antiquity of this place is marked by its occurrence in the Zendavesta among the primitive settlements of the Arians. Its celebrity during the time of the Empire is indicated by the position which it occupies in the romances of Tobit and Judith. … Rhages gave name to a district; and this district may be certainly identified with the long narrow tract of fertile territory intervening between the Elburz mountain-range and the desert, from about Kasvin to Khaar, or from longitude 50° to 52° 30'. The exact site of the city of Rhages within this territory is somewhat doubtful. All accounts place it near the eastern extremity; and, as there are in this direction ruins of a town called Rhei or Rhey, it has been usual to assume that they positively fix the locality. But … there are grounds for placing Rhages very much nearer to the Caspian Gates."

G. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies: Media, chapter 1.

See, also, CASPIAN GATES.

RAGÆ.

See RATÆ.

RAGMAN'S ROLL.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1328.

RAID OF RUTHVEN, The.

See SCOTLAND. A. D. 1582.

RAILROADS, The beginning of.

See STEAM LOCOMOTION ON LAND.

RAISIN RIVER, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1812-1813 HARRISON'S NORTHWESTERN CAMPAIGN.

RAJA, RAJAH. MAHARAJA.

Hindu titles, equivalent to king and great king.

RAJPOOTS, RAJPUTS. RAJPOOTANA.

"The Rajpoots, or sons of Rajas, are the noblest and proudest race in India, … They claim to be representatives of the Kshatriyas; the descendants of those Aryan warriors who conquered the Punjab and Hindustan in times primeval. To this day they display many of the characteristics of the heroes of the Maha Bharata and Ramayana. They form a military aristocracy of the feudal type. … The Rajpoots are the links between ancient and modern India. In days of old they strove with the kings of Magadha for the suzerainty of Hindustan from the Indus to the lower Gangetic valley. They maintained imperial thrones at Lahore and Delhi, at Kanouj and Ayodhya. In later revolutions their seats of empire have been shifted further west and south, but the Rajpoot kingdoms still remain as the relics of the old Aryan aristocracy. … The dynasties of Lahore and Delhi faded away from history, and perchance have reappeared in more remote quarters of India. The Rajpoots still retain their dominion in the west, whilst their power and influence have been felt in every part of India; and to this day a large Rajpoot element characterizes the populations, not only of the Punjab and Hindustan, but of the Dekhan and Peninsula. The Rajpoot empire of a remote antiquity is represented in the present day by the three kingdoms of Meywar, Marwar, and Jeypore. Meywar, better known as Chittore or Udaipore, is the smallest but most important of the three. It forms the garden of Rajpootana to the eastward of the Aravulli range. Westward of the range is the dreary desert of Marwar. Northward of Meywar lies the territory of Jeypore, the intermediate kingdom between Meywar and the Mussulmans. … In former times the sovereigns of Meywar were known as the Ranas of Chittore; they are now known as the Ranas of Udaipore. They belong to the blue blood of Rajpoot aristocracy."

J. T. Wheeler, History of India, volume 3, chapter 7.

"Everywhere [in the central region of India] Rajput septs or petty chiefships may still be found existing in various degrees of independence. And there are, of course, Rajput Chiefs outside Rajputana altogether, though none of political importance. But Rajputana proper, the country still under the independent rule of the most ancient families of the purest clans, may now be understood generally to mean the great tract that would be crossed by two lines, of which one should be drawn on the map of India from the frontier of Sind Eastward to the gates of Agra; and the other from the Southern border of the Punjab Government near the Sutlej Southward and South-Eastward until it meets the broad belt of Maratha States under the Guicowar, Holkar, and Scindia, which runs across India from Baroda to Gwalior. This territory is divided into nineteen States, of which sixteen are possessed by Rajput clans, and the Chief of the clan or sept is the State's ruler. To the Sesodia clan, the oldest and purest blood in India, belong the States of Oodeypoor, Banswarra, Pertabgarh, and Shahpura; to the Rathore clan, the States of Jodhpoor and Bikanir; Jeypoor and Ulwar to the Kuchwaha, and so on."

Sir A. C. Lyall, Asiatic Studies, chapter 8.

RALEIGH, Sir Walter: Colonizing undertakings in Virginia.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1584-1586, and 1587-1590.

Guiana and El Dorado expeditions.

See EL DORADO.

RAMBOUILLET, The Hôtel de.

The marquise de Rambouillet, who drew around herself, at Paris, the famous coterie which took its name from her hospitable house, was the daughter of a French nobleman, Jean de Vivonne, sieur de Saint-Gohard, afterwards first marquis de Pisani, who married a Roman lady of the noble family of the Strozzi. Catherine de Vivonne was born of this union in 1588, and in 1600, when less than twelve years old, became the wife of Charles d'Angennes, vidame du Mans afterwards marquis de Rambouillet. Her married life was more than half a century in duration; she was the mother of seven children, and she survived her husband thirteen years. {2624} During the minority of the husband the ancient residence of his family had been sold, and from 1610 to 1617 the marquis and marquise were engaged in building a new Hôtel de Rambouillet, which the latter is credited with having, in great part, designed. Her house being finished, she opened it "to her friends and acquaintances, and her receptions, which continued until the Fronde (1648), brought together every evening the choicest society of the capital, and produced a profound influence upon the manners and literature of the day. The marquise ceased attending court some years before the death of Henry IV., her refinement and pure character finding there an uncongenial atmosphere. The marquise was not alone a woman of society, but was carefully educated and fond of literature. Consequently the reunions at the Hôtel de Rambouillet were distinguished by a happy combination of rank and letters. Still more important was the new position assumed by the hostess and the ladies who frequented her house. Until the XVIIth century the crudest views prevailed as to the education and social position of woman. It was at the Hôtel de Rambouillet that her position as the intellectual companion of man was first recognized, find this position of equality, and the deferential respect which followed it, had a powerful influence in refining the rude manners of men of rank whose lives had been passed in camps, and of men of letters who had previously enjoyed few opportunities for social polish. The two classes met for the first time on a footing of equality, and it resulted in elevating the occupation of letters, and imbuing men of rank with a fondness for intellectual pursuits. The reunions at the Hôtel de Rambouillet began, as has been said, about 1617, and extend until the Fronde (1648) or a few years later. This period Larroumet ('Précieuses Ridicules,' page 14) divides into three parts: from 1617 to about 1629; from 1630 to 1640; and from 1640 to the death of the marquise in 1665. During the first period the habitués of the Hôtel de Rambouillet were": the marquis du Vigean, the maréchal de Souvré, the duke de la Tremoïlle, Richelieu (then bishop of Luçon), the cardinal de la Valette, the poets Malherbe, Racan, Gombauld, Chapelain, Marino, the preacher Cospeau, Godeau, the grammarian Vaugelas, Voiture, Balzac, Segrais, Mlle. Paulet, the princess de Montmorency, Mlle. du Vigean, and the daughters of the marquise de Rambouillet, "of whom the eldest, Julie d'Angennes, until her marriage in 1645 to the marquis de Montausier, was the soul of the reunions of the Hôtel de Rambouillet. The second period was that of its greatest brilliancy. To the illustrious names just mentioned must be added": the great Condé, the marquis de Montausier, Saint-Évremond, La Rochefoucald, Sarrasin, Costar, Patru, Conrart, Georges de Scudéry, Mairet, Colletet, Ménage, Benscrade, Cotin, Desmarets, Rotrou, Scarron, P. Corneille, Bossuet, Mlle. de Bourbon, later duchesse de Longueville, Mlle. de Coligny, Mme. Aubry, and Mlle. de Scudéry, "yet unknown as a writer. After 1640 the Hôtel de Rambouillet began to decline; but two names of importance belong to this period: Mme. de la Fayette, and Mme. de Sévigné. … Voiture died in 1648, the year which witnessed the outbreak of the Fronde, after which the reunions at the Hôtel de Rambouillet virtually ceased. … Until the time of Roederer ['Mémoire pour servir à l'histoire de la société polie en France'] it was generally supposed that the word 'Précieuse' was synonymous with Hôtel de Rambouillet, and that it was the marquise and her friends whom Molière intended to satirize. Roederer endeavored to show that it was not the marquise but her bourgeois imitators, the circle of Mlle. de Scudéry …; Victor Cousin attempts to prove that it was neither the marquise nor Mlle. de Scudéry, but the imitators of the latter. … The editor of Molière in the 'Grands Écrivains de la France,' M. Despois (volume 2, page 4) believes that the Hôtel de Rambouillet, including Mlle. de Scudéry, was the object of Moliere's satire, although he had no intention of attacking any particular person among the 'Précieuses,' but confined himself to ridiculing the eccentricities common to them all. It is with this last view that the editor of the present work unhesitatingly agrees, for reasons which he hopes some day to give in detail in an edition of the two plays of Molière mentioned above ['Precieuses Ridicules,' and 'Les Femmes Savantes']. From Paris the influence of the 'Précieuses' spread into the provinces, doubtless with all the exaggerations of an unskilful imitation."

T. F. Crane, Introduction to "La Société Française au Dix-Septième Siècle."

ALSO IN: A. G. Mason, The Women of the French Salons, chapters 2-7.

RAMBOUILLET DECREE, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1810-1812.

RAMESES, RAAMSES, RAMSES, Treasure-city of.

See JEWS: THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS.

RAMESSIDS, The.

The nineteenth dynasty of Egyptian kings, sprung from Rameses I. [in the] fourteenth to twelfth centuries B. C.

See EGYPT: ABOUT B. C. 1400-1200.

RAMILLIES, Battle of (1706).

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1706-1707.

RAMIRO I.' King of Aragon, A. D. 1035-1063.

Ramiro I., King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, 842-850.

Ramiro II., King of Aragon, 1134-1137.

Ramiro II., King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, 930-950.

Ramiro III., King of Leon and the Asturias, or Oviedo, 967-982.

RAMNES. RAMNIANS, The.

See ROME: BEGINNINGS AND NAME.

RAMOTH-GILEAD.

The strong fortress of Ramoth-Gilead, on the frontier of Samaria and Syria, was the object and the scene of frequent warfare between the Israelites and the Arameans of Damascus. It was there that king Ahab of Samaria, in alliance with Judah, was killed in battle, fighting against Ben-hadad of Damascus.

1 Kings, xxii.

ALSO IN: Dean Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, lecture 33.

RANAS OF UDAIPORE OR CHITTORE.

See RAJPOOTS.

RANDOLPH, Edmund, and the framing and adoption of the Federal Constitution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787; 1787-1789.

In the Cabinet of President Washington.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1789-1792.

RANJIT SINGH, RUNJIT SINGH, The conquests of.

See SIKHS.

{2625}

RANTERS. MUGGLETONIANS.

"'These [the Ranters] made it their business,' says Baxter, 'to set up the Light of Nature under the name of Christ in Man, and to dishonour and cry down the Church, the Scripture, and the present Ministry, and our worship and ordinances; and called men to hearken to Christ within them. But withal they conjoined a cursed doctrine of Libertinism, which brought them to all abominable filthiness of life. They taught, as the Familists, that God regardeth not the actions of the outward man, but of the heart, and that to the pure all things are pure.' … Of no sect do we hear more in the pamphlets and newspapers between 1650 and 1655, though there are traces of them of earlier date. … Sometimes confounded with the Ranters, but really distinguishable, were some crazed men, whose crazes had taken a religious turn, and whose extravagances became contagious.—Such was a John Robins, first heard of about 1650, when he went about, sometimes as God Almighty, sometimes as Adam raised from the dead. … One heard next, in 1652, of two associates, called John Reeve and Ludovick Muggleton, who professed to be 'the two last Spiritual Witnesses (Revelation xi.) and alone true Prophets of the Lord Jesus Christ, God alone blessed to all eternity,' They believed in a real man-shaped God, existing from all eternity, who had come upon earth as Jesus Christ, leaving Moses and Elijah to represent him in Heaven." Muggleton died in 1698, "at the age of 90, leaving a sect called The Muggletonians, who are perhaps not extinct yet."

D. Masson, Life of John Milton, volume 5, pages 17-20.

RAPALLO, Battle of (1425).

See ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.

Massacre at (1494).

See ITALY: A. D. 1494-1496.

RAPE OF THE SABINE WOMEN, The.

See ROME: B. C. 753-510.

RAPES OF SUSSEX.

"The singular division of Sussex [England] into six 'rapes' [each of which is subdivided into hundreds] seems to have been made for military purposes. The old Norse 'hreppr' denoted a nearly similar territorial division."

T. P. Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History, chapter 1, foot-note.

"The 'reebning,' or mensuration by the rope or line, supplied the technical term of 'hrepp' to the glossary of Scandinavian legislation: archæologists have therefore pronounced an opinion that the 'Rapes' of Sussex, the divisions ranging from the Channel shore to the Suthrige border, were, according to Norwegian fashion, thus plotted out by the Conqueror."

Sir F. Palgrave, History of Normandy and England, book 1, chapter 5.

RAPHIA, Battle of (B. C. 217).

See SELEUCIDÆ: B. C. 224-187.

RAPID INDIANS.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: RAPID INDIANS.

RAPIDAN, Campaign of Meade and Lee on the.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JULY-NOVEMBER: VIRGINIA).

RAPPAHANNOCK STATION, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JULY-NOVEMBER: VIRGINIA).

RAPPAREES. TORIES.

"Ejected proprietors [in Ireland, 17th and 18th centuries] whose names might be traced in the annals of the Four Masters, or around the sculptured crosses of Clonmacnoise, might be found in abject poverty hanging around the land which had lately been their own, shrinking from servile labour as from an intolerable pollution, and still receiving a secret homage from their old tenants. In a country where the clan spirit was intensely strong, and where the new landlords were separated from their tenants by race, by religion, and by custom, these fallen and impoverished chiefs naturally found themselves at the head of the discontented classes; and for many years after the Commonwealth, and again after the Revolution, they and their followers, under the names of tories and rapparees, waged a kind of guerrilla war of depredations upon their successors. After the first years of the 18th century, however, this form of crime appears to have almost ceased; and although we find the names of tories and rapparees on every page of the judicial records, the old meaning was no longer attached to them, and they had become the designations of ordinary felons, at large in the country."

W. E. H. Lecky, History of England, 18th Century, chapter 7 (volume 2).

"The distinction between the Irish foot soldier and the Irish Rapparee had never been very strongly marked. It now disappeared [during the war in Ireland between James II. and William of Orange—A. D. 1691]. Great part of the army was turned loose to live by marauding."

Lord Macaulay, History of England, chapter 17 (volume 4).

"The Rapparee was the lowest of the low people. … The Rapparee knew little difference between friend and foe; receiving no mercy, they gave none."

Sir J. Dalrymple, Memoirs or Great Britain and Ireland, part 2, book 5 (volume 3).

"Political disaffection in Ireland has been the work, on the one hand, of the representatives of the old disinherited families—the Kernes, and Gallowglasses of one age, the Rapparees of the next, the houghers and ravishers of a third; on the other, of the restless aspirations of the Catholic clergy."

J. A. Froude, The English in Ireland, book 9, chapter 1 (volume 3).

RARITANS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

RAS. RASENNA.

See ETRUSCANS.

RASCIA.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES, 7TH CENTURY (SERVIA, CROATIA, ETC.).

RASCOL. RASKOL. RASKOLNIKS.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1655-1659.

RASTA, The.

See LEUGA.

RASTADT, Congress of. Murder of French envoys.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER).

RASTADT, The Treaty of (1714).

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

RATÆ, RAGÆ.

A Roman town in Britain—"one of the largest and most important of the midland cities, adorned with rich mansions and temples, and other public buildings. Its site is now occupied by the town of Leicester."

T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5.

RATHMINES, Battle of (1649).

See IRELAND: A. D. 1646-1649.

RATHS.

"Of those ancient Raths, or Hill-fortresses, which formed the dwellings of the old Irish chiefs, and belonged evidently to a period when cities were not yet in existence, there are to be found numerous remains throughout the country. This species of earthen work is distinguished from the artificial mounds, or tumuli, by its being formed upon natural elevations, and always surrounded by a rampart,"

T. Moore, History of Ireland, chapter 9.

RATHSMANN, RATHSMEISTER, etc.

See CITIES, IMPERIAL AND FREE, OF GERMANY.

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RATISBON: Taken by the Swedish-German forces (1633).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1632-1634.

RATISBON, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JANUARY-JUNE).

RATISBON, Catholic League of.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1522-1525.

RAUCOUX, Battle of (1746).

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1746-1747.

RAUDINE PLAIN, Battle of the.

See CIMBRI AND TEUTONES: B. C. 113-102.

RAURACI, The.

An ancient tribe "whose origin is perhaps German, established on both banks of the Rhine, towards the elbow which that river forms at Bâle."

Napoleon III., History of Cæsar, book 3, chapter 2, foot–note.

RAVENIKA, The Parliament of.

Henry, the second emperor of the Latin empire of Romania, or empire of Constantinople, convened a general parliament or high-court of all his vassals, at Ravenika, in 1209, for the determining of the feudal relations of all the subjects of the empire. Ravenika is in ancient Chalkidike, some fifty miles from Thessalonica.

G. Finlay, History of Greece from its Conquest by the Crusaders, chapter 4, section 4.

—————RAVENNA: Start————

RAVENNA: B. C. 50. Cæsar's advance on Rome.

See ROME: B. C. 52-50.

RAVENNA: A. D. 404. Made the capital of the Western Empire.

"The houses of Ravenna, whose appearance may be compared to that of Venice, were raised on the foundation of wooden piles. The adjacent country, to the distance of many miles, was a deep and impassable morass; and the artificial causeway which connected Ravenna with the continent might be easily guarded, or destroyed, on the approach of a hostile army. These morasses were interspersed, however, with vineyards; and though the soil was exhausted by four or five crops, the town enjoyed a more plentiful supply of wine than of fresh water. The air, instead of receiving the sickly and almost pestilential exhalations of low and marshy grounds, was distinguished, like the neighbourhood of Alexandria, as uncommonly pure and salubrious; and this singular advantage was ascribed to the regular tides of the Adriatic. … This advantageous situation was fortified by art and labour; and, in the twentieth year of his age, the Emperor of the West [Honorius, A. D. 395-423] anxious only for his personal safety, retired to the perpetual confinement of the walls and morasses of Ravenna. The example of Honorius was imitated by his feeble successors, the Gothic kings, and afterwards the exarchs, who occupied the throne and palace of the emperors; and till the middle of the eighth century Ravenna was considered as the seat of government and the capital of Italy."

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 30.

ALSO IN: T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, chapter 9.

See, also, ROME: A. D. 404-408.

RAVENNA: A. D. 490-493. Siege and capture by Theodoric. Murder of Odoacer. Capital of the Ostrogothic kingdom.

See ROME: A. D. 488-526.

RAVENNA: A. D. 493-525. The capital of Theodoric the Ostrogoth.

"The usual residence of Theodoric was Ravenna, with which city his name is linked as inseparably as those of Honorius or Placidia. The letters of Cassiodorus show his zeal for the architectural enrichment of this capital. Square blocks of stone were to be brought from Faenza, marble pillars to be transported from the palace on the Pincian Hill: the most skilful artists in mosaic were invited from Rome, to execute some of those very works which we still wonder at in the basilicas and baptisteries of the city by the Ronco. The chief memorials of his reign which Theodoric has left at Ravenna are a church, a palace, and a tomb."

T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, book 4, chapter 8 (volume 3).

RAVENNA: A. D. 540. Surrender to Belisarius.

See ROME: A. D. 535-553.

RAVENNA: A. D. 554-800. The Exarchate.

See ROME: A. D. 554-800.

RAVENNA: A. D. 728-751. Decline and fall of the Exarchate.

See PAPACY: A. D. 728-774.

RAVENNA: A. D. 1275. The Papal sovereignty confirmed by Rodolph of Hapsburg.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1273-1308.

RAVENNA: A. D. 1512. Taken by the French. Battle before the city. Defeat of the Spaniards.

See ITALY: A. D. 1510-1513.

—————RAVENNA: End————

RAVENSPUR.

The landing place of Henry of Lancaster, July 4, 1399, when he came back from banishment to demand the crown of England from Richard II. It is on the coast of Yorkshire.