THE BOOK OF NATIONS Geographical, Historical, Descriptive (continued 7)

1715. Death of Louis XIV.; Louis XV., King. 1715. Siege of Corfu raised. 1715. Treaty of Antwerp with Austria. 1715. Charles returns to Sweden. Prussia and England join the alliance against him.

MONTESQUIEU (1689-1755). 1717. Turks lose Belgrade.

1718. New Orleans settled by the French. 1718. War with Spain. Quadruple Alliance of the Emperor, France, England and Holland, Against the designs of Spain.

VOLTAIRE (1694-1778). 1719. Sicily invaded by the Spanish. 1718. Charles XII. invades Norway and is killed at the siege of Frederickshall. BACH (1685-1754).

1724. Spain: Philip V. abdicates but resumes power after some months. 1724-1725. Congress of Cambray to consider claims of Spain and Austria. 1720. Sweden: The queen abdicates in favor of her husband, Frederick I. HANDEL (1685-1759). 1721. Peter assumes the title “Emperor of all the Russias.” 1723. Turks and Russians attempt to dismember Persia.

1725 1727. George II., King of England. LINNAEUS (1707-1778). 1725. Treaty of Vienna, alliance between Spain and Austria. 1727. Treaty with China. 1725

1729. The Carolinas separated. 1733. The Polish succession involves France in war. 1730. Clement XII., Pope. 1730. Denmark: Christian VI. 1733. War of the Polish succession. 1733. Poland: Frederick Augustus II. The diet elects Stanislaus, but is compelled by the Russian army to elect Frederick. 1730. Peter II., last of the Romanoffs.

1734. Beginning of the Great Awakening in New England. 1734. Conquest of Sicily and Naples by Don Carlos. 1734. Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic, escapes to Konigsberg. 1734. Turks driven from Persia by Nâdir Shah.

1739. War with Spain. 1739. India: Invaded by Nâdir Shah who takes and plunders Delhi.

1740-1748. WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION—WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION 1740-1748. 1740-1786. FREDERICK THE GREAT of Prussia. 1740. Renewed invasion of Turkey.

1741. Sweden: War with Russia. Swedes driven out of Finland. 1741. MARIA THERESA succeeds to the hereditary states.

1745. Troubles in Scotland. 1744. War with England and Austria. D’Alembert (1717-1783). 1744. Italy invaded by the French and Spaniards. 1743. Peace of Abo with Sweden gives to Russia southern Finland. 1745. Francis I., husband of Maria Theresa, Emperor.

HUME (1711-1776). 1746. Ferdinand VI., King. 1747. War with Holland. 1746. French and Spaniards driven from Lombardy. 1747. Netherlands: William IV., Stadtholder.

1750 1751. Netherlands: William V., Stadtholder. 1750

1754-1763. OLD FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR OR SEVEN YEARS WAR: ENGLAND AND PRUSSIA VS. FRANCE, AUSTRIA, RUSSIA, SPAIN AND SWEDEN. 1754-1763.

1756. Alliance with Prussia. 1756. India: Calcutta taken by Surajah Dowlah of Bengal; the Black Hole.

1759. Invasion of Canada; death of Wolfe. Quebec taken. 1760-1820. George III. 1760. Loss of all Canada.

1762. War with Spain. 1762. CATHERINE II. reigns.

FRANKLIN (1706-1790). 1763. Peace of Paris. 1763. Peace of Paris. 1763. Prussia and Austria hold the balance of power on the Continent.

1765. Stamp Act resisted in Massachusetts and Virginia. GIBBON (1737-1794). 1765. Establishment of a British Empire in India. 1767. Jesuits expelled from Spain. 1766. Denmark: Christian VII. LESSING (1729-1781). 1764. Poland: Stanislaus Poniatowski elected king. 1768. War with the Ottoman Empire. 1768. War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire.

JAMES WATT (1736-1819). 1770. Marriage of the dauphin to Marie Antoinette. 1773. Jesuits expelled from Rome. 1772. Despotism re-established in Sweden by Gustavus III. 1772. Joseph II. takes part in the first partition of Poland, the territory acquired being made into the Kingdom of Galicia. 1772. First partition of Poland, among Russia, Prussia and Austria. 1773. Ottoman Empire: The Russians are repulsed at Varna and Silistria. Abdul Hamid succeeds.

1774. LOUIS XVI., King. IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804). 1774. Revolt of the Cossacks. Peace of Kutchuk-Kainarji between Russia and Turkey. 1774. India: Warren Hastings, first British governor-general.

1775 1775-1783. AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 1775

1775. April 19, skirmish at Lexington. June 17, battle of Bunker Hill. 1775. Lord North’s “conciliatory measures” rejected by the colonies.

1776. Declaration of Independence, July 4. British army takes possession of New York. Hessians hired for service in America. ARKWRIGHT (1732-1792). 1776. Franklin in Paris.

1777. Battle of Saratoga and critical battle of the Revolution. 1778. Siege and capture of Pondicherry, by the English. 1777. Portugal: Maria, Queen. 1778. Alliance with America. 1778. War of the Bavarian succession. Bavaria seized by Germany. 1778. India: War between the English and the Mahrattas.

1779. Spain: Alliance with the American colonists. MOZART (1756-1791).

1781. Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. 1783. Treaty of Versailles. Independence of the United States acknowledged. 1780. Rochambeau sent to aid the Americans. 1780. Declaration of the Armed Neutrality for the protection of neutral flags against the right of maritime search claimed by England—joined by Denmark and Sweden. Prussia and Austria, 1781. Portugal, 1782.

LAVOISIER (1743-1794).

1783. Peace of Versailles between France, Spain, England and America.

A. D. United States Britain Spain and Portugal France Italy and Church

1649. Trial and execution of Charles I. The Commonwealth. 1649. Siege of Paris.

1650 1652. War with Holland.

1653. CROMWELL, Lord Protector. 1654. Brazil recovered from the Dutch. 1653. Mazarin enters Paris in triumph.

MILTON (1608-1674). 1655. War with England. MOLIERE (1622-1673).

Stuarts restored. 1659. Peace of the Pyrenees.

1660. Charles II., King. 1661. Invasion of Portugal.

1663. Settlement of North Carolina under royal patent.

1664. New Amsterdam occupied by the English. 1665-1700. Charles II.

1668. Triple alliance of England, Sweden and Holland against France. MURILLO (1618-1682). 1667-1697. First three wars of Louis XIV. 1667. War with Spain. 1669. Candia taken from Venice.

1670. War between Genoa and Savoy.

1672. War with Holland.

1673. War with France to protect Holland.

1675 1675-1676. King Philip’s War in New England. Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia. 1676. Messina blockaded by the Dutch and Spanish fleets.

1679. Habeas Corpus Act passed. 1678. Peace with Holland and Spain restores tranquility to Europe.

NEWTON (1642-1727). 1680. France the most formidable power in Europe.

1685. James II., King. Rise of the Whigs and Tories. 1685. Revocation of the edict of Nantes.

JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704).

1688. Revolution. 1688. War of the allies against France.

1689-1697. War of William and Mary with the French. 1689. Revolt in Catalonia in favor of France. 1689. Alexander VIII., Pope.

1689. William III., King, and Mary II., Queen. War with France.

1690. Battle of the Boyne. James defeated, returns to France. 1691. Incursion of the French into Aragon. 1693. Battle of Marsaglia.

1697. General peace. 1697. General peace of Ryswick between France and the allies.

1700 1701-1714. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION 1701-1714.

1702-1713. Queen Anne’s War with the French. 1701. Philip V., King. 1702. Invasion of Holland. Revolt of the Huguenots. 1702. French victory at Luzzara over the Imperialists.

1702. Queen Anne. War against France and Spain.

1704. Gibraltar taken by English. 1705. Barcelona taken by the Allies. 1704. Defeat at Blenheim. 1706. French driven from Italy by Prince Eugene.

1707. Unsuccessful expedition against Port Royal. 1707. Act of union of England and Scotland. First united parliament of Great Britain meets. 1707. All Spanish possessions in Italy abandoned.

1713. Treaty of Utrecht which gives Arcadia to the English. 1713. Peace of Utrecht. England acquires large American possessions. 1713. Peace of Utrecht; perpetual separation of the crown of France and Spain.

1715. Death of Louis XIV.; Louis XV., King. 1715. Siege of Corfu raised.

MONTESQUIEU (1689-1755).

1718. New Orleans settled by the French. 1718. War with Spain. Quadruple Alliance of the Emperor, France, England and Holland, Against the designs of Spain.

VOLTAIRE (1694-1778). 1719. Sicily invaded by the Spanish.

1724. Spain: Philip V. abdicates but resumes power after some months. 1724-1725. Congress of Cambray to consider claims of Spain and Austria.

1725 1727. George II., King of England.

1729. The Carolinas separated. 1733. The Polish succession involves France in war. 1730. Clement XII., Pope.

1734. Beginning of the Great Awakening in New England. 1734. Conquest of Sicily and Naples by Don Carlos.

1739. War with Spain.

1740-1748. WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION—WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION 1740-1748.

1745. Troubles in Scotland. 1744. War with England and Austria. D’Alembert (1717-1783). 1744. Italy invaded by the French and Spaniards.

HUME (1711-1776). 1746. Ferdinand VI., King. 1747. War with Holland. 1746. French and Spaniards driven from Lombardy.

1750

1754-1763. OLD FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR OR SEVEN YEARS WAR: ENGLAND AND PRUSSIA VS. FRANCE, AUSTRIA, RUSSIA, SPAIN AND SWEDEN. 1754-1763.

1756. Alliance with Prussia.

1759. Invasion of Canada; death of Wolfe. Quebec taken. 1760-1820. George III. 1760. Loss of all Canada.

1762. War with Spain.

FRANKLIN (1706-1790). 1763. Peace of Paris. 1763. Peace of Paris.

1765. Stamp Act resisted in Massachusetts and Virginia. GIBBON (1737-1794). 1765. Establishment of a British Empire in India. 1767. Jesuits expelled from Spain.

JAMES WATT (1736-1819). 1770. Marriage of the dauphin to Marie Antoinette. 1773. Jesuits expelled from Rome.

1774. LOUIS XVI., King.

1775 1775-1783. AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY WAR.

1775. April 19, skirmish at Lexington. June 17, battle of Bunker Hill. 1775. Lord North’s “conciliatory measures” rejected by the colonies.

1776. Declaration of Independence, July 4. British army takes possession of New York. Hessians hired for service in America. ARKWRIGHT (1732-1792). 1776. Franklin in Paris.

1777. Battle of Saratoga and critical battle of the Revolution. 1778. Siege and capture of Pondicherry, by the English. 1777. Portugal: Maria, Queen. 1778. Alliance with America.

1779. Spain: Alliance with the American colonists.

1781. Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. 1783. Treaty of Versailles. Independence of the United States acknowledged. 1780. Rochambeau sent to aid the Americans.

LAVOISIER (1743-1794).

1783. Peace of Versailles between France, Spain, England and America.

A. D. Holland Scandinavia Germany Prussia and Poland Russia Ottomans, India, Japan, China

1648. Poland: The Cossacks revolt and defeat the Poles. John Casimir, King.

1650

1653. John de Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland. 1653. Sweden: Christina resigns. Charles X. first of the House of Zweibrucken. 1653. Poland: War with Russia. 1654. Russian victories in Poland.

REMBRANDT (1607-1669). 1655. Charles X. of Sweden invades Poland. 1656. The Elector of Brandenburg allies himself with Sweden against Poland.

1658. Denmark: War against the Swedes, who overrun Denmark, and menace Copenhagen. 1657. Leopold I., Emperor. 1657. Poland cedes Prussia to the Elector. 1657. Alliance with Sweden against Poland.

1660. Denmark: Peace of Copenhagen. Revolution in Denmark; absolute monarchy established. Prussia acknowledged independent. 1661. War with Austria.

1662. Invasion of Hungary.

1665. Tyrol united to Austria. 1664. India: Rise of the Mahratta power. Sivaji takes and sacks Surat.

1667. Holland: Peace of Breda; loss of New Netherlands.

SPINOZA (1632-1677). 1671. The Cossacks subjugated.

1672. Sea fight between the Dutch fleet, under De Witt and De Ruyter, and the English and French fleets; Dutch defeated. Holland: William III., Stadtholder. 1672. The Emperor and Elector of Brandenburg ally themselves with Holland against France. 1672. Invasion of Poland.

1673. War of Austria and France. 1674. Sobieski, King of Poland.

1675 1675. The Swedes invade Brandenburg and are defeated at Fehrbellin. 1676. General revolt of the Hungarians.

1677. Battle of the Lund, between the Swedes and Danes; the latter defeated. LEIBNITZ (1646-1716). 1678. First war with Russia.

1680. Greater part of Alsace seized by France. 1682. Ivan and Peter, Czars. 1682. War with Austria.

1683. Siege of Vienna by the Turks.

1686. Buda taken after being held by the Turks one hundred and forty-five years. 1686. Russia declares war. 1686. India: The Dekkan conquered by Aurungzeb.

1687. Joseph I., King of Hungary. 1688. Prussia: Frederick III. 1687. Revolution in Constantinople. Solyman II., Sultan.

1689. Russia: PETER THE GREAT begins personal rule after overthrowing his sister Sophia and repressing the Streltsi. 1689. First trade with China. India: Height of the Mogul power under Aurungzeb. China: Great influence of Jesuits.

1693. The King of Sweden declared absolute. 1690. Joseph I. elected King of the Romans. 1692. First trade with China.

1695. Brussels bombarded by the French. 1696. Poland: Death of Sobieski; succeeded by:

1699. CHARLES XII. begins to reign. Denmark, Poland and Russia form an alliance against Sweden. 1697. Victories of Prince Eugene over the Sultan Mustapha at Zenta. 1697. Frederick Augustus I. 1699. Peace of Carlowitz. The Ottoman power broken.

1700 1701-1714. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION 1701-1714. 1700-1721. GREAT NORTHERN WARS.

1702-1706. Charles XII. sweeps Poland and Russia. 1701. Hague alliance. 1701. Prussia is erected into a kingdom under Frederick I. 1700. Peter the Great wars with the Northern Powers.

1704. Battle of Blenheim. Bavarians and French defeated by English and Allies. Germany delivered from Louis XIV. 1704. Stanislaus I., King of Poland. 1703. St. Petersburg founded. 1703. Mustapha II. deposed by the Janizaries.

1707. Revolt of the Cossack Mazeppa. 1708. Charles XII. of Sweden invades Russia.

1711. Charles VI., Emperor. 1712-1786. Frederick II. 1709. Is defeated at Pultowa by Peter the Great. Russia becomes a great power.

1714. Finland conquered.

1715. Treaty of Antwerp with Austria. 1715. Charles returns to Sweden. Prussia and England join the alliance against him.

1717. Turks lose Belgrade.

1718. War with Spain. Quadruple Alliance of the Emperor, France, England and Holland, Against the designs of Spain.

1718. Charles XII. invades Norway and is killed at the siege of Frederickshall. BACH (1685-1754).

1720. Sweden: The queen abdicates in favor of her husband, Frederick I. HANDEL (1685-1759). 1721. Peter assumes the title “Emperor of all the Russias.” 1723. Turks and Russians attempt to dismember Persia.

1725 LINNAEUS (1707-1778). 1725. Treaty of Vienna, alliance between Spain and Austria. 1727. Treaty with China.

1730. Denmark: Christian VI. 1733. War of the Polish succession. 1733. Poland: Frederick Augustus II. The diet elects Stanislaus, but is compelled by the Russian army to elect Frederick. 1730. Peter II., last of the Romanoffs.

1734. Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic, escapes to Konigsberg. 1734. Turks driven from Persia by Nâdir Shah.

1739. India: Invaded by Nâdir Shah who takes and plunders Delhi.

1740-1748. WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION—WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION 1740-1748. 1740-1786. FREDERICK THE GREAT of Prussia. 1740. Renewed invasion of Turkey.

1741. Sweden: War with Russia. Swedes driven out of Finland. 1741. MARIA THERESA succeeds to the hereditary states.

1743. Peace of Abo with Sweden gives to Russia southern Finland. 1745. Francis I., husband of Maria Theresa, Emperor.

1747. Netherlands: William IV., Stadtholder.

1750 1751. Netherlands: William V., Stadtholder.

1754-1763. OLD FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR OR SEVEN YEARS WAR: ENGLAND AND PRUSSIA VS. FRANCE, AUSTRIA, RUSSIA, SPAIN AND SWEDEN. 1754-1763.

1756. India: Calcutta taken by Surajah Dowlah of Bengal; the Black Hole.

1762. CATHERINE II. reigns.

1763. Prussia and Austria hold the balance of power on the Continent.

1766. Denmark: Christian VII. LESSING (1729-1781). 1764. Poland: Stanislaus Poniatowski elected king. 1768. War with the Ottoman Empire. 1768. War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire.

1772. Despotism re-established in Sweden by Gustavus III. 1772. Joseph II. takes part in the first partition of Poland, the territory acquired being made into the Kingdom of Galicia. 1772. First partition of Poland, among Russia, Prussia and Austria. 1773. Ottoman Empire: The Russians are repulsed at Varna and Silistria. Abdul Hamid succeeds.

IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804). 1774. Revolt of the Cossacks. Peace of Kutchuk-Kainarji between Russia and Turkey. 1774. India: Warren Hastings, first British governor-general.

1775

1778. War of the Bavarian succession. Bavaria seized by Germany. 1778. India: War between the English and the Mahrattas.

MOZART (1756-1791).

1780. Declaration of the Armed Neutrality for the protection of neutral flags against the right of maritime search claimed by England—joined by Denmark and Sweden. Prussia and Austria, 1781. Portugal, 1782.

XIII. FROM THE RECOGNITION OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SECOND FRENCH REPUBLIC, 1783-1848 A. D.

Great Events of Period. France chief power in Europe. Napoleon’s colossal power and downfall. Fall of despotisms and rise of Republicanism; great political advance of European people. Continued rapid advancement of science, inventions and discoveries. Increased philanthropic effort and intellectual enlightenment.

A. D. United States Great Britain Spain and Portugal France Italy and Church Scandinavia, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland Germany Prussia and Poland Russia Ottomans, China, India, Japan A. D.

1787. Warren Hastings impeached. 1788. Charles IV., King. 1787. First assembly of Notables. Lafayette commander of the national guards. SCHILLER (1759-1805). 1786. Prussia: Death of Frederick the Great. Frederick William II. 1787. War with the Turks. 1787. Disastrous war with Austria and Russia.

1789. GEORGE WASHINGTON, President. 1789-1799. FRENCH REVOLUTION.

1792. War with Germany. France declared a republic. Battle of Valmy. 1792. Sweden: Gustavus IV. 1792. War with France.

1793. Washington re-elected. Neutrality in regard to France. 1793. First Coalition against France: Directed by England, which forms alliances with Russia, Sardinia, Spain, Naples, Prussia, Austria, Portugal and Tuscany; all Europe except Sweden, Denmark and Turkey.

1793. King and Queen beheaded. Reign of Terror. 1793. Second partition of Poland by Russia and Prussia.

HAMILTON 1757-1804. GOETHE (1749-1832). 1794. Polish revolt at Cracow. Revolt under Kosciuszko.

1795. The Directorate. 1795. NAPOLEON BONAPARTE commands the army. 1795. Holland conquered and the Batavian Republic proclaimed. 1795. Final partition of Poland; extinction of the kingdom.

1797. John Adams, second president. 1797. NELSON destroys French fleet near Alexandria. 1796. Alliance with France; war against England. 1796. War in Italy. 1797. Napoleon in Austria. 1796-1797. Napoleon’s Italian campaign. 1797. Napoleon’s Austrian campaign. Peace of Campo Formio in which Austria cedes Belgium and Lombardy receiving Venetia. 1796. Unsuccessful war with Persia.

1798. Second Coalition against France: Alliances of England with Russia, Naples, Sicily, Turkey and Austria—Prussia, Holland and Belgium, neutral.

1798. Expedition to Egypt. 1798. Roman republic proclaimed by the French. 1798. Swiss revolution. Helvetian Republic declared. 1798. Prussia: Frederick William III. 1798. War with the French in Egypt.

1799. Swiss campaign.

1800 1800. Union of England. 1800. Battle of Marengo. 1800

1801. THOMAS JEFFERSON, third president. SIR WALTER SCOTT (1771-1832). Madame de Staël (1766-1817). 1802-1815. NAPOLEONIC WARS. 1802. Napoleon, President of the Italian Republic. 1801. Danish fleet at Copenhagen defeated by Nelson. 1801. Alexander I.

1803. Purchase of Louisiana. 1803. Successful war in India. 1803. Purchases neutrality with the French by a subsidiary treaty; declares war against England, 1804. 1803. End of the Holy Roman Empire. Frances II. 1803. Insurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo. 1803. India: Great Mahratta War.

JOHN MARSHALL 1755-1835. 1804-1814. First French Empire. Napoleon I., Emperor of the French. BICHAT (1771-1802). 1804. Code Napoleon published. 1804. The Emperor of Germany assumes the title of Emperor of Austria. 1804. War with Persia.

Confederation of the Rhine. Prussia henceforth the center of the German federate system.

HEGEL (1770-1831).

1805. Third Coalition against France: formed by England; alliances with Sweden, Russia and Austria—Prussia unfortunately neutral.

1805. Napoleon defeated at Trafalgar. 1805. Battle of Trafalgar. 1805. May 26, Bonaparte crowned King of Italy, at Milan. Naval defeat at Trafalgar. Austrian campaign; battle of Austerlitz. Peace of Presburg. 1805. Napoleon crowned King of Italy. 1805. Battle of Austerlitz.

WORDSWORTH (1770-1850). Napoleon Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine.

CUVIER (1769-1832).

1806. Fourth Coalition against France: England, Russia, Prussia, Saxony and Sweden.

1806. British Orders in Council and Napoleon’s decrees seriously impair American commerce. 1807. Bill for the abolition of the slave trade, passed. 1807. Invasion of Portugal. 1806. Formation of the Confederation of the Rhine. Victories of Auerstädt and Jena over the Prussians. Berlin decree against British commerce. 1806. Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland. 1807. Victories of Eylau and of Friedland are followed by the peace of Tilsit in which Prussia loses her Polish territories. 1807. Treaty of Tilsit. 1807. War against Russia and England.

1808. Madrid taken by the French. Joseph Bonaparte, King. 1808. Rome annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy. 1808. Denmark: Frederick VI. BEETHOVEN (1770-1827).

1809. James Madison, fourth president. 1809. Fifth Coalition against France: England, Austria, Spain and Portugal. 1809. Papal states annexed to France. 1809. Sweden: Charles XIII.; Bernadotte becomes prince royal. 1809. Battles of Eckmühl, Aspern and Wagram. Peace of Vienna. Austria cedes territory to Russia, Bavaria and France.

1810. Continental peace except with Spain. 1810. Emperor marries Maria Louisa of Austria. 1810. Holland joined to France.

1811. Napoleon II., King of Rome, born. A. VON HUMBOLDT (1769-1859).

1812-1814. WAR OF 1812, between United States and Great Britain. 1812. Battle of Salamanca. 1812. Disastrous war against Russia. The Poles declared a nation by Napoleon. Diet of Warsaw. 1812. The Poles declared a nation by Napoleon. Diet of Warsaw. 1812. Russian campaign. Invasion of Napoleon. Moscow burned.

1813. Sixth Great Coalition against France and General Insurrection of the Nations of Europe Against French Dominion: England, Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Austria after the Congress of Prague, with 800,000 men; against France, Italy, the Confederation of the Rhine and Denmark, with about 400,000 men.

1813. Perry’s victory on Lake Erie. 1813. War of German independence. Battle of Leipsic. Bonaparte driven to the Rhine. 1813. Servia invaded by Turkish army.

1814. City of Washington burned by the British. 1814. Ferdinand VII., restored. 1814. Allies enter Paris. House of Bourbon. 1814. Fall of Napoleon. Kingdom ceases. 1814. Union of Holland and Belgium. 1814. Union of Sweden and Norway as two kingdoms under one monarch. 1814. Malta falls to England.

1815. British defeated at New Orleans. 1815. WELLINGTON victorious at Waterloo. The Allies enter Paris, and Napoleon is banished to St. Helena. 1815. Union of Portugal and Brazil under John VI. 1815. Napoleon returns from Elba. Hundred Days’ war. Abdication of Napoleon. 1815. Kingdom of Two Sicilies restored. 1815. William I., King of Netherlands. Battle of Waterloo and defeat of Napoleon. 1815. Congress of Vienna effects the political reconstruction of Europe. Germanic Confederation organized. 1815. Joins the “Holy Alliance”: Russia, Prussia and Austria, later joined by France. Poland united to Russia.

1816. U. S. Bank incorporated. 1816. Bombardment of Algiers. The Bey compelled to abolish slavery. Talleyrand (1754-1838).

1817. James Monroe, President. 1817. Slave trade abolished. 1817. Population 28,000,000.

First passage of the Atlantic by steam effected by the Savannah, of New York, to Liverpool. 1818. France joins in Holy Alliance. 1818. Sweden: Charles XIV. (Bernadotte). 1818. Napoleon’s son made Duke of Reichstadt. 1818. The Zollverein formed.

1819. Florida purchase. 1820-1830. George IV. 1819. Ferdinand of Spain sells Florida to the United States. Metternich (1773-1859). 1819. Death of Marshal Blucher. 1819. Establishment of military colonies. Liberty of the press in Poland nullified.

1821-1829. War of Grecian Independence. Greeks, aided by England, Russia, and France vs. Turks. 1821-1829.

1821. Monroe re-elected. Missouri Compromise bill passed. 1823. The Canning ministry. 1821. Death of Napoleon at St. Helena. 1821. Austrian invasion of Italy. 1821. Congress of monarchs at Laybach. 1822. Greek declaration of independence. Massacre of Scio and capture of Acropolis of Athens by patriots.

1824. Visit of Lafayette. 1824. Charles X., King.

1825 1825. Erie Canal opened. Protective tariff enacted. J. Q. Adams, President. GEORGE STEPHENSON (1781-1848). 1825. Death of Ferdinand after reign of sixty-six years. 1825

DANIEL WEBSTER 1782-1852. 1827. Treaty between Russia and Turkey respecting Greece. 1826. Nicholas I. crowned at Moscow. War against Persia. 1826. Greece: Missolonghi and Athens (1827) taken by the Turks.

1828. Wellington ministry. Irish disturbances. 1828. Russia: War declared against Turkey. By the peace of Turkmantchai, Persian Armenia is acquired.

1829. Andrew Jackson, President. 1830. William IV., King. Difficulties with China. 1830. Salic law abolished. 1830. Algiers taken by the French. Revolution and abdication of Charles X. Louis Philippe, King. 1830. Belgium revolts from Holland, and is declared independent by the Great Powers. 1829-1834. Prussia, Bavaria, and finally all Germany, save Austria, unite in a Zollverein or Customs-Union, which gave great impetus to trade and helped towards national unity.

1831. Northeastern boundary between the United States and British provinces established. 1832. Reform Bill passed. 1831. Abolition of hereditary peerage in France. 1831-1833. Formation of Young Italy party by Mazzini. 1831. Leopold I., King of the Belgians. New constitution for Denmark, Sleswick and Holstein; with representative local councils. 1831. Austria interferes in Italian affairs. 1832. Poland made part of Empire. 1832. Kingdom of Greece founded.

1833. President Jackson re-elected. Bank deposits removed from the U. S. Bank. 1833. Isabella II., Queen of Spain. Portugal a constitutional monarchy.

1836. Spain: The queen regent adopts the constitution of 1812. 1836. Insurrection attempted by Louis Napoleon at Strasburg. 1836. Visit of the Emperor of Russia. Ferdinand I., Emperor.

1837. Independence of Texas acknowledged. Martin Van Buren, President. 1837. VICTORIA, Queen. 1837. The monasteries in Spain dissolved. H. DE BALZAC (1799-1850). 1839. Christian VIII. succeeds. 1838. Commercial treaty with England. 1838. Smuggling carried on extensively. 1839-1842. China: Opium War with Great Britain. Hong Kong ceded to latter.

EMERSON 1803-1882. 1840. War with China over the opium trade. War in Syria; Great Britain an ally of Austria and Turkey. 1840. William I. abdicates as King of Holland. RICHARD WAGNER 1813-1883. 1840. Frederick William, King.

1841. W. H. Harrison, President. Death of Harrison and succession of John Tyler. 1841. Chinese war ended. 1842. Insurrection in Barcelona. Guizot (1832-1848).

MORSE 1791-1872. THOMAS CARLYLE 1795-1884. 1843. King Otho of Greece compelled to accept a constitution. 1843. Greece: King Otho compelled to accept constitution, Sept. 15.

1845. Texas annexed to the U. S. Treaty with China. James K. Polk, President. 1844. Daniel O’Connell’s trial. Sentence reversed by the House of Lords. 1844. War with Morocco. The Second Republic. 1845. Emperor visits England. 1844. China: Commercial treaty with United States.

1846-1848. War with Mexico. The Oregon treaty with Great Britain settling the northwestern boundary of the United States. 1846. Repeal of the English corn-laws. 1846. Civil war in Portugal. VICTOR HUGO 1802-1885.

1847. Severe famine in Ireland. 1847. Austria takes possession of Cracow.

1848. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ends Mexican War. Gold discovered in California. 1848. Civil war in Ireland. Habeas Corpus Act suspended. 1848. Abdication of Louis Philippe, and a republic proclaimed. Louis Napoleon, President. Bloody insurrection in Paris. 1848. Rising of the great Italian cities in revolution. Roman republic overthrown. 1848. Holland receives a constitution. Denmark: Frederick VII., King; revolt of Schleswig-Holstein. 1848. Revolution in Hungary. Francis Joseph, Emperor. Kossuth withdraws his army from Vienna. 1848. Insurrection in Berlin.

A. D. United States Great Britain Spain and Portugal France Italy and Church

1787. Warren Hastings impeached. 1788. Charles IV., King. 1787. First assembly of Notables. Lafayette commander of the national guards.

1789. GEORGE WASHINGTON, President. 1789-1799. FRENCH REVOLUTION.

1792. War with Germany. France declared a republic. Battle of Valmy.

1793. Washington re-elected. Neutrality in regard to France. 1793. First Coalition against France: Directed by England, which forms alliances with Russia, Sardinia, Spain, Naples, Prussia, Austria, Portugal and Tuscany; all Europe except Sweden, Denmark and Turkey.

1793. King and Queen beheaded. Reign of Terror.

HAMILTON 1757-1804.

1795. The Directorate. 1795. NAPOLEON BONAPARTE commands the army.

1797. John Adams, second president. 1797. NELSON destroys French fleet near Alexandria. 1796. Alliance with France; war against England. 1796. War in Italy. 1797. Napoleon in Austria.

1798. Second Coalition against France: Alliances of England with Russia, Naples, Sicily, Turkey and Austria—Prussia, Holland and Belgium, neutral.

1798. Expedition to Egypt. 1798. Roman republic proclaimed by the French.

1799. Swiss campaign.

1800 1800. Union of England. 1800. Battle of Marengo.

1801. THOMAS JEFFERSON, third president. SIR WALTER SCOTT (1771-1832). Madame de Staël (1766-1817). 1802-1815. NAPOLEONIC WARS. 1802. Napoleon, President of the Italian Republic.

1803. Purchase of Louisiana. 1803. Successful war in India. 1803. Purchases neutrality with the French by a subsidiary treaty; declares war against England, 1804.

JOHN MARSHALL 1755-1835. 1804-1814. First French Empire. Napoleon I., Emperor of the French. BICHAT (1771-1802). 1804. Code Napoleon published.

1805. Third Coalition against France: formed by England; alliances with Sweden, Russia and Austria—Prussia unfortunately neutral.

1805. Napoleon defeated at Trafalgar. 1805. Battle of Trafalgar. 1805. May 26, Bonaparte crowned King of Italy, at Milan. Naval defeat at Trafalgar. Austrian campaign; battle of Austerlitz. Peace of Presburg. 1805. Napoleon crowned King of Italy.

WORDSWORTH (1770-1850).

CUVIER (1769-1832).

1806. Fourth Coalition against France: England, Russia, Prussia, Saxony and Sweden.

1806. British Orders in Council and Napoleon’s decrees seriously impair American commerce. 1807. Bill for the abolition of the slave trade, passed. 1807. Invasion of Portugal. 1806. Formation of the Confederation of the Rhine. Victories of Auerstädt and Jena over the Prussians. Berlin decree against British commerce.

1808. Madrid taken by the French. Joseph Bonaparte, King. 1808. Rome annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy.

1809. James Madison, fourth president. 1809. Fifth Coalition against France: England, Austria, Spain and Portugal. 1809. Papal states annexed to France.

1810. Continental peace except with Spain. 1810. Emperor marries Maria Louisa of Austria.

1811. Napoleon II., King of Rome, born.

1812-1814. WAR OF 1812, between United States and Great Britain. 1812. Battle of Salamanca. 1812. Disastrous war against Russia. The Poles declared a nation by Napoleon. Diet of Warsaw.

1813. Sixth Great Coalition against France and General Insurrection of the Nations of Europe Against French Dominion: England, Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Austria after the Congress of Prague, with 800,000 men; against France, Italy, the Confederation of the Rhine and Denmark, with about 400,000 men.

1813. Perry’s victory on Lake Erie.

1814. City of Washington burned by the British. 1814. Ferdinand VII., restored. 1814. Allies enter Paris. House of Bourbon. 1814. Fall of Napoleon. Kingdom ceases.

1815. British defeated at New Orleans. 1815. WELLINGTON victorious at Waterloo. The Allies enter Paris, and Napoleon is banished to St. Helena. 1815. Union of Portugal and Brazil under John VI. 1815. Napoleon returns from Elba. Hundred Days’ war. Abdication of Napoleon. 1815. Kingdom of Two Sicilies restored.

1816. U. S. Bank incorporated. 1816. Bombardment of Algiers. The Bey compelled to abolish slavery. Talleyrand (1754-1838).

1817. James Monroe, President. 1817. Slave trade abolished.

First passage of the Atlantic by steam effected by the Savannah, of New York, to Liverpool. 1818. France joins in Holy Alliance.

1819. Florida purchase. 1820-1830. George IV. 1819. Ferdinand of Spain sells Florida to the United States.

1821-1829. War of Grecian Independence. Greeks, aided by England, Russia, and France vs. Turks. 1821-1829.

1821. Monroe re-elected. Missouri Compromise bill passed. 1823. The Canning ministry. 1821. Death of Napoleon at St. Helena. 1821. Austrian invasion of Italy.

1824. Visit of Lafayette. 1824. Charles X., King.

1825 1825. Erie Canal opened. Protective tariff enacted. J. Q. Adams, President. GEORGE STEPHENSON (1781-1848). 1825. Death of Ferdinand after reign of sixty-six years.

DANIEL WEBSTER 1782-1852. 1827. Treaty between Russia and Turkey respecting Greece.

1828. Wellington ministry. Irish disturbances.

1829. Andrew Jackson, President. 1830. William IV., King. Difficulties with China. 1830. Salic law abolished. 1830. Algiers taken by the French. Revolution and abdication of Charles X. Louis Philippe, King.

1831. Northeastern boundary between the United States and British provinces established. 1832. Reform Bill passed. 1831. Abolition of hereditary peerage in France. 1831-1833. Formation of Young Italy party by Mazzini.

1833. President Jackson re-elected. Bank deposits removed from the U. S. Bank. 1833. Isabella II., Queen of Spain. Portugal a constitutional monarchy.

1836. Spain: The queen regent adopts the constitution of 1812. 1836. Insurrection attempted by Louis Napoleon at Strasburg.

1837. Independence of Texas acknowledged. Martin Van Buren, President. 1837. VICTORIA, Queen. 1837. The monasteries in Spain dissolved. H. DE BALZAC (1799-1850).

EMERSON 1803-1882. 1840. War with China over the opium trade. War in Syria; Great Britain an ally of Austria and Turkey.

1841. W. H. Harrison, President. Death of Harrison and succession of John Tyler. 1841. Chinese war ended. 1842. Insurrection in Barcelona. Guizot (1832-1848).

MORSE 1791-1872. THOMAS CARLYLE 1795-1884. 1843. King Otho of Greece compelled to accept a constitution.

1845. Texas annexed to the U. S. Treaty with China. James K. Polk, President. 1844. Daniel O’Connell’s trial. Sentence reversed by the House of Lords. 1844. War with Morocco. The Second Republic.

1846-1848. War with Mexico. The Oregon treaty with Great Britain settling the northwestern boundary of the United States. 1846. Repeal of the English corn-laws. 1846. Civil war in Portugal. VICTOR HUGO 1802-1885.

1847. Severe famine in Ireland.

1848. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ends Mexican War. Gold discovered in California. 1848. Civil war in Ireland. Habeas Corpus Act suspended. 1848. Abdication of Louis Philippe, and a republic proclaimed. Louis Napoleon, President. Bloody insurrection in Paris. 1848. Rising of the great Italian cities in revolution. Roman republic overthrown.

A. D. Scandinavia, Holland, Belgium, Switzerland Germany Prussia and Poland Russia Ottomans, China, India, Japan

SCHILLER (1759-1805). 1786. Prussia: Death of Frederick the Great. Frederick William II. 1787. War with the Turks. 1787. Disastrous war with Austria and Russia.

1792. Sweden: Gustavus IV. 1792. War with France.

1793. First Coalition against France: Directed by England, which forms alliances with Russia, Sardinia, Spain, Naples, Prussia, Austria, Portugal and Tuscany; all Europe except Sweden, Denmark and Turkey.

1793. Second partition of Poland by Russia and Prussia.

GOETHE (1749-1832). 1794. Polish revolt at Cracow. Revolt under Kosciuszko.

1795. Holland conquered and the Batavian Republic proclaimed. 1795. Final partition of Poland; extinction of the kingdom.

1796-1797. Napoleon’s Italian campaign. 1797. Napoleon’s Austrian campaign. Peace of Campo Formio in which Austria cedes Belgium and Lombardy receiving Venetia. 1796. Unsuccessful war with Persia.

1798. Second Coalition against France: Alliances of England with Russia, Naples, Sicily, Turkey and Austria—Prussia, Holland and Belgium, neutral.

1798. Swiss revolution. Helvetian Republic declared. 1798. Prussia: Frederick William III. 1798. War with the French in Egypt.

1800

1801. Danish fleet at Copenhagen defeated by Nelson. 1801. Alexander I.

1803. End of the Holy Roman Empire. Frances II. 1803. Insurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo. 1803. India: Great Mahratta War.

1804. The Emperor of Germany assumes the title of Emperor of Austria. 1804. War with Persia.

Confederation of the Rhine. Prussia henceforth the center of the German federate system.

HEGEL (1770-1831).

1805. Third Coalition against France: formed by England; alliances with Sweden, Russia and Austria—Prussia unfortunately neutral.

1805. Battle of Austerlitz.

Napoleon Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine.

1806. Fourth Coalition against France: England, Russia, Prussia, Saxony and Sweden.

1806. Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland. 1807. Victories of Eylau and of Friedland are followed by the peace of Tilsit in which Prussia loses her Polish territories. 1807. Treaty of Tilsit. 1807. War against Russia and England.

1808. Denmark: Frederick VI. BEETHOVEN (1770-1827).

1809. Sweden: Charles XIII.; Bernadotte becomes prince royal. 1809. Battles of Eckmühl, Aspern and Wagram. Peace of Vienna. Austria cedes territory to Russia, Bavaria and France.

1810. Holland joined to France.

A. VON HUMBOLDT (1769-1859).

1812. The Poles declared a nation by Napoleon. Diet of Warsaw. 1812. Russian campaign. Invasion of Napoleon. Moscow burned.

1813. Sixth Great Coalition against France and General Insurrection of the Nations of Europe Against French Dominion: England, Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Austria after the Congress of Prague, with 800,000 men; against France, Italy, the Confederation of the Rhine and Denmark, with about 400,000 men.

1813. War of German independence. Battle of Leipsic. Bonaparte driven to the Rhine. 1813. Servia invaded by Turkish army.

1814. Union of Holland and Belgium. 1814. Union of Sweden and Norway as two kingdoms under one monarch. 1814. Malta falls to England.

1815. William I., King of Netherlands. Battle of Waterloo and defeat of Napoleon. 1815. Congress of Vienna effects the political reconstruction of Europe. Germanic Confederation organized. 1815. Joins the “Holy Alliance”: Russia, Prussia and Austria, later joined by France. Poland united to Russia.

1817. Population 28,000,000.

1818. Sweden: Charles XIV. (Bernadotte). 1818. Napoleon’s son made Duke of Reichstadt. 1818. The Zollverein formed.

Metternich (1773-1859). 1819. Death of Marshal Blucher. 1819. Establishment of military colonies. Liberty of the press in Poland nullified.

1821-1829. War of Grecian Independence. Greeks, aided by England, Russia, and France vs. Turks. 1821-1829.

1821. Congress of monarchs at Laybach. 1822. Greek declaration of independence. Massacre of Scio and capture of Acropolis of Athens by patriots.

1825

1826. Nicholas I. crowned at Moscow. War against Persia. 1826. Greece: Missolonghi and Athens (1827) taken by the Turks.

1828. Russia: War declared against Turkey. By the peace of Turkmantchai, Persian Armenia is acquired.

1830. Belgium revolts from Holland, and is declared independent by the Great Powers. 1829-1834. Prussia, Bavaria, and finally all Germany, save Austria, unite in a Zollverein or Customs-Union, which gave great impetus to trade and helped towards national unity.

1831. Leopold I., King of the Belgians. New constitution for Denmark, Sleswick and Holstein; with representative local councils. 1831. Austria interferes in Italian affairs. 1832. Poland made part of Empire. 1832. Kingdom of Greece founded.

1836. Visit of the Emperor of Russia. Ferdinand I., Emperor.

1839. Christian VIII. succeeds. 1838. Commercial treaty with England. 1838. Smuggling carried on extensively. 1839-1842. China: Opium War with Great Britain. Hong Kong ceded to latter.

1840. William I. abdicates as King of Holland. RICHARD WAGNER 1813-1883. 1840. Frederick William, King.

1843. Greece: King Otho compelled to accept constitution, Sept. 15.

1845. Emperor visits England. 1844. China: Commercial treaty with United States.

1847. Austria takes possession of Cracow.

1848. Holland receives a constitution. Denmark: Frederick VII., King; revolt of Schleswig-Holstein. 1848. Revolution in Hungary. Francis Joseph, Emperor. Kossuth withdraws his army from Vienna. 1848. Insurrection in Berlin.

XIV. FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SECOND FRENCH REPUBLIC TO THE FOUNDING OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE, 1848-1871 A. D.

Great Events of Period. Continued rapid advancement of science, inventions and discoveries. Increased philanthropic effort and intellectual enlightenment. Unification of Italy. Commercial treaties with China and Japan. American Civil War. Union of Austria and Hungary. Franco-Prussian War. Establishment of the German Empire.

A. D. United States Spain and Portugal Great Britain France Italy and Church Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Scandinavia The German Confederation Russia Turkey, Greece, China, India, Japan A. D.

Prussia Austria

1849. Zachary Taylor, President. Railroad from Boston to New York. 1849. Mooltan in India taken. 1848-1852. Second Republic. 1849. Catania, Syracuse, and Palermo taken by assault. Mazzini’s proclamation of provisional government. Victor Emanuel, King. Rome surrenders to the French; Garibaldi leaves city. Bourbon rule begins. 1849. The king declines the Imperial Crown. Armistice between Prussia and Denmark. 1849. New constitution promulgated. 1849. Aids Austria in subduing Hungary.

1850 1850. Attempted invasion of Cuba by filibusters. Death of President Taylor; Millard Fillmore, President. Texas boundary settled. Fugitive Slave Law passed. 1850. The war in Lahore ended. The Punjab annexed to the British Crown. 1850-1853. Kafir War in South Africa. 1850. Jerome Bonaparte, Field-Marshal. 1850. Denmark: Bloody battle of Idstedt, between the Danes and Schleswig-Holsteiners. 1850. Treaty of peace with Denmark. New constitution for Prussia. 1850. Harbor of Sebastopol completed. 1850. Turkey: Insurrection in Bosnia. 1850-1864. China: Taiping rebellion. 1850

1851. Erie railway opened. Charleston Convention. Kossuth arrives in New York. 1851. Death of Dodoy, “Prince of Peace.” 1851. Continuance of the Kafir war. Kossuth visits England. 1851. Louis Kossuth sentenced to death at Pesth.

1852-1870. Second Empire. 1852. Napoleon III. declared Emperor. 1852. CAVOUR becomes Prime Minister in Piedmont. 1852. Emperor of Austria visits Emperor of Prussia. 1852. Greece: Convention of London by England, France, Prussia, Bavaria and Greece in reference to the affairs of Greece. 1852. Turkey: War between the Turks and Montenegrins.

1853. Franklin Pierce, President. Gadsden Purchase. 1853. Queen Victoria visits Ireland. Kafir war ended. 1853. Denmark: Parliament prorogued and a “fundamental” law issued. 1853. Belgium: Marriage of the Duke of Brabant, heir-apparent of the throne, and the Archduchess Maria. Holland: The first chamber adopts the much-disputed law on religious liberty. 1853. Plot to overthrow the government. 1853. War declared against Turkey.

1854. Treaty with Japan. Kansas-Nebraska Bill passed. Ostend Manifesto issued. 1854. Military insurrection under O’Donnell. 1854-1856. CRIMEAN WAR. Treaty of alliance with France. 1854. War declared against Russia. 1854. Treaty with Austria, offensive and defensive. 1854. Alliance with England and France. 1854-1856. CRIMEAN WAR. Russia vs. Turkey aided by Great Britain, France and Sardinia.

1854. War with France and England. Siege of Sebastopol. Battle of Balak-lava. 1854. Japan: Treaty with the United States.

1855. Panama Railroad completed. Troubles in Kansas. 1855. British fleet bombards and partially destroys Canton, China. 1855. Important concordant between Italy and Austria. 1855. Death of Nicholas I. Alexander II., Emperor.

ROBERT BROWNING (1812-1889). 1856. Peace with Russia. 1856. Hungarians granted amnesty. 1856. Destruction of Sebastopol docks. Evacuation of Crimea.

1857. Dred Scott decision. James Buchanan, President. Great financial panic. 1857-1858. Sepoy Mutiny. Sepoys vs. English. 1857-1858. Sepoy Mutiny. 1857-1860. China: Second war with Great Britain.

1859. John Brown captures Harpers Ferry. 1859. War with Morocco. 1858. Completion of the Atlantic telegraph cable. 1859. THE WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION. Sardinia-Piedmont and France vs. Austria. 1859. Sweden: Oscar I., died July 8; succeeded by his son Charles XV. 1859. THE WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION. 1858. Partial emancipation of the serfs.

Peace after battle of Solferino.

1860. South Carolina passes ordinance of secession. 1860. Defeat of the Moors. 1860. Rebellion in India subdued. Neutrality proclaimed during the American Civil War. 1860. Commercial treaty with England. 1860. Garibaldi lands in Sicily, and assumes dictatorship.

1861-1865. AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. Federal Government of United States vs. Southern Confederacy. ABRAHAM LINCOLN, President. 1861. Annexation of Santo Domingo. Intervention in Mexico. 1861. Victor Emanuel II., King of Sardinia, first King of Italy. 1861. William I., King. 1861. New constitution for the Austrian monarchy.

TENNYSON (1809-1892). 1862. Great distress caused by American Civil War. 1862. Garibaldi establishes a provisional government. 1862. BISMARCK, Premier. 1862. Amnesty to political offenders in Hungary. 1862. Nesselrode, Chancellor. 1862. Bloody conflict between Servians and Turks in Belgrade.

1863. Battle of Gettysburg. DARWIN 1809-1882. 1863. The French occupy Mexico. 1863. Denmark: Christian IX. succeeds Frederick VII. 1863. King resolves to govern without parliament. Congress of German sovereigns at Frankfort. “One Federal State” proposed. 1863. Termination of serfdom.

1864. Rupture with Peru. 1864. Maximilian accepts Mexican crown. 1864. Florence made capital of Italy. 1864. Peace between Denmark and the allies, to whom Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg are surrendered. 1864. DANISH WAR. Austria and Prussia vs. Denmark. 1864. Emigration of Caucasian tribes into Turkey. 1864. George of Denmark becomes King of Greece.

1865. Assassination of President Lincoln; Andrew Johnson, President. 1865. Dispute with Chile. 1865. Fenian outbreaks in Ireland. British and French governments rescind their recognition of the Confederate States of America. 1865. Ionian Isles made over to Greece. 1865. Leopold II. succeeds his father, Leopold I. in Belgium.

1866. Civil Rights Bill passed. Atlantic telegraph completed. 1866. Military insurrection headed by General Prim. 1866. Austrian War. Venetia proclaimed a part of Italy. 1866-1871. North German Confederation. 1866. AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR. Prussia with smaller North German States and Italy vs. Austria, Hanover, Saxony and South German States. 1866. Inauguration of trial by jury. War with Bokhara.

Austria-Hungary

1867. General amnesty proclamation. Purchase of Alaska. 1867. Death of Marshal O’Donnell. 1867. Great exposition in Paris. 1867. Garibaldi and the Papal States. 1867. North German Constitution accepted. 1867. Autonomy for Hungary announced. Emperor crowned King of Hungary. 1867. Alaska sold to the United States.

1868. Burlingame treaty with China. 1868. Queen deposed. 1868. Gladstone, Premier PASTEUR 1822-1895. HELMHOLTZ 1821-1894. 1868. Japan: End of the Shogunate. Restoration of the Mikado.

1869. U. S. Grant, President. Union Pacific railway opened for traffic. 1869. Vatican Council opened at Rome.

1870. Isabella II. abdicates; Amadeus, King. 1870. Irish Land Act passed. 1870. Third Republic. 1870-1871. FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. France vs. Prussia supported by all German States including South. Battle of Sedan. Surrender of Metz. 1870. Rome is annexed to Italy and declared the capital. HENRIK IBSEN 1828-1908. 1870-1871. FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. Battle of Sedan. 1870. Concordat with Rome suspended.

1871. Sagasta, Prime Minister. HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903). 1871. Capitulation of Paris. Peace ratified. 1871- ——. House of Hohenzollern. 1871. King of Prussia proclaimed Emperor of Germany. 1871. New German Empire recognized. 1871. Electric telegraph between Russia and Japan. 1871. Japan: Feudalism abolished.

A. D. United States Spain and Portugal Great Britain France Italy and Church

1849. Zachary Taylor, President. Railroad from Boston to New York. 1849. Mooltan in India taken. 1848-1852. Second Republic. 1849. Catania, Syracuse, and Palermo taken by assault. Mazzini’s proclamation of provisional government. Victor Emanuel, King. Rome surrenders to the French; Garibaldi leaves city. Bourbon rule begins.

1850 1850. Attempted invasion of Cuba by filibusters. Death of President Taylor; Millard Fillmore, President. Texas boundary settled. Fugitive Slave Law passed. 1850. The war in Lahore ended. The Punjab annexed to the British Crown. 1850-1853. Kafir War in South Africa. 1850. Jerome Bonaparte, Field-Marshal.

1851. Erie railway opened. Charleston Convention. Kossuth arrives in New York. 1851. Death of Dodoy, “Prince of Peace.” 1851. Continuance of the Kafir war. Kossuth visits England.

1852-1870. Second Empire. 1852. Napoleon III. declared Emperor. 1852. CAVOUR becomes Prime Minister in Piedmont.

1853. Franklin Pierce, President. Gadsden Purchase. 1853. Queen Victoria visits Ireland. Kafir war ended.

1854. Treaty with Japan. Kansas-Nebraska Bill passed. Ostend Manifesto issued. 1854. Military insurrection under O’Donnell. 1854-1856. CRIMEAN WAR. Treaty of alliance with France. 1854. War declared against Russia.

1855. Panama Railroad completed. Troubles in Kansas. 1855. British fleet bombards and partially destroys Canton, China. 1855. Important concordant between Italy and Austria.

ROBERT BROWNING (1812-1889). 1856. Peace with Russia.

1857. Dred Scott decision. James Buchanan, President. Great financial panic. 1857-1858. Sepoy Mutiny. Sepoys vs. English.

1859. John Brown captures Harpers Ferry. 1859. War with Morocco. 1858. Completion of the Atlantic telegraph cable. 1859. THE WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION. Sardinia-Piedmont and France vs. Austria.

1860. South Carolina passes ordinance of secession. 1860. Defeat of the Moors. 1860. Rebellion in India subdued. Neutrality proclaimed during the American Civil War. 1860. Commercial treaty with England. 1860. Garibaldi lands in Sicily, and assumes dictatorship.

1861-1865. AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. Federal Government of United States vs. Southern Confederacy. ABRAHAM LINCOLN, President. 1861. Annexation of Santo Domingo. Intervention in Mexico. 1861. Victor Emanuel II., King of Sardinia, first King of Italy.

TENNYSON (1809-1892). 1862. Great distress caused by American Civil War. 1862. Garibaldi establishes a provisional government.

1863. Battle of Gettysburg. DARWIN 1809-1882. 1863. The French occupy Mexico.

1864. Rupture with Peru. 1864. Maximilian accepts Mexican crown. 1864. Florence made capital of Italy.

1865. Assassination of President Lincoln; Andrew Johnson, President. 1865. Dispute with Chile. 1865. Fenian outbreaks in Ireland. British and French governments rescind their recognition of the Confederate States of America. 1865. Ionian Isles made over to Greece.

1866. Civil Rights Bill passed. Atlantic telegraph completed. 1866. Military insurrection headed by General Prim. 1866. Austrian War. Venetia proclaimed a part of Italy.

1867. General amnesty proclamation. Purchase of Alaska. 1867. Death of Marshal O’Donnell. 1867. Great exposition in Paris. 1867. Garibaldi and the Papal States.

1868. Burlingame treaty with China. 1868. Queen deposed. 1868. Gladstone, Premier PASTEUR 1822-1895.

1869. U. S. Grant, President. Union Pacific railway opened for traffic. 1869. Vatican Council opened at Rome.

1870. Isabella II. abdicates; Amadeus, King. 1870. Irish Land Act passed. 1870. Third Republic. 1870-1871. FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. France vs. Prussia supported by all German States including South. Battle of Sedan. Surrender of Metz. 1870. Rome is annexed to Italy and declared the capital.

1871. Sagasta, Prime Minister. HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903). 1871. Capitulation of Paris. Peace ratified.

A. D. Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Scandinavia The German Confederation Russia Turkey, Greece, China, India, Japan

Prussia Austria

1849. The king declines the Imperial Crown. Armistice between Prussia and Denmark. 1849. New constitution promulgated. 1849. Aids Austria in subduing Hungary.

1850 1850. Denmark: Bloody battle of Idstedt, between the Danes and Schleswig-Holsteiners. 1850. Treaty of peace with Denmark. New constitution for Prussia. 1850. Harbor of Sebastopol completed. 1850. Turkey: Insurrection in Bosnia. 1850-1864. China: Taiping rebellion.

1851. Louis Kossuth sentenced to death at Pesth.

1852. Emperor of Austria visits Emperor of Prussia. 1852. Greece: Convention of London by England, France, Prussia, Bavaria and Greece in reference to the affairs of Greece. 1852. Turkey: War between the Turks and Montenegrins.

1853. Denmark: Parliament prorogued and a “fundamental” law issued. 1853. Belgium: Marriage of the Duke of Brabant, heir-apparent of the throne, and the Archduchess Maria. Holland: The first chamber adopts the much-disputed law on religious liberty. 1853. Plot to overthrow the government. 1853. War declared against Turkey.

1854. Treaty with Austria, offensive and defensive. 1854. Alliance with England and France. 1854-1856. CRIMEAN WAR. Russia vs. Turkey aided by Great Britain, France and Sardinia.

1854. War with France and England. Siege of Sebastopol. Battle of Balak-lava. 1854. Japan: Treaty with the United States.

1855. Death of Nicholas I. Alexander II., Emperor.

1856. Hungarians granted amnesty. 1856. Destruction of Sebastopol docks. Evacuation of Crimea.

1857-1858. Sepoy Mutiny. 1857-1860. China: Second war with Great Britain.

1859. Sweden: Oscar I., died July 8; succeeded by his son Charles XV. 1859. THE WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION. 1858. Partial emancipation of the serfs.

Peace after battle of Solferino.

1861. William I., King. 1861. New constitution for the Austrian monarchy.

1862. BISMARCK, Premier. 1862. Amnesty to political offenders in Hungary. 1862. Nesselrode, Chancellor. 1862. Bloody conflict between Servians and Turks in Belgrade.

1863. Denmark: Christian IX. succeeds Frederick VII. 1863. King resolves to govern without parliament. Congress of German sovereigns at Frankfort. “One Federal State” proposed. 1863. Termination of serfdom.

1864. Peace between Denmark and the allies, to whom Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg are surrendered. 1864. DANISH WAR. Austria and Prussia vs. Denmark. 1864. Emigration of Caucasian tribes into Turkey. 1864. George of Denmark becomes King of Greece.

1865. Leopold II. succeeds his father, Leopold I. in Belgium.

1866-1871. North German Confederation. 1866. AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR. Prussia with smaller North German States and Italy vs. Austria, Hanover, Saxony and South German States. 1866. Inauguration of trial by jury. War with Bokhara.

Austria-Hungary

1867. North German Constitution accepted. 1867. Autonomy for Hungary announced. Emperor crowned King of Hungary. 1867. Alaska sold to the United States.

HELMHOLTZ 1821-1894. 1868. Japan: End of the Shogunate. Restoration of the Mikado.

HENRIK IBSEN 1828-1908. 1870-1871. FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. Battle of Sedan. 1870. Concordat with Rome suspended.

1871- ——. House of Hohenzollern. 1871. King of Prussia proclaimed Emperor of Germany. 1871. New German Empire recognized. 1871. Electric telegraph between Russia and Japan. 1871. Japan: Feudalism abolished.

XV. FROM THE FOUNDING OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE TO THE CLOSE OF THE EUROPEAN WAR AND THE RECONSTRUCTION OF EUROPE, 1871- ——

A. D. United States Spain and Portugal Great Britain Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Scandinavia France Italy and Church Germany Austria-Hungary Russia Turkey and Balkans, China, India, Japan A. D.

1872. One thousandth anniversary of kingdom of Norway celebrated. Death of Charles XV. of Sweden, succeeded by Oscar II. Coinage made uniform in Denmark, Sweden and Norway. 1871. William I., emperor.

1873. Payment of Alabama claims to the United States. 1873. Marshal MacMahon, president. 1873. Khiva captured.

1874. Alfonso XII., king. 1874. Death of Guizot.

1875 1875. Civil war. 1875. Insurrection against the Turks in Herzegovina. Insurrection in Bosnia. 1875

1877. R. B. Hayes, president. 1876. Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India. 1877. Attempted assassination of emperor. 1877. War against Turkey. 1876. Sultan Murad deposed; Abdul Hamid II. succeeds. Six weeks’ armistice between Turkey and Servia. Constitution for Turkey announced.

1879. Jules Grevy, president. 1878. Death of Victor Emmanuel II. Humbert, king. Death of Pius IX. Leo XIII., pope. 1878. Occupation of Bosnia. 1878. Spread of Nihilism in the empire.

1880 1880. Many Nihilists imprisoned and executed. 1880

1881. James A. Garfield, president. President Garfield assassinated, July 2d; Chester A. Arthur, president. 1883. Sagasta again minister. 1882. Attempt on life of Queen Victoria. 1882. Death of Garibaldi. 1883. Italy joins the alliance between Germany and Austria, thus forming the Triple Alliance. 1882. Six hundredth anniversary of the House of Hapsburg. 1881. Alexander II. assassinated. Alexander III., emperor. 1881. Roumania declared a kingdom.

1885. Grover Cleveland, president. Apache Indian War. 1885. War with Abyssinia. 1884. German annexations on African slave coast; December 19, in Pacific Ocean, beginnings of German colonial policy. 1885. Ship canal from St. Petersburg to Cronstadt opened. Trouble with the Afghans. 1885. Outbreak of war between Servia and Bulgaria.

1887. Queen’s Jubilee. 1887. Sadi-Carnot, president. 1887. Alliance of Italy with Austria-Hungary and Germany signed. Crispi, prime minister. 1888. Accession and death of Frederick III. William II., emperor. 1886. Army put on war footing of one million five hundred thousand men. 1886. Russia interferes in Bulgaria. 1888. Central Asian railway opened. 1886. Servia, Bulgaria and Greece compelled by the powers to disarm. Treaty of peace signed between Servia and Bulgaria.

1889. Benjamin Harrison, president. Johnstown flood. 1889. Trial by jury first put in force. Accession of Carlos I. to Portuguese throne on death of his father, Luis I. 1889. Great labor strikes. 1889. Japan’s Constitution proclaimed.

1890 1890. McKinley tariff bill passed. 1890. Castillo, premier. 1890. Stanley returns from Africa. 1890. Holland: William III. of the Netherlands dies, and is succeeded by his daughter, Wilhelmina, under the regency of her mother. 1890. War with Dahomey. 1890. Resignation of Bismarck as chancellor. 1890-1892. Famine through the empire. 1890

1891. Switzerland: Celebration of the six hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the Swiss Confederacy. 1892. Panama scandals. 1891. Treaty of Italy with Great Britain relative to East Africa. Triple Alliance renewed. 1891. Triple Alliance renewed. 1891. Renewal of Triple Alliance. 1891. Imperial ukase orders expulsion of Jews from Moscow.

1893. Grover Cleveland, president. Chinese exclusion bill approved. World’s Columbian exposition at Chicago. 1893. War with Morocco. 1893. Behring Sea arbitration. 1893. Belgium: Universal suffrage in combination with plural voting established. 1893. Pope’s Jubilee at Rome. 1893. Anti-Jesuit law repealed.

1894. Manchester ship canal opened. 1894. Denmark: Fall of the Estrup ministry, succeeded by a cabinet under Reeds-Thott. 1894. President Carnot assassinated at Lyons. M. Casimir-Perier, president. Captain Dreyfus tried and imprisoned. 1894. Commercial treaty with Russia. New parliament house opened. 1894. Commercial treaty with Russia ratified. 1894. Death of Alexander III. Nicholas II., czar. 1894. Turkey: British, French and Russian ambassadors present note to sultan demanding reforms in Armenia. 1894-1895. Chinese-Japanese war.

1895. President Casimir-Perier resigns. M. Felix Faure, president. Death of PASTEUR. 1895. North Sea and Baltic canal opened. Restrictions imposed on American insurance companies. 1895. Anti-Semitic agitation. 1895. Diplomatic relations with Abyssinia. Persecution of the Jews.

1897. William McKinley, president. 1897. Assassination of Premier Canovas del Castillo. Scheme of Cuban autonomy approved. 1897. Blackwell tunnel opened. The Queen’s Diamond Jubilee celebrated. 1896. Belgium: International Bimetallic Congress assembles at Brussels. 1897. Ten-hour law for railway employes passed. 1896. Peace with Abyssinia. Italy abandons claims to a protectorate over that country. 1896. New civil code for the empire completed. 1896. Archduke Karl Ludwig, heir to the throne, dies. Millennial exposition at Budapest. 1896. First official census of the empire. 1897. Judicial reform in Siberia. 1897. Turko-Grecian war. China: Kiau-Chau, with surrounding zone, leased to Germany for ninety-nine years. Port Arthur and Ta-lien-wan leased to Russia for twenty-five years.

1898. Destruction of the “Maine” at Havana. Spanish-American war between United States and Spain. Treaty of Paris. 1898. Death of Gladstone. Irish local government bill passed. Imperial penny postage goes into effect. 1898. Review of Dreyfus case granted. 1898. Pope offers to mediate in the Cuban question. 1898. Death of Bismarck. Emperor visits Constantinople and Jerusalem. 1898. Assassination of the empress by an anarchist at Geneva. Ausgleich of 1867 renewed. 1898. Port Arthur leased from China.

1899. Cuba is relinquished by Spain. Philippines and Porto Rico acquired. 1899. Death of Premier Canovas of Spain. Spain sells the Caroline, Pelew and Ladrone islands to Germany. 1899. The Boer war in South Africa. 1899. Czar proposes universal peace. The Finnish diet is deprived of the exclusive right of legislation and a thorough policy of Russification begun.

1900 1900. Civil government established in the Philippines. Chinese troubles. 1900. Field Marshal Roberts takes command in South Africa. 1900. Assassination of King Humbert of Italy. Victor Emmanuel III., king. 1900. Abolition of the Roman law throughout Germany. 1900. Marriage of the heir apparent, Francis Ferdinand. 1900. China: Boxer uprising. 1900

1901. Assassination of President McKinley by the anarchist Czolgosz. Capture of Aguinaldo. Death of ex-President Harrison. 1901. Census of the Indian empire taken. Death of Queen Victoria and accession of Edward VII. 1901. The Norwegian Parliament confers the franchise in municipal and communal elections on women tax-payers. Marriage of Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands to Duke Henry of Mecklenberg-Schwerin. 1901. Diplomatic relations with Turkey suspended. 1901. Bicentenary of the coronation of the first king of Prussia. 1901. Count Tolstoi excommunicated. 1901. Turkey pays to the United States the claims advanced in behalf of the missionaries in Asia Minor for losses incurred during the Armenian disturbances of 1895-1896.

1902. Cuban independence under Platt amendment. President Roosevelt recommends the purchase of the Panama Canal company. 1902. Alfonso XIII., king. 1902. The British-Japanese alliance signed. Boer war ended. Marquis of Salisbury resigns as premier. 1902. M. Combes forms a new French ministry. 1902. Prince Henry of Prussia visits the United States. England and Germany press their Venezuelan claims. 1902. Triple Alliance renewed. The language question between Germany and Czechs. 1902. Treaty of alliance signed between Great Britain and Japan.

1903. Panama Canal treaty signed with Colombia. Commercial treaty with China signed. Independence of Panama recognized. 1903. King Edward visits the king of Italy. Irish land bill passed the Houses of Parliament. 1903. Dreyfus case reopened. President Loubet visits King Edward. 1903. Death of Pope Leo XIII. Pope Pius X. 1903. New tariff bill. Visit of the czar of Russia. 1903. Russo-Japanese crisis. 1903. Servia: A band of conspirators invade the royal palace and slay King Alexander and Queen Draga. The national assembly chooses Peter Karageorgevitch king.

1904. Great Baltimore fire. U. S. Senator Burton convicted of malfeasance in office. St. Louis exposition opened. 1904. Death of ex-Queen Isabella at Paris. 1904. Col. Younghusband enters Tibet. 1904. Arbitration treaties with Holland, Spain, Sweden, Norway and the United States. Bill for separation of church and state introduced. 1904. King and queen of Italy visit England. 1904. German troops defeated in Africa. 1904. Ultimatum to the Sultan issued. Great railway strike. 1904. War with Japan over Manchuria begun. 1904. Japanese war with Russia.

1905. Protocol with Santo Domingo. 1905. Attempted assassination of the king in Paris. 1905. Resignation of Lord Curson as viceroy of India. 1905. Norway: Haakon VII., king. 1905. The Moroccan situation grows in complexity. 1905. The railway bills passed in Italy. 1905. Intervention of Germany in Moroccan affairs. The new commercial treaties. Marriage of the crown prince. 1905. Treaty with Germany ratified. Universal suffrage on an educational basis advocated. 1905. Fall of Port Arthur and end of war. Great railway strike at Petrograd, Warsaw and Moscow. Constitution granted by czar and the Duma authorized. 1905. The Russo-Japanese peace treaty ratified.

1906. Riot at Brownsville, Texas. The president visited Panama. Great earthquake at San Francisco. 1906. King Alfonso married to Princess Victoria of England. 1906. King Edward visits Paris. 1906. Death of King Christian of Denmark. Norway and Sweden independent kingdoms. The crown prince of Denmark is proclaimed King Frederick VIII. The Belgian Chamber votes in favor of annexing the Congo Free State. 1906. M. Fallières, president. The church controversy. The Pope’s encyclical. M. Sarcien, premier. 1906. Sonnino, premier. International exhibition at Milan. 1906. Propaganda against Socialism. 1906. Prince Schillingfurst succeeds Baron Gautch. 1906. The czar opened the first Russian Duma.

1907. Philippine assembly opened. 1907. King and queen visit England. 1907. King Edward and Emperor Francis Joseph meet at Ischl. 1907. Death of Oscar II. of Sweden. Gustav V., king. Norwegian Parliament votes to grant the suffrage to about three hundred thousand women, based upon a property qualification. 1907. Wine growers’ agitation. French occupation of Morocco. 1907. Italy signs arbitration treaty with Argentina. 1907. German emperor visited London. 1907. Universal suffrage bill passed. 1907. Third Russian Duma convened. Resignation of Count Witte as prime minister of Russia. 1907. Abdication of Korean emperor.

1908. Voyage of the Pacific fleet to Asiatic waters. 1908. Asquith, premier.

1909. Tariff revised. 1909. Belgium: Albert I., king. 1909. Bosnia and Herzegovina acquired.

1910 1910. Elections result in great Democratic gains. 1910. Spain recalled its envoy to the vatican. Portugal becomes a republic. 1910. Death of King Edward VII. Accession of George V. 1910. Denmark: Christian X., king. 1910. Briand cabinet resigned. 1910. Decree issued by the king of Greece for a revision of the constitution. 1910. Emperor William received ex-President Roosevelt. 1910. Death of Count Tolstoi. 1910. Japan annexed Korea. Montenegro became a kingdom with Nicholas as king. 1910

1911. Extra session of Congress called by President Taft. Canadian reciprocity bill passed. 1911. Further creation of religious orders prohibited. 1911. King George formally opens the British Parliament. 1911. New ministry formed by premier. 1911. Second Parliament assembles. 1911-1912. War with Turkey over Tripoli. 1911. The Emperor urged a policy of reclamation. 1911. Austria strengthens her army and navy. 1911. Russian army mobilized on Chinese frontier. Premier Stolypin assassinated.

1912. Tariff revision begun by Congress. 1912. King George returns from Durbar, in India. Steamship “Titanic” sinks with appalling loss of life. 1912. Large Socialist gains in German Diet. 1912. Death of Premier Aerenthal. 1912. Greece joins Balkan Allies in war against Turkey. Death of Mutsuhito; Yoshito becomes mikado of Japan.

1913. Democratic Party comes into power. Parcels Post System inaugurated. Woodrow Wilson inaugurated president. 1913. Continued Strife between Royalists and Republicans. Attempted assassination of King Alfonso. 1913. Colonies aid policy of Naval Expansion. 1913. Raymond Poincaré inaugurated president. 1913. Declares support of Triple Alliance. 1913. Mobilize army on Servian frontier to conserve interests of Empire pending Balkan war. Archduke and Duchess of Austria assassinated in Bosnia. 1913. Serfdom obliterated from entire empire. 1913. Assassination of King George of Greece. Constantine, king. China a republic; Yuan, president.

Greatest European War in History begins with the British Empire, France, Russia, Belgium, Japan, Servia, Italy, Portugal and Roumania on one side, and Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria on the other.

1914. Anti-trust legislation begun in Congress. Declares neutrality in the European war. New regional banking system goes into operation. Panama Canal officially opened. 1914. Portuguese cabinet resigns, Bernardino Machado, premier. Portugal supports the Triple Entente. 1914. King George urges mutual concessions in Irish Home Rule controversy. Wages war on the Teutonic Alliance as a member of Triple Entente. 1914. A new political party is formed to be known as the Briandist. Joins Great Britain and Russia in war upon Teutonic Alliance. 1914. Germany’s new fiscal policy lays a tax on royalty. Declares war on the Triple Entente. 1914. Austria adopts a strong policy against Balkan expansion. Joins Germany in a declaration of war on the Triple Entente. 1914. Russian Premier Kokovtsov resigns. As a member of the Triple Entente joins in war on the Teutonic Alliance. 1914. Greece retains the Aegean islands wrested from Turkey.

1915. American protectorate established over Haiti. La Follette Seaman’s Act passed by Congress. Diplomatic interchanges with Germany concerning rights of neutral ships. Carranza government in Mexico recognized by the United States. 1915. The Spanish cabinet resigns. Spain maintains strict neutrality in European war. 1915. War Council created to direct the policies of the Allies in the European war. Gigantic war loans strain British finances. The British blockade of the Central Powers only partially successful. 1915. Holland continues her policy of strict neutrality. Belgium passes under the military rule of Germany. 1915. The Viviani coalition ministry resigned. Immense war loans successfully floated. 1915. Italy joins the Triple Entente in the war. Declares war on Bulgaria. 1915. Wages a ruthless submarine war on allied shipping and neutral vessels carrying contraband of war. Shows astonishing efficiency in the conduct of the war against the Entente Allies. 1915. At the suggestion of the United States, its Ambassador, Dr. Dumba, is recalled from Washington. 1915. Russia declares war on Bulgaria. Loses Poland and its capital, Warsaw, to the Teutonic Allies. 1915. King Constantine of Greece refuses to support Venizelos’ pro-allies policy. Latter resigns as premier. Turkey successfully repulsed the attempt of the Entente Allies to force the Dardanelles. Bulgaria enters the war on behalf of the Teutonic Allies. Yoshohito crowned emperor of Japan.

1916. Year of great industrial and commercial activity and high prices. Woodrow Wilson re-elected President. Woman suffrage a pronounced political power. Santo Domingo passes under the military rule of the United States. President sends a military force into Mexico. 1916. Martial law is declared throughout Spain on account of the widespread railway strike. 1916. British and French forces compelled to withdraw from operations against the Dardanelles with disastrous losses. Rebellious uprising in Ireland suppressed by military force. Home Rule agitation continues. Asquith cabinet overthrown, and David Lloyd George made premier with practically dictatorial powers. 1916. Frequent Belgian protests against German military rule. Many Belgians deported to Germany as a military measure. 1916. Verdun is successfully defended against violent assaults of the Germanic forces. Gen. Joffre is succeeded as commander-in-chief of the French army by General Petain. A war council succeeds the general ministry. 1916. Italian military movements ineffective on the Austrian frontier. A change of ministry forecasted. 1916. German military operations and conquests stand out in marked contrast with those of the Entente Allies. Belgium, Servia, Montenegro, Poland, Lithuania, Albania and Roumania are held under Teutonic rule. Poland is declared independent by Germany and Austria. 1916. Austria-Hungary proves a powerful aid to the Teutonic Allies in the Balkans. Emperor Francis Joseph dies and is succeeded on the throne by Emperor Charles I. 1916. Premier Sturmer resigns and is succeeded by M. Trepoff. Russian and Roumanian armies are defeated and driven back with frightful losses in the Balkans. 1916. Roumania enters the war on side of the Entente, and is conquered by the Teutonic-Bulgar forces with the loss of its capital, Bucharest. President Yuan of China assassinated. Li Yuan-hung becomes president. Premier Okuma of Japan resigns, and is succeeded by Count Terauchi, an aggressive champion of both Japan and China.

1917. Famous “Peace Note” issued to the nations of the world by President Wilson. Rupture with Germany, and diplomatic relations severed. War declared by the United States on Germany, and war loan of seven billion dollars passed by Congress. 1917. Seventh attempt made upon the life of King Alfonso. 1917. Great Britain rejects the peace overtures of the Central Powers. Sends envoys, headed by ex-premier Balfour, to United States for an Allied War Council. 1917. France joins Great Britain in rejecting the Kaiser’s peace overtures. Ex-premier Viviana and General Joffre sent to United States as members of the Allied War Council. 1917. Conference of Entente Allies held in Rome. Much discontent in Italy over the war. 1917. The German government sends peace overtures to belligerent and neutral nations. Germany declares a rigid blockade of the Entente Powers. 1917. Austro-Bulgarian army makes a strong drive against Roumania, and Russia. Emperor Charles crowned King of Hungary. 1917. The Russian government supports France and Great Britain in rejecting peace overtures of the Central Powers. Russian monarchy overthrown; Czar abdicates and a republic is established. 1917. Great political unrest in India. Turkey revokes all treaties limiting her absolute independence as a nation.

A. D. United States Spain and Portugal Great Britain Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Scandinavia France

1872. One thousandth anniversary of kingdom of Norway celebrated. Death of Charles XV. of Sweden, succeeded by Oscar II. Coinage made uniform in Denmark, Sweden and Norway.

1873. Payment of Alabama claims to the United States. 1873. Marshal MacMahon, president.

1874. Alfonso XII., king. 1874. Death of Guizot.

1875 1875. Civil war.

1877. R. B. Hayes, president. 1876. Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India.

1879. Jules Grevy, president.

1880

1881. James A. Garfield, president. President Garfield assassinated, July 2d; Chester A. Arthur, president. 1883. Sagasta again minister. 1882. Attempt on life of Queen Victoria.

1885. Grover Cleveland, president. Apache Indian War.

1887. Queen’s Jubilee. 1887. Sadi-Carnot, president.

1889. Benjamin Harrison, president. Johnstown flood. 1889. Trial by jury first put in force. Accession of Carlos I. to Portuguese throne on death of his father, Luis I. 1889. Great labor strikes.

1890 1890. McKinley tariff bill passed. 1890. Castillo, premier. 1890. Stanley returns from Africa. 1890. Holland: William III. of the Netherlands dies, and is succeeded by his daughter, Wilhelmina, under the regency of her mother. 1890. War with Dahomey.

1891. Switzerland: Celebration of the six hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the Swiss Confederacy. 1892. Panama scandals.

1893. Grover Cleveland, president. Chinese exclusion bill approved. World’s Columbian exposition at Chicago. 1893. War with Morocco. 1893. Behring Sea arbitration. 1893. Belgium: Universal suffrage in combination with plural voting established.

1894. Manchester ship canal opened. 1894. Denmark: Fall of the Estrup ministry, succeeded by a cabinet under Reeds-Thott. 1894. President Carnot assassinated at Lyons. M. Casimir-Perier, president. Captain Dreyfus tried and imprisoned.

1895. President Casimir-Perier resigns. M. Felix Faure, president. Death of PASTEUR.

1897. William McKinley, president. 1897. Assassination of Premier Canovas del Castillo. Scheme of Cuban autonomy approved. 1897. Blackwell tunnel opened. The Queen’s Diamond Jubilee celebrated. 1896. Belgium: International Bimetallic Congress assembles at Brussels. 1897. Ten-hour law for railway employes passed.

1898. Destruction of the “Maine” at Havana. Spanish-American war between United States and Spain. Treaty of Paris. 1898. Death of Gladstone. Irish local government bill passed. Imperial penny postage goes into effect. 1898. Review of Dreyfus case granted.

1899. Cuba is relinquished by Spain. Philippines and Porto Rico acquired. 1899. Death of Premier Canovas of Spain. Spain sells the Caroline, Pelew and Ladrone islands to Germany. 1899. The Boer war in South Africa.

1900 1900. Civil government established in the Philippines. Chinese troubles. 1900. Field Marshal Roberts takes command in South Africa.

1901. Assassination of President McKinley by the anarchist Czolgosz. Capture of Aguinaldo. Death of ex-President Harrison. 1901. Census of the Indian empire taken. Death of Queen Victoria and accession of Edward VII. 1901. The Norwegian Parliament confers the franchise in municipal and communal elections on women tax-payers. Marriage of Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands to Duke Henry of Mecklenberg-Schwerin. 1901. Diplomatic relations with Turkey suspended.

1902. Cuban independence under Platt amendment. President Roosevelt recommends the purchase of the Panama Canal company. 1902. Alfonso XIII., king. 1902. The British-Japanese alliance signed. Boer war ended. Marquis of Salisbury resigns as premier. 1902. M. Combes forms a new French ministry.

1903. Panama Canal treaty signed with Colombia. Commercial treaty with China signed. Independence of Panama recognized. 1903. King Edward visits the king of Italy. Irish land bill passed the Houses of Parliament. 1903. Dreyfus case reopened. President Loubet visits King Edward.

1904. Great Baltimore fire. U. S. Senator Burton convicted of malfeasance in office. St. Louis exposition opened. 1904. Death of ex-Queen Isabella at Paris. 1904. Col. Younghusband enters Tibet. 1904. Arbitration treaties with Holland, Spain, Sweden, Norway and the United States. Bill for separation of church and state introduced.

1905. Protocol with Santo Domingo. 1905. Attempted assassination of the king in Paris. 1905. Resignation of Lord Curson as viceroy of India. 1905. Norway: Haakon VII., king. 1905. The Moroccan situation grows in complexity.

1906. Riot at Brownsville, Texas. The president visited Panama. Great earthquake at San Francisco. 1906. King Alfonso married to Princess Victoria of England. 1906. King Edward visits Paris. 1906. Death of King Christian of Denmark. Norway and Sweden independent kingdoms. The crown prince of Denmark is proclaimed King Frederick VIII. The Belgian Chamber votes in favor of annexing the Congo Free State. 1906. M. Fallières, president. The church controversy. The Pope’s encyclical. M. Sarcien, premier.

1907. Philippine assembly opened. 1907. King and queen visit England. 1907. King Edward and Emperor Francis Joseph meet at Ischl. 1907. Death of Oscar II. of Sweden. Gustav V., king. Norwegian Parliament votes to grant the suffrage to about three hundred thousand women, based upon a property qualification. 1907. Wine growers’ agitation. French occupation of Morocco.

1908. Voyage of the Pacific fleet to Asiatic waters. 1908. Asquith, premier.

1909. Tariff revised. 1909. Belgium: Albert I., king.

1910 1910. Elections result in great Democratic gains. 1910. Spain recalled its envoy to the vatican. Portugal becomes a republic. 1910. Death of King Edward VII. Accession of George V. 1910. Denmark: Christian X., king. 1910. Briand cabinet resigned.

1911. Extra session of Congress called by President Taft. Canadian reciprocity bill passed. 1911. Further creation of religious orders prohibited. 1911. King George formally opens the British Parliament. 1911. New ministry formed by premier.

1912. Tariff revision begun by Congress. 1912. King George returns from Durbar, in India. Steamship “Titanic” sinks with appalling loss of life.

1913. Democratic Party comes into power. Parcels Post System inaugurated. Woodrow Wilson inaugurated president. 1913. Continued Strife between Royalists and Republicans. Attempted assassination of King Alfonso. 1913. Colonies aid policy of Naval Expansion. 1913. Raymond Poincaré inaugurated president.

Greatest European War in History begins with the British Empire, France, Russia, Belgium, Japan, Servia, Italy, Portugal and Roumania on one side, and Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria on the other.

1914. Anti-trust legislation begun in Congress. Declares neutrality in the European war. New regional banking system goes into operation. Panama Canal officially opened. 1914. Portuguese cabinet resigns, Bernardino Machado, premier. Portugal supports the Triple Entente. 1914. King George urges mutual concessions in Irish Home Rule controversy. Wages war on the Teutonic Alliance as a member of Triple Entente. 1914. A new political party is formed to be known as the Briandist. Joins Great Britain and Russia in war upon Teutonic Alliance.

1915. American protectorate established over Haiti. La Follette Seaman’s Act passed by Congress. Diplomatic interchanges with Germany concerning rights of neutral ships. Carranza government in Mexico recognized by the United States. 1915. The Spanish cabinet resigns. Spain maintains strict neutrality in European war. 1915. War Council created to direct the policies of the Allies in the European war. Gigantic war loans strain British finances. The British blockade of the Central Powers only partially successful. 1915. Holland continues her policy of strict neutrality. Belgium passes under the military rule of Germany. 1915. The Viviani coalition ministry resigned. Immense war loans successfully floated.

1916. Year of great industrial and commercial activity and high prices. Woodrow Wilson re-elected President. Woman suffrage a pronounced political power. Santo Domingo passes under the military rule of the United States. President sends a military force into Mexico. 1916. Martial law is declared throughout Spain on account of the widespread railway strike. 1916. British and French forces compelled to withdraw from operations against the Dardanelles with disastrous losses. Rebellious uprising in Ireland suppressed by military force. Home Rule agitation continues. Asquith cabinet overthrown, and David Lloyd George made premier with practically dictatorial powers. 1916. Frequent Belgian protests against German military rule. Many Belgians deported to Germany as a military measure. 1916. Verdun is successfully defended against violent assaults of the Germanic forces. Gen. Joffre is succeeded as commander-in-chief of the French army by General Petain. A war council succeeds the general ministry.

1917. Famous “Peace Note” issued to the nations of the world by President Wilson. Rupture with Germany, and diplomatic relations severed. War declared by the United States on Germany, and war loan of seven billion dollars passed by Congress. 1917. Seventh attempt made upon the life of King Alfonso. 1917. Great Britain rejects the peace overtures of the Central Powers. Sends envoys, headed by ex-premier Balfour, to United States for an Allied War Council. 1917. France joins Great Britain in rejecting the Kaiser’s peace overtures. Ex-premier Viviana and General Joffre sent to United States as members of the Allied War Council.

A. D. Italy and Church Germany Austria-Hungary Russia Turkey and Balkans, China, India, Japan

1871. William I., emperor.

1873. Khiva captured.

1875 1875. Insurrection against the Turks in Herzegovina. Insurrection in Bosnia.

1877. Attempted assassination of emperor. 1877. War against Turkey. 1876. Sultan Murad deposed; Abdul Hamid II. succeeds. Six weeks’ armistice between Turkey and Servia. Constitution for Turkey announced.

1878. Death of Victor Emmanuel II. Humbert, king. Death of Pius IX. Leo XIII., pope. 1878. Occupation of Bosnia. 1878. Spread of Nihilism in the empire.

1880 1880. Many Nihilists imprisoned and executed.

1882. Death of Garibaldi. 1883. Italy joins the alliance between Germany and Austria, thus forming the Triple Alliance. 1882. Six hundredth anniversary of the House of Hapsburg. 1881. Alexander II. assassinated. Alexander III., emperor. 1881. Roumania declared a kingdom.

1885. War with Abyssinia. 1884. German annexations on African slave coast; December 19, in Pacific Ocean, beginnings of German colonial policy. 1885. Ship canal from St. Petersburg to Cronstadt opened. Trouble with the Afghans. 1885. Outbreak of war between Servia and Bulgaria.

1887. Alliance of Italy with Austria-Hungary and Germany signed. Crispi, prime minister. 1888. Accession and death of Frederick III. William II., emperor. 1886. Army put on war footing of one million five hundred thousand men. 1886. Russia interferes in Bulgaria. 1888. Central Asian railway opened. 1886. Servia, Bulgaria and Greece compelled by the powers to disarm. Treaty of peace signed between Servia and Bulgaria.

1889. Japan’s Constitution proclaimed.

1890 1890. Resignation of Bismarck as chancellor. 1890-1892. Famine through the empire.

1891. Treaty of Italy with Great Britain relative to East Africa. Triple Alliance renewed. 1891. Triple Alliance renewed. 1891. Renewal of Triple Alliance. 1891. Imperial ukase orders expulsion of Jews from Moscow.

1893. Pope’s Jubilee at Rome. 1893. Anti-Jesuit law repealed.

1894. Commercial treaty with Russia. New parliament house opened. 1894. Commercial treaty with Russia ratified. 1894. Death of Alexander III. Nicholas II., czar. 1894. Turkey: British, French and Russian ambassadors present note to sultan demanding reforms in Armenia. 1894-1895. Chinese-Japanese war.

1895. North Sea and Baltic canal opened. Restrictions imposed on American insurance companies. 1895. Anti-Semitic agitation. 1895. Diplomatic relations with Abyssinia. Persecution of the Jews.

1896. Peace with Abyssinia. Italy abandons claims to a protectorate over that country. 1896. New civil code for the empire completed. 1896. Archduke Karl Ludwig, heir to the throne, dies. Millennial exposition at Budapest. 1896. First official census of the empire. 1897. Judicial reform in Siberia. 1897. Turko-Grecian war. China: Kiau-Chau, with surrounding zone, leased to Germany for ninety-nine years. Port Arthur and Ta-lien-wan leased to Russia for twenty-five years.

1898. Pope offers to mediate in the Cuban question. 1898. Death of Bismarck. Emperor visits Constantinople and Jerusalem. 1898. Assassination of the empress by an anarchist at Geneva. Ausgleich of 1867 renewed. 1898. Port Arthur leased from China.

1899. Czar proposes universal peace. The Finnish diet is deprived of the exclusive right of legislation and a thorough policy of Russification begun.

1900 1900. Assassination of King Humbert of Italy. Victor Emmanuel III., king. 1900. Abolition of the Roman law throughout Germany. 1900. Marriage of the heir apparent, Francis Ferdinand. 1900. China: Boxer uprising.

1901. Bicentenary of the coronation of the first king of Prussia. 1901. Count Tolstoi excommunicated. 1901. Turkey pays to the United States the claims advanced in behalf of the missionaries in Asia Minor for losses incurred during the Armenian disturbances of 1895-1896.

1902. Prince Henry of Prussia visits the United States. England and Germany press their Venezuelan claims. 1902. Triple Alliance renewed. The language question between Germany and Czechs. 1902. Treaty of alliance signed between Great Britain and Japan

1903. Death of Pope Leo XIII. Pope Pius X. 1903. New tariff bill. Visit of the czar of Russia. 1903. Russo-Japanese crisis. 1903. Servia: A band of conspirators invade the royal palace and slay King Alexander and Queen Draga. The national assembly chooses Peter Karageorgevitch king.

1904. King and queen of Italy visit England. 1904. German troops defeated in Africa. 1904. Ultimatum to the Sultan issued. Great railway strike. 1904. War with Japan over Manchuria begun. 1904. Japanese war with Russia.

1905. The railway bills passed in Italy. 1905. Intervention of Germany in Moroccan affairs. The new commercial treaties. Marriage of the crown prince. 1905. Treaty with Germany ratified. Universal suffrage on an educational basis advocated. 1905. Fall of Port Arthur and end of war. Great railway strike at Petrograd, Warsaw and Moscow. Constitution granted by czar and the Duma authorized. 1905. The Russo-Japanese peace treaty ratified.

1906. Sonnino, premier. International exhibition at Milan. 1906. Propaganda against Socialism. 1906. Prince Schillingfurst succeeds Baron Gautch. 1906. The czar opened the first Russian Duma.

1907. Italy signs arbitration treaty with Argentina. 1907. German emperor visited London. 1907. Universal suffrage bill passed. 1907. Third Russian Duma convened. Resignation of Count Witte as prime minister of Russia. 1907. Abdication of Korean emperor.

1909. Bosnia and Herzegovina acquired.

1910 1910. Decree issued by the king of Greece for a revision of the constitution. 1910. Emperor William received ex-President Roosevelt. 1910. Death of Count Tolstoi. 1910. Japan annexed Korea. Montenegro became a kingdom with Nicholas as king.

1911. Second Parliament assembles. 1911-1912. War with Turkey over Tripoli. 1911. The Emperor urged a policy of reclamation. 1911. Austria strengthens her army and navy. 1911. Russian army mobilized on Chinese frontier. Premier Stolypin assassinated.

1912. Large Socialist gains in German Diet. 1912. Death of Premier Aerenthal. 1912. Greece joins Balkan Allies in war against Turkey. Death of Mutsuhito; Yoshito becomes mikado of Japan.

1913. Declares support of Triple Alliance. 1913. Mobilize army on Servian frontier to conserve interests of Empire pending Balkan war. Archduke and Duchess of Austria assassinated in Bosnia. 1913. Serfdom obliterated from entire empire. 1913. Assassination of King George of Greece. Constantine, king. China a republic; Yuan, president.

Greatest European War in History begins with the British Empire, France, Russia, Belgium, Japan, Servia, Italy, Portugal and Roumania on one side, and Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria on the other.

1914. Germany’s new fiscal policy lays a tax on royalty. Declares war on the Triple Entente. 1914. Austria adopts a strong policy against Balkan expansion. Joins Germany in a declaration of war on the Triple Entente. 1914. Russian Premier Kokovtsov resigns. As a member of the Triple Entente joins in war on the Teutonic Alliance. 1914. Greece retains the Aegean islands wrested from Turkey.

1915. Italy joins the Triple Entente in the war. Declares war on Bulgaria. 1915. Wages a ruthless submarine war on allied shipping and neutral vessels carrying contraband of war. Shows astonishing efficiency in the conduct of the war against the Entente Allies. 1915. At the suggestion of the United States, its Ambassador, Dr. Dumba, is recalled from Washington. 1915. Russia declares war on Bulgaria. Loses Poland and its capital, Warsaw, to the Teutonic Allies. 1915. King Constantine of Greece refuses to support Venizelos’ pro-allies policy. Latter resigns as premier. Turkey successfully repulsed the attempt of the Entente Allies to force the Dardanelles. Bulgaria enters the war on behalf of the Teutonic Allies. Yoshohito crowned emperor of Japan.

1916. Italian military movements ineffective on the Austrian frontier. A change of ministry forecasted. 1916. German military operations and conquests stand out in marked contrast with those of the Entente Allies. Belgium, Servia, Montenegro, Poland, Lithuania, Albania and Roumania are held under Teutonic rule. Poland is declared independent by Germany and Austria. 1916. Austria-Hungary proves a powerful aid to the Teutonic Allies in the Balkans. Emperor Francis Joseph dies and is succeeded on the throne by Emperor Charles I. 1916. Premier Sturmer resigns and is succeeded by M. Trepoff. Russian and Roumanian armies are defeated and driven back with frightful losses in the Balkans. 1916. Roumania enters the war on side of the Entente, and is conquered by the Teutonic-Bulgar forces with the loss of its capital, Bucharest. President Yuan of China assassinated. Li Yuan-hung becomes president. Premier Okuma of Japan resigns, and is succeeded by Count Terauchi, an aggressive champion of both Japan and China.

1917. Conference of Entente Allies held in Rome. Much discontent in Italy over the war. 1917. The German government sends peace overtures to belligerent and neutral nations. Germany declares a rigid blockade of the Entente Powers. 1917. Austro-Bulgarian army makes a strong drive against Roumania, and Russia. Emperor Charles crowned King of Hungary. 1917. The Russian government supports France and Great Britain in rejecting peace overtures of the Central Powers. Russian monarchy overthrown; Czar abdicates and a republic is established. 1917. Great political unrest in India. Turkey revokes all treaties limiting her absolute independence as a nation.

LIVING NATIONS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY

The world as it is known to-day comprises six great divisions or parts, namely, Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America, and Oceania or Australasia. The most dependable statistics estimate their area and population as follows:

AREA AND POPULATION OF THE EARTH BY CONTINENTS

Continental Divisions Area in Square Miles Inhabitants

Number Per Square Mile

Africa 11,632,000 127,312,000 10 .9

America, N. 7,146,641 136,939,000 19 .1

America, S. 7,344,508 55,444,000 7 .55

Asia 17,470,282 842,100,000 48 .20

Australasia 3,456,290 8,000,000 2 .31

Europe 3,671,624 458,795,000 124 .9

Polar Reg. 6,970,000 300,000 .04

Total 57,691,345 1,628,890,000 28 .2

POPULATION OF THE EARTH ACCORDING TO RACE

Race Location Number

Indo-Germanic or Aryan (white) Europe 775,000,000

America

Persia

India

Australia

Mongolian or Turanian (yellow and brown) Asia 600,000,000

Semitic (white) Africa 65,000,000

Arabia, etc.

Negro and Bantu (black) Africa 130,000,000

Malay and Polynesian (brown) Australasia 33,000,000

American Indian, North and South (red and half breeds) 25,000,000

Total 1,628,000,000

At the opening of the European war in 1914 the human race was subject to fifty-four independent and five quasi-independent governments. The British Empire and Russia are the largest two, while Monaco with its eight square miles and San Marino with its thirty-eight square miles of territory are the smallest two. The absolute monarchies are Abyssinia, Afghanistan, Morocco, Siam, Oman, and Monaco; the limited monarchies are Albania, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Bhutan, British Empire, Bulgaria, Denmark, German Empire, Greece, Italy, Japan, Liechtenstein, Luxemburg, Montenegro, Nepal, Netherlands, Norway, Persia, Roumania, Russia, Servia, Spain, Sweden, and Turkey; the republics are Andorra, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Salvador, San Marino, Santo Domingo, Switzerland, United States, Uruguay, Venezuela.

PRINCIPAL LANGUAGES SPOKEN

There are said to be 3,424 spoken languages or dialects in the world, distributed as follows: America, 1,624; Asia, 937; Europe, 587; Africa, 276.

Languages Number of Persons Spoken by Proportion of the Whole

1801 1916 1801 1916

English 20,520,000 160,000,000 12.7 27.3

French 20,520,000 160,000,000 12.7 27.3

German 30,320,000 130,000,000 18.7 22.2

Italian 15,070,000 50,000,000 9.3 8.6

Spanish 26,190,000 50,000,000 16.2 8.6

Portuguese 7,480,000 25,000,000 4.7 4.3

Russian 30,770,000 100,000,000 19.0 17.1

Total 161,800,000 585,000,000 100.0 100.0

RELIGIOUS POPULATION OF THE WORLD BY CONTINENTS

Religion Europe Asia Africa North America South America Oceania Total Followers

Catholic Churches:

Roman Catholic 183,760,000 5,500,000 2,500,000 36,700,000 36,200,000 8,200,000 272,860,000

Eastern Catholic 98,000,000 17,200,000 3,800,000 1,000,000 ... ... 120,000,000

Protestant Churches 93,000,000 6,000,000 2,750,000 65,000,000 400,000 4,500,000 171,650,000

Total Christians 374,760,000 28,700,000 9,050,000 102,700,000 36,600,000 12,700,000 564,510,000

Confucianism and Taoism ... 300,000,000 30,000 100,000 ... 700,000 300,830,000

Hinduism ... 210,000,000 300,000 100,000 110,000 30,000 210,540,000

Mohammedanism 3,800,000 142,000,000 51,000,000 15,000 10,000 25,000,000 221,825,000

Buddhism ... 138,000,000 11,000 ... ... 20,000 138,031,000

Judaism 9,950,175 484,359 404,836 2,144,061 50,000 19,415 13,052,846

Animism ... 42,000,000 98,000,000 20,000 1,250,000 17,000,000 158,270,000

Shintoism ... 25,000,000 ... ... ... ... 25,000,000

Unclassified 1,000,000 6,000,000 130,000 8,000,000 ... 150,000 15,280,000

Total Non-Christians 14,750,175 863,484,359 149,875,836 10,379,061 1,420,000 42,919,415 1,082,828,846

Note.—The Coptic Church has 706,322 followers (Egyptian census 1907); Nestorians 80,000; Jacobites 70,000.

INDEPENDENT COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD TODAY

The separate nationalities grouped under their respective hemispheres and continental divisions. On account of the European war the boundaries and statistics of the nations engaged will, doubtless, be subject to important changes within the next decade.

COUNTRIES Population Square Miles Capitals Present Official Head and Date of Birth Title and Date of Accession Salary or Budget

EASTERN HEMISPHERE

(1) Europe

Albania 825,000 11,000 Durazzo Essad Pasha (b. ...) President (1914) ...

Andorra 6,000 175 Andorra ... Consul ...

Austria-Hungary 50,000,000 260,034 Vienna Charles (b.1887) Emperor (1917) $ 4,520,000

Belgium 7,571,387 11,373 Brussels Albert (b.1875) King (1909) 623,600

Bulgaria 4,755,000 43,000 Sofia Ferdinand (b.1861) Czar (1887) 250,000

Denmark 2,775,076 15,388 Copenhagen Christian X. (b.1870) King (1912) 262,500

France 30,601,509 207,054 Paris Raymond Poincaré (b.1860) President (1913) 140,000

German Empire 66,715,000 208,780 Berlin William II. (b.1859) Emperor (1888) 3,700,000

King (1888)

Great Britain See page 467 ... ... George V. (b.1865) King (1910) 2,350,000

Greece 5,000,000 46,522 Athens Constantine (b.1868) King (1913) 260,000

Holland or Netherlands 6,500,000 12,648 Amsterdam Wilhelmina (b.1880) Queen (1898) 250,000

Italy 35,240,000 110,623 Rome Victor Emmanuel III. (b.1869) King (1900) 2,650,000

Luxemburg 268,000 999 Luxemburg Marie (b.1894) Grand Duchess (1912) ...

Monaco 20,000 8 ... Albert (b.1848) Prince (1889) ...

Montenegro 520,000 5,650 Cettinje Nicholas (b.1841) King (1910) 24,000

Norway 2,459,000 124,129 Christiania Haakon VII. (b.1872) King (1905) 185,000

Poland ... ... ... ... ... ...

Portugal 5,957,985 35,490 Lisbon Dr. Bernardino Machado (b.1850) President (1915) ...

Roumania 7,600,000 54,000 Bucharest Ferdinand (b.1865) King (1914) 227,520

Russian Empire 171,000,000 8,647,657 Petrograd Nicholas II. (b.1868) Emperor (1894) 12,000,000

San Marino 10,655 38 ... ... President (....) ...

Servia 4,600,000 34,000 ... Peter (b.1844) King (1903) 225,000

Spain 19,588,688 190,050 Madrid Alfonso XIII. (b.1886) King (1886) 1,344,000

Sweden 5,476,441 172,876 Stockholm Gustaf V. (b.1858) King (1907) 416,500

Switzerland 3,741,971 15,976 Berne Dr. Shulteis (b. ...) President (1917) 3,000

Turkey (Europe) 1,892,000 11,000 Constantinople Mohammed V. (b.1884) Sultan (1909) 7,500,000

(2) Asia

Afghanistan 6,000,000 250,000 Kabul Habibulla Khan (b.1872) Ameer (1901) ...

Arabia 3,500,000 1,000,000 ... ... ... ...

Bhutan 250,000 20,000 Punakha ... ... ...

China 400,000,000 2,169,200 Pekin Li Yuan Hung (b. ...) President (1916) ...

Japan 52,985,423 147,655 Tokio Yoshihito (b.1879) Emperor (1912) 2,250,000

Nepal 4,000,000 54,000 Khatmandu Dhiraja Tribhubana Sh’sher Jang (b.1906) Maharaja (1911) ...

Oman 750,000 82,000 Muscat Seyyid Taimur bin Turkee (b. ...) Sultan (1913) 250,000

Persia 9,000,000 628,000 Teheran Ahmed Mirza (b.1897) Shah (1914) ...

Siam 6,000,000 220,000 Bangkok Vagiravudh (b.1880) King (1910) 2,000,000

Turkey (Asia) 19,382,000 699,224 ... ... ... ...

(3) Africa

Abyssinia 8,000,000 390,000 Adis Ababa Lij Ey-assu (b. ...) Emperor (1914) ...

Liberia 2,060,000 41,000 Monrovia D. E. Howard (b. ...) President (1912) ...

Morocco 6,500,000 200,000 Fez Muley Yusoef (b.1875) Sultan (1912) ...

WESTERN HEMISPHERE

(1) North America

Costa Rica 420,180 23,000 San Jose Alfredo Gonzalez (b. ...) President (1914) ...

Cuba 2,383,000 44,164 Havana Mario G. Menocal (b. ...) President (1913) 25,000

Dominican Republic 700,000 19,325 San Domingo Ramon Baez (b. ...) President (1914) ...

Guatemala 2,119,165 48,290 Guatemala Manuel Estrada Cabrera (b.1856) President (1911) ...

Haiti 2,000,000 10,204 Port-au-Prince Gen. Dartiguenave (b. ...) President (1915) 24,000

Honduras 600,000 46,250 Tegucigalpa Dr. Bertrand (b.1867) President (1913) ...

Mexico 15,063,207 765,535 City of Mexico Venustiano Carranza (b. ...) President (1915) 50,000

Nicaragua 500,000 49,200 Managua Adolfo Diaz (b. ...) President (1911) ...

Panama 427,000 32,380 Panama Belisario Porras (b. ...) President (1912) 24,000

San Salvador 700,000 7,325 San Salvador Carlos Melendez (b. ...) President (1913) ...

United States 112,445,000 3,743,312 Washington Woodrow Wilson (b.1856) President (1913) 75,000

(2) South America

Argentina 8,000,000 1,153,418 Buenos Ayres Victorino de la Plaza (b. ...) President (1914) 36,000

Bolivia 2,267,925 708,195 La Paz Ismael Montes (b. ...) President (1913) ...

Brazil 24,000,000 3,292,000 Rio de Janeiro W. B. Pereira Gomes (b. ...) President (1914) 40,000

Chile 5,000,000 292,100 Santiago Juan Luis San Fuentes (b. ...) President (1915) 7,000

Columbia 5,500,000 438,000 Bogata Jose Vicente Concha (b. ...) President (....) ...

Ecuador 1,500,000 116,000 Quito Leonidas Plaza (b. ...) President (....) 12,000

Paraguay 800,000 196,000 Asuncion Eduardo Schaerer (b. ...) President (1912) 9,500

Peru 4,000,000 680,000 Lima Jose Pardo (b. ...) President (1915) 12,000

Uruguay 1,300,000 72,210 Montevideo Feliciano Viera (b. ...) President (1915) 36,000

Venezuela 3,000,000 393,976 Caracas Juan Vincente Gomez (b. ...) President (1915) ...

WEALTH OF NATIONS

These are the latest estimates: United States, $188,000,000,000; Great Britain and Ireland $85,000,000,000; Canada, $7,000,000,000; India, $15,000,000,000; total British Empire (including possessions not here stated), $130,000,000,000; Germany, $80,000,000,000; France, $50,000,000,000; Russia, $40,000,000,000; Austria-Hungary, $25,000,000,000; Italy, $20,000,000,000; Belgium, $9,000,000,000; Spain, $5,400,000,000; Netherlands, $5,000,000,000; Switzerland, $4,000,000,000; Portugal, $2,500,000,000.

THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE

From its political and historical importance Europe has always been regarded as one of the great divisions of the earth’s surface though it is not a separate and independent mass. It is, rather, a great peninsula of what is sometimes called Eurasia—i.e. the continent of Europe and Asia combined—that extends westward its many arms between the Arctic Ocean on the north, the Atlantic on the west, and the Mediterranean Sea on the south.

Its name seems to have been derived from the Semitic word ereb, meaning “the land of the setting sun,” and came into use among the Greeks and Latins in very early times as Europa.

Outline and Extent. The most striking feature of its outline is that of its great irregularity, the deep inlets and gulfs of the ocean which penetrate its mass, and the peninsulas which run from it.

The greatest distance between its extreme north and south points—the North Cape of Norway and Cape Matapan in Greece—is about twenty-four hundred miles; and from east to west—from Cape La Roca, or the “Rock of Lisbon,” to Cape Apsheron, the eastern extremity of the Caucasus range, on the Caspian—about three thousand miles.

EUROPEAN GULFS AND INLETS

On the north the White Sea, so called from the ice and snow which bind it up for more than half the year, reaches in from the Arctic Ocean. From the Atlantic, the shallow North Sea, or German Ocean, and the English Channel (called La Manche, or “The Sleeve,” by the French) break in to separate the British Isles from the mainland; and from the former the Skager Rak, “the crooked and boisterous strait,” leads through the Kattegat, the “Cat’s Throat,” and the “Belts” of the Danish islands, to the Baltic, or the “East Sea” of the Germans, and its continuations, the Gulfs of Bothnia, Finland, and Riga.

Farther southward, the stormy Bay of Biscay, named from the Basque province of Vizcaya, sweeps in along the northern coast of Spain, and beyond the Peninsula the narrow Strait of Gibraltar leads into the great Mediterranean, which stretches eastward for twenty-three hundred miles.

THE MEDITERRANEAN AND ITS ARMS

Among the many branches of this great basin are the Gallic Sea, running north toward Gaul, between Spain and the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, forming the stormy Gulf of the Lion and that of Genoa; the Tyrrhenian Sea, between Sardinia and Italy; the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic running north from it, between Italy and the Balkan peninsula, towards the ancient seaport of Adria, perhaps the oldest in Europe.

Beyond Greece, the island-studded Ægean leads north to the narrow inlet of the Dardanelles, opening into the little Sea of Marmora, named from its marble-yielding islands, and from that by the Bosporus or Oxford (the canal of Constantinople), into the second great Mediterranean basin, the Black Sea or Euxine, with its offshoot the shallow Sea of Azof. The Caspian Sea, forms part of the natural frontier between Europe and Asia.

The indented seaboard of Europe measures not less than sixty thousand miles.

PENINSULAS OF EUROPE

Between each of these branches of the sea there run out corresponding promontories and peninsulas of the mainland. These are most numerous on the south side, where we find the Crimea, Turkey and Greece, Italy and Spain, bordered by the islands of the Archipelago, by Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, and the Baleares.

The western or Atlantic side presents the greatest peninsula, that of Scandinavia, and the most important island group, that of the British Isles. The Danish peninsula is remarkable as the only one in Europe, and indeed in almost any part of the world, that points northward.

SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS

The great lowland of Europe lies toward the east, embracing the vast continental area of Russia, and sending out arms westward round the Gulf of Bothnia and the Swedish side of the Baltic, and through North Germany and Denmark, to form the lowlands of Holland and Belgium and of Western France, along the shores of the Bay of Biscay, as far as the rise of the Pyrenees.

The vast central area of the Russian lowland has almost everywhere the same character, woods and marshes alternating with cultivated land, affording a superfluity of grain, which is sent down by the rivers to the seaports of the Baltic and the Black Sea; but along its northern border, next the icy Arctic Sea, lie the moss-covered swamps called the Tundras, the soil of which is never thawed for more than a yard’s depth; all its southern margin toward the Black Sea and the Caspian is a treeless steppe, over which at some seasons the grasses shoot up above a man’s height, concealing the pasturing herds.

REMARKABLE SURFACE OF FINLAND

Finland is one of the most remarkable regions of the great European plain; its granite floor, elevated above the sea-level probably in a recent geological period, is worn into thousands of angular lake-basins, which form a perfect network over its surface; to the sailor on the Baltic its margin presents a girdle of steep cliffs guarded by a fringe of rocky islets or skerries. The cliffy Aland Islands are detached fragments of this remarkable formation.

LOWLANDS OF WESTERN EUROPE

The eastern portions of the North German plain, as far as the Oder, have the same character, the same corn-yielding clay soil, as the adjoining lowlands in Russia; but farther west, round the capital city of Berlin, the plain becomes less fertile, in some parts sandy and bare. Beyond the Elbe, in Hanover, the Lüneburg heath covers a large part of the plain; next it lie the moors, marshes, and fens of Oldenburg and the borders of Holland, where cattle and horses are the wealth of the land; and beyond these the highly cultivated lowlands on each side of the Rhine delta, separated by the heaths and moors of Brabant, which run out toward the lower Scheldt like a dividing wedge between Holland and Belgium.