Volume I—A To Elba (continued 6)

J. G. Palfrey, History of New England, volume 1, chapter 2.

ALSO IN Massachusetts History Society Collection, 3d Series, volume 8 (1843).

J. McKeen, On the Voyage of George Weymouth (Maine History Society Collection, volume 5).

AMERICA: A. D. 1603-1608. The First French Settlements in Acadia.

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1603-1605, and 1606-1608.

AMERICA: A. D. 1607. The founding of the English Colony of Virginia, and the failure in Maine.

See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1606-1607, and after; and MAINE: A. D. 1607-1608.

AMERICA: A. D. 1607-1608. The First Voyages of Henry Hudson.

"The first recorded voyage made by Henry Hudson was undertaken … for the Muscovy or Russia Company [of England]. Departing from Gravesend the first of May, 1607, with the intention of sailing straight across the north pole, by the north of what is now called Greenland, Hudson found that this land stretched further to the eastward than he had anticipated, and that a wall of ice, along which he coasted, extended from Greenland to Spitzbergen. Forced to relinquish the hope of finding a passage in the latter vicinity, he once more attempted the entrance of Davis' Straits by the north of Greenland. This design was also frustrated and he apparently renewed the attempt in a lower latitude and nearer Greenland on his homeward voyage. In this cruise Hudson attained a higher degree of latitude than any previous navigator. … He reached England on his return on the 15th September of that year [1607]. … On the 22d of April, 1608, Henry Hudson commenced his second recorded voyage for the Muscovy or Russia Company, with the design of 'finding a passage to the East Indies· by the north-east. … On the 3d of June, 1608, Hudson had reached the most northern point of Norway, and on the 11th was in latitude 75° 24', between Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla." Failing to pass to the north-east beyond Nova Zembla, he returned to England in August.

J. M. Read, Jr., Historical Inquiry Concerning Henry Hudson, pages 133-138.

ALSO IN G. M. Asher, Henry Hudson, the Navigator, (Hakluyt Society, 1860).

AMERICA: A. D. 1608-1616. Champlain's Explorations in the Valley of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes.

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1608-1611, and 1611-1616.

AMERICA: A. D. 1609. Hudson's Voyage of Discovery for the Dutch.

"The failure of two expeditions daunted the enterprise of Hudson's employers [the Muscovy Company, in England]; they could not daunt the courage of the great navigator, who was destined to become the rival of Smith and of Champlain. He longed to tempt once more the dangers of the northern sea; and, repairing to Holland, he offered, in the service of the Dutch East India Company, to explore the icy wastes in search of the coveted passage. The voyage of Smith to Virginia stimulated desire; the Zealanders, fearing the loss of treasure, objected; but, by the influence of Balthazar Moucheron, the directors for Amsterdam resolved on equipping a small vessel of discovery; and, on the 4th day of April, 1609, the 'Crescent' [or 'Half-Moon' as the name of the little ship is more commonly translated], commanded by Hudson, and manned by a mixed crew of Englishmen and Hollanders, his son being of the number, set sail for the north-western passage. Masses of ice impeded the navigation towards Nova Zembla; Hudson, who had examined the maps of John Smith of Virginia, turned to the west; and passing beyond Greenland and Newfoundland, and running down the coast of Acadia, he anchored, probably, in the mouth of the Penobscot. Then, following the track of Gosnold, he came upon the promontory of Cape Cod, and, believing himself its first discoverer, gave it the name of New Holland. Long afterwards, it was claimed as the north-eastern boundary of New Netherlands. From the sands of Cape Cod, he steered a southerly course till he was opposite the entrance into the bay of Virginia, where Hudson remembered that his countrymen were planted. {73} Then, turning again to the north, he discovered the Delaware Bay, examined its currents and its soundings, and, without going on shore, took note of the aspect of the country. On the 3d day of September, almost at the time when Champlain was invading New York from the north, less than five months after the truce with Spain, which gave the Netherlands a diplomatic existence as a state, the 'Crescent' anchored within Sandy Hook, and from the neighboring shores, that were crowned with 'goodly oakes,' attracted frequent visits from the natives. After a week's delay, Hudson sailed through the Narrows, and at the mouth of the river anchored in a harbor which was pronounced to be very good for all winds. … Ten days were employed in exploring the river; the first of Europeans, Hudson went sounding his way above the Highlands, till at last the 'Crescent' had sailed some miles beyond the city of Hudson, and a boat had advanced a little beyond Albany. Frequent intercourse was held with the astonished natives [and two battles fought with them]. … Having completed his discovery, Hudson descended the stream to which time has given his name, and on the 4th day of October, about the season of the return of John Smith to England, he set sail for Europe. … A happy return voyage brought the 'Crescent' into Dartmouth. Hudson forwarded to his Dutch employers a brilliant account of his discoveries; but he never revisited the lands which he eulogized: and the Dutch East-India Company refused to search further for the north-western passage."

G. Bancroft, History of the United States, chapter 15 (or part 2, chapter 12 of "Author's Last Revision").

ALSO IN H. R. Cleveland, Life of Henry Hudson (Library of American Biographies, volume 10), chapters 3-4.

R. Juet, Journal of Hudson's Voyage (New York History Society Collection, Second Series, volume 1).

J. V. N. Yates and J. W. Moulton, History of the State of New York, part 1.

AMERICA: A. D. 1610-1614. The Dutch occupation of New Netherland, and Block's coasting exploration.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1610-1614.

AMERICA: A. D. 1614-1615. The Voyages of Capt. John Smith to North Virginia. The Naming of the country New England.

"From the time of Capt. Smith's departure from Virginia [see VIRGINIA: A. D. 1607-1610], till the year 1614, there is a chasm in his biography. … In 1614, probably by his advice and at his suggestion, an expedition was fitted out by some London merchants, in the expense of which he also shared, for the purposes of trade and discovery in New England, or, as it was then called, North Virginia. … In March, 1614, he set sail from London with two ships, one commanded by himself, and the other by Captain Thomas Hunt. They arrived, April 30th, at the island of Manhegin, on the coast of Maine, where they built seven boats. The purposes for which they were sent were to capture whales and to search for mines of gold or copper, which were said to be there, and, if these failed, to make up a cargo of fish and furs. Of mines, they found no indications, and they found whale-fishing a 'costly conclusion;' for, although they saw many, and chased them too, they succeeded in taking none. They thus lost the best part of the fishing season; but, after giving up their gigantic game, they diligently employed the months of July and August in taking and curing codfish, an humble, but more certain prey. While the crew were thus employed, Captain Smith, with eight men in a small boat, surveyed and examined the whole coast, from Penobscot to Cape Cod, trafficking with the Indians for furs, and twice fighting with them, and taking such observations of the prominent points as enabled him to construct a map of the country. He then sailed for England, where he arrived in August, within six months after his departure. He left Captain Hunt behind him, with orders to dispose of his cargo of fish in Spain. Unfortunately, Hunt was a sordid and unprincipled miscreant, who resolved to make his countrymen odious to the Indians, and thus prevent the establishment of a permanent colony, which would diminish the large gains he and a few others derived by monopolizing a lucrative traffic. For this purpose, having decoyed 24 of the natives on board his ship, he carried them off and sold them as slaves in the port of Malaga. … Captain Smith, upon his return, presented his map of the country between Penobscot and Cape Cod to Prince Charles (afterwards Charles I.), with a request that he would substitute others, instead of the 'barbarous names' which had been given to particular places. Smith himself gave to the country the name of New England, as he expressly states, and not Prince Charles, as is commonly supposed. … The first port into which Captain Smith put on his return to England was Plymouth. There he related his adventures to some of his friends, 'who,' he says, 'as I supposed, were interested in the dead patent of this unregarded country.' The Plymouth Company of adventurers to North Virginia, by flattering hopes and large promises, induced him to engage his services to them." Accordingly in March, 1615, he sailed from Plymouth, with two vessels under his command, bearing 16 settlers, besides their crew. A storm dismasted Smith's ship and drove her back to Plymouth. "His consort, commanded by Thomas Dermer, meanwhile proceeded on her voyage, and returned with a profitable cargo in August; but the object, which was to effect a permanent settlement, was frustrated. Captain Smith's vessel was probably found to be so much shattered as to render it inexpedient to repair her; for we find that he set sail a second time from Plymouth, on the 24th of June, in a small bark of 60 tons, manned by 30 men, and carrying with him the same 16 settlers he had taken before. But an evil destiny seemed to hang over this enterprise, and to make the voyage a succession of disasters and disappointments." It ended in Smith's capture by a piratical French fleet and his detention for some months, until he made a daring escape in a small boat. "While he had been detained on board the French pirate, in order, as he says, 'to keep my perplexed thoughts from too much meditation of my miserable estate,' he employed himself in writing a narrative of his two voyages to New England, and an account of the country. This was published in a quarto form in June, 1616. … Captain Smith's work on New England was the first to recommend that country as a place of settlement."

G. S. Hillard, Life of Captain John Smith (chapters 14-15).

ALSO IN Captain John Smith, Description of New England.

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AMERICA: A. D. 1619. Introduction of negro slavery into Virginia.

See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1619.

AMERICA: A. D. 1620. The Planting of the Pilgrim Colony at Plymouth, and the Chartering of the Council for New England.

See MASSACHUSETTS (PLYMOUTH COLONY): A. D. 1620; and NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1620-1623.

AMERICA: A. D. 1620. Formation of the Government of Rio de La Plata.

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777.

AMERICA: A. D. 1621. Conflicting claims of England and France on the North-eastern coast. Naming and granting of Nova Scotia.

See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1621-1631.

AMERICA: A. D. 1629. The Carolina grant to Sir Robert Heath.

"Sir Robert Heath, attorney-general to Charles I., obtained a grant of the lands between the 38th [36th?] degree of north latitude to the river St. Matheo. His charter bears date of October 5, 1629. … The tenure is declared to be as ample as any bishop of Durham [Palatine], in the kingdom of England, ever held and enjoyed, or ought or could of right have held and enjoyed. Sir Robert, his heirs and assigns, are constituted the true and absolute lords and proprietors, and the country is erected into a province by the name of Carolina [or Carolana] and the islands are to be called the Carolina islands. Sir Robert conveyed his right some time after to the earl of Arundel. This nobleman, it is said, planted several parts of his acquisition, but his attempt to colonize was checked by the war with Scotland, and afterwards the civil war. Lord Maltravers, who soon after, on his father's death, became earl of Arundel and Sussex … made no attempt to avail himself of the grant. … Sir Robert Heath's grant of land, to the southward of Virginia, perhaps the most extensive possession ever owned by an individual, remained for a long time almost absolutely waste and uncultivated. This vast extent of territory occupied all the country between the 30th and 36th degrees of northern latitude, which embraces the present states of North and South Carolina, Georgia, [Alabama], Tennessee, Mississippi, and, with very little exceptions, the whole state of Louisiana, and the territory of East and West Florida, a considerable part of the state of Missouri, the Mexican provinces of Texas, Chiuhaha, &c. The grantee had taken possession of the country, soon after he had obtained his title, which he afterwards had conveyed to the earl of Arundel. Henry lord Maltravers appears to have obtained some aid from the province of Virginia in 1639, at the desire of Charles I., for the settlement of Carolana, and the country had since become the property of a Dr. Cox; yet, at this time, there were two points only in which incipient English settlements could be discerned; the one on the northern shore of Albemarle Sound and the streams that flow into it. The population of it was very thin, and the greatest portion of it was on the north-east bank of Chowan river. The settlers had come from that part of Virginia now known as the County of Nansemond. … They had been joined by a number of Quakers and other sectaries, whom the spirit of intolerance had driven from New England, and some emigrants from Bermudas. … The other settlement of the English was at the mouth of Cape Fear river; … those who composed it had come thither from New England in 1659. Their attention was confined to rearing cattle. It cannot now be ascertained whether the assignees of Carolina ever surrendered the charter under which it was held, nor whether it was considered as having become vacated or obsolete by non-user, or by any other means."

F. X. Martin, History of North Carolina, volume 1, chapter 5 and 7.

AMERICA: A. D. 1629. The Royal Charter to the Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1623-1629, THE DORCHESTER COMPANY.

AMERICA: A. D. 1629-1631. The Dutch occupation of the Delaware.

See DELAWARE: A. D. 1629-1631.

AMERICA: A. D. 1629-1632. English Conquest and brief occupation of New France.

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1628-1632.

AMERICA: A. D. 1632. The Charter to Lord Baltimore and the founding of Maryland.

See MARYLAND: A. D. 1632, and A. D. 1633-1637.

AMERICA: A. D. 1638. The planting of a Swedish Colony on the Delaware.

See DELAWARE: A. D. 1638-1640.

AMERICA: A. D. 1639-1700. The Buccaneers and their piratical warfare with Spain.

"The 17th century gave birth to a class of rovers wholly distinct from any of their predecessors in the annals of the world, differing as widely in their plans, organization and exploits as in the principles that governed their actions. … After the native inhabitants of Haiti had been exterminated, and the Spaniards had sailed farther west, a few adventurous men from Normandy settled on the shores of the island, for the purpose of hunting the wild bulls and hogs which roamed at will through the forests. The small island of Tortugas was their market; thither they repaired with their salted and smoked meat, their hides, &c., and disposed of them in exchange for powder, lead, and other necessaries. The places where these semi-wild hunters prepared the slaughtered carcases were called 'boucans,' and they themselves became known as Buccaneers. Probably the world has never before or since witnessed such an extraordinary association as theirs. Unburdened by women-folk or children, these men lived in couples, reciprocally rendering each other services, and having entire community of property—a condition termed by them matelotage, from the word 'matelot,' by which they addressed one another. … A man on joining the fraternity completely merged his identity. Each member received a nickname, and no attempt was ever made to inquire into his antecedents. When one of their number married, he ceased to be a buccaneer, having forfeited his membership by so civilized a proceeding. He might continue to dwell on the coast, and to hunt cattle, but he was no longer a 'matelot'—as a Benedick he had degenerated to a 'colonist.' … Uncouth and lawless though the buccaneers were, the sinister signification now attaching to their name would never have been merited had it not been for the unreasoning jealousy of the Spaniards. The hunters were actually a source of profit to that nation, yet from an insane antipathy to strangers the dominant race resolved on exterminating the settlers. Attacked whilst dispersed in pursuance of their avocations, the latter fell easy victims; many of them were wantonly massacred, others dragged into slavery. … Breathing hatred and vengeance, 'the brethren of the coast' united their scattered forces, and a war of horrible reprisals commenced. {75} Fresh troops arrived from Spain, whilst the ranks of the buccaneers were filled by adventurers of all nations, allured by love of plunder, and fired with indignation at the cruelties of the aggressors. … The Spaniards, utterly failing to oust their opponents, hit upon a new expedient, so short-sighted that it reflects but little credit on their statesmanship. This was the extermination of the horned cattle, by which the buccaneers derived their means of subsistence; a general slaughter took place, and the breed was almost extirpated. … The puffed up arrogance of the Spaniard was curbed by no prudential consideration; calling upon every saint in his calendar, and raining curses on the heretical buccaneers, he deprived them of their legitimate occupation, and created wilfully a set of desperate enemies, who harassed the colonial trade of an empire already betraying signs of feebleness with the pertinacity of wolves, and who only desisted when her commerce had been reduced to insignificance. … Devoured by an undying hatred of their assailants, the buccaneers developed into a new association—the freebooters."

C. H. Eden, The West Indies, chapter 3.

"The monarchs both of England and France, but especially the former, connived at and even encouraged the freebooters [a name which the pronunciation of French sailors transformed into 'flibustiers,' while that corruption became Anglicized in its turn and produced the word filibusters], whose services could be obtained in time of war, and whose actions could be disavowed in time of peace. Thus buccaneer, filibuster, and sea-rover, were for the most part at leisure to hunt wild cattle, and to pillage and massacre the Spaniards wherever they found an opportunity. When not on some marauding expedition, they followed the chase." The piratical buccaneers were first organized under a leader in 1639, the islet of Tortuga being their favorite rendezvous. "So rapid was the growth of their settlements that in 1641 we find governors appointed, and at San Christobal a governor-general named De Poincy, in charge of the French filibusters in the Indies. During that year Tortuga was garrisoned by French troops, and the English were driven out, both from that islet and from Santo Domingo, securing harborage elsewhere in the islands. Nevertheless corsairs of both nations often made common cause. … In [1654] Tortuga was again recaptured by the Spaniards, but in 1660 fell once more into the hands of the French; and in their conquest of Jamaica in 1655 the British troops were reenforced by a large party of buccaneers." The first of the more famous buccaneers, and apparently the most ferocious among them all, was a Frenchman called François L'Olonnois, who harried the coast of Central America between 1660-1665 with six ships and 700 men. At the same time another buccaneer named Mansvelt, was rising in fame, and with him, as second in command, a Welshman, Henry Morgan, who became the most notorious of all. In 1668, Morgan attacked and captured the strong town of Portobello, on the Isthmus, committing indescribable atrocities. In 1671 he crossed the Isthmus, defeated the Spaniards in battle and gained possession of the great and wealthy city of Panama—the largest and richest in the New World, containing at the time 30,000 inhabitants. The city was pillaged, fired and totally destroyed. The exploits of this ruffian and the stolen riches which he carried home to England soon afterward, gained the honors of knighthood for him, from the worthy hands of Charles II. In 1680, the buccaneers under one Coxon again crossed the Isthmus, seized Panama, which had been considerably rebuilt, and captured there a Spanish fleet of four ships, in which they launched themselves upon the Pacific. From that time their plundering operations were chiefly directed against the Pacific coast. Towards the close of the 17th century, the war between England and France, and the Bourbon alliance of Spain with France, brought about the discouragement, the decline and finally the extinction of the buccaneer organization.

H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States: Central America, volume 2, chapter 26-30.

ALSO IN W. Thornbury, The Buccaneers.

A. O. Exquemelin, History of the Buccaneers.

J. Burney, History of the Buccaneers of America.

See, also, JAMAICA: A. D. 1655-1796.

AMERICA: A. D. 1655. Submission of the Swedes on the Delaware to the Dutch.

See DELAWARE: A. D. 1640-1656.

AMERICA: A. D. 1663. The grant of the Carolinas to Monk, Clarendon, Shaftesbury, and others.

See NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1663-1670.

AMERICA: A. D. 1664. English conquest of New Netherland.

See NEW YORK: A. D.1664.

AMERICA: A. D. 1673. The Dutch reconquest of New Netherland.

See NEW YORK: A. D. 1673.

AMERICA: A. D. 1673-1682. Discovery and exploration of the Mississippi, by Marquette and La Salle. Louisiana named and possessed by the French.

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1634-1673, and 1669-1687.

AMERICA: A. D. 1674. Final surrender of New Netherland to the English.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674.

AMERICA: A. D. 1681. The proprietary grant to William Penn.

See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1681.

AMERICA: A. D. 1689-1697. The first Inter-Colonial War: King Williams's War (The war of the League of Augsburg).

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1689-1690; 1692-1697; also, NEWFOUNDLAND: A. D. 1694-1697.

AMERICA: A. D. 1690. The first Colonial Congress.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1690; also, CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1689-1690.

AMERICA: A. D. 1698-1712. The French colonization of Louisiana. Broad claims of France to the whole Valley of the Mississippi.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1698-1712.

AMERICA: A. D. 1700-1735. The Spread of French occupation in the Mississippi Valley and on the Lakes.

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1700-1735.

AMERICA: A. D. 1702. Union of the two Jerseys as a royal province.

See NEW JERSEY: A. D. 1688-1738.

AMERICA: A. D. 1702-1713. The Second Inter-Colonial War: Queen Anne's War (The War of the Spanish Succession). Final acquisition of Nova Scotia by the English.

See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1702-1710; CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1711-1713.

AMERICA: A. D. 1713. Division of territory between England and France by the Treaty of Utrecht.

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE) A. D. 1711-1713.

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AMERICA: A. D. 1729. End of the proprietary government in North Carolina.

See NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1688-1729.

AMERICA: A. D. 1732. The colonization of Georgia by General Oglethrope.

See GEORGIA: A. D. 1732-1739.

AMERICA: A. D. 1744-1748. The Third Inter-Colonial War: King George's War (The War of the Austrian Succession).

See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1744; 1745; and 1745-1748.

AMERICA: A. D. 1748-1760. Unsettled boundary disputes of England and France.

The fourth and last inter-colonial war, called the French and Indian War (The Seven Years War of Europe).

English Conquest of Canada.

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1750-1753; 1760; NOVA SCOTIA: A. D.1749-1755; 1755; OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1748-1754; 1754; 1755; CAPE BRETON ISLAND: A. D. 1758-1760.

AMERICA: A. D. 1749. Introduction of negro slavery into Georgia.

See GEORGIA: A. D. 1735-1749.

AMERICA: A. D. 1750-1753: Dissensions among the English Colonies on the eve of the great French War.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1750-1753.

AMERICA: A. D. 1754. The Colonial Congress at Albany. Franklin's Plan of Union.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1754.

AMERICA: A. D. 1763. The Peace of Paris.

Canada, Cape Breton, Newfoundland, and Louisiana east of the Mississippi (except New Orleans) ceded by France to Great Britain.

West of the Mississippi and New Orleans to Spain.

Florida by Spain to Great Britain.

See SEVEN YEARS WAR.

AMERICA: A. D. 1763-1764. Pontiac's War.

See PONTIAC'S WAR.

AMERICA: A. D. 1763-1766. Growing discontent of the English Colonies. The question of taxation. The Stamp Act and its repeal.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1760-1775, to 1766.

AMERICA: A. D. 1766-1769. Spanish occupation of New Orleans and Western Louisiana, and the revolt against it.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1766-1768, and 1769.

AMERICA: A. D. 1775-1783. Independence of the English colonies achieved.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (APRIL) to 1783 (SEPTEMBER).

AMERICA: A. D. 1776. Erection of the Spanish Vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres.

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777.

AMERICA: A. D. 1810-1816. Revolt, independence and Confederation of the Argentine Provinces.

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1806-1820.

AMERICA: A. D. 1818. Chilean independence achieved.

See CHILE: A. D. 1810-1818.

AMERICA: A. D. 1820-1821. Independence Acquired by Mexico and the Central American States.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1820-1826, and CENTRAL AMERICA: A. D. 1821-1871.

AMERICA: A. D. 1824. Peruvian independence won at Ayacucho.

See PERU: A. D. 1820-1826.

—————AMERICA: End—————

AMERICAN ABORIGINES. Linguistic Classification.

In the Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (for 1885-86, published in 1891), Major J. W. Powell, the Director of the Bureau, has given a classification of the languages of the North American aborigines based upon the most recent investigations. The following is a list of families of speech, or linguistic stocks, which are defined and named:

"Adaizan [identified since the publication of this list as being but part of the Caddoan stock]. Algonquian. Athapascan. Attacapan. Beothukan. Caddoan. Chimakuan. Chimarikan. Chimmesyan. Chinookan. Chitimachan. Chumashan. Coahuiltecan. Copehan. Costanoan. Eskimauan. Esselenian. Iroquoian. Kalapooian. Karankawan. Keresan. Kiowan. Kituanahan. Koluschan. Kulanapan. Kusan. Lutuamian. Mariposan. Moquelumnan. Muskhogean. Natchesan. Palaihnihan. Piman. Pujunan. Quoratean. Salinan. Salishan. Sastean. Shahaptian. Shoshonean. Siouan. Skittagetan. Takilman. Tañoan. Timuquanan. Tonikan. Tonkawan. Uchean. Waiilatpuan. Wakashan. Washoan. Weitspekan. Wishoskan. Yokonan. Yanan. Yukian. Yuman. Zufiian."

These families are severally defined in the summary of information given below, and the relations to them of all tribes having any historical importance are shown by cross-references and otherwise; but many other groupings and associations, and many tribal names not scientifically recognized, are likewise exhibited here, for the reason that they have a significance in history and are the subjects of frequent allusion in literature.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Abipones.

See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Abnakis, or Abenaques, or Taranteens.

"The Abnakis were called Taranteens by the English, and Owenagungas by the New Yorkers. … We must admit that a large portion of the North American Indians were called Abnakis, if not by themselves, at least by others. This word Abnaki is found spelt Abenaques, Abenaki, Wapanachki, and Wabenakies by different writers of various nations, each adopting the manner of spelling according to the rules of pronunciation of their respective native languages. … The word generally received is spelled thus, Abnaki, but it should be 'Wanbanaghi,' from the Indian word 'wanbanban,' designating the people of the Aurora Borealis, or in general, of the place where the sky commences to appear white at the breaking of the day. … It has been difficult for different writers to determine the number of nations or tribes comprehended under this word Abnaki. It being a general word, by itself designates the people of the east or northeast. … We find that the word Abnaki was applied in general, more or less, to all the Indians of the East, by persons who were not much acquainted with the aborigines of the country. On the contrary, the early writers and others well acquainted with the natives of New France and Acadia, and the Indians themselves, by Abnakis always pointed out a particular nation existing north-west and south of the Kennebec river, and they never designated any other people of the Atlantic shore, from Cape Hatteras to Newfoundland. … The Abnakis had five great villages, two amongst the French colonies, which must be the village of St. Joseph or Sillery, and that of St. Francis de Sales, both in Canada, three on the head waters, or along three rivers, between Acadia and New England. These three rivers are the Kennebec, the Androscoggin, and the Saco. … The nation of the Abnakis bear evident marks of having been an original people in their name, manners, and language. They show a kind of civilization which must be the effect of antiquity, and of a past flourishing age."

E. Vetromile, The Abnaki Indians (Maine Historical Society Collection, volume 6).

See, also, below: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

{77}

For some account of the wars of the Abnakis, with the New England colonies,

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1689-1690, and 1692-1697; NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1675 (JULY-SEPT.); 1702-1710, 1711-1713; and NOVA SCOTIA: A. D. 1713-1730.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Absarokas, Upsarokas, or Crows.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Acawoios.

See below: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Acolhuas.

See MEXICO, A. D. 1325-1502.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Adais.

[Footnote: See Note, Appendix E.]

These Indians were a "tribe who, according to Dr. Sibley, lived about the year 1800 near the old Spanish fort or mission of Adaize, 'about 40 miles from Natchitoches, below the Yattassees, on a lake called Lac Macdon, which communicates with the division of Red River that passes by Bayou Pierre' [Lewis and Clarke]. A vocabulary of about 250 words is all that remains to us of their language, which according to the collector, Dr. Sibley, 'differs from all others, and is so difficult to speak or understand that no nation can speak ten words of it. … A recent comparison of this vocabulary by Mr. Gatschet, with several Caddoan dialects, has led to the discovery that a considerable percentage of the Adái words have a more or less remote affinity with Caddoan, and he regards it as a Caddoan dialect."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, pages 45-46.

See preceding page.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Adirondacks.

"This is a term bestowed by the Iroquois, in derision, on the tribes who appear, at an early day, to have descended the Utawas river, and occupied the left banks of the St. Lawrence, above the present site of Quebec, about the close of the 15th century. It is said to signify men who eat trees, in allusion to their using the bark of certain trees for food, when reduced to straits, in their war excursions. The French, who entered the St. Lawrence from the gulf, called the same people Algonquins—a generic appellation, which has been long employed and come into universal use, among historians and philologists. According to early accounts, the Adirondacks had preceded the Iroquois in arts and attainments."

H. R. Schoolcraft, Notes on the Iroquois, chapter 5.

See, also, below: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY: THEIR CONQUESTS, &c.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Æsopus Indians.

See below: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Agniers. Among several names which the Mohawks (see below: IROQUOIS) bore in early colonial history was that of the Agniers.

F. Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac, volume 1, page 9, foot-note.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Albaias.

See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Aleuts.

See below: ESKIMAUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Algonquian (Algonkin) Family.

"About the period 1500-1600, those related tribes whom we now know by the name of Algonkins were at the height of their prosperity. They occupied the Atlantic coast from the Savannah river on the south to the strait of Belle Isle on the north. … The dialects of all these were related, and evidently at some distant day had been derived from the same primitive tongue. Which of them had preserved the ancient forms most closely, it may be premature to decide positively, but the tendency of modern studies has been to assign that place to the Cree—the northernmost of all. We cannot erect a genealogical tree of these dialects. … We may, however, group them in such a manner as roughly to indicate their relationship. This I do"—in the following list:

"Cree. Old Algonkin. Montagnais. Chipeway, Ottawa, Pottawattomie, Miami, Peoria, Pea, Piankishaw, Kaskaskia, Menominee, Sac, Fox, Kikapoo. Sheshatapoosh, Secoffee, Micmac, Melisceet, Etchemin, Abnaki. Mohegan, Massachusetts, Shawnee, Minsi, Unami, Unalachtigo [the last three named forming, together, the nation of the Lenape or Delawares], Nanticoke, Powhatan, Pampticoke. Blackfoot, Gros Ventre, Sheyenne. … All the Algonkin nations who dwelt north of the Potomac, on the east shore of Chesapeake Bay, and in the basins of the Delaware and Hudson rivers, claimed near kinship and an identical origin, and were at times united into a loose, defensive confederacy. By the western and southern tribes they were collectively known as Wapanachkik—'those of the eastern region'—which in the form Abnaki is now confined to the remnant of a tribe in Maine. … The members of the confederacy were the Mohegans (Mahicanni) of the Hudson, who occupied the valley of that river to the falls above the site of Albany, the various New Jersey tribes, the Delawares proper on the Delaware river and its branches, including the Minsi or Monseys, among the mountains, the Nanticokes, between Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic, and the small tribe called Canai, Kanawhas or Ganawese, whose towns were on tributaries of the Potomac and Patuxent. … Linguistically, the Mohegans were more closely allied to the tribes of New England than to those of the Delaware Valley. Evidently, most of the tribes of Massachusetts and Connecticut were comparatively recent offshoots of the parent stem on the Hudson, supposing the course of migration had been eastward. … The Nanticokes occupied the territory between Chesapeake Bay and the ocean, except its southern extremity, which appears to have been under the control of the Powhatan tribe of Virginia."

D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and their Legends. chapters 1-2.

"Mohegans, Munsees, Manhattans, Metöacs, and other affiliated tribes and bands of Algonquin lineage, inhabited the banks of the Hudson and the islands, bay and seaboard of New York, including Long Island, during the early periods of the rise of the Iroquois Confederacy. … The Mohegans finally retired over the Highlands east of them into the valley of the Housatonic. The Munsees and Nanticokes retired to the Delaware river and reunited with their kindred, the Lenapees, or modern Delawares. The Manhattans, and numerous other bands and sub-tribes melted away under the influence of liquor and died in their tracks."

H. R. Schoolcraft, Notes on the Iroquois, chapter 5.

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"On the basis of a difference in dialect, that portion of the Algonquin Indians which dwelt in New England has been classed in two divisions, one consisting of those who inhabited what is now the State of Maine, nearly up to its western border, the other consisting of the rest of the native population. The Maine Indians may have been some 15,000 in number, or somewhat less than a third of the native population of New England. That portion of them who dwelt furthest towards the east were known by the name of Etetchemins. The Abenaquis, including the Tarratines, hunted on both sides of the Penobscot, and westward as far as the Saco, if not quite to the Piscataqua. The tribes found in the rest of New England were designated by a greater variety of names. The home of the Penacook or Pawtucket Indians was in the southeast corner of what is now New Hampshire and the contiguous region of Massachusetts. Next dwelt the Massachusetts tribe, along the bay of that name. Then were found successively the Pokanokets, or Wampanoags, in the southeasterly region of Massachusetts, and by Buzzard's and Narragansett Bays; the Narragansetts, with a tributary race called Nyantics in what is now the western part of the State of Rhode Island; the Pequots, between the Narragansetts and the river formerly called the Pequot River, now the Thames; and the Mohegans, spreading themselves beyond the River Connecticut. In the central region of Massachusetts were the Nipmucks, or Nipnets; and along Cape Cod were the Nausets, who appeared to have owed some fealty to the Pokanokets. The New England Indians exhibited an inferior type of humanity. … Though fleet and agile when excited to some occasional effort, they were found to be incapable of continuous labor. Heavy and phlegmatic, they scarcely wept or smiled."

J. G. Palfrey, Compendious History of New England, book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1).

"The valley of the 'Cahohatatea,' or Mauritius River [i. e., the Hudson River, as now named] at the time Hudson first ascended its waters, was inhabited, chiefly, by two aboriginal races of Algonquin lineage, afterwards known among the English colonists by the generic names of Mohegans and Mincees. The Dutch generally called the Mohegans, Mahicans; and the Mincees, Sanhikans. These two tribes were subdivided into numerous minor bands, each of which had a distinctive name. The tribes on the east side of the river were generally Mohegans; those on the west side, Mincees. They were hereditary enemies. … Long Island, or 'Sewan-hacky,' was occupied by the savage tribe of Metowacks, which was subdivided into various clans. … Staten Island, on the opposite side of the bay, was inhabited by the Monatons. … Inland, to the west, lived the Raritans and the Hackinsacks; while the regions in the vicinity of the well-known 'Highlands,' south of Sandy Hook, were inhabited by a band or sub-tribe called the Nevesincks or Navisinks. … To the south and west, covering the centre of New Jersey, were the Aquamachukes and the Stankekans; while the valley of the Delaware, northward from the Schuylkill, was inhabited by various tribes of the Lenape race. … The island of the Manhattans" was occupied by the tribe which received that name (see MANHATTAN). On the shores of the river, above, dwelt the Tappans, the Weckquaesgeeks, the Sint Sings, "whose chief village was named Ossin-Sing, or 'the Place of Stones,'" the Pachami, the Waorinacks, the Wappingers, and the Waronawankongs. "Further north, and occupying the present counties of Ulster and Greene, were the Minqua clans of Minnesincks, Nanticokes, Mincees, and Delawares. These clans had pressed onward from the upper valley of the Delaware. … They were generally known among the Dutch as the Æsopus Indians."

J. R Brodhead, History of the State of New York, volume 1, chapter 3

"The area formerly occupied by the Algonquian family was more extensive than that of any other linguistic stock in North America, their territory reaching from Labrador to the Rocky Mountains, and from Churchill River of Hudson Bay as far south at least as Pamlico Sound of North Carolina. In the eastern part of this territory was an area occupied by Iroquoian tribes, surrounded on almost all sides by their Algonquian neighbors. On the south the Algonquian tribes were bordered by those of Iroquoian and Siouan (Catawba) stock, on the southwest and west by the Muskhogean and Siouan tribes, and on the northwest by the Kitunahan and the great Athapascan families, while along the coast of Labrador and the eastern shore of Hudson Bay they came in contact with the Eskimo, who were gradually retreating before them to the north. In Newfoundland they encountered the Beothukan family, consisting of but a single tribe. A portion of the Shawnee at some early period had separated from the main body of the tribe in central Tennessee and pushed their way down to the Savannah River in South Carolina, where, known as Savannahs, they carried on destructive wars with the surrounding tribes until about the beginning of the 18th century they were finally driven out and joined the Delaware in the north. Soon afterwards the rest of the tribe was expelled by the Cherokee and Chicasa, who thenceforward claimed all the country stretching north to the Ohio River. The Cheyenne and Arapaho, two allied tribes of this stock, had become separated from their kindred on the north and had forced their way through hostile tribes across the Missouri to the Black Hills country of South Dakota, and more recently into Wyoming and Colorado, thus forming the advance guard of the Algonquian stock in that direction, having the Siouan tribes behind them and those of the Shoshonean family in front. [The following are the] principal tribes: Abnaki, Algonquin, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Conoy, Cree, Delaware, Fox, Illinois, Kickapoo, Mahican, Massachuset, Menominee, Miami, Micmac, Mohegan, Montagnais, Montauk, Munsee, Nanticoke, Narraganset, Nauset, Nipmuc, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Pamlico, Pennacook, Pequot, Piankishaw, Pottawotomi, Powhatan, Sac, Shawnee, Siksika, Wampanoag, Wappinger. The present number of the Algonquian stock is about 95,600, of whom about 60,000 are in Canada and the remainder in the United States."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, pages 47-48.

ALSO IN J. W. De Forest, History of the Indians of Connecticut.

A. Gallatin, Synopsis of the Indian Tribes (Archæologia Americana, volume 2), intro., section 2.

S. G. Drake, Aboriginal Races of North America, book 2-3.

See, also, below: DELAWARES; HORIKANS; SHAWANESE; SUSQUEHANNAS; OJIBWAS; ILLINOIS.

For the Indian wars of New England,

See NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1637 (THE PEQUOT WAR); A. D. 1674-1675 to 1676-1678 (KING PHILIP'S WAR).

See, also, PONTIAC'S WAR.

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AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Alibamus, or Alabamas.

See below: MUSKHOOEAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Alleghans, or Allegewi, or Talligewi.

"The oldest tribe of the United States, of which there is a distinct tradition, were the Alleghans. The term is perpetuated in the principal chain of mountains traversing the country. This tribe, at an antique period, had the seat of their power in the Ohio Valley and its confluent streams, which were the sites of their numerous towns and villages. They appear originally to have borne the name of Alli, or Alleg, and hence the names of Talligewi and Allegewi. (Trans. Am. Phi. Society, volume 1.) By adding to the radical of this word the particle 'hany' or 'ghany,' meaning river, they described the principal scene of their residence—namely, the Alleghany, or River of the Alleghans, now called Ohio. The word Ohio is of Iroquois origin, and of a far later period; having been bestowed by them after their conquest of the country, in alliance with the Lenapees, or ancient Delawares. (Phi. Trans.) The term was applied to the entire river, from its confluence with the Mississippi, to its origin in the broad spurs of the Alleghanies, in New York and Pennsylvania. … There are evidences of antique labors in the alluvial plains and valleys of the Scioto, Miami, and Muskingum, the Wabash, Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Illinois, denoting that the ancient Alleghans, and their allies and confederates, cultivated the soil, and were semi-agriculturists. These evidences have been traced, at late periods, to the fertile table-lands of Indiana and Michigan. The tribes lived in fixed towns, cultivating extensive fields of the zea-maize; and also, as denoted by recent discoveries, … of some species of beans, vines, and esculents. They were, in truth, the mound builders."

H. R. Schoolcraft, Information respecting the Indian Tribes, part 5, page 133.

This conclusion, to which Mr. Schoolcraft had arrived, that the ancient Alleghans or Tallegwi were the mound builders of the Ohio Valley is being sustained by later investigators, and seems to have become an accepted opinion among those of highest authority. The Alleghans, moreover, are being identified with the Cherokees of later times, in whom their race, once supposed to be extinct, has apparently survived; while the fact, long suspected, that the Cherokee language is of the Iroquois family is being proved by the latest studies. According to Indian tradition, the Alleghans were driven from their ancient seats, long ago, by a combination against them of the Lenape (Delawares) and the Mengwe (Iroquois). The route of their migrations is being traced by the character of the mounds which they built, and of the remains gathered from the mounds. "The general movement [of retreat before the Iroquois and Lenape] … must have been southward, … and the exit of the Ohio mound-builders was, in all probability, up the Kanawah Valley on the same line that the Cherokees appear to have followed in reaching their historical locality. … If the hypothesis here advanced be correct, it is apparent that the Cherokees entered the immediate valley of the Mississippi from the northwest, striking it in the region of Iowa."

C. Thomas, The Problem of the Ohio Mounds (Bureau of Ethnology, 1889).

ALSO IN C. Thomas, Burial Mounds of the Northern Sections of the United States (Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-84).

J. Heckewelder, Account of the Indian Nations, chapter 1.

See, below: CHEROKEES, and IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY; also AMERICA, PREHISTORIC.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Amahuacas.

See below: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Andastés.

See below: SUSQUEHANNAS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Andesians.

"The term Andesians or Antesians, is used with geographical rather than ethnological limits, and embraces a number of tribes. First of these are the Cofan in Equador, east of Chimborazo. They fought valiantly against the Spaniards, and in times past killed many of the missionaries sent among them. Now they are greatly reduced and have become more gentle. The Huamaboya are their near neighbors. The Jivara, west of the river Pastaca, are a warlike tribe, who, possibly through a mixture of Spanish blood, have a European cast of countenance and a beard. The half Christian Napo or Quijo and their peaceful neighbors, the Zaporo, live on the Rio Napo. The Yamco, living on the lower Chambiva and crossing the Marañon, wandering as far as Saryacu, have a clearer complexion. The Pacamora and the Yuguarzongo live on the Maranon, where it leaves its northerly course and bends toward the east. The Cochiquima live on the lower Yavari; the Mayoruna, or Barbudo, on the middle Ucayali beside the Campo and Cochibo, the most terrible of South American Indians; they dwell in the woods between the Tapiche and the Marañon, and like the Jivaro have a beard. The Pano, who formerly dwelt in the territory of Lalaguna, but who now live in villages on the upper Ucayali, are Christians. … Their language is the principal one on the river, and it is shared by seven other tribes called collectively by the missionaries Manioto or Mayno. … Within the woods on the right bank live the Amahuaca and Shacaya. On the north they join the Remo, a powerful tribe who are distinguished from all the others by the custom of tattooing. Outside this Pano linguistic group stand the Campa, Campo, or Antis on the east slope of the Peruvian Cordillera at the source of the Rio Beni and its tributaries. The Chontaquiros, or Piru, now occupy almost entirely the bank of the Ucayali below the Pachilia. The Mojos or Moxos live in the Bolivian province of Moxos with the small tribes of the Baure, Itonama, Pacaguara. A number of smaller tribes belonging to the Antesian group need not be enumerated. The late Professor James Orton described the Indian tribes of the territory between Quito and the river Amazon. The Napo approach the type of the Quichua. … Among all the Indians of the Provincia del Oriente, the tribe of Jivaro is one of the largest. These people are divided into a great number of sub-tribes. All of these speak the clear musical Jivaro language. They are muscular, active men. … The Morona are cannibals in the full sense of the word. … The Campo, still very little known, is perhaps the largest Indian tribe in Eastern Peru, and, according to some, is related to the Inca race, or at least with their successors. They are said to be cannibals, though James Orton does not think this possible. … The nearest neighbors of the Campo are the Chontakiro, or Chontaquiro, or Chonquiro, called also Piru, who, according to Paul Marcoy, are said to be of the same origin with the Campo; but the language is wholly different. … Among the Pano people are the wild Conibo; they are the most interesting, but are passing into extinction."

The Standard Natural History (J. S. Kingsley, editor), volume 6, pages 227-231.

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AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Apache Group [Footnote: See Note, Appendix E.]

Under the general name of the Apaches "I include all the savage tribes roaming through New Mexico, the north-western portion of Texas, a small part of northern Mexico, and Arizona. … Owing to their roving proclivities and incessant raids they are led first in one direction and then in another. In general terms they may be said to range about as follows: The Comanches, Jetans, or Nauni, consisting of three tribes, the Comanches proper, the Yamparacks, and Tenawas, inhabiting northern Texas, eastern Chihuahua, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Durango, and portions of south-western New Mexico, by language allied to the Shoshone family; the Apaches, who call themselves Shis Inday, or 'men of the woods,' and whose tribal divisions are the Chiricaguis, Coyoteros, Faraones, Gileños, Lipanes, Llaneros, Mescaleros, Mimbreños, Natages, Pelones, Pinaleños, Tejuas, Tontos, and Vaqueros, roaming over New Mexico, Arizona, North-western Texas, Chihuahua and Sonora, and who are allied by language to the great Tinneh family; the Navajos, or Tenuai, 'men,' as they designate themselves, having linguistic affinities with the Apache nation, with which they are sometimes classed, living in and around the Sierra de los Mimbres; the Mojaves, occupying both banks of the Colorado in Mojave Valley; the Hualapais, near the head-waters of Bill Williams Fork; the Yumas, on the east bank of the Colorado, near its junction with the Rio Gila; the Cosninos, who, like the Hualapais, are sometimes included in the Apache nation, ranging through the Mogollon Mountains; and the Yampais, between Bill Williams Fork and the Rio Hassayampa. … The Apache country is probably the most desert of all. … In both mountain and desert the fierce, rapacious Apache, inured from childhood to hunger and thirst, and heat and cold, finds safe retreat. … The Pueblos … are nothing but partially reclaimed Apaches or Comanches."

H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, volume 1, chapter 5.

Dr. Brinton prefers the name Yuma for the whole of the Apache Group, confining the name Apache (that being the Yuma word for "fighting men") to the one tribe so called. "It has also been called the Katchan or Cuchan stock."

D. G. Brinton, The American Race, page 109.

See, also, below: ATHAPASCAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Apalaches.

"Among the aboriginal tribes of the United States perhaps none is more enigmatical than the Apalaches. They are mentioned as an important nation by many of the early French and Spanish travellers and historians, their name is preserved by a bay and river on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and by the great eastern coast range of mountains, and has been applied by ethnologists to a family of cognate nations that found their hunting grounds from the Mississippi to the Atlantic and from the Ohio river to the Florida Keys; yet, strange to say, their own race and place have been but guessed at." The derivation of the name of the Apalaches "has been a 'questio vexata' among Indianologists." We must "consider it an indication of ancient connections with the southern continent, and in itself a pure Carib word. 'Apáliché' in the Tamanaca dialect of the Guaranay stem on the Orinoco signifies 'man,' and the earliest application of the name in the northern continent was as the title of the chief of a country, 'l'homme par excellence,' and hence, like very many other Indian tribes (Apaches, Lenni Lenape, Illinois), his subjects assumed by eminence the proud appellation of 'The Men.' … We have … found that though no general migration took place from the continent southward, nor from the islands northward, yet there was a considerable intercourse in both directions; that not only the natives of the greater and lesser Antilles and Yucatan, but also numbers of the Guaranay stem of the southern continent, the Caribs proper, crossed the Straits of Florida and founded colonies on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico; that their customs and language became to a certain extent grafted upon those of the early possessors of the soil; and to this foreign language the name Apalache belongs. As previously stated, it was used as a generic title, applied to a confederation of many nations at one time under the domination of one chief, whose power probably extended from the Alleghany mountains on the north to the shore of the Gulf; that it included tribes speaking a tongue closely akin to the Choktah is evident from the fragments we have remaining. … The location of the tribe in after years is very uncertain. Dumont placed them in the northern part of what is now Alabama and Georgia, near the mountains that bear their name. That a portion of them did live in this vicinity is corroborated by the historians of South Carolina, who say that Colonel Moore, in 1703, found them 'between the head-waters of the Savannah and Altamaha.' … According to all the Spanish authorities, on the other hand, they dwelt in the region of country between the Suwannee and Appalachicola rivers—yet must not be confounded with the Apalachicolos. … They certainly had a large and prosperous town in this vicinity, said to contain 1,000 warriors. … I am inclined to believe that these were different branches of the same confederacy. … In the beginning of the 18th century they suffered much from the devastations of the English, French and Creeks. … About the time Spain regained possession of the soil, they migrated to the West and settled on the Bayou Rapide of Red River. Here they had a village numbering about 50 souls."

D. G. Brinton, Notes on the Floridian Peninsula, chapter 2.

See, also, below: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Apelousas.

See TEXAS: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Araicu.

See below: GUCK ON COCO GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Arapahoes.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Araucanians.

See CHILE.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Arawaks, or Arauacas.

See below: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Arecunas.

See below: CARIBS AND THEIR KINDRED.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Arikaras.

See below: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Arkansas.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Assiniboins.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Athapascan Family. Chippewyans. Tinneh. Sarcees [Footnote: See Note, Appendix E.]

"This name [Athapascans or Athabascans] has been applied to a class of tribes who are situated north of the great Churchill river, and north of the source of the fork of the Saskatchawine, extending westward till within about 150 miles of the Pacific Ocean. … The name is derived, arbitrarily, from Lake Athabasca, which is now more generally called the Lake of the Hills. Surrounding this lake extends the tribe of the Chippewyans, a people so-called by the Kenistenos and Chippewas, because they were found to be clothed, in some primary encounter, in the scanty garb of the fisher's skin. … We are informed by Mackenzie that the territory occupied by the Chippewyans extends between the parallels of 60° and 65° North and longitudes from 100° to 110° West."

H. R. Schoolcraft, Information Respecting the Indian Tribes, part 5, page 172.

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"The Tinneh may be divided into four great families of nations; namely, the Chippewyans, or Athabascas, living between Hudson Bay and the Rocky Mountains; the Tacullies, or Carriers, of New Caledonia or North-western British America; the Kutchins, occupying both banks of the Upper Yukon and its tributaries, from near its mouth to the Mackenzie River, and the Kenai, inhabiting the interior from the lower Yukon to Copper River."

H. H. Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States, chapter 2.

"The Indian tribes of Alaska and the adjacent region may be divided into two groups. …

1. Tinneh—Chippewyans of authors. … Father Petitot discusses the terms Athabaskans, Chippewayans, Montagnais, and Tinneh as applied to this group of Indians. … This great family includes a large number of American tribes extending from near the mouth of the Mackenzie south to the borders of Mexico. The Apaches and Navajos belong to it, and the family seems to intersect the continent of North America in a northerly and southerly direction, principally along the flanks of the Rocky Mountains. … The designation [Tinneh] proposed by Messrs. Ross and Gibbs has been accepted by most modern ethnologists. …

2. T'linkets, which family includes the Yakutats and other groups.

W. H. Dall, Tribes of the Extreme Northwest (Contributions to North American Ethnology, volume 1).

"Wherever found, the members of this group present a certain family resemblance. In appearance they are tall and strong, the forehead low with prominent superciliary ridges, the eyes slightly oblique, the nose prominent but wide toward the base, the mouth large, the hands and feet small. Their strength and endurance are often phenomenal, but in the North, at least, their longevity is slight, few living beyond fifty. Intellectually they rank below most of their neighbors, and nowhere do they appear as fosterers of the germs of civilization. Where, as among the Navajos, we find them having some repute for the mechanical arts, it turns out that this is owing to having captured and adopted the members of more gifted tribes. … Agriculture was not practised either in the north or south, the only exception being the Navajos, and with them the inspiration came from other stocks. … The most cultured of their bands were the Navajos, whose name is said to signify 'large cornfields,' from their extensive agriculture. When the Spaniards first met them in 1541 they were tillers of the soil, erected large granaries for their crops, irrigated their fields by artificial water courses or acequias, and lived in substantial dwellings, partly underground; but they had not then learned the art of weaving the celebrated 'Navajo blankets,' that being a later acquisition of their artisans."

D. G. Brinton, The American Race, pages 69-72.

See, above, APACHE GROUP, and BLACKFEET.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Atsinas (Caddoes).

See Note, Appendix E.

See below: BLACKFEET.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Attacapan Family.

"Derivation: From a Choctaw word meaning 'man-eater.' Little is known of the tribe, the language of which forms the basis of the present family. The sole knowledge possessed by Gallatin was derived from a vocabulary and some scanty information furnished by Dr. John Sibley, who collected his material in the year 1805. Gallatin states that the tribe was reduced to 50 men. … Mr. Gatschet collected some 2,000 words and a considerable body of text. His vocabulary differs considerably from the one furnished by Dr. Sibley and published by Gallatin. … The above material seems to show that the Attacapa language is distinct from all others, except possibly the Chitimachan."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 57.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Aymaras.

See PERU.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Aztecs.

See below: MAYAS; also MEXICO: A. D. 1325-1502; and AZTEC AND MAYA PICTURE WRITING.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Bakairi.

See below: CARIBS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Balchitas.

See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Bannacks.

See below: SNOSHONEAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Barbudo.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Baré.

See below: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Baure.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Beothukan Family.

The Beothuk were a tribe, now extinct, which is believed to have occupied the whole of Newfoundland at the time of its discovery. What is known of the language of the Beothuk indicates no relationship to any other American tongue.

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, page 57.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Biloxis.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Blackfeet, or Siksikas.

See Note, Appendix E.

"The tribe that wandered the furthest from the primitive home of the stock [the Algonquian] were the Blackfeet, or Sisika, which word has this signification. It is derived from their earlier habitat in the valley of the Red river of the north, where the soil was dark and blackened their moccasins. Their bands include the Blood or Kenai and the Piegan Indians. Half a century ago they were at the head of a confederacy which embraced these and also the Sarcee (Tinné) and the Atsina (Caddo) nations, and numbered about 30,000 souls. They have an interesting mythology and an unusual knowledge of the constellations."

D. G. Brinton, The American Race, page 79.

SEE above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY;

And, below: FLATHEADS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Blood, or Kenai Indians.

See above: BLACKFEET.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Botocudos.

See below: TUPI. GUARANI. TUPUYAS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Brulé:

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Caddoan Family.

See below: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY;

See, also, TEXAS: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Cakchiquels.

See below: QUICHES, and MAYAS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Calusa.

See below: TUMUQUANAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Cambas, or Campo, or Campa.

See above: ANDESIANS; also, BOLIVIA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Cañares.

See ECUADOR.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Canas.

See PERU.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Canichanas.

See BOLIVIA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

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AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Caniengas.

See below: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Cariay.

See below: GUCK OR COCO Group.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Caribs and their Kindred.

"The warlike and unyielding character of these people, so different from that of the pusillanimous nations around them, and the wide scope of their enterprises and wanderings, like those of the nomad tribes of the Old World, entitle them to distinguished attention. … The traditional accounts of their origin, though of course extremely vague, are yet capable of being verified to a great degree by geographical facts, and open one of the rich veins of curious inquiry and speculation which abound in the New World. They are said to have migrated from the remote valleys embosomed in the Apalachian mountains. The earliest accounts we have of them represent them with weapons in their hands, continually engaged in wars, winning their way and shifting their abode, until, in the course of time, they found themselves at the extremity of Florida. Here, abandoning the northern continent, they passed over to the Lucayos [Bahamas], and thence gradually, in the process of years, from island to island of that vast verdant chain, which links, as it were, the end of Florida to the coast of Paria, on the southern continent. The archipelago extending from Porto Rico to Tobago was their stronghold, and the island of Guadaloupe in a manner their citadel. Hence they made their expeditions, and spread the terror of their name through all the surrounding countries. Swarms of them landed upon the southern continent, and overran some parts of terra firma. Traces of them have been discovered far in the interior of that vast country through which flows the Oroonoko. The Dutch found colonies of them on the banks of the Ikouteka, which empties into the Surinam; along the Esquibi, the Maroni, and other rivers of Guayana; and in the country watered by the windings of the Cayenne."

W. Irving, Life and Voyages of Columbus, book 6, chapter 3, (volume 1).

"To this account [substantially as given above] of the origin of the Insular Charaibes, the generality of historians have given their assent; but there are doubts attending it that are not easily solved. If they migrated from Florida, the imperfect state and natural course of their navigation induce a belief that traces of them would have been found on those islands which are near to the Florida shore; let the natives of the Bahamas, when discovered by Columbus, were evidently a similar people to those of Hispaniola. Besides, it is sufficiently known that there existed anciently many numerous and powerful tribes of Charaibes on the southern peninsula, extending from the river Oronoko to Essequebe, and throughout the whole province of Surinam, even to Brazil, some of which still maintain their independency. … I incline therefore to the opinion of Martyr, and conclude that the islanders were rather a colony from the Charaibes of South America, than from any nation of the North. Rochefort admits that their own traditions referred constantly to Guiana."

B. Edwards, History of British Colonies in the West Indies, book 1, chapter 2.

"The Carabisce, Carabeesi, Charaibes, Caribs, or Galibis, originally occupied [in Guiana] the principal rivers, but as the Dutch encroached upon their possessions they retired inland, and are now daily dwindling away. According to Mr. Hillhouse, they could formerly muster nearly 1,000 fighting men, but are now [1855] scarcely able to raise a tenth part of that number. … The smaller islands of the Caribbean Sea were formerly thickly populated by this tribe, but now not a trace of them remains."

H. G. Dalton, History of British Guiana, volume 1, chapter 1.

E. F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana, chapter 6.

"Recent researches have shown that the original home of the stock was south of the Amazon, and probably in the highlands at the head of the Tapajoz river. A tribe, the Bakairi, is still resident there, whose language is a pure and archaic form of the Carib tongue."

D. G. Brinton, Races and Peoples, page 268.

"Related to the Caribs stand a long list of small tribes … all inhabitants of the great primeval forest in and near Guiana. They may have characteristic differences, but none worthy of mention are known. In bodily appearance, according to all accounts, these relatives of the Caribs are beautiful. In Georgetown the Arauacas [or Arawaks] are celebrated for their beauty. They are slender and graceful, and their features handsome and regular, the face having a Grecian profile, and the skin being of a reddish cast. A little farther inland we find the Macushi [or Macusis], with a lighter complexion and a Roman nose. These two types are repeated in other tribes, except in the Tarumi, who are decidedly ugly. In mental characteristics great similarity prevails."

The Standard Natural History (J. S. Kingsley, editor), page 237.

"The Arawaks occupied on the continent the area of the modern Guiana, between the Corentyn and the Pomeroon rivers, and at one time all the West Indian Islands. From some of them they were early driven by the Caribs, and within 40 years of the date of Columbus' first voyage the Spanish had exterminated nearly all on the islands. Their course of migration had been from the interior of Brazil northward; their distant relations are still to be found between the headwaters of the Paraguay and Schingu rivers."

D. G. Brinton, Races and Peoples, page 268-269.

"The Kapohn (Acawoios, Waikas, &c.) claim kindred with the Caribs. … The Acawoios, though resolute and determined, are less hasty and impetuous than the Caribs. … According to their tradition, one of their hordes removed [to the Upper Demerera] … from the Masaruni. The Parawianas, who originally dwelt on the Demerera, having been exterminated by the continual incursions of the Caribs, the Waika-Acawoios occupied their vacant territory. … The Macusis … are supposed by some to have formerly inhabited the banks of the Orinoco. … As they are industrious and unwarlike, they have been the prey of every savage tribe around them. The Wapisianas are supposed to have driven them northward and taken possession of their country. The Brazilians, as well as the Caribs, Acawoios, &c., have long been in the habit of enslaving them. … The Arecunas have been accustomed to descend from the higher lands and attack the Macusis. … This tribe is said to have formerly dwelt on the banks of the Uaupes or Ucayari, a tributary of the Rio Negro. … The Waraus appear to have been the most ancient inhabitants of the land. Very little, however, can be gleaned from them respecting their early history. … The Tivitivas, mentioned by Raleigh, were probably a branch of the Waraus, whom he calls Quarawetes."

W. H. Brett, Indian Tribes of Guiana, part 2, chapter 13.

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AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Caripuna.

See below: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Cat Nation, or Eries.

See below: HURONS, &c., and IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY: THEIR CONQUESTS, &c.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Catawbas, or Kataba.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY; also, TIMUQUANAN.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Cayugas.

See below: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Chancas.

See PERU.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Chapas, or Chapanecs.

See below: ZAPOTECS, ETC.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Cherokees.

"The Cherokee tribe has long been a puzzling factor to students of ethnology and North American languages. Whether to be considered an abnormal offshoot from one of the well-known Indian stocks or families of North America, or the remnant of some undetermined or almost extinct family which has merged into another, appear to be questions yet unsettled."

C. Thomas, Burial Mounds of the Northern Sections of the United States (Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-4).

Facts which tend to identify the Cherokees with the ancient "mound-builders" of the Ohio Valley—the Alleghans or Talligewi of Indian tradition—are set forth by Professor Thomas in a later paper, on the Problem of the Ohio Mounds, published by the Bureau of Ethnology in 1889 [see above: ALLEGHANS] and in a little book published in 1890, entitled "The Cherokees in Pre-Columbian Times." "The Cherokee nation has probably occupied a more prominent place in the affairs and history of what is now the United States of America, since the date of the early European settlements, than any other tribe, nation, or confederacy of Indians, unless it be possible to except the powerful and warlike league of the Iroquois or Six Nations of New York. It is almost certain that they were visited at a very early period [1540] following the discovery of the American continent by that daring and enthusiastic Spaniard, Fernando de Soto. … At the time of the English settlement of the Carolinas the Cherokees occupied a diversified and well-watered region of country of large extent upon the waters of the Catawba, Broad, Saluda, Keowee, Tugaloo, Savannah, and Coosa rivers on the east and south, and several tributaries of the Tennessee on the north and west. … In subsequent years, through frequent and long continued conflicts with the ever advancing white settlements, and the successive treaties whereby the Cherokees gradually yielded portions of their domain, the location and names of their towns were continually changing until the final removal of the nation [1836-1839] west of the Mississippi. … This removal turned the Cherokees back in the calendar of progress and civilization at least a quarter of a century. The hardships and exposures of the journey, coupled with the fevers and malaria of a radically different climate, cost the lives of perhaps 10 per cent. of their total population. The animosities and turbulence born of the treaty of 1835 not only occasioned the loss of many lives, but rendered property insecure, and in consequence diminished the zeal and industry of the entire community in its accumulation. A brief period of comparative quiet, however, was again characterized by an advance toward a higher civilization. Five years after their removal we find from the report of their agent that they are again on the increase in population. … With the exception of occasional drawbacks—the result of civil feuds—the progress of the nation in education, industry and civilization continued until the outbreak of the rebellion. At this period, from the best attainable information, the Cherokees numbered 21,000 souls. The events of the war brought to them more of desolation and ruin than perhaps to any other community. Raided and sacked alternately, not only by the Confederates and Union forces, but by the vindictive ferocity and hate of their own factional divisions, their country became a blackened and desolate waste. … The war over, and the work of reconstruction commenced, found them numbering 14,000 impoverished, heart-broken, and revengeful people. … To-day their country is more prosperous than ever. They number 22,000, a greater population than they have had at any previous period, except perhaps just prior to the date of the treaty of 1835, when those east added to those west of the Mississippi are stated to have aggregated nearly 25,000 people. To-day they have 2,300 scholars attending 75 schools, established and supported by themselves at an annual expense to the nation of nearly $100,000. To-day, 13,000 of their people can read and 18,000 can speak the English language. To-day, 5,000 brick, frame and log-houses are occupied by them, and they have 64 churches with a membership of several thousand. They cultivate 100,000 acres of land and have an additional 150,000 fenced. … They have a constitutional form of government predicated upon that of the United States. As a rule their laws are wise and beneficent and are enforced with strictness and justice. … The present Cherokee population is of a composite character. Remnants of other nations or tribes [Delawares, Shawnees, Creeks, Natchez] have from time to time been absorbed and admitted to full participation in the benefits of Cherokee citizenship."

C. C. Royce, The Cherokee Nation of Indians (Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-84).

This elaborate paper by Mr. Royce is a narrative in detail of the official relations of the Cherokees with the colonial and federal governments, from their first treaty with South Carolina, in 1721, down to the treaty of April 27, 1868.—"As early as 1798 Barton compared the Cheroki language with that of the Iroquois and stated his belief that there was a connection between them. … Mr. Hale was the first to give formal expression to his belief in the affinity of the Cheroki to Iroquois. Recently extensive Cheroki vocabularies have come into possession of the Bureau of Ethnology, and a careful comparison of them with ample Iroquois material has been made by Mr Hewitt. The result is convincing proof of the relationship of the two languages."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, page 77.

See Note, Appendix: E.

ALSO IN S. G. Drake, The Aboriginal Races of North America, book 4, chapter 13-16.

See, above: ALLEGHANS.

See, also, for an account of the Cherokee War of 1759-1761, SOUTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1759-1761; and for "Lord Dunmore's War," OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1774.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Cheyennes, or Sheyennes.

See above; ALGONQUIAN FAMILY

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AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Chibchas.

The most northerly group of the tribes of the Andes "are the Cundinamarca of the table lands of Bogota. At the time of the conquest the watershed of the Magdalena was occupied by the Chibcha, or, as they were called by the Spaniards, Muyscas. At that time the Chibcha were the most powerful of all the autochthonous tribes, had a long history behind them, were well advanced toward civilization, to which numerous antiquities bear witness. The Chibcha of to-day no longer speak the well-developed and musical language of their forefathers. It became extinct about 1730, and it can now only be inferred from existing dialects of it; these are the languages of the Turiero, a tribe dwelling north of Bogota, and of the Itoco Indians who live in the neighborhood of the celebrated Emerald mines of Muzo."

The Standard Natural History (J. S. Kingsley, editor) volume 6, page 215.

"As potters and goldsmiths they [the Chibcha] ranked among the finest on the continent."

D. G. Brinton, Races and Peoples, page 272.

See, also, COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1536-1731.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Chicasas.

See below: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY; also, LOUISIANA: A. D. 1719-1750.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Chichimecs.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1325-1502.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Chimakuan Family.

"The Chimakum are said to have been formerly one of the largest and most powerful tribes of Puget Sound. Their warlike habits early tended to diminish their numbers, and when visited by Gibbs in 1854 they counted only about 70 individuals. This small remnant occupied some 15 small lodges on Port Townsend Bay."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 62.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Chimarikan Family.

"According to Powers, this family was represented, so far as known, by two tribes in California, one the Chi-mál-a-kwe, living on New River, a branch of the Trinity, the other the Chimariko, residing upon the Trinity itself from Burnt Ranch up to the mouth of North Fork, California. The two tribes are said to have been as numerous formerly as the Hupa, by whom they were overcome and nearly exterminated. Upon the arrival of the Americans only 25 of the Chimalakwe were left."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 63.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Chinantecs.

See below: ZAPOTECS, ETC.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Chinookan Family.

"The banks of the Columbia, from the Grand Dalles to its mouth, belong to the two branches of the Tsinuk [or Chinook] nation, which meet in the neighborhood of the Kowlitz River, and of which an almost nominal remnant is left. … The position of the Tsinuk previous to their depopulation was, as at once appears, most important, occupying both sides of the great artery of Oregon for a distance of 200 miles, they possessed the principal thoroughfare between the interior and the ocean, boundless resources of provisions of various kinds, and facilities for trade almost unequalled on the Pacific."

G. Gibbs, Tribes of West Washington and N. W. Oregon (Contributions to North American Ethnology, volume 1), page 164.

See, also, below: FLATHEADS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Chippewas.

See below: OJIBWAS; and above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Chippewyans.

See below: ATHAPASCAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Choctaws.

See below: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Chontals and Popolocas.

"According to the census of 1880 there were 31,000 Indians in Mexico belonging to the Familia Chontal. No such family exists. The word 'chontalli' in the Nahuatl language means simply 'stranger,' and was applied by the Nahuas to any people other than their own. According to the Mexican statistics, the Chontals are found in the states of Mexico, Puebla, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Tabasco, Guatemala and Nicaragua. A similar term is 'popoloca,' which in Nahuatl means a coarse fellow, one speaking badly, that is, broken Nahuatl. The Popolocas have also been erected into an ethnic entity by some ethnographers, with as little justice as the Chontallis. They are stated to have lived in the provinces of Puebla, Oaxaca, Vera Cruz, Mechoacan and Guatemala."

D. G. Brinton, The American Race, pages 146-153.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Chontaquiros.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Chumashan Family.

"Derivation: From Chumash, the name of the Santa Rosa Islanders. The several dialects of this family have long been known under the group or family name, 'Santa Barbara,' which seems first to have been used in a comprehensive sense by Latham in 1856, who included under it three languages, viz.: Santa Barbara, Santa Inez, and San Luis Obispo. The term has no special pertinence as a family designation, except from the fact that the Santa Barbara Mission, around which one of the dialects of the family was spoken, is perhaps more widely known than any of the others."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 67.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Cliff-dwellers.

See AMERICA: PREHISTORIC.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Coahuiltecan Family.

"Derivation: From the name of the Mexican State Coahuila. This family appears to have included numerous tribes in southwestern Texas and in Mexico. … A few Indians still survive who speak one of the dialects of this family, and in 1886 Mr. Gatschet collected vocabularies of two tribes, the Comecrudo and Cotoname, who live on the Rio Grande, at Las Prietas, State of Tamaulipas."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 68.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Coajiro, or Guajira.

"An exceptional position is taken, in many respects, by the Coajiro, or Guajira, who live on the peninsula of the same name on the northwestern boundary of Venezuela. Bounded on all sides by so-called civilized peoples, this Indian tribe is known to have maintained its independence, and acquired the well-deserved reputation for cruelty, a tribe which, in many respects, can be classed with the Apaches and Comanches of New Mexico, the Araucanians of Chili, and the Guaycara and Guarani on the Parana. The Coajiro are mostly large, with chestnut-brown complexion and black, sleek hair. While all the other coast tribes have adopted the Spanish language, the Coajiro have preserved their own speech. They are the especial foes of the other peoples. No one is given entrance into their land, and they live with their neighbors, the Venezuelans, in constant hostilities. They have fine horses, which they know how to ride excellently. … They have numerous herds of cattle. … They follow agriculture a little."

The Standard Natural History (J. S. Kingsley, editor), volume 6, page 243.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Cochibo.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Cochiquima.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Coco Group.

See below: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Coconoons.

See below: MARIPOSAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Cofan.

See above: ANDESIANS.

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AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Collas.

See PERU.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Comanches.

See below: SHOSHONEAN FAMILY, and KIOWAN FAMILY; and above: APACHE GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Conestogas.

See below: SUSQUEHANNAS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Conibo.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Conoys.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Copehan Family.

"The territory of the Copehan family is bounded on the north by Mount Shasta and the territory of the Sastean and Lutuamian families, on the east by the territory of the Palaihnihan, Yanan, and Punjunan families, and on the south by the bays of San Pablo and Suisun and the lower waters of the Sacramento."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 69.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Costanoan Family.

"Derivation: From the Spanish costano, 'coast-men.' Under this group name Latham included five tribes … which were under the supervision of the Mission Dolores. … The territory of the Costanoan family extends from the Golden Gate to a point near the southern end of Monterey Bay. … The surviving Indians of the once populous tribes of this family are now scattered over several counties and probably do not number, all told, over 30 individuals, as was ascertained by Mr. Henshaw in 1888. Most of these are to be found near the towns of Santa Cruz and Monterey."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 71.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Creek Confederacy, Creek Wars.

See below: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY; also UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1813-1814 (AUGUST-APRIL); and FLORIDA: A. D. 1816-1818.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Crees.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Croatans.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1587-1590.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Crows (Upsarokas, or Absarokas).

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Cuatos.

See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Cunimaré.

See below: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Cuyriri or Kiriri.

See below: GUCK on Coco GROUP.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Dakotas, or Dacotahs, or Dahcotas.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Delawares, or Lenape.

"The proper name of the Delaware Indians was and is Lenapé (a as in father, é as a in mate). … The Lenape were divided into three sub-tribes: 1. The Minsi, Monseys, Montheys, Munsees, or Minisinks. 2. The Unami or Wonameys. 3. The Unalachtigo. No explanation of these designations will be found in Heckewelder or the older writers. From investigations among living Delawares, carried out at my request by Mr. Horatio Hale, it is evident that they are wholly geographical, and refer to the location of these sub-tribes on the Delaware river. … The Minsi lived in the mountainous region at the head waters of the Delaware, above the Forks or junction of the Lehigh river. … The Unamis' territory on the right bank of the Delaware river extended from the Lehigh Valley southward. It was with them and their southern neighbors, the Unalachtigos, that Penn dealt for the land ceded to him in the Indian deed of 1682. The Minsis did not take part in the transaction, and it was not until 1737 that the Colonial authorities treated directly with the latter for the cession of their territory. The Unalachtigo or Turkey totem had its principal seat on the affluents of the Delawares near where Wilmington now stands."

D. G. Brinton, The Lenape and Their Legends, chapter 3.

"At the … time when William Penn landed in Pennsylvania, the Delawares had been subjugated and made women by the Five Nations. It is well known that, according to that Indian mode of expression, the Delawares were henceforth prohibited from making war, and placed under the sovereignty of the conquerors, who did not even allow sales of land, in the actual possession of the Delawares, to be valid without their approbation. William Penn, his descendants, and the State of Pennsylvania, accordingly, always purchased the right of possession from the Delawares, and that of Sovereignty from the Five Nations. … The use of arms, though from very different causes, was equally prohibited to the Delawares and to the Quakers. Thus the colonization of Pennsylvania and of West New Jersey by the British, commenced under the most favorable auspices. Peace and the utmost harmony prevailed for more than sixty years between the whites and the Indians; for these were for the first time treated, not only justly, but kindly, by the colonists. But, however gradually and peaceably their lands might have been purchased, the Delawares found themselves at last in the same situation as all the other Indians, without lands of their own, and therefore without means of subsistence. They were compelled to seek refuge on the waters of the Susquehanna, as tenants at will, on lands belonging to their hated conquerors, the Five Nations. Even there and on the Juniata they were encroached upon. … Under those circumstances, many of the Delawares determined to remove west of the Alleghany Mountains, and, about the year 1740-50, obtained from their ancient allies and uncles, the Wyandots, the grant of a derelict tract of land lying principally on the Muskingum. The great body of the nation was still attached to Pennsylvania. But the grounds of complaint increased. The Delawares were encouraged by the western tribes, and by the French, to shake off the yoke of the Six Nations, and to join in the war against their allies, the British. The frontier settlements of Pennsylvania were accordingly attacked both by the Delawares and the Shawnoes. And, although peace was made with them at Easton in in 1758, and the conquest of Canada put an end to the general war, both the Shawnoes and Delawares removed altogether in 1768 beyond the Alleghany Mountains. … The years 1765-1795 are the true period of the power and importance of the Delawares. United with the Shawnoes, who were settled on the Scioto, they sustained during the Seven Years' War the declining power of France, and arrested for some years the progress of the British and American arms. Although a portion of the nation adhered to the Americans during the War of Independence, the main body, together with all the western nations made common cause with the British. And, after the short truce which followed the treaty of 1783, they were again at the head of the western confederacy in their last struggle for independence. Placed by their geographical situation in the front of battle, they were, during those three wars, the aggressors, and, to the last moment, the most active and formidable enemies of America. The decisive victory of General Wayne (1794), dissolved the confederacy; and the Delawares were the greatest sufferers by the treaty of Greenville of 1795." {86} After this, the greater part of the Delawares were settled on White River, Indiana, "till the year 1819, when they finally ceded their claim to the United States. Those residing there were then reduced to about 800 souls. A number … had previously removed to Canada; and it is difficult to ascertain the situation or numbers of the residue at this time [1836]. Those who have lately removed west of the Mississippi are, in an estimate of the War Department, computed at 400 souls. Former emigrations to that quarter had however taken place, and several small dispersed bands are, it is believed, united with the Senecas and some other tribes."

A. Gallatin, Synopsis of the Indian Tribes (Archæologia Americana, volume 2), introduction, section 2.

See, above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY: below: SHAWANESE, and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY. Also, PONTIAC'S WAR; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1765-1768; and MORAVIAN BRETHREN; and, for an account of "Lord Dunmore's War," see Ohio (VALLEY): A. D. 1774.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Eries.

See below: HURONS, &c., and IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY: THEIR CONQUESTS, &c.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Eskimauan Family.

"Save a slight inter-mixture of European settlers, the Eskimo are the only inhabitants of the shores of Arctic America, and of both sides of Davis Strait and Baffin Bay, including Greenland, as well as a tract of about 400 miles on the Behring Strait coast of Asia. Southward they extend as far as about 50° North latitude on the eastern side, 60° on the western side of America, and from 55° to 60° on the shores of Hudson Bay. Only on the west the Eskimo near their frontier are interrupted on two small spots of the coast by the Indians, named Kennayans and Ugalenzes, who have there advanced to the sea-shore for the sake of fishing. These coasts of Arctic America, of course, also comprise all the surrounding islands. Of these, the Aleutian Islands form an exceptional group; the inhabitants of these on the one hand distinctly differing from the coast people here mentioned, while on the other they show a closer relationship to the Eskimo than any other nation. The Aleutians, therefore, may be considered as only an abnormal branch of the Eskimo nation. … As regards their northern limits, the Eskimo people, or at least remains of their habitations, have been found nearly as far north as any Arctic explorers have hitherto advanced: and very possibly bands of them may live still farther to the north, as yet quite unknown to us. … On comparing the Eskimo with the neighbouring nations, their physical complexion certainly seems to point at an Asiatic origin; but, as far as we know, the latest investigations have also shown a transitional link to exist between the Eskimo and the other American nations, which would sufficiently indicate the possibility of a common origin from the same continent. As to their mode of life, the Eskimo decidedly resemble their American neighbours. … With regard to their language, the Eskimo also appear akin to the American nations in regard to its decidedly polysynthetic structure. Here, however, on the other hand, we meet with some very remarkable similarities between the Eskimo idiom and the language of Siberia, belonging to the Altaic or Finnish group. … According to the Sagas of the Icelanders, they were already met with on the east coast of Greenland about the year 1000, and almost at the same time on the east coast of the American continent. … Between the years 1000 and 1300 they do not seem to have occupied the land south of 65° North L. on the west coast of Greenland, where the Scandinavian colonies were then situated. But the colonists seem to have been aware of their existence in higher latitudes, and to have lived in fear of an attack by them, since, in the year 1266, an expedition was sent out for the purpose of exploring the abodes of the Skrælings, as they were called by the colonists. … About the year 1450, the last accounts were received from the colonies, and the way to Greenland was entirely forgotten in the mother country. … The features of the natives in the Southern part of Greenland indicate a mixed descent from the Scandinavians and Eskimo, the former, however, not having left the slightest sign of any influence on the nationality or culture of the present natives. In the year 1585, Greenland was discovered anew by John Davis, and found inhabited exclusively by Eskimo."

H. Rink, Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo, introduction and chapter 6.

H. Rink, The Eskimo tribes.

"In 1869, I proposed for the Aleuts and people of Innuit stock collectively the term Orarians, as indicative of their coastwise distribution, and as supplying the need of a general term to designate a very well-defined race. …The Orarians are divided into two well-marked groups, namely the Innuits, comprising all the so-called Eskimo and Tuskis, and the Aleuts."

W. H. Dall, Tribes of the Extreme Northwest (Contributed to North American Ethnology, volume 1), part 1.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Esselenian Family.

"The present family was included by Latham in the heterogeneous group called by him Salinas. … The term Salinan [is now] restricted to the San Antonio and San Miguel languages, leaving the present family … [to be] called Esselenian, from the name of the single tribe Esselen, of which it is composed. … The tribe or tribes composing this family occupied a narrow strip of the California coast from Monterey Bay south to the vicinity of the Santa Lucia Mountain, a distance of about 50 miles."

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, pages 75-76.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Etchemins.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Eurocs, or Yuroks.

See below: MODOCS, &c.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Five Nations.

See below: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Flatheads (Salishan Family).

See Note, Appendix E.

"The name Flathead was commonly given to the Choctaws, though, says Du Pratz, he saw no reason why they should be so distinguished, when the practice of flattening the head was so general. And in the enumeration just cited [Documentary Hist. of New York, volume 1, page 24] the next paragraph. … is: 'The Flatheads, Cherakis, Chicachas, and Totiris are included under the name of Flatheads by the Iroquois."

M. F. Force, Some Early Notices of the Indians of Ohio, page 32.

"The Salish … are distinctively known as Flatheads, though the custom of deforming the cranium is not confined to them."

D. G. Brinton, The American Race, page 107.

"In … early times the hunters and trappers could not discover why the Blackfeet and Flatheads [of Montana] received their respective designations, for the feet of the former are no more inclined to sable than any other part of the body, while the heads of the latter possess their fair proportion of rotundity. Indeed it is only below the falls and rapids that real Flatheads appear, and at the mouth of the Columbia that they flourish most supernaturally. The tribes who practice the custom of flattening the head, and who lived at the mouth of the Columbia, differed little from each other in laws, manners or customs, and were composed of the Cathlamahs, Killmucks, Clatsops, Chinooks and Chilts. The abominable custom of flattening their heads prevails among them all."

P. Ronan, Historical Sketch of the Flathead Indian Nation, page 17.

In Major Powell's linguistic classification, the "Salishan Family" (Flathead) is given a distinct place.

J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, page 102.

{87}

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Fox Indians.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and below, SACS, &c.

For an account of the massacre of Fox Indians at Detroit in 1712,

See CANADA (NEW FRANCE): A. D. 1711-1713.

For an account of the Black Hawk War,

See Illinois: A. D. 1832.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Fuegians.

See below: PATAGONIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Gausarapos or Guuchies.

See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Ges Tribes.

See below: TUPI. GUARANI. TUPUYAS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Gros Ventres (Minnetaree; Hidatsa).

See Note, Appendix E. See below: HIDATSA; also, above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Guaicarus.

See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Guajira.

See above: COAJIRO.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Guanas.

See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Guarani.

See below: TUPI.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Guayanas.

See below: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Guck or Coco Group.

An extensive linguistic group of tribes in Brazil, on and north of the Amazon, extending as far as the Orinoco, has been called the Guck, or Coco group. "There is no common name for the group, that here used meaning a father's brother, a very important personage in these tribes. The Guck group embraces a large number of tribes. … We need enumerate but few. The Cuyriri or Kiriri (also known as Sabaja, Pimenteiras, etc.), number about 3,000. Some of them are half civilized, some are wild, and, without restraint, wander about, especially in the mountains in the Province of Pernambuco. The Araicu live on the lower Amazon and the Tocantins. Next come the Manaos, who have a prospect of maintaining themselves longer than most tribes. With them is connected the legend of the golden lord who washed the gold dust from his limbs in a lake [see EL DORADO]. … The Uirina, Baré, and Cariay live on the Rio Negro, the Cunimaré on the Jurua, the Maranha on the Jutay. Whether the Chamicoco on the right bank of the Paraguay, belong to the Guck is uncertain. Among the tribes which, though very much mixed, are still to be enumerated with the Guck, are the Tecuna and the Passé. In language the Tecunas show many similarities to the Ges; they live on the western borders of Brazil, and extend in Equador to the Pastaça. Among them occur peculiar masques which strongly recall those found on the northwest coast of North America. … In the same district belong the Uaupe, who are noticeable from the fact that they live in barracks, indeed the only tribe in South America in which this custom appears. The communistic houses of the Uaupe are called 'malloca;' they are buildings of about 120 feet long, 75 feet wide, and 30 high, in which live a band of about 100 persons in 12 families, each of the latter, however, in its own room. … Finally, complex tribes of the most different nationality are comprehended under names which indicate only a common way of life, but are also incorrectly used as ethnographic names. These are Caripuna, Mura, and Miranha, all of whom live in the neighborhood of the Madeira River. Of the Caripuna or Jaûn-Avô (both terms signify 'watermen'), who are mixed with Quichua blood, it is related that they not only ate human flesh, but even cured it for preservation. … Formerly the Mura … were greatly feared; this once powerful and populous tribe, however, was almost entirely destroyed at the end of the last century by the Mundruco; the remnant is scattered. … The Mura are the gypsies among the Indians on the Amazon; and by all the other tribes they are regarded with a certain degree of contempt as pariahs. … Much to be feared, even among the Indians, are also the Miranha (i. e., rovers, vagabonds), a still populous tribe on the right bank of the Japura, who seem to know nothing but war, robbery, murder, and man-hunting."