Part 2 — Chapter III. (These four articles abrogated by the four articles following them, 118-122.) Article 118. The Federal Constitution may at any time be amended. (continued 101)

The organization of the American Library Association led to the formation, in 1877, of the Library Association of the United Kingdom, which was incident to the meeting of an international conference of Librarians held in London.

LIBRARIES: United States of America: Principal Libraries.

The following are the libraries in the United States which exceeded 100,000 volumes in 1891, as reported in the "Statistics of Public Libraries" published by the Bureau of Education. The name of each library is preceded by the date of its foundation:

1638. Harvard University Library, 292,000 volumes; 278,097 pamphlets.

1701. Yale College Library, New Haven, 185,000 volumes; 100,000 pamphlets.

1731. Philadelphia Library Company, 165,487 volumes; 30,000 pamphlets.

1749. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 100,000 volumes; 100,000 pamphlets.

1754. Columbia College Library, New York, 135,000 volumes.

1789. Library of the House of Representatives, Washington, 125,000 volumes.

1800. Library of Congress, Washington, 659,843 volumes; 210,000 pamphlets.

1807. Boston Athenæum, 173,831 volumes; 70,000 pamphlets.

1818. New York State Library, Albany, 157,114 volumes.

1820. New York Mercantile Library, New York, 239,793 volumes.

1821. Philadelphia Mercantile Library, 166,000 volumes; 10,000 pamphlets.

1826. Maryland State Library, Annapolis, 100,000 volumes.

1849. Astor Library, New York, 238,946 volumes; 12,000 pamphlets.

1852. Boston Public Library, 556,283 volumes.

1857. Brooklyn Library, 113,251 volumes; 21,500 pamphlets.

1857. Peabody Institute, Baltimore, 110,000 volumes; 13,500 pamphlets.

1865. Library of the Surgeon-General's Office, Washington, 104,300 volumes; 161,700 pamphlets.

1865. Detroit Public Library, 108,720 volumes.

1867. Cincinnati Public Library, 156,673 volumes; 18,326 pamphlets.

1868. Cornell University Library, Ithaca, New York, 111,007 volumes; 25,000 pamphlets.

1872. Chicago Public Library, 175,874 volumes; 25,293 pamphlets.

1882. Enoch Pratt Free Library, Baltimore, 106,663 volumes; 1,500 pamphlets.

1890. University of Chicago Library, 280,000 volumes.

1891. Sutro Library, San Francisco, 200,000 volumes.

LIBRARIES: United States of America: Library Gifts.

A remarkable number of the free public libraries of the United States are the creations of private wealth, munificently employed for the common good. The greater institutions which have this origin are the Astor Library in New York, founded by John Jacob Astor and enriched by his descendants; the Lenox Library in New York, founded by James Lenox; the Peabody Institute, in Baltimore, founded by George Peabody; the Enoch Pratt Free Library, in Baltimore, founded by the gentleman whose name it bears; the Newberry Library, in Chicago, founded by the will of Walter L. Newberry, who died in 1868; the Sutro Library in San Francisco, founded by Adolph Sutro, and the Carnegie Libraries founded at Pittsburg, Alleghany City and Braddock by Andrew Carnegie. By the will of John Crerar, who died in 1889, trustees for Chicago are in possession of an estate estimated at $2,500,000 or $3,000,000, for the endowment of a library which will soon exist. The intention of the late Samuel J. Tilden, former Governor of the State of New York, to apply the greater part of his immense estate to the endowment of a free library in the City of New York, has been partially defeated by contesting heirs; but the just feeling of one among the heirs has restored $2,000,000 to the purpose for which $5,000,000 was appropriated in Mr. Tilden's intent. Steps preparatory to the creation of the library are in progress. The lesser libraries, and institutions including libraries of considerable importance, which owe their origin to the public spirit and generosity of individual men of wealth, are quite too numerous in the country to be catalogued in this place. In addition to such, the bequests and gifts which have enriched the endowment of libraries otherwise founded are beyond computation.

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LIBRARIES: United States of America: Government Departmental Libraries at Washington.

A remarkable creation of special libraries connected with the departments and bureaus of the national Government, has occurred within a few years past. The more important among them are the following:

Department of Agriculture, 20,000 volumes and 15,000 pamphlets;

Department of Justice, 21,500 volumes;

Department of State, 50,000 volumes;

Department of the Interior, 11,500;

Navy Department, 24,518;

Post Office Department, 10,000;

Patent Office Scientific Library, 50,000 volumes and 10,000 pamphlets;

Signal Office, 10,540 volumes;

Surgeon General's Office, 104,300 volumes and 161,700 pamphlets (reputed to be the best collection of medical literature, as it is certainly the best catalogued medical library, in the world);

Treasury Department, 21,000 volumes;

Bureau of Education, 45,000 volumes and 120,000 pamphlets;

Coast and Geodetic Survey, 12,000 volumes and 4,000 pamphlets;

Geological Survey, 30,414 volumes, and 42,917 pamphlets;

Naval Observatory, 13,000 volumes and 3,000 pamphlets;

United States Senate, 72,592 volumes;

United States House of Representatives, 125,000 (both of these being distinct from the great Library of Congress, which contained, in 1891, 659,843 volumes);

War Department, 30,000 volumes.

LIBRARIES: Canada.

"In 1779 a number of the officers stationed at Quebec, and of the leading merchants, undertook the formation of a subscription library. The Governor, General Haldimand, took an active part in the work, and ordered on behalf of the subscribers £500 worth of books from London. The selection was entrusted to Richard Cumberland, the dramatist: and an interesting letter from the Governor addressed to him, describing the literary wants of the town and the class of books to be sent, is now in the Public Archives. A room for their reception was granted in the Bishop's Palace; and as late as 1806, we learn from Lambert's Travels that it was the only library [?] in Canada. Removed several times, it slowly increased, until in 1882 it numbered 4,000 volumes. The list of subscribers having become very much reduced, it was leased to the Quebec Literary Association in 1843. In 1854 a portion of it was burnt with the Parliament Buildings, where it was then quartered; and finally in 1866 the entire library, consisting of 6,990 volumes, were sold, subject to conditions, to the Literary and Historical Society for a nominal sum of $500. … Naturally on the organization of each of the provinces, libraries were established in connection with the Parliaments. We have therefore the following:

Nova Scotia, Halifax, 25,319; New Brunswick, Fredericton, 10,850; Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, 4,000; Quebec, Quebec, 17,400; Ontario, Toronto, 40,000; Manitoba, Winnipeg, 10,000; Northwest Territory, Regina, 1,480; British Columbia, Victoria, 1,200; Dominion of Canada, Ottawa, 120,000. Total volumes in Parliamentary libraries, 230,249.

By far the most important of our Canadian libraries is the Dominion Library of Parliament at Ottawa. Almost corresponding with the Congressional Library at Washington in its sources of income and work, it has grown rapidly during the past ten years, and now numbers 120,000 volumes. Originally established on the union of the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada in 1841, it was successively removed with the seat of government from Kingston to Montreal, to Quebec, to Toronto, again to Quebec, and finally to Ottawa. … The 38 colleges in Canada are provided with libraries containing 429,470 volumes, or an average of 11,302. The senior of these, Laval College, Quebec, is famous as being, after Harvard, the oldest on the continent, being founded by Bishop Laval in 1663. … In 1848 the late Dr. Ryerson, Superintendent of Education from 1844-1876, drafted a school bill which contained provisions for school and township libraries, and succeeded in awakening a deep interest in the subject. … In 1854 Parliament passed the requisite act and granted him the necessary funds to carry out his views in the matter. The regulations of the department authorized each county council to establish four classes of libraries—

1. An ordinary common school library in each schoolhouse for the use of the children and rate-payers.

2. A general public lending library available to all the ratepayers in the municipality.

3. A professional library of books on teaching, school organization, language, and kindred subjects, available for teachers only.

4. A library in any public institution under the control of the municipality, for the use of the inmates, or in any county jail, for the use of the prisoners. …

The proposal to establish the second class was however premature; and accordingly, finding that mechanics institutes were being developed throughout the towns and villages, the Educational Department wisely aided the movement by giving a small grant proportionate to the amount contributed by the members and reaching a maximum of $200, afterwards increased to $400 annually. In 1869 these had grown to number 26; in 1880, 74; and in 1886, 125. The number of volumes possessed by these 125 is 206,146, or an average of 1,650. … In the cities, however, the mechanics institute, with its limited number of subscribers, has been found unequal to the task assigned it, and accordingly, in 1882, the Free Libraries Act was passed, based upon similar enactments in Britain and the United States. … By the Free Libraries Act, the maximum of taxation is fixed at ½ a mill on the annual assessment. … None of the other provinces have followed Ontario in this matter."

J. Bain, Brief Review of the Libraries of Canada (Thousand Islands Conference of Librarians, 1887).

"The total number of public libraries in Canada of all kinds containing 1,000 or more volumes is 202, and of this number the Province of Ontario alone has 152, or over three-fourths of all, while Quebec has 27 or over one-half of the remaining fourth, the other provinces having from 2 to 6 libraries each. The total number of volumes and pamphlets in all the libraries reported is 1,478,910, of which the Province of Ontario has 863,332 volumes, or almost 60 per cent, while the Province of Quebec has 490,354, or over 33 percent; Nova Scotia, 48,250 volumes, or 3½ per cent; New Brunswick, 34,894 volumes, a little over 2.3 per cent; Manitoba, 31,025 volumes, or 2.1 per cent; British Columbia, 10,225 volumes, or not quite 0.7 per cent; and Prince Edward Island, 5,200 volumes, or over 0.3 per cent of the total number."

V. Flint, Statistics [1891] of Public Libraries in the United States and Canada (United States Bureau of Education, Circular of Information No.7, 1893).

LIBRARIES: Mexico.

The National Library of Mexico contains 155,000 books, besides manuscripts and pamphlets.

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LIBRARIES: China. The Imperial Library.

"It would be surprising if a people like the Chinese, who have the literary instinct so strongly developed, had not at an early date found the necessity of those great collections of books which are the means for carrying on the great work of civilization. China had her first great bibliothecal catastrophe two centuries before the Christian era, when the famous edict for the burning of the books was promulgated. Literature and despotism have never been on very good terms, and the despot of Tsin, finding a power at work which was unfavorable to his pretensions, determined to have all books destroyed except those relating to agriculture, divination and the history of his own house. His hatred to books included the makers of them, and the literati have not failed to make his name execrated for his double murders of men and books. When the brief dynasty of Tsin passed, the Princes of Han showed more appreciation of culture, and in 190 B. C. the atrocious edict was repealed, and the greatest efforts made to recover such literary treasures as had escaped the destroyer. Some classics are said to have been rewritten from the dictation of scholars who had committed them to memory. Some robbers broke open the tomb of Seang, King of Wei, who died B. C. 295, and found in it bamboo tablets containing more than 100,000 peen [bamboo slips]. These included a copy of the Classic of Changes and the Annals of the Bamboo Books, which indeed take their title from this circumstance. This treasure trove was placed in the Imperial Library. So the Shoo-king is said to have been found in a wall where it had been hidden by a descendant of Confucius, on the proclamation of the edict against books. Towards the close of the first century a library had been formed by Lew Heang and his son Lew Hin. … Succeeding dynasties imitated more or less this policy, and under the later Han dynasty great efforts were made to restore the library. … In the troubles at the close of the second century the palace at Lo-Yang was burned, and the greater part of the books destroyed. … Another Imperial collection at Lo-Yang, amounting to 29,945 books, was destroyed A. D. 311. In A. D. 431, Seäy Ling-Yuen, the keeper of the archives, made a catalogue of 4,582 books in his custody. Another catalogue was compiled in 473, and recorded 5,704 books. Buddhism and Taouism now began to contribute largely to the national literature. Amongst the other consequences of the overthrow of the Tse dynasty at the end of the fifth century was the destruction of the royal library of 18,010 books. Early in the next century a collection of 33,106 books, not including the Buddhist literature, was made chiefly, it is said, by the exertions of Jin Fang, the official curator. The Emperor Yuen-te removed his library, then amounting to 70,000 books, to King Chow, and the building was burnt down when he was threatened by the troops of Chow. The library of the later Wei dynasty was dispersed in the insurrection of 531, and the efforts made to restore it were not altogether successful. The later Chow collected a library of 10,000 books, and, on the overthrow of the Tse dynasty, this was increased by a mass of 5,000 mss. obtained from the fallen dynasty. When towards the close of the sixth century the Suy became masters of the empire they began to accumulate books. … The Tang dynasty are specially remarkable for their patronage of literature. Early in the eighth century the catalogue extended to 53,915 books, and a collection of recent authors included 28,469 books. Printing began to supersede manuscript in the tenth century, plentiful editions of the classics appeared and voluminous compilations. Whilst the Sung were great patrons of literature, the Leaou were at least lukewarm, and issued an edict prohibiting the printing of books by private persons. The Kin had books translated into their own tongue, for the benefit of the then Mongolian subjects. A similar policy was pursued by the Yuen dynasty, under whom dramatic literature and fiction began to flourish. In the year 1406, the printed books in the Imperial Library are said to have amounted to 300,000 printed books and twice the number of mss. … The great Imperial Library was founded by K'in Lung in the last century. In response to an imperial edict, many of the literati and book-lovers placed rare editions at the service of the government, to be copied. The Imperial Library has many of its books, therefore, in mss. Chinese printing, however, is only an imperfect copy of the caligraphy of good scribes. Four copies were made of each work. One was destined for the Wan Yuen Repository at Peking; a second for the Wan-tsung Repository at Kang-ning, the capital of Kiang-su province; a third for the Wan-hwui Repository at Yang-chou-fu, and the fourth for the Wan-lan Repository at Hong-Chou, the capital of Cheh-Kiang. A catalogue was published from which it appears that the library contained from ten to twelve thousand distinct works, occupying 168,000 volumes. The catalogue is in effect an annotated list of Chinese literature, and includes the works which were still wanting to the library and deemed essential to its completion. Dr. D. J. McGowan, who visited the Hong-Chou collection, says that it was really intended for a public library, and that those who applied for permission to the local authorities, not only were allowed access, but were afforded facilities for obtaining food and lodging, 'but from some cause or other the library is rarely or never consulted.' Besides the Imperial, there are Provincial, Departmental and District Libraries. Thus, the examination hall of every town will contain the standard classical and historical books. At Canton and other cities there are extensive collections, but their use is restricted to the mandarins. There are collections of books and sometimes printing presses in connection with the Buddhist monasteries."

W. E. A. Axon, Notes on Chinese Libraries (Library Journal, January and February, 1880).

For an account of the ancient library of Chinese classics in stone,

See EDUCATION, ANCIENT: CHINA.

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LIBRARIES: Japan.

"The Tokyo Library is national in its character, as the Congressional Library of the United States, the British Museum of Great Britain, etc. It is maintained by the State, and by the copyright Act it is to receive a copy of every book, pamphlet, etc., published in the empire. The Tokyo Library was established in 1872 by the Department of Education with about 70,000 volumes. In 1873 it was amalgamated with the library belonging to the Exhibition Bureau and two years later it was placed under the control of the Home Department, while a new library with the title of Tokyo Library was started by the Education Department at the same time with about 28,000 volumes newly collected. Thus the Tokyo Library began its career on a quite slender basis; but in 1876, the books increased to 68,953, and in 1877 to 71,853. Since that time, both the numbers of books and visitors have steadily increased, so much so that in 1884 the former reached 102,350 and latter 115,986, averaging 359 persons per one day. The library was then open free to all classes; but the presence of too many readers of the commonest text-books and light literature was found to have caused much hindrance to the serious students. … This disadvantage was somewhat remedied by introducing the fee system, which, of course, placed much restriction to the visitors of the library. … It is very clear from the character of the library that it is a reference library and not a circulating library. But as there are not any other large and well-equipped libraries in Tokyo, a system of 'lending out' is added, something like that of Königliche Bibliothek zu Berlin, with a subscription of 5 yen (about $5) per annum. … The Tokyo Library now contains 97,550 Japanese and Chinese books and 25,559 European books, besides about 100,000 of duplicates, popular books, etc., which are not used. The average number of books used is 337,262 a year. … The Library of the Imperial University, which is also under my charge, comprises all the books belonging to the Imperial University of Japan. These books are solely for the use of the instructors, students, and pupils, no admittance being granted to the general public. The library contains 77,991 European books and 101,217 Japanese and Chinese books. As to other smaller libraries of Japan, there are eight public and ten private libraries in different parts of the empire. The books contained in them are 66,912 Japanese and Chinese books and 4,731 European books with 43,911 visitors! Besides these, in most of towns of respectable size, there are generally two or three small private circulating libraries, which contain books chiefly consisting of light literature and historical works popularly treated."

I. Tanaka, Tokyo Library (San Francisco Conference of Librarians, 1891).

LIBRARIES: India.

The first free library in a native state of India was opened in 1892, with 10,000 volumes, 7,000 being in English. It was founded by the brother of the Maharajah.

Library Journal, volume 17, page 395.

—————LIBRARIES: End—————

LIBURNIANS, The.

See KORKYRA.

LIBYAN SIBYL.

See SIBYLS.

LIBYANS, The.

"The name of Africa was applied by the ancients only to that small portion of country south of Cape Bon; the rest was called Libya. The bulk of the population of the northern coast, between Egypt and the Pillars of Hercules, was of the Hamitic race of Phut, who were connected with the Egyptians and Ethiopians, and to whom the name of Libyans was not applied until a later date, as this name was originally confined to some tribes of Arian or Japhetic race, who had settled among the natives. From these nations sprung from Phut descended the races now called Berbers, who have spread over the north of Africa, from the northernmost valleys of the Atlas to the southern limits of the Sahara, and from Egypt to the Atlantic; perhaps even to the Canaries, where the ancient Guanches seem to have spoken a dialect nearly approaching that of the Berbers of Morocco. These Berbers—now called Amazigh, or Shuluh, in Morocco; Kabyles, in the three provinces of Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli; Tibboos, between Fezzan and Egypt; and Tuariks in the Sahara—are the descendants of the same great family of nations whose blood, more or less pure, still runs in the veins of the tribes inhabiting the different parts of the vast territory once possessed by their ancestors. The language they still speak, known through the labours of learned officers of the French army in Africa, is nearly related to that of Ancient Egypt. It is that in which the few inscriptions we possess, emanating from the natives of Libya, Numidia, and Mauritania in olden times, are written. The alphabet peculiar to these natives, whilst under the Carthaginian rule, is still used by the Tuariks. Sallust, who was able to consult the archives of Carthage, and who seems more accurate than any other classical writer on African history, was acquainted with the annals of the primitive period, anterior to the arrival of the Arian tribes and the settlement of the Phœnician colonies. Then only three races, unequally distributed in a triple zone, were to be met with throughout Northern Africa. Along the shore bordering the Mediterranean were the primitive Libyans, who were Hamites, descendants of Phut; behind them, towards the interior, but on the western half only, were the Getulians … ; further still in the interior, and beyond the Sahara, were the negroes, originally called by the Greek name 'Ethiopians, which was afterwards erroneously applied to the Cushites of the Upper Nile. Sallust also learnt, from the Carthaginian traditions, of the great Japhetic invasion of the coast of Africa. … The Egyptian monuments have acquainted us with the date of the arrival of these Indo-Europeans in Africa, among whom were the Libyans, properly so called, the Maxyans, and Macæ. It was contemporary with the reigns of Seti I. and Ramses II."

F. Lenormant, Manual of Ancient History of the East, book 6, chapter 5 (volume 2).

See, also, NUMIDIANS; and AMORITES.

LICINIAN LAWS, The.

See ROME: B. C. 376-367.

LICINIUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 307-323.

LICTORS. FASCES.

"The fasces were bundles of rods (virgæ) of elm or birchwood, tied together round the handle of an axe (securis) with (most likely red) straps. The iron of the axe, which was the executioner's tool, protruded from the sticks. The fasces were carried on their left shoulders by the lictors, who walked in front of certain magistrates, making room for them, and compelling all people to move out of the way (summovere), barring Vestals and Roman matrons. To about the end of the Republic, when a special executioner was appointed, the lictors inflicted capital punishment. The king was entitled to twelve fasces, the same number being granted to the consuls. … The dictator was entitled to twenty-four lictors. … Since 42 B. C. the Flamen Dialis and the Vestals also were entitled to one lictor each. In case a higher official met his inferior in the street, he was saluted by the lictors of the latter withdrawing the axe and lowering the fasces."

E. Guhl and W. Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans, section 107, foot-note.

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LIDUS, LEUD, LATT, The.

See SLAVERY, MEDIÆVAL: GERMANY.

—————LIÈGE: Start————

LIÈGE: The Episcopal Principality.

"Liège lies on the borderland of the French and German speaking races. … It was the capital of an ecclesiastical principality, whose territory extended some distance up the river and over the wooded ridges and green valleys of the Ardennes. The town had originally sprung up round the tomb of St. Lambert—a shrine much frequented by pilgrims. … The Prince Bishop of Liège was the vassal of the emperor, but his subjects had long considered the kings of France their natural protectors. It was in France that they found a market for their manufactures, from France that pilgrims came to the tomb of St. Lambert or to the sylvan shrine of St. Hubert. Difference of language and rivalry in trade separated them from their Dutch-speaking neighbours. We hear, as early as the 10th century, of successful attempts on the part of the people of Liège, supported and directed by their bishops, to subdue the lords of the castles in their neighbourhood. A population of traders, artizans, and miners, were unlikely to submit to the pretensions of a feudal aristocracy. Nor was there a burgher oligarchy, as in many of the Flemish and German towns. Every citizen was eligible to office if he could obtain a majority of the votes of the whole male population. Constitutional limits were imposed on the power of the bishop; but he was the sole fountain of law and justice. By suspending their administration he could paralyse the social life of the State, and by his interdicts annihilate its religious life. Yet the burghers were involved in perpetual disputes with their bishop. When the power of the Dukes of Burgundy was established in the Low Countries, it was to them that the latter naturally applied for assistance against their unruly flock. John the Fearless defeated the citizens with great slaughter in 1408. He himself reckoned the number of slain at 25,000. In 1431 Liège was compelled to pay a fine of 200,000 crowns to the Duke of Burgundy." The Duke—Philip the Good—afterwards forced the reigning bishop to resign in favor of a brother of the Duke of Bourbon, a dissolute boy of eighteen, whose government was reckless and intolerable.

P. F. Willert, Reign of Lewis XI., pages 93-94.

ALSO IN: J. F. Kirk, History of Charles the Bold, book 1, chapter 7.

LIÈGE: A. D. 1467-1468. War with Charles the Bold of Burgundy and destruction of the city.

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 1467-1468; also, DINANT.

LIÈGE: A. D. 1691. Bombardment by the French.

The Prince-bishop of Liège having joined the League of Augsburg against Louis XIV., and having received troops of the Grand Alliance into his city, the town was bombarded in May, 1691, by the French General Boufflers. There was no attempt at a siege; the attack was simply one of destructive malice, and the force which made it withdrew speedily.

H. Martin, History of France: Age of Louis XIV., volume 2, chapter 2.

LIÈGE: A. D. 1702. Reduced by Marlborough.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1702-1704.

LIÈGE: A. D. 1792-1793. Occupation and surrender by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1792 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER); and 1793 (FEBRUARY-APRIL).

—————LIÈGE: Start————

—————LIEGNITZ: Start—————

LIEGNITZ, The Battle of (1241).

On the 9th of April, A. D. 1241, the Mongols, who had already overrun a great part of Russia, defeated the combined forces of Poland, Moravia and Silesia in a battle which filled all Europe with consternation. It was fought near Lignitz (or Liegnitz), on a plain watered by the river Keiss, the site being now occupied by a village called Wahlstadt, i. e., "Field of Battle." "It was a Mongol habit to cut off an ear from each corpse after a battle, so as to have a record of the number slain; and we are told they filled nine sacks with these ghastly trophies," from the field of Lignitz.

H. H. Howorth, History of the Mongols, part 1, page 144.

See MONGOLS: A. D. 1229-1294.

LIEGNITZ: Battle of (1760).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1760.

—————LIEGNITZ: End—————

LIGERIS, The.

The ancient name of the river Loire.

LIGHT BRIGADE, The Charge of the.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1854 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER).

LIGII, The.

See LYGIANS.

LIGNY, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1815 (JUNE).

LIGONIA.

See MAINE: A. D. 1629-1631; and 1643-1677.

LIGURIAN REPUBLIC, The.

The mediæval republic of Genoa is often referred to as the Ligurian Republic; but the name was distinctively given by Napoleon to one of his ephemeral creations in Italy.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1797 (MAY-OCTOBER), and 1804-1805.

LIGURIANS, The.

"The whole of Piedmont in its present extent was inhabited by the Ligurians: Pavia, under the name of Ticinum, was founded by a Ligurian tribe, the Lævians. When they pushed forward their frontier among the Apennines into the Casentino on the decline of the Etruscans, they probably only recovered what had before been wrested from them. Among the inhabitants of Corsica there were Ligurians. … The Ligurians and Iberians were anciently contiguous; whereas in aftertimes they were parted by the Gauls. We are told by Scylax, that from the borders of Iberia, that is, from the Pyrenees, to the Rhone, the two nations were dwelling intermixed. … But it is far more probable that the Iberians came from the south of the Pyrenees into Lower Languedoc, as they did into Aquitaine, and that the Ligurians were driven back by them. When the Celts, long after, moving in an opposite direction, reached the shore of the Mediterranean, they too drove the Ligurians close down to the coast, and dwelt as the ruling people amongst them, in the country about Avignon, as is implied by the name Celto-Ligurians. … Of their place in the family of nations we are ignorant: we only know that they were neither Iberians nor Celts."

G. B. Niebuhr, History of Rome, volume 1.

"On the coast of Liguria, the land on each side of the city of Genoa, a land which was not reckoned Italian in early times, we find people who seem not to have been Aryan. And these Ligurians seem to have been part of a race which was spread through Italy and Sicily before the Aryan settlements, and to have been akin to the non-Aryan inhabitants of Spain and southern Gaul, of whom the Basques … remain as a remnant."

E. A. Freeman, Historical Geography of Europe, chapter 3.

ALSO IN: I. Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, chapter 2, section 7.

See, also, APPENDIX A, VOLUME 1.

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—————LILLE: Start————

LILLE: A. D. 1583. Submission to Spain.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1584-1585 LIMITS OF THE UNITED PROVINCES.

LILLE: A. D. 1667. Taken by the French.

See NETHERLANDS (THE SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1667.

LILLE: A. D. 1668. Ceded to France.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1668.

LILLE: A. D. 1708. Siege and capture by Marlborough and Prince Eugene.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1708-1709.

LILLE: A. D. 1713. Restoration to France.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

—————LILLE: End————

LILLEBONNE, Assembly of.

A general assembly of Norman barons convened by Duke William, A. D. 1066, for the considering of his contemplated invasion of England.

E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, chapter 13, section 3 (volume 3).

LILLIBULLERO.

"Thomas Wharton, who, in the last Parliament, had represented Buckinghamshire, and who was already conspicuous both as a libertine and as a Whig, had written [A. D. 1688, just prior to the Revolution which drove James II. from the English throne] a satirical ballad on the administration of Tyrconnel [Richard Talbot, Earl of Tyrconnel, James' Lord Deputy in Ireland.]

See IRELAND: A. D. 1685-1688.

In this little poem an Irishman congratulates a brother Irishman, in a barbarous jargon, on the approaching triumph of Popery and of the Milesian race. … These verses, which were in no respect above the ordinary standard of street poetry, had for burden some gibberish which was said to have been used as a watchword by the insurgents of Ulster in 1641. The verses and the tune caught the fancy of the nation. From one end of England to the other all classes were constantly singing this idle rhyme. It was especially the delight of the English army. More than seventy years after the Revolution, a great writer delineated, with exquisite skill, a veteran who had fought at the Boyne and at Namur. One of the characteristics of the good old soldier is his trick of whistling Lillibullero. Wharton afterwards boasted that he had sung a King out of three kingdoms. But in truth the success of Lillibullero was the effect, and not the cause, of that excited state of public feeling which produced the Revolution. … The song of Lillibullero is among the State Poems. In Percy's Relics the first part will be found, but not the second part, which was added after William's landing."

Lord Macaulay, History of England, chapter 9, with foot-note.

ALSO IN: W. W. Wilkins, Political Ballads of the 17th and 18th Centuries, volume 1, page 275.

LILY OF FLORENCE, The.

See FLORENCE: ORIGIN AND NAME.

—————LILYBÆUM: Start————

LILYBÆUM: B. C. 368. Siege by Dionisius.

"This town, close to the western cape of Sicily, appears to have arisen as a substitute for the neighbouring town of Motye (of which we hear little more since its capture by Dionysius in 396 B. C.), and to have become the principal Carthaginian station." Lilybæum was first besieged and then blockaded by the Syracuse tyrant, Dionysius, B. C. 368; but he failed to reduce it. It was made a powerful stronghold by the Carthaginians.

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 83.

LILYBÆUM: B. C. 277. Siege by Pyrrhus.

See ROME: B. C. 282-275.

LILYBÆUM: B. C. 250-241. Siege by the Romans.

See PUNIC WAR, THE FIRST.

—————LILYBÆUM: End————

LIMA: Founded by Pizarro (1535).

See PERU: A. D. 1533-1548.

LIMBURG: Capture by the Dutch (1632).

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1621-1633.

—————LIMERICK: Start————

LIMERICK: A. D. 1690-1691. Sieges and surrender.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1689-1691.

LIMERICK: A. D. 1691. The treaty of surrender and its violation.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1691.

—————LIMERICK: End————

LIMES, The.

This term was applied to certain Roman frontier-roads. "Limes is not every imperial frontier, but only that which is marked out by human hands, and arranged at the same time for being patrolled and having posts stationed for frontier-defence, such as we find in Germany and in Africa. … The Limes is thus the imperial frontier-road, destined for the regulation of frontier-intercourse, inasmuch as the crossing of it was allowed only at certain points corresponding to the bridges of the river boundary, and elsewhere forbidden. This was doubtless effected in the first instance by patrolling the line, and, so long as this was done, the Limes remained a boundary road. It remained so, too, when it was fortified on both sides, as was done in Britain and at the mouth of the Danube; the Britannic wall is also termed Limes."

T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 8, chapter 4, foot-note.

LIMIGANTES, The.

The Limigantes were a tribe occupying, in the fourth century, a region of country between the Danube and the Theiss, who were said to have been formerly the slaves of a Sarmatian people in the same territory and to have overpowered and expelled their masters. The latter, in exile, became dependents of the warlike nation of the Quadi. At the end of a war with the latter, A. D. 357-359, in which they were greatly humbled, the Emperor Constantius commanded the Limigantes to surrender their stolen territory to its former owners. They resisted the mandate and were exterminated.

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapters 18-19.

The Limigantes were a branch of the Iazyges or Jazyges, a nomadic Sarmatian or Sclavonic people who were settled in earlier times on the Palus Mæotis.

LIMISSO.

See HOSPITALLERS OF ST. JOHN: A. D. 1118-1310.

—————LIMOGES: Start————

LIMOGES, Origin of the town.

See LEMOVICES.

LIMOGES, A. D. 1370. Massacre by the Black Prince.

A foul crime which stains the name of "the Black Prince." Taking the city of Limoges, in France, after a short siege, A. D. 1370, he ordered a promiscuous massacre of the population, and more than 3,000 men, women and children were slain, while the town was pillaged and burned.

Froissart, Chronicles (translated by Johnes), book 1, chapters 288, 290.

See, also, FRANCE: A. D. 1360-1380.

—————LIMOGES: End————

LIMONUM.

See POITIERS.

LIMOUSIN, Early inhabitants of the.

See LEMOVICES.

{2028}

LINCOLN, Abraham. Election to the Presidency.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1860 (APRIL-NOVEMBER).

LINCOLN, Abraham. Inauguration and Presidential administration.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (FEBRUARY-MARCH), to 1865 (APRIL).

LINCOLN, Abraham. Gettysburg address.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (NOVEMBER).

LINCOLN, Abraham. Reëlection to the Presidency.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY-NOVEMBER).

LINCOLN, Abraham. Visit to Richmond.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (APRIL: VIRGINIA).

LINCOLN, Abraham. Assassination.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (APRIL 14TH).

LINCOLN, General Benjamin, in the War of the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778-1779 THE WAR CARRIED INTO THE SOUTH; 1779 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER); 1780 (FEBRUARY-AUGUST).

LINCOLN, Battle of.

See LAMBETH, TREATY OF.

LINCOLN, Origin of.

See LINDUM.

LINDISWARA, LINDESFARAS.

"Dwellers about Lindum," or Lincoln; a name given for a time to the Angles who seized and settled in that English district.

J. R. Green, The Making of England.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 547-633.

LINDSEY, Kingdom of.

One of the small and transient kingdoms of the Angles in early England.

W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 7, section 70 (volume 1).

LINDUM.

The Roman city from which sprang the English city of Lincoln.

T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5.

LINGONES, The.

A tribe in ancient Gaul whose territory embraced parts in the modern French departments of the Haute-Marne, the Aube, the Yonne and the Côte-d'Or.

Napoleon III., History of Cæsar, book 3, chapter 2, foot-note (volume 2).

See, also, ROME: B. C. 390-347.

LINKÖPING, Battle of (1598).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1523-1604.

LION AND THE SUN, The Order of the.

A Persian order, instituted in 1808.

LION OF ST. MARK, The Winged.

The standard of the Venetian republic. "Historians have failed or omitted to fix the precise time when this ensign of the lion was first adopted by the Republic. But when the two granite columns ['trophies of a successful raid in the Archipelago'], still the conspicuous ornaments of the Piazetta of St. Mark, were erected, in or about 1172, a winged lion in bronze was placed on one of them, and a statue of St. Theodore, a patron of earlier standing, on the other."

The Republic of Venice (Quarterly Review, Oct., 1874), page 423.

See, also, VENICE: A. D. 829.

LIPAN, Battle of (1434).

See BOHEMIA: A. D. 1419-1434.

—————LISBON: Start————

LISBON: Origin and early history.

See PORTUGAL: EARLY HISTORY.

LISBON: A. D. 1147. Capture from the Moors. Made the capital of Portugal.

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1095-1325.

LISBON: A. D. 1755. The great Earthquake.

"On the morning of the 1st of November in this year, at the same period, though in less or greater degree a far-spreading earthquake ran through great part both of Europe and Barbary. In the north its effects, as usual with earthquakes in that region, were happily slight and few. Some gentle vibrations were felt as far as Dantzick. … In Madrid a violent shock was felt, but no buildings, and only two human beings, perished. In Fez and in Morocco, on the contrary, great numbers of houses fell down, and great multitudes of people were buried beneath the ruins. But the widest and most fearful destruction was reserved for Lisbon. Already, in the year 1531, that city had been laid half in ruins by an earthquake. The 1st of November 1755 was All Saints' Day, a festival of great solemnity; and at nine in the morning all the churches of Lisbon were crowded with kneeling worshippers of each sex, all classes, and all ages, when a sudden and most violent shock made every church reel to its foundations. Within the intervals of a few minutes two other shocks no less violent ensued, and every church in Lisbon—tall column and towering spire—was hurled to the ground. Thousands and thousands of people were crushed to death, and thousands more grievously maimed, unable to crawl away, and left to expire in lingering agony. The more stately and magnificent had been the fabric, the wider and more grievous was the havoc made by its ruin. About one fourth, as was vaguely computed, of all the houses in the city toppled down. The encumbered streets could scarce afford an outlet to the fugitives; 'friends,' says an eye-witness, 'running from their friends, fathers from their children, husbands from their wives, because every one fled away from their habitations full of terror, confusion, and distraction.' The earth seemed to heave and quiver like an animated being. The sun was darkened with the clouds of lurid dust that arose. Frantic with fear a headlong multitude rushed for refuge to a large and newly built stone pier which jutted out into the Tagus, when a sudden convulsion of the stream turned this pier bottom uppermost, like a ship on its keel in the tempest, and then engulphed it. And of all the living creatures who had lately thronged it,—full 3,000, it is said,—not one, even as a corpse, ever rose again. From the banks of the river other crowds were looking on in speechless affright, when the river itself came rushing in upon them like a torrent, though against wind and tide. It rose at least fifteen feet above the highest spring tides, and then again subsided, drawing in or dashing to pieces every thing within its reach, while the very ships in the harbour were violently whirled around. Earth and water alike seemed let loose as scourges on this devoted city. 'Indeed every clement,' says a person present, 'seemed to conspire to our destruction … for in about two hours after the shock fires broke out in three different parts of the city, occasioned from the goods and the kitchen fires being all jumbled together.' At this time also the wind grew into a fresh gale, which made the fires spread in extent and rage with fury during three days, until there remained but little for them to devour. Many of the maimed and wounded are believed to have perished unseen and unheeded in the flames; some few were almost miraculously rescued after being for whole days buried where they fell, without light or food or hope. The total number of deaths was computed at the time as not less than 30,000."

Lord Mahon (Earl Stanhope), History of England, 1713-1783, chapter 32 (volume 4).

LISBON: A. D. 1807. Occupied by the French. Departure of the Royal Family for Brazil.

See PORTUGAL: A. D. 1807.

—————LISBON: End———— {2029}

LISLE.

See LILLE.

LISSA, Battle of (1866).

See ITALY: A. D. 1862-1866.

LIT DE JUSTICE.

See BED OF JUSTICE.

—————LITHUANIA: Start————

LITHUANIA: A. D. 1235. Formation of the Grand Duchy.

"From 1224 [when Russia was prostrated by the Mongol conquest] to 1487 … is a period of obscuration in Russian history, during which Russia is nothing in the Slavonian world. The hour of Russia's weakness was that in which the Lithuanians, formerly a mere chaos of Slavo-Finnish tribes, assumed organization and strength. Uniting the original Lithuanian tribes into one government, and extending his sway over those territories, formerly included in the Russian Empire, which the Mongolian destruction of the Russian power had left without a ruler, a native chief, named Ringold, founded (1235) a new state called the Grand-Duchy of Lithuania. The limits of this state extended from the Baltic coast, which it touched at a single point, across the entire continent, almost to the Black Sea, with Lithuania proper as its northern nucleus, and the populations along the whole course of the Dnieper as its subjects. The Lithuanians, thus made formidable by the extent of their dominion, were at this time still heathens."

Poland: Her History and Prospects (Westminster Review, January, 1855), page 119.

See, also, RUSSIA: A. D. 1237-1480.

LITHUANIA: A. D. 1386. Union with Poland under the Jagellon kings.

See POLAND: A. D. 1333-1572.

—————LITHUANIA: End————

LITHUANIANS. LETTS.

"They and the Slavonians are branches of the same Sarmatian family; so, of course, their languages, though different, are allied. But next to the Slavonic what tongues are nearest the Lithuanic? Not the speech of the Fin, the German, or the Kelt, though these are the nearest in geography. The Latin is liker than any of these; but the likest of all is the ancient sacred language of India—the Sanskrit of the Vedas, Puranas, the Mahabharata, and the Ramayana. And what tongue is the nearest to the Sanskrit? Not those of Tibet and Armenia, not even those of Southern India. Its nearest parallel is the obscure and almost unlettered languages of Grodno, Wilna, Vitepsk, Courland, Livonia, and East Prussia. There is a difficult problem here. … The present distribution of the Lithuanian populations is second only in importance to that of the Ugrians. Livonia is the most convenient starting-point. Here it is spoken at present; though not aboriginal to the province. The Polish, German, and Russian languages have encroached on the Lithuanian, the Lithuanian on the Ugrian. It is the Lett branch of the Lithuanian which is spoken by the Letts of Livonia (Liefland), but not by the Liefs. The same is the case in Courland. East Prussia lies beyond the Russian empire, but it is not unnecessary to state that, as late as the sixteenth century, a Lithuanian tongue was spoken there. Vilna, Grodno, and Vitepsk are the proper Lithuanian provinces. There, the original proper Lithuanic tongue still survives; uncultivated, and day by day suffering from the encroachment of the Russian, but, withal, in the eyes of the ethnologist, the most important language in Europe."

R. G. Latham, Ethnology of Europe, chapter 6.

LITTLE BIG HORN, Battle of the.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1876.

LITTLE BRETHREN.

See BEGUINES, &c.

LITTLE ROCK, Federal occupation of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (AUGUST-OCTOBER: ARKANSAS-MISSOURI).

LITTLE RUSSIA.

See RUSSIA, GREAT.

LITTLE YAHNI, Battle of (1877).

See TURKS: A. D. 1877-1878.

LITURGIES.

"It was not only by taxation of its members that the [Athenian] State met its financial needs, but also by many other kinds of services which it demanded from them, and which, though not, like the former, producing an income, yet nevertheless saved an expense. Such services are called Liturgies [i. e.; properly, services for the people.'—Footnote]. They are partly ordinary or 'encyclic'— such, that is, as occurred annually, even in times of peace, according to a certain order, and which all bore some relation to worship and to the celebration of festivals—and partly extraordinary, for the needs of war. Among the former class the most important is the so-called Choregia, i. e., the furnishing of a chorus for musical contests and for festivals. … A similar though less burdensome Liturgy was the Gymnasiarchy for those feasts which were celebrated with gymnastic contests. The gymnasiarch, as it seems, was compelled to have all who wished to come forward as competitors trained in the gymnasia, to furnish them with board during the time of training, and at the games themselves to furnish the necessary fittings and ornaments of the place of contest. … More important and more costly than all these ordinary or encyclic Liturgies was the extraordinary Liturgy of trierarchy, i. e., the equipment of a ship of war."

G. F. Schumann, Antiquity of Greece: The State, part 3, chapter 3.

"The Liturgiæ, which are sometimes considered as peculiar to the Athenians, … were common to all democracies at least [in the Greek states], and even to certain aristocracies or oligarchies. … The Liturgiæ of the Greeks were distinguished by a much more generous and noble characteristic than the corresponding services and contributions of the present day. They were considered honorable services. … Niggardliness in the performance of them was considered disgraceful. The state needed no paid officer, or contractors to superintend or undertake their execution. … The ordinary Liturgiæ … are principally the choregia, the gymnasiarchia, and the feasting of the tribes [or hestiasis]. … The lampadarchy, if not the only kind, was certainly the most important and expensive kind of gymnasiarchy. The race on foot with a torch in the hand was a common game. The same kind of race was run with horses for the first time at Athens in the time of Socrates. The art consisted, besides other particulars, in running the fastest, and at the same time not extinguishing the torch. … Since the festivity was celebrated at night, the illumination of the place which was the scene of the contest was necessary. Games of this kind were celebrated specially in honor of the gods of light and fire. … The expenses of the feasting of the tribes were borne by a person selected for this purpose from the tribe. … The entertainments, the expenses of which were defrayed by means of this liturgia, were different from the great feastings of the people, the expenses of which were paid from the treasury of the theorica. They were merely entertainments at the festivals of the tribes."

A. Boeckh, Public Economy of the Athenians (translated by Lamb), book 3, chapters 1 and 21-23.

ALSO IN: E. G. Bulwer-Lytton, Athens, book 5, chapter 2.

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LITUS, The.

In the Salic law, of the Franks, the litus appears as representing a class in that Germanic nation. He "was no doubt identical with the serf whom Tacitus represents as cultivating the soil, and paying a rent in kind to his lord. That the litus was not free is evident from the mention of his master and the fact that he could be sold; though we find a weregild set upon his life equal to that of a free Roman."

W. C. Perry, The Franks, chapter 10.

LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY, The.

See STEAM LOCOMOTION ON LAND.

LIVERPOOL MINISTRY, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1812-1813.

LIVERY, Origin of the term.

"After an ancient custom, the kings of France, at great solemnities, gave such of their subjects as were at court certain capes or furred mantles, with which the latter immediately clothed themselves before leaving the court. In the ancient 'comptes' (a sort of audits) these capes were called 'livrées' (whence, no doubt, our word livery), because the monarch gave them ('les livrait') himself."

J. F. Michaud, History of the Crusades, book 13.

LIVERY COMPANIES.

See GUILDS, MEDIÆVAL.

LIVERY OF SEIZIN.

See FEUDAL TENURES.

LIVINGSTON MANOR, The.

Robert Livingston, "secretary of Albany," son of a Scotch clergyman, began to acquire a landed estate, by purchases from the Indians, soon after his arrival in America, which was about 1674. "The Mohegan tribes on the east side of the Hudson had become reduced to a few old Indians and squaws, who were ready to sell the lands of which they claimed the ownership. Livingston's position as clerk of Indian affairs gave him exceptional opportunities to select and to purchase the best lands in desirable localities. … In 1702, Lord Bellomont [then governor of New York] writes, 'I am told Livingston has on his great grant of 16 miles long and 24 broad, but four or five cottages, occupied by men too poor to be farmers, but are his vassals.' After the close of the war [Queen Anne's War], Livingston made more rapid progress in his improvements. He erected flour and timber mills, and a new manor-house." In 1715 Livingston obtained from Governor Hunter a confirmatory patent, under an exact and careful survey of his estate. "Although it does not give the number of acres, the survey computes the area of the manor to contain 160,240 acres. It was now believed to be secure against any attack. … Philip, the second proprietor, was not disturbed as to title or limits. He was a merchant, and resided in New York, spending his summers at the Manor House. … His son, Robert, succeeded him as the third proprietor, but he had hardly come into possession before he began to be harassed by his eastern neighbors, the people of Massachusetts. … Massachusetts, by her charter, claimed the lands lying west of her eastern boundary to the Pacific Ocean. She had long sought to make settlements within the province of New York. Now as her population increased she pushed them westward, and gradually encroached on lands within the limits of a sister province. In April, 1752, Livingston wrote to Governor Clinton, and entered complaint against the trespassers from Massachusetts. A long correspondence between the governors of the two provinces followed, but settled nothing. The trouble continued," for a number of years, and frequent riots were incident to it, in which several men were killed. At length, "the boundary between New York and Massachusetts was finally settled, and the claimants ceased their annoyance. … The Revolution was approaching. The public mind was occupied with politics. … Land titles ceased to be topics of discussion. The proprietors of the old manor, and all bearing their name, with a few unimportant exceptions, took a decided stand in favor of independence. During the war that followed, and for some years after its close, their title and possession of their broad acres were undisputed. But in 1795 another effort was made to dispossess them. The old methods of riots and arrests were abandoned. The title was now attacked by the tenants, incited and encouraged by the envious and disaffected. A petition, numerously signed by the tenants of the manor, was sent to the Legislature. … The committee to which the petition was referred reported adversely, and this was approved by the House on March 23, 1795. … After the failure of 1795 to break the title, there was a season of comparative quiet continued for nearly forty years. Then a combination was formed by the tenants of the old manorial estates, including those of large landed proprietors in other parts of the State, termed 'anti-renters.' It was a civil association with a military organization. It was their purpose to resist the payment of rents. The tenants of the Van Rensselaer and the Livingston Manors, being the most numerous, were the projectors and leaders, giving laws and directions. … Landlords and officers were intimidated by bands disguised as Indians, and some property was destroyed. The anti-renters carried their grievances into politics, throwing their votes for the party which would give them the most favorable legislation. In 1844, they petitioned the Legislature to set aside as defective the Van Rensselaer title, and put the tenants in legal possession of the farms they occupied. The petition was referred to the Judiciary Committee of the Assembly, the late Judge William Allen being chairman. Anti-renters of known ability were on the committee, and a favorable report was anticipated. But after a long and thorough investigation of the title … the committee unanimously reported against the prayer of the petition. This put an end to the combination, and to the anti-rent war, although resistance to the collection of rents in isolated cases, with bloodshed and loss of life, is still [1885] continued. The landlords, however, particularly the Livingstons, were tired of the strife. They adopted measures of compromise, selling to their tenants the lands they occupied at reduced valuations. Only small portions of the old manor now remain in the hands of Robert Livingston's descendants."

G. W. Schuyler, Colonial New York, volume I, pages 243-285.

ALSO IN: E. P. Cheyney, Anti-Rent Agitations in New York (University of Pennsylvania Pubs.).

{2031}

LIVONIA: 12th-13th Centuries. First introduction of Commerce and Christianity.

"Till the year A. D. 1158 … Livonia was well-nigh utterly unknown to the rest of Europe. Some traders of Bremen then visited it, and formed several settlements along the coast. These commercial relations with their western neighbours first opened up the country to missionary enterprise, and in the year A. D. 1186 one of the merchant-ships of Bremen brought to the mouth of the Düna a venerable canon named Meinhard." Meinhard died in 1196, having accomplished little. He was succeeded by a Cistercian abbot named Berthold, who, being driven away by the obstinate pagans, returned wrathfully in 1198, with a crusading army, which Pope Innocent III. had commissioned him to lead against them. This was the beginning of a long and merciless crusading warfare waged against the Livonians, or Lieflanders, and against their Prussian and other Sclavonic neighbors, until all were forced to submit to the religious rites of their conquerors and to call themselves Christians. For the furthering of this crusade, Berthold's successor, Albert von Apeldern, of Bremen (who founded the town of Riga), "instituted, in the year A. D. 1201, with the concurrence of the emperor Otho IV. and the approbation of the Pope, the knightly 'Order of the Sword,' and placed it under the special protection of the Virgin Mary. The members of this order bound themselves by solemn vows to hear mass frequently, to abstain from marriage, to lead a sober and chaste life, and to fight against the heathen. In return for these services they were to have and to enjoy whatever lands they might wrest with their swords from their pagan adversaries. … Albert von Apeldern made Riga the starting-point of his operations. Thence, aided by Waldemar II. king of Denmark, he directed the arms of his crusaders against Esthonia, and the neighbouring countries of Semgallen and Courland. On these war-wasted districts he succeeded in imposing a nominal form of Christianity." The Order of the Sword was subsequently united with the Teutonic Order, which turned its crusading energies from the Moslems of the Holy Land to the heathendom of the Baltic.

G. F. Maclear, Apostles of Mediæval Europe, chapters 15-16.

ALSO IN: A. Rambaud, History of Russia, volume 1, chapter 9.

See, also PRUSSIA: 13TH CENTURY.

LLANOS.

See PAMPAS.

LLORENS, Battle of (1645).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1644-1646.

LOANO, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (JUNE-DECEMBER).

LOBBY, The.

"'The Lobby' is the name given in America to persons, not being members of a legislature, who undertake to influence its members, and thereby to secure the passing of bills. The term includes both those who, since they hang about the chamber, and make a regular profession of working upon the members, are called 'lobbyists,' and those persons who on any particular occasion may come up to advocate, by argument or solicitation, any particular measure in which they happen to be interested. The name, therefore, does not necessarily impute any improper motive or conduct, though it is commonly used in what Bentham calls a dyslogistic sense."

J. Bryce, The American Commonwealth, volume 1, appendix note (B) to chapter 16.

LOBOSITZ, OR LOWOSITZ, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1756.

LOCH LEVEN, Mary Stuart's captivity at.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1561-1568.

LOCHLANN.

The Celtic name for Norway, meaning Lakeland.

LOCKE'S CONSTITUTION FOR THE CAROLINAS.

See NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1669-1693.

LOCOFOCOS.

"In 1835, in the city and county of New York, a portion of the democrats organized themselves into the 'equal rights' party. At a meeting in Tammany Hall they attempted to embarrass the proceedings of the democratic nominating committee, by presenting a chairman in opposition to the one supported by the regular democrats. Both parties came to a dead lock, and, in the midst of great confusion, the committee extinguished the lights. The equal rights men immediately relighted the room with candles and locofoco matches, with which they had provided themselves. From this they received the name of locofocos, a designation which, for a time, was applied to the whole democratic party by the opposition."

W. R. Houghton, History of American Politics, page 219.

LOCRI.

The city of Locri, or Locri Epizephyrii, an ancient Greek settlement in Southern Italy, was founded by the Locrians as early as B. C. 683. The elder Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, married a Locrian woman and showed great favor to the city, of which he acquired control; but it suffered terribly from his son, the younger Dionysius, who transferred his residence to Locri when first driven from Syracuse.

LOCRIANS, The.

See LOKRIANS.

LODGER FRANCHISE.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1884-1885.

LODI, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER).

LODI, Treaty of (1454).

See MILAN: A. D. 1447-1454; and ITALY: A. D. 1447-1480.

LOEN, OR STADTLOHN, Battle of (1623).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1621-1623.

LŒTIC COLONIES.

During and after the civil wars of the declining years of the Roman empire, large numbers of Germans were enlisted in the service of the rival factions, and were recompensed by gifts of land, on which they settled as colonists. "They were called Lœti, and the colonies lœtic colonies, probably from the German word 'leute,' people, because they were regarded as the people or men of the empire."

P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient Gaul, book 3, chapter 9, foot-note.

LOG, The.

See EPHAH.

LOG CABIN AND HARD CIDER CAMPAIGN.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1840.

LOGAN CROSS ROADS, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JANUARY-FEBRUARY: KENTUCKY-TENNESSEE).

LOGAN'S WRONGS. LOGAN'S WAR. LOGAN'S FAMOUS SPEECH.

See OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1774.

LÖGBERG, The.

See THING.

LOGI, The.

See BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES.

LOGISTÆ AND EUTHYNI, The.

"In Athens, all accounts, with the exception of those of the generals, were rendered to the logistæ and euthyni. Both authorities, before and after the archonship of Euclid, existed together at the same time. Their name itself shows that the logistæ were auditors of accounts. The euthyni were in immediate connection with them. … The logistæ were the principal persons in the auditing board."

A. Boeckh, Public Economy of Athens (translated by Lamb), book 2, chapter 8.

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LOGOGRAPHI, The.

The earlier Ionian Greek historians "confined their attention to the circle of myths and antiquities connected with single families, single cities and districts. These were the Ionic 'logographi,' so called because they noted down in easy narrative the remarkable facts that they had collected and obtained by inquiry as to the foundation of the cities, the myths of the prehistoric age, and the natural, political, and social condition of different countries."

E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 3, chapter 3 (volume 2).

LOGOTHETES.

A class of officers created under Justinian for the administration of the imperial finances in Italy, after its conquest from the Goths. Their functions corresponded with those of a modern auditor, or comptroller.

T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, book 5, chapter 15 (volume 4).

LOGSTOWN.

About the middle of the 18th century, Logstown was "an important Indian village a little below the site of the present city of Pittsburg. Here usually resided Tanacharisson, a Seneca chief of great note, being head sachem of the mixed tribes which had migrated to the Ohio and its branches. He was generally surnamed the half-king, being subordinate to the Iroquois confederacy."

W. Irving, Life of Washington, volume 1, chapter 5.

LOIDIS.

See ELMET.

LOJA: Sieges and capture by the Spaniards (1482-1483).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1476-1492.

LOJERA, Battle of (1353).

See CONSTANTINOPLE: A. D. 1348-1355.

LOKRIANS, The.

"The coast [of Greece, in ancient times] opposite to the western side of Eubœa, from the neighbourhood of Thermopylæ as far as the Bœotian frontier at Anthedon, was possessed by the Lokrians, whose northern frontier town, Alpeni, was conterminous with the Malians. There was, however, one narrow strip of Phokis—the town of Daphnus, where the Phokians also touched the Eubœan sea—which broke this continuity and divided the Lokrians into two sections,—Lokrians of Mount Knemis, or Epiknemidian Lokrians, and Lokrians of Opus, or Opuntian Lokrians. … Besides these two sections of the Lokrian name, there was also a third, completely separate, and said to have been colonised from Opus,—the Lokrians surnamed Ozolæ,—who dwelt apart on the western side of Phokis, along the northern coast of the Corinthian Gulf. … Opus prided itself on being the mother-city of the Lokrian name. … The whole length of this Lokrian coast is celebrated for its beauty and fertility, both by ancient and modern observers."

G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 3 (volume 2).

LOLLARDS. The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1360-1414; and BEGUINES.—BEGHARDS.

LOLLARDS' TOWER.

When the persecution of the Lollards, or disciples of Wyclif, began in England, under Henry IV., the prisons were soon crowded, and the Archbishop of Canterbury found need of building an additional tower to his palace at Lambeth for the custody of them. The Lollards' Tower, as it was named, is still standing, with the rings in its walls to which the captives were chained.

LOMBARDS, OR LANGOBARDI. Early history.

"The Langobardi … are ennobled by the smallness of their numbers; since, though surrounded by many powerful nations, they derive security, not from obsequiousness, but from their martial enterprise."

Tacitus, Germany, Oxford translation, chapter 40.

"In the reign of Augustus, the Langobardi dwelt on this side the Elbe, between Luneburg and Magdeburg. When conquered and driven beyond the Elbe by Tiberius, they occupied that part of the country where are now Prignitz, Ruppin, and part of the Middle Marche. They afterward founded the Lombard kingdom in Italy."

Tacitus, Germany, Oxford translation, Translator's note.

The etymology which explains the name of the Lombards or Langobardi by finding in it a reference to the length of their beards is questioned by some modern writers. Sheppard ("Fall of Rome") conjectures that the name originally meant "long-spears" rather than "long-beards." Other writers derive the name "from the district they inhabited on the banks of the Elbe, where Börde (or Bord) still signifies 'a fertile plain by the side of a river,' and a district near Magdeburg is still called the lange Börde. According to this view, Langobardi would signify 'inhabitants of the long bord of the river'; and traces of their name are supposed still to occur in such names as Bardengau and Bardewick, in the neighbourhood of the Elbe."

Dr. W. Smith, Note to Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 42.

From the Elbe the Langobardi moved in time to the Danube. "Here they encountered the Gepidæ, who, … after having taken a leading part in the defeat and dispersion of the Huns in the great battle of Netad [A. D. 453], had settled in the plains of Upper Hungary and on the Transylvanian hills. For thirty years these two powerful tribes continued a contest in which both sides sought the assistance of the Greek emperor, and both were purposely encouraged in their rivalry with a view to their common destruction." In 566 the struggle was decided by a tremendous battle in which the Gepidæ were crushed. The Lombards, in this last encounter, had secured the aid of the pretended Avars, then lately arrived on the Danube; but the prestige of the overwhelming victory attached itself to the name of the young Lombard king, Alboin. "In the days of Charlemagne, the songs of the German peasant still told of his beauty, his heroic qualities, and the resistless vigour of his sword. His renown crossed the Alps, and fell, with a foreboding sound, upon the startled ears of the Italians, now experienced in the varied miseries of invasion."

J. G. Sheppard, Fall of Rome, lecture 6.

LOMBARDS: A. D. 568-573. Conquests and settlement in Italy.

When the Lombards and the Avars crushed the nation of the Gepidæ (see AVARS), in 566, it was one of the terms of the bargain between them that the former should surrender to the Avars, not only the conquered territory—in Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania and part of Hungary—but, also, their own homes in Pannonia and Noricum. No doubt the ambitious Lombard king, Alboin, had thoughts of an easy conquest of Italy in his mind when he assented to so strange an agreement. Fourteen years before, the Lombard warriors had traversed the sunny peninsula in the army of Narses, as friends and allies of the Roman-Greeks. {2033} The recollection of its charms, and of its still surviving wealth, invited them to return. Their old leader, Narses, had been deposed from the exarchate at Ravenna; it is possible that he encouraged their coming. "It was not an army, but an entire nation, which descended the Alps of Friuli in the year 568. The exarch Longinus, who had succeeded Narses, shut himself up within the walls of Ravenna, and offered no other resistance. Pavia, which had been well fortified by the kings of the Ostrogoths, closed its gates, and sustained a siege of four years. Several other towns, Padua, Monzelice, and Mantua, opposed their isolated forces, but with less perseverance. The Lombards advanced slowly into the country, but still they advanced; at their approach, the inhabitants fled to the fortified towns upon the sea coast in the hope of being relieved by the Greek fleet, or at least of finding a refuge in the ships, if it became necessary to surrender the place. … The islands of Venice received the numerous fugitives from Venetia, and at their head the patriarch of Aquileia, who took up his abode at Grado; Ravenna opened its gates to the fugitives from the two banks of the Po; Genoa to those from Liguria; the inhabitants of La Romagna, between Rimini and Ancona, retired to the cities of the Pentapolis; Pisa, Rome, Gaeta, Naples, Amalfi, and all the maritime towns of the south of Italy were peopled at the same time by crowds of fugitives."

J. C. L. de Sismondi, Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 11 (volume 1).

"From the Trentine hills to the gates of Ravenna and Rome, the inland regions of Italy became, without a battle or a siege, the lasting patrimony of the Lombards. … One city, which had been diligently fortified by the Goths, resisted the arms of a new invader; and, while Italy was subdued by the flying detachments of the Lombards, the royal camp was fixed above three years before the western gate of Ticinum, or Pavia. … The impatient besieger had bound himself by a tremendous oath that age, and sex, and dignity should be confounded in a general massacre. The aid of famine at length enabled him to execute his bloody vow; but as Alboin entered the gate his horse stumbled, fell, and could not be raised from the ground. One of his attendants was prompted by compassion, or piety, to interpret this miraculous sign of the wrath of Heaven: the conqueror paused and relented. … Delighted with the situation of a city which was endeared to his pride by the difficulty of the purchase, the prince of the Lombards disdained the ancient glories of Milan; and Pavia during some ages was respected as the capital of the kingdom of Italy."

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 45.

LOMBARDS: A. D. 573-754. Their kingdom.

Alboin survived but a short time the conquest of his Italian kingdom. He was murdered in June, 573, at the instigation of his wife, the Gepid princess Rosamond, whose alliance with him had been forced and hateful. His successor, Clef, or Clepho, a chief elected by the assembly of the nation at Pavia, reigned but eighteen months, when he, too, was murdered. After a distracted period of ten years, in which there was no king, the young son of Clepho, named Autharis, came to manhood and was raised to the throne. "Under the standard of their new king, the conquerors of Italy withstood three successive invasions [of the Franks and the Alemanni], one of which was led by Childebert himself, the last of the Merovingian race who descended from the Alps. … During a period of 200 years Italy was unequally divided between the kingdom of the Lombards and the exarchate of Ravenna. … From Pavia, the royal seat, their kingdom [that of the Lombards] was extended to the east, the north, and the west, as far as the confines of the Avars, the Bavarians, and the Franks of Austrasia and Burgundy. In the language of modern geography, it is now represented by the Terra Firma of the Venetian republic, Tyrol, the Milanese, Piedmont, the coast of Genoa, Mantua, Parma, and Modena, the grand duchy of Tuscany, and a large portion of the ecclesiastical state from Perugia to the Adriatic. The dukes, and at length the princes, of Beneventum, survived the monarchy, and propagated the name of the Lombards. From Capua to Tarentum, they reigned near 500 years over the greatest part of the present kingdom of Naples."

E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 45.

LOMBARDS: A. D. 754-774. The Fall of their monarchy. Charlemagne's conquest.

Until 754 the Lombard kings pursued a generally prosperous career of aggrandizement, in Italy. They had succeeded, at the last, in expelling the exarchs of the Eastern Empire from Ravenna and in taking possession of that capital, with much of the territory and many of the cities in central Italy which depended on it. These successes inflamed their determination to acquire Rome, which had practically resumed its independence, and theoretically reconstituted itself a republic, with the Pope, in fact, ruling it as an actual prince. In 753 the Papal chair was filled by Stephen II. and the Lombard throne by King Aistaulf, or Astolphus. The former, being newly threatened by the latter, made a journey to the court of the Frank king, Pippin, to solicit his aid. Pippin was duly grateful for the sanction which the preceding pope had given to his seizure of the Merovingian crown, and he responded to the appeal in a vigorous way. In a short campaign beyond the Alps, in 754, he extorted from the Lombard king a promise to make over the cities of the exarchate to the Pope and to respect his domain. But the promise was broken as soon as made. The Franks were hardly out of Italy before Aistulf was ravaging the environs of Rome and assailing its gates. On this provocation Pippin came back the next year and humbled the Lombard more effectually, stripping him of additional territory, for the benefit of the Pope, taking heavy ransom and tributes from him, and binding him by oaths and hostages to acknowledge the supremacy of the king of the Franks. This chastisement sufficed for nearly twenty years; but in 773 the Pope (now Hadrian) was driven once more to appeal to the Frank monarch for protection against his northern neighbors. Pippin was dead and his great son Charles, or Charlemagne, had quarrels of his own with Lombardy to second the Papal call. He passed the Alps at the head of a powerful army, reduced Pavia after a year-long siege and made a complete conquest of the kingdom, immuring its late king in a cloister for the remainder of his days. He also confirmed, it is said, the territorial "donations" of his father to the Holy See and added some provinces to them. "Thus the kingdom of the Lombards, after a stormy existence of over two hundred years, was forever extinguished. {2034} Comprising Piedmont, Genoa, the Milanese, Tuscany, and several smaller states, it constituted the most valuable acquisition, perhaps, the Franks had lately achieved. Their limits were advanced by it from the Alps to the Tiber; yet, in the disposal of his spoil, the magnanimous conqueror regarded the forms of government which had been previously established. He introduced no changes that were not deemed indispensable. The native dukes and counts were confirmed in their dignities; the national law was preserved, and the distributions of land maintained, Karl receiving the homage of the Lombard lords as their feudal sovereign, and reserving to himself only the name of King of Lombardy."

P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient Gaul, chapters 15-16.

ALSO IN: E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 49.

J. I. Mombert, Charlemagne, book 1, chapter 2, and book 2, chapter 2.

J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, chapters 4-5.

See, also, PAPACY: A. D. 728-774.

—————LOMBARDY: Start————

LOMBARDY: A. D. 754. Charlemagne's reconstitution of the kingdom.

See LOMBARDS: A. D. 754-774.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 961-1039. The subjection to Germany.

See ITALY: A. D. 961-1039.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1056-1152. The rise of the Republican cities.

See ITALY: A. D. 1056-1152.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1154-1183. The wars of Frederick Barbarossa against the Communes. The League of Lombardy.

See ITALY: A. D. 1154-1162, to 1174-1183; and FEDERAL GOVERNMENT: MEDIÆVAL LEAGUE OF LOMBARDY.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1183-1250. The conflict with Frederick II.

See ITALY: A. D. 1183-1250.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1250-1520. The Age of the Despots.

See ITALY: A. D. 1250-1520.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1277-1447. Rise and domination of the Visconti of Milan, and the dissolution of their threatening tyranny.

See MILAN: A. D. 1277-1447.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1310-1313. Visit of the Emperor Henry VII. His coronation with the Iron Crown.

See ITALY: A. D. 1310-1313.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1327-1330. Visit and coronation of Louis IV. of Bavaria.

See ITALY: A. D. 1313-1330.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1360-1391. The Free Companies and the wars with Florence and with the Pope.

See ITALY: A. D. 1343-1393.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1412-1422. Reconquest by Filippo Maria Visconti, third duke of Milan.

See ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1447-1454. Disputed succession of the Visconti in Milan. The duchy seized by Francesco Sforza. War of Venice, Naples, and other States against Milan and Florence.

See MILAN: A. D. 1447-1454.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1492-1544. The struggle for the Milanese territory, until its acquisition by the Spanish crown.

See references under MILAN: A. D. 1492-1496, to 1544.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1713. Cession of the duchy of Milan to Austria.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1745-1746. Occupied by the Spaniards and French and recovered by the Austrians.

See ITALY: A. D. 1745; and 1746-1747.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1749-1792. Under Austrian rule, after the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.

See ITALY: A. D. 1749-1792.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1796-1797. Conquest by Bonaparte. Creation of the Cisalpine Republic.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER); 1796-1797 (OCTOBER-APRIL); and 1797 (MAY-OCTOBER).

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1799. French evacuation.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER).

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1800. Recovery by the French.

See FRANCE: A: D. 1800-1801 (MAY-FEBRUARY).

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1805. The Iron Crown bestowed on Napoleon, as King of Italy.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1804-1805.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1814. French evacuation.

See ITALY: A. D. 1814.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1814-1815. Restored to Austria. Formation of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (APRIL-JUNE); VIENNA, THE CONGRESS OF; ITALY: A. D. 1814-1815; and AUSTRIA: A. D. 1815-1846.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1848-1849. The struggle for freedom from Austrian misrule and its failure.

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

LOMBARDY: A. D. 1859. Emancipation from the Austrians. Absorption in the kingdom of Italy.

See ITALY: A. D. 1856-1859; and 1859-1861.

—————LOMBARDY: End—————

LOMBARDY, The iron crown of.

The crown of the Lombard kings was lined with an iron band, believed to have been wrought of the nails used in the Crucifixion. Hence it was called the Iron Crown.

J. I. Mombert, History of Charles the Great, book 2, chapter 2.

LONATO, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER).

LONDINIUM. The Roman name of the city of London.

See LONDON.

—————LONDON: Start—————

LONDON: The origin of the city and its name.

"When Plautius [Aulus Plautius, who, in the reign of the Emperor Claudius, A. D. 43, led the second Roman invasion of Britain, that of Cæsar having been the first] withdrew his soldiers from the marshes they had vainly attempted to cross, he, no doubt, encamped them somewhere in the neighbourhood. I believe the place was London. The name of London refers directly to the marshes, though I cannot here enter into a philological argument to prove the fact. At London the Roman general was able both to watch his enemy and to secure the conquests he had made, while his ships could supply him with all the necessaries he required. When, in the autumn of the year 43, he drew the lines of circumvallation round his camp, I believe he founded the present metropolis of Britain. The notion entertained by some antiquaries that a British town preceded the Roman camp has no foundation to rest upon, and is inconsistent with all we know of the early geography of this part of Britain."

E. Guest, Origines Celticæ, volume 2, part 2, chapter 13.

"Old as it is, London is far from being one of the oldest of British cities; till the coming of the Romans, indeed, the loneliness of its site seems to have been unbroken by any settlement whatever. The 'dun' was, in fact, the centre of a vast wilderness. … We know nothing of the settlement of the town; but its advantages as the first landing-place along the Thames secured for it at once the command of all trading intercourse with Gaul, and through Gaul with the empire at large. So rapid was its growth that only a few years after the landing of Claudius [who joined Aulus Plautius in the autumn of 43] London had risen into a flourishing port."

J. R. Green, The Making of England, chapter 3.

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"The derivation of 'Londinium' from 'Llyn·din,' the lake fort, seems to agree best with the situation and the history. The Roman could not frame to pronounce the British word 'Llyn,' a word which must have sounded to his ears very much like 'Clun,' or 'Lun,' and the fact, if it is a fact, that Llyn was turned into Lon, goes to increase the probability that this is the correct derivation of the name. The first founder called his fastness the 'Fort of the Lake,' and this is all that remains of him or it. … London was in those days emphatically a Llyndin, the river itself being more like a broad lake than a stream, and behind the fortress lying the great northern lake,' as a writer so late as Fitzstephen calls it, where is now Moorfields. I take it, it was something very like an island, if not quite—a piece of high ground rising out of lake, and swamp, and estuary."

W. J. Loftie, History of London, chapter 1, and foot-note.

LONDON: A. D. 61. Destruction by the Iceni.

Londinium was one of the Roman towns in Britain destroyed by the Iceni, at the time of the furious insurrection to which they were incited by their outraged queen Boadicea, A. D. 61. It "was crowded with Roman residents, crowded still more at this moment with fugitives from the country towns and villas: but it was undefended by walls, its population of traders was of little account in military eyes, and Suetonius sternly determined to leave it, with all the wealth it harboured, to the barbarians, rather than sacrifice his soldiers in the attempt to save it. … Amidst the overthrow of the great cities of southern Britain, not less than 70,000 Roman colonists … perished. The work of twenty years was in a moment undone. Far and wide every vestige of Roman civilization was trodden into the soil. At this day the workmen who dig through the foundations of the Norman and the Saxon London, strike beneath them on the traces of a double Roman city, between which lies a mass of charred and broken rubbish, attesting the conflagration of the terrible Boadicea."

C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 51.

LONDON: 4th Century. The Roman Augusta and its walls.

"It is certain that, either under Constantine [the emperor] himself, or under one of his immediate successors, the outer wall was built. Though the building of the Roman wall, which still in a sense defines the city boundaries, is an event in the history of London not second in importance even to its foundation, since it made a mere village and fort with a 'tête du pont' into a great city and the capital of provincial Britain, yet we have no records by which an exact date can be assigned to it. All we know is that in 350 London had no wall: and in 369 the wall existed. The new wall must have taken in an immense tract of what was until then open country, especially along the Watling Street, towards Cheap and Newgate. It transformed London into Augusta; and though the new name hardly appears on the page of history, and never without a reference to the older one, its existence proves the increase in estimation which was then accorded to the place. The object of this extensive circumvallation is not very clear. The population to be protected might very well have been crowded into a much smaller space. … The wall enclosed a space of 380 acres, being 5,485 yards in length, or 3 miles and 205 yards. The portion along the river extended from Blackfriars to the Tower."

W. J. Loftie, History of London, chapter 2 (volume 1).

"The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, who wrote about A. D. 380, in the reign of Gratian, states that Londinium (he calls it Lundinium) was in his days called Augusta. From him we learn that Lupicinus, who was sent by Julian to repress the inroads of the Scots and Picts, made Londinium his head quarters, and there concerted the plan of the campaign. In the reign of Valentinian Britain was again disturbed, not only by the northern barbarians, but also by the Franks and Saxons. Theodosius, who was appointed commander of the legions and cohorts selected for this service, came from Boulogne, by way of Rutupiæ, to Londinium, the same route taken a few years previously by Lupicinus, and there he also matured his plan for the restoration of the tranquillity of the province. It is on this occasion that Marcellinus speaks twice of Londinium as an ancient town, then called Augusta. By the anonymous chorographer of Ravenna it is called Londinium Augusta; and it is in this sense, a cognomen or distinguishing appellation, as applied to a pre-eminent town or capital, that we must probably understand the term as used by Marcellinus in relation to Londinium. … The extent of Londinium, from Ludgate on the west to the Tower on the east, was about a mile, and about half a mile from the wall on the north (London Wall) to the Thames, giving dimensions far greater than those of any other Roman town in Britain. These were the limits of the city when the Romans relinquished the dominion of the island."

Charles Roach Smith, Illustrations of Roman London, pages 11-12.

LONDON: 4th Century. The growth of the Roman city.

"That London gradually increased in importance beyond the dignity of a commercial city is plain, from the mention of it in the Itinera, which show the number of marching roads beginning and terminating there. … London then [in the times of Julian and Theodosius] bore the name of 'Augusta,' or 'Londinium Augusta,' and this title is only applied to cities of pre-eminent importance. The area of Roman London was considerable, and, from discoveries made at different times, appears to have extended with the growth of Roman power. The walls when the Romans left Britain reached from Ludgate, on the west, to the Tower on the east, about one mile in length, and from London Wall to the Thames. … It also extended across the river on the Kentish side."

H. M. Scarth, Roman Britain, chapter 15.

"Roman Loudon was built on the elevated ground on both sides of a stream, known in after time by the name of Wallbrook, which ran into the Thames not far from Southwark Bridge. … Its walls were identical with those which enclosed the mediæval city of London. … The northern and north-eastern parts of the town were occupied with extensive and—to judge by the remains which have been brought to light—magnificent mansions. … At the period to which our last chapter had brought us [A. D. 353], the city had extended to the other side of the Thames, and the borough of Southwark stands upon ground which covers the floors of Roman houses and the pavings of Roman streets."

T. Wright, Celt, Roman and Saxon, chapter 5.

ALSO IN: C. Roach Smith, Antiquities of Roman London.

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LONDON: 6th-9th Centuries. During the Saxon conquest and settlement.

For nearly half a century after its conquest by the East-Saxons (which took place probably about the middle of the 6th century) London "wholly disappears from our view." "We know nothing of the circumstances of its conquest, of the fate of its citizens, or of the settlement of the conquerors within its walls. That some such settlement had taken place, at least as early as the close of the seventh century, is plain from the story of Mellitus, when placed as bishop within its walls [see ENGLAND: A. D. 597-685]; but it is equally plain that the settlement was an English one, that the provincials had here as elsewhere disappeared, and that the ruin of the city had been complete. Had London merely surrendered to the East-Saxons and retained its older population and municipal life, it is hard to imagine how, within less than half a century, its burghers could have so wholly lost all trace of Christianity that not even a ruined church, as at Canterbury, remained for the use of the Christian bishop, and that the first care of Mellitus was to set up a mission church in the midst of a heathen population. It is even harder to imagine how all trace of the municipal institutions to which the Roman towns clung so obstinately should have so utterly disappeared. But more direct proofs of the wreck of the town meet us in the stray glimpses which we are able to get of its earlier topographical history. The story of early London is not that of a settled community slowly putting off the forms of Roman for those of English life, but of a number of little groups scattered here and there over the area within the walls, each growing up with its own life and institutions, gilds, sokes, religious houses, and the like, and only slowly drawing together into a municipal union which remained weak and imperfect even at the Norman Conquest. … Its position indeed was such that traffic could not fail to recreate the town; for whether a bridge or a ferry existed at this time, it was here that the traveller from Kent or Gaul would still cross the Thames, and it was from London that the roads still diverged which, silent and desolate as they had become, furnished the means of communication to any part of Britain."

J. R. Green, The Conquest of England, pages 149 and 452-459.

"London may be said after this time [early in the 9th century] to be no longer the capital of one Saxon kingdom, but to be the special property of whichever king of whichever kingdom was then paramount in all England. When the supremacy of Mercia declined, and that of Wessex arose, London went to the conqueror. In 823, Egbert receives the submission of Essex, and in 827 he is in London, and in 833 a Witan is held there, at which he presides. Such are the scanty notes from which the history of London during the so-called Heptarchy must be compiled. … London had to bear the brunt of the attack [of the Danes] at first. Her walls wholly failed to protect her. Time after time the freebooters broke in. If the Saxons had spared anything of Roman London, it must have disappeared now. Massacre, slavery, and fire became familiar in her streets. At last the Danes seemed to have looked on her as their headquarters, and when, in 872, Alfred was forced to make truce with them, they actually retired to London as to their own city, to recruit. To Alfred, with his military experience and political sagacity, the possession of London was a necessity; but he had to wait long before he obtained it. His preparations were complete in 884. The story of the conflict is the story of his life. His first great success was the capture of London after a short siege: to hold it was the task of all his later years."

W. J. Loftie, History of London, chapter 3 (volume 1).

See, also, ENGLAND: A. D. 477-527.

LONDON: A. D. 1013-1016. Resistance to the Danes.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 979-1016.

LONDON: 12th Century. Magnitude and importance of the city.

"We find them [the Londoners] active in the civil war of Stephen and Matilda. The famous bishop of Winchester tells the Londoners that they are almost accounted as noblemen on account of the greatness of their city; into the community of which it appears that some barons had been received. Indeed, the citizens, themselves, or at least the principal of them, were called barons. It was certainly by far the greatest city in England. There have been different estimates of its population, some of which are extravagant; but I think it could hardly have contained less than 30,000 or 40,000 souls within its walls; and the suburbs were very populous."

H. Hallam, The Middle Ages, chapter 8, part 3 (volume 3).

LONDON: 14th Century. Guilds. Livery Companies.

See GUILDS.

LONDON: A. D. 1381. In the hands of the followers of Wat Tyler and John Ball.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1381.

LONDON: 16th Century. In Shakespeare's time.

"The London of those days did not present the gigantic uniformity of the modern metropolis, and had not as yet become wholly absorbed in the whirl of business life. It was not as yet a whole province covered with houses, but a city of moderate size, surveyable from end to end, with walls and gates, beyond which lay pleasant suburbs. … Compared with the London of today, it possessed colour and the stamp of originality; for, as in the southern climes, business and domestic operations were carried on in the streets—and then the red houses with their woodwork, high gables, oriel windows and terraces, and the inhabitants in picturesque and gay attire. The upper circles of society did not, as yet, live apart in other districts; the nobility still had their mansions among the burgher class and the working people. Queen Elizabeth might be seen driving in an unwieldy gilt coach to some solemn service in St. Paul's Cathedral, or riding through the city to the Tower, to her hunting grounds, to a review of her troops, or might be seen starting for Richmond or Greenwich, accompanied by a brilliant retinue, on one of her magnificent barges that were kept in readiness close to where the theatres stood. Such a scene, with but little stretch of the imagination, might have led Shakespeare to think of the brilliant picture of Cleopatra on the Cydnus. The Thames was crossed by one bridge only, and was still pure and clear as crystal; swans swam about on it, and gardens and meadows lined its banks where we now have dusty wharfs and warehouses. Hundreds of boats would be skimming up and down the stream, and incessant would be the calls between the boatmen of 'Westward ho!' or 'Eastward ho!' And yet the loungers in the Temple Gardens and at Queenhithe could amuse themselves by catching salmon. {2037} In the streets crowds would be passing to and fro; above all, the well-known and dreaded apprentices, whose business it was to attract customers by calling out in front of the shops: 'What d'ye lack, gentles? what d'ye lack? My ware is best! Here shall you have your choice!' &c. Foreigners, too, of every nationality, resident in London, would be met with. Amid all this life every now and again would be seen the perambulation of one or other of the guilds, wedding processions, groups of country folk, gay companies of train-bands and archers. … The city was rich in springs and gardens, and the inhabitants still had leisure to enjoy their existence; time had not yet come to be synonymous with money, and men enjoyed their gossip at the barbers' and tobacconists' shops; at the latter, instruction was even given in the art of smoking, and in 1614 it is said that there were no less than 7,000 such shops in London. St. Paul's was a rendezvous for promenaders and idle folk; and on certain days, Smithfield and its Fair would be the centre of attraction; also Bartholomew Fair, with its puppet-shows and exhibitions of curiosities, where Bankes and his dancing-horse Morocco created a great sensation for a long time; Southwark, too, with its Paris Garden, attracted visitors to see the bear-baiting; it was here that the famous bear Sackerson put the women in a pleasant state of flutter; Master Slender had seen the bear loose twenty times, and taken it by the chain. No less attractive were the bowling-alleys, the fights at the Cock-pit and the tent-pegging in the tiltyard; and yet all these amusements were even surpassed by the newly-risen star of the theatre. … The population of London during the reign of the Bloody Mary is estimated by the Venetian ambassador, Giovanni Micheli, at 150,000, or, according to other MS. reports of his, at 180,000 souls. The population must have increased at an almost inconceivable rate, if we are to trust the reports of a second Venetian ambassador, Marc Antonio Correr, who, in 1610, reckoned the number of inhabitants at 300,000 souls; however, according to Raumer, another Venetian, Molino, estimated the population at 300,000 in 1607. The number of foreigners in London was extremely large, and in 1621 the colony of foreigners of all nations found settled there amounted to no less than 10,000 persons. Commerce, trade, and the industries were in a very flourishing state. The Thames alone, according to John Norden in his MS. description of Essex (1594), gave occupation to 40,000 men as boatmen, sailors, fishermen, and others. Great political and historical events had put new life into the English nation, and given it an important impetus, which manifested itself in London more especially, and exercised a stimulating influence upon literature and poetry. Indeed, it may be said that Shakespeare had the good fortune of having his life cast in one of the greatest historical periods, the gravitating point of which lay principally in London."