THE BOOK OF NATIONS Geographical, Historical, Descriptive (continued 21)

Results: Gauls retire on payment of ransom. The overthrow of Rome had no permanent effect on her fortunes.

SECOND SACRED WAR.—c. 355-346 B. C.

(1) Phocians vs. (2) Amphictyons.

Cause: Phocians seize and plunder Delphi because of fine imposed by Amphictyonic Council.

Leaders: (1) Onomarchus; (2) Philip of Macedon.

Results: Thebans and Thessalians invite aid of Philip against Phocians and he takes their place in the Amphictyonic Council.

THIRD SACRED WAR.—339-338 B. C.

(1) Macedonians vs. (2) Athenians, Thebans.

Cause: Amphictyons call in Philip to punish Amphissa, whereupon he seizes Elatea, thereby threatening Athens. Athenians aroused by Demosthenes.

Leaders: (1) Philip of Macedon.

Chief Actions: Chæronea.

Results: Philip gains leadership of Greece. Henceforth Greece is under the control of Macedonia.

SAMNITE WARS.—343-290 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Samnites.

a. First Samnite War—343-341 B. C.

Cause: A duel between two rival races for supremacy in Italy. Campanians implore aid of Romans against Samnites who are laying waste their territories in revenge for aid given the Sidicini of Teanum.

Leaders: (1) Marcus Valerius Corvus, P. Decius Mus.

Results: Capua is retained by the Romans and Teanum surrendered to Samnites.

b. Second or Great Samnite War—326-304 B. C.

Cause: The occupation of Palaeopolis by the Samnites. In 311 B. C. the Etruscan cities joined in the war against Rome.

Leaders: (1) Papirius Cursor; (2) Fabius Rullianus Gavius Pontius.

Chief Actions: (1) Fregellæ, Sutrium, Lake Vadimonis, Bovianum; (2) Caudine Forks.

Results: Samnites sue for peace. They resign all their conquests but retain their independence within their native mountains.

c. Third Samnite War—298-290 B. C.

Cause: While Romans are engaged with the Gauls the Samnites enter Lucania and refuse to withdraw.

Leaders: (1) Q. Fabius Rullianus, P. Decius Mus (son); (2) Gellius Egnatius, Gavius Pontius.

Chief Action: (1) Sentinum.

Result: Samnites defeated but not crushed.

WARS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN ASIA—334-328 B. C.

(1) Greeks vs. (2) Persians, Egyptians, Bactrians, Indians (Hindus).

Cause: A war of conquest, a scientific expedition and a journey of discovery.

Leaders: (1) Alexander the Great, Nearchus; (2) Darius III., Memnon.

Chief Actions: (1) Granicus, Issus, Siege of Tyre, Arbela.

Results: Alexander conquers Asia from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River and from the Arabian Sea to the Jaxartes River and begins the Hellenizing of the East. Founds Alexandria in Egypt. The empire breaks up after Alexander’s death 323 B. C.

ROMAN WAR WITH TARENTUM AND EPIRUS.—282-272 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Tarentum and King Pyrrhus.

Cause: The people of Tarentum capture Roman ships and insult Roman embassy. They call in King Pyrrhus of Epirus.

Leaders: (1) Manius Curius; (2) Pyrrhus.

Chief Actions: (1) Beneventum, Tarentum; (2) Heraclea, Asculum.

Results: Pyrrhus returns to Epirus and his allies one by one submit to Rome, which is left supreme from Straits of Messina to the River Arno and the headland of Ancona.

FIRST PUNIC WAR.—264-241 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Carthaginians.

Causes: A struggle for supremacy in Sicily. Pretext, Campanian mercenaries, having seized Messina, appeal to Rome for aid.

Leaders: (1) C. Duilius, M. Atilius Regulus, P. Claudius Pulcher, C. Lutatius Catulus; (2) Hamilcar Barca, Himilco, Hanno.

Chief Actions: (1) Agrigentum, Mylæ, Ecnomus, Panormus, Ægadian Islands; (2) Siege of Lilybæum, Drepana.

Results: Carthaginians surrender Sicily and pay a war indemnity. Carthage retains the Western Mediterranean and Rome is launched on her career of conquest.

SECOND PUNIC WAR.—218-201 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Carthaginians.

Causes: A duel to the death between East and West. Pretext, Hannibal’s attacks on Saguntum in Spain.

Leaders: (1) Q. Fabius Maximus, Publius Scipio, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus; (2) Hannibal, Hasdrubal.

Chief Actions: (1) Syracuse, Capua, Metaurus, Zama; (2) Ticinus, Trebia, Trasimene, Cannæ.

Results: Hannibal succumbs as a result of the loyalty of Italy. Carthage forced to give up Spain, to pay an annual tribute, to surrender her fleet, and to agree not to go to war without the permission of Rome.

FOUR MACEDONIAN WARS.—214-146 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Greeks.

Cause: Alliance of Philip, King of Macedon with Carthage.

Leaders: (1) T. Quinctius Flaminius, L. Aemilius Paulus; (2) Philip of Macedon, Perseus.

Chief Actions: (1) Cynoscephalæ, Pydna.

Result: Macedonia becomes a Roman province.

THIRD PUNIC WAR—149-146 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Carthaginians.

Cause: War of Carthage with Massinissa gives Rome the pretext for completing the destruction of Carthage.

Leaders: (1) Scipio, Æmilianus, Africanus.

Chief Actions: (1) Siege of Carthage.

Result: Carthage destroyed. Most of her territory becomes a Roman province of Africa.

JUGURTHINE WAR.—111-105 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Jugurtha of Numidia.

Cause: Jugurtha, disregarding intervention of Rome, captures Citra and massacres male population.

Leaders: (1) C. Marius; (2) Jugurtha.

Chief Actions: (1) Muthul, Citra.

Results: Numidia divided. The war reveals the corruption and incapacity of the Senatorial government of Rome.

MARSIAN OR SOCIAL WAR.—90-88 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Italian Allies.

Cause: Italian socii (allies) are denied the right of Roman citizenship.

Leader: (1) C. Marius, Sulla.

Chief Action: (1) Asculum.

Result: Italians form a Federal republic, Italia, with capital at Corfinium. Roman citizenship granted to all Italian residents.

FIRST ROMAN CIVIL WAR—88-82 B. C.

(1) Optimates vs. (2) Democrats.

Cause: Reform measures of Sulpicius are carried by means of violence. Command of army of Asia is transferred from Sulla to Marius.

Leaders: (1) Sulla, Pompey; (2) Marius, Cinna, Sertorius, Carbo.

Chief Actions: Sacriportis, Colline, Gate, Sulla’s proscriptions; (2) Marius’s Reign of Terror.

Result: Sulla is appointed dictator.

THREE MITHRIDATIC WARS—88-63 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Pontines and Armenians.

Causes: Ambition of Mithridates VI. and Roman interference.

Leaders: (1) Sulla, Lucullus, Pompey; (2) Mithridates (Pontus), Tigranus (Armenia).

Chief Actions: (1) Chæronea, Orchomenus, Cabira, Tigranocerta; (2) Massacre of Italians in Asia.

Results: Reorganization of the East; Pontus, Syria and Cilicia become Roman provinces.

GLADIATORIAL AND THIRD SERVILE WAR.—73-71 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. Revolted Gladiators and Slaves.

Cause: Uprising of a band of gladiators, escaped from Capua and joined by many slaves of southern Italy.

Leaders: (1) Crassus, Pompey; (2) Spartacus.

Chief Actions: (1) Silarus; (2) Mt. Vesuvius.

Results: Revolt put down with cruelty, six thousand crucified.

GALLIC WAR—58-51 B. C.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Tribes of Gaul.

Cause: Desire to extend the Roman empire.

Leaders: (1) Julius Cæsar; (2) Vercingetorix, Ariovistus.

Chief Action: (1) Siege of Alesia.

Results: Conquest and organization of Gaul by Cæsar. Gauls Romanized; boundaries of the old world enlarged (Cæsar’s expedition to Britain 55-54 B. C.); means acquired for changing Rome into a monarchy.

SECOND ROMAN CIVIL WAR.—49-31 B. C.

First period, 49-45 B. C.

(1) Followers of Cæsar (democrats) vs. (2) Followers of Pompey (republican aristocrats).

Cause: Struggle for mastery between Cæsar, conqueror of Gaul, and Pompey, conqueror of the East.

Leaders: (1) Cæsar; (2) Pompey and his sons.

Chief Actions: (1) “Crossing the Rubicon,” Pharsalus, Thapsus, Munda.

Result: Cæsar is appointed dictator for life. He is the founder of the new monarchy at Rome.

Second period—43-42 B. C.

(1) Friends of Cæsar (Second Triumvirate) vs. (2) Cæsar’s Assassins.

Cause: Assassination of Cæsar, 44 B. C.

Leaders: (1) Antony, Octavius, Lepidus; (2) Brutus, Cassius, Sextus Pompey.

Chief Actions: (1) New proscription (Murder of Cicero), Philippi.

Result: Brutus and Cassius, defeated, commit suicide.

Third period—31-30 B. C.

(1) Octavius vs. (2) Antony.

Cause: A continued struggle for supreme power.

Leaders: (1) Octavius; (2) Antony, Cleopatra.

Chief Actions: (1) Actium.

Results: Triumph of Octavius, grand nephew of Julius Cæsar. End of the republic and beginning of the empire.

JEWISH WAR—A. D. 66-70.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Jews.

Cause: Revolt of the Jews against Rome.

Leader: (1) Titus, son of Emperor Vespasian.

Chief Action: (1) Siege of Jerusalem.

Result: Destruction of Jerusalem and the temple.

DACIAN WARS.—86-90, 101-102, 105-107.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Dacians.

Cause: Rome desires to extend her conquests.

Leaders: (1) Domitian, Trajan; (2) Decebalus.

Results: Dacia is made a Roman province. Roman conquest and empire reaches its highest point.

CIVIL WARS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.—193-284.

Causes: Contests for the throne among rival generals (barrack emperors).

Result: Reorganization of empire by Diocletian (284-305).

WARS OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT FOR THE EMPIRE.—310-323.

(1) Constantine vs. (2) Others, Augusti.

Causes: Confusion following abdication of Diocletian.

Leaders: (1) Constantine; (2) Maxentius, Maximinus, Licinius.

Chief Action: (1) Turin.

Results: Constantine becomes sole ruler of Roman empire. He redistricts the empire, moves the capital to Constantinople and recognizes Christianity.

INVASION OF ROMAN EMPIRE BY NORTHERN BARBARIANS—375-493.

(1) Romans vs. (2) Teutons and (Huns), Teutonic Tribes; Visigoths, Vandals, Suevi, Franks, Burgundians, Ostrogoths, Alemanni, Jutes, Saxons, Angles, Lombards.

Causes: The Huns (Mongolians) press upon the Teutons, who are forced to seek new lands within the boundaries of the Roman empire.

Leaders: (1) Valens, Stilicho Ætius, Leo (bishop of Rome); (2) Alaric; Walja (Visigoth); Genseric (Vandal); Hengist and Horsa (Saxons); Attila (Hun); Theodoric the Great (Ostrogoth).

Chief Actions: (1) Battle near Chalons (451); (2) Adrianople, Sack of Rome.

Results: Visigothic kingdom of Tolosa (Toulouse) (415-507). Vandals settle in Africa (429-534). Carthage (439).

Burgundians occupy Rhone Valley (443).

Angles, Saxons and Jutes invade England (449), Huns and Ostrogoths ravage Gaul.

Huns destroy Aquileia and Venice founded (452).

Vandals plunder Rome (455).

Odoacer gains ascendency in Rome. The fall of the Roman empire (476).

Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy (493-555).

Overthrow of the Roman empire in the West, though it continued in the East until 1453. This blending of Roman and Teutonic elements under the influence of the Christian religion and what remained of classic civilization formed the civilization of the middle ages.

WARS OF JUSTINIAN—533-534.

(1) Eastern Empire vs. (2) Vandals in Africa and (3) Ostrogoths in Italy—535-555.

Cause: Desire to restore West to Eastern empire.

Leaders: (1) Belisarius, Narses; (3) Vitiges Totila.

Chief Action: (1) Battle of Taginae (552).

Results: Destruction of Vandal power in Africa and of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy. Exarchate established at Ravenna.

WARS OF THE FRANKS—486-814.

(1) Franks vs. (2) Neighboring Peoples.

Causes: Desire to extend the limits of Frankish territory and to ward off attacks from without.

Leaders: (1) Clovis (486-511), Charles Martel (814-741), Pepin the Short (751-768), Charlemagne (768-814).

Chief Actions: (1) Soissons (486), Clovis conquers Alemanni and becomes a Catholic Christian (496), Battle of Tours (732), Conquest of Burgundy (534), Charlemagne conquers Lombards (774-776), Saxons (772-804), Bavarians (788), Avars (791), Northern Spain (778).

Results: Franks become leading power in the West and revive the Western Empire. (Christmas day, 800).

HEPTARCHIC WARS IN ENGLAND—588-828.

Causes: Struggle for supremacy among the seven Teutonic kingdoms.

Leaders: Ethelbert (Kent), Edwin (Northumbria), Offa (Mercia), Egbert (Wessex).

Chief Events: The supremacy was successively held by kings of Kent, Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex, Maserfield (642), Ellandun (825).

Result: All England at last united under Egbert, king of Wessex (802-837).

SARACEN OR MOHAMMEDAN WARS—632-1492.

Cause: Saracens are ambitious to found a world wide Mohammedan empire.

Leaders: (1) Omar, Amru, Hassan, Mousa, Tarik, Abderrahman, Mohammed II., Abdallah; (2) Yezdegerd (Persia), Leo the Isaurian, Charles Martel, Constantine, Palæologus, Ferdinand of Aragon.

Chief Actions: (1) Yarmouk (Syria), Damascus Jerusalem Cadesia (Persia), Alexandria, Carthage (697), Xeres (Spain), Granada, Toledo; (2) Constantinople (716), Tours, Jerusalem, Las Navas de Tolosa (1212).

(1) Constantinople (1453).

(2) Granada (1492).

Results: The Saracens attempted to conquer and convert Europe at three different times between 710 and 1492. Their power began to wane from the latter date.

NORTHMEN INVASIONS—Ninth and Tenth Centuries.

(1) Northmen vs. (2) People of Western and Southern Europe.

Causes: Opportunity for plunder and conquest and later the driving out of adventurous spirits by the organization of settled kingdoms in the north.

Leaders: (1) Hastings, Rolf, Sweyn, Canute; (2) Alfred (England), Odo (France).

Chief Events: In England—Treaty of Wedmore, Massacre of Danes (1002).

In France: Siege of Paris. Grant of Normandy to Rolf (977).

Results: The Northmen are the last swarm of Teutonic conquerors. They readily assimilate civilization and infuse new energy into western Europe.

NORMAN CONQUEST—1066.

(1) Normans vs. (2) English.

Cause: William, duke of Normandy wishes to increase his territory and his power.

Leaders: (1) William the Conqueror; (2) Harold, king of England.

Chief Action: (1) Hastings.

Results: The king received added power and a modified feudalism introduced into England. Southern Italy and Sicily were also conquered by bands of Normans in the eleventh century and the kingdom of Naples founded.

CRUSADES—1096-1270.

(1) European Christians vs. (2) Turks and Moslems.

First Crusade—1096-1099.

Causes: The appeal of the eastern emperor for aid, the desire to recover the Holy Sepulcher from the infidels, the love of adventure, and hope of gain.

Leaders: (1) Peter the Hermit, Godfrey of Bouillon, Bohemond of Tarentum, Robert of Normandy.

Chief Actions: (1) Nicæa, Antioch, Jerusalem.

Results: Jerusalem is subdued and a transient kingdom is founded at Jerusalem.

Second Crusade—1147-1149.

Cause: The conquest of Edessa by the Moslems threatens Jerusalem. Preaching of Saint Bernard.

Leaders: (1) Conrad III. of Germany, Louis VII. of France.

Chief Action: Unsuccessful attack on Damascus.

Results: Armies almost annihilated by hunger, disease and the enemy.

Third Crusade—1189-1192.

Cause: Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin.

Leaders: Richard I. of England, Philip Augustus of France, Frederick Barbarossa of Germany; (2) Saladin.

Chief Actions: (1) Acre.

Results: The Latin Christians secure by treaty the privilege of visiting the tomb of Christ for three years without molestation.

Fourth Crusade—1201-1204.

(1) Crusaders vs. (2) Eastern Empire.

Causes: Appeals of Innocent III. Through influence of the Venetians the Crusaders turn aside to attack Constantinople.

Leaders: (1) Dandolo, Doge of Venice, Baldwin of Flanders.

Chief Action: (1) Sack of Constantinople.

Results: Division of eastern empire. The Venetians get the monopoly of trade and most of the islands and coast lands of the Ægean and Ionian seas. The remainder is erected into a feudal state, the Latin empire.

Children’s Crusade (legendary)—1212.

Causes: Ignorant enthusiasm aroused by visions and miraculous tales.

Leader: A shepherd lad, Stephen of Vendome.

Chief Events: Thousands of children, women and peasants march from France and Germany to the Mediterranean.

Results: Only a small number return home; the others perish on the way or are sold into slavery by French merchants.

Fifth Crusade—1228-1229.

Cause: Vow of Frederick II. of Germany. He goes under pope’s excommunication.

Leader: (1) Frederick II.

Results: Frederick, by treaty with the sultan, secures a truce for ten years and the restoration of Bethlehem, Nazareth and Jerusalem to the Christians; Jerusalem is finally lost in 1244.

Sixth Crusade—1248-1254.

Cause: Louis IX. of France starts on a crusade via Egypt.

Leaders: (1) Louis IX., later St. Louis.

Chief Actions: (1) Damietta; (2) Expedition to Cairo.

Result: Louis is captured in battle and released on payment of heavy ransom and evacuation of Damietta.

Last, Seventh Crusade—1270-1291.

Causes: Louis IX. goes against Mohammedans of Tunis, Prince Edward of England to Syria.

Leader: (1) Louis IX., Prince Edward.

Chief Events: Death of Louis by the plague; (2) Acre, last Christian stronghold in Syria, falls (1291).

Results: The results of the crusades were development of commerce, introduction of new customs, products and manufactures, increase in freedom of lower classes, especially townsmen, and the power of the crown.

WAR OF THE EMPIRE—1158-1183.

(1) Empire vs. (2) Italian Communes.

Cause: Frederick Barbarossa’s attempt to restore imperial rights over the cities of northern Italy.

Leaders: (1) Frederick I. Barbarossa; (2) Pope Alexander III.

Chief Actions: (1) Milan (1162); (2) Legnano (1176).

Results: By treaty of Constance (1183) the cities of Lombardy are recognized as practically self-governing republics, the barest overlordship remaining to the emperor.

WARS OF THE BARONS IN ENGLAND—1215-1265.

(1) Barons vs. (2) Kings John and Henry III.

Causes: Misgovernment of John and Henry III.

Leaders: (1) Stephen Langton, Simon de Montfort;

(2) King John, Prince Edward, later Edward I.

Chief Events: (1) Signing of Magna Charta, Lewes, Simon de Montfort’s Parliament; (2) Evesham.

Results: The beginning of constitutional monarchy—henceforth the king is below the law, not above it.

HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR—1337-1453.

(1) English vs. (2) French.

Causes: The conflict of interests of the French and English kings in Guienne, Flanders and Scotland. Edward III. advances claim by descent to the throne of France.

Leaders: (1) Edward III., Edward the Black Prince, Prince Henry V., Duke of Bedford; (2) Du Guesclin, Charles V., Joan of Arc.

Chief Actions: (1) Crécy, Calais, Poitiers, Peace of Bretigny, Agincourt, Treaty of Troyes; (2) Orleans (1429), Castillon (1453).

Results: England loses all her land in France except Calais. During the earlier stage of this war about one-third of the population of western Europe perished from the Black Death.

AUSTRO-SWISS WAR—1315-1388.

(1) House of Hapsburg vs. (2) Swiss Confederation.

Causes: Hapsburgs assert feudal rights over the peasants of the Swiss cantons.

Leaders: (1) Leopold III. of Austria; (2) Arnold von Winkelried.

Chief Actions: (2) Morgarten, Sempach, Näfels.

Result: Independence of Swiss secured.

HUSSITE WAR—1419-1436.

(1) Bohemian Followers of John Huss vs. (2) Catholic Europe.

Causes: Execution of John Huss, the Bohemian religious reformer, by the council of Constance.

Leaders: (1) Ziska, Procopius the Great; (2) Emperor Sigismund, Cardinal Cesarini, Frederick of Brandenburg.

Chief Events: Revolt of Prague. Four crusades repulsed.

Results: After the overthrow of the radical Hussites (Taborites) by the conservative Hussites (Calixtines) in the battle of Lipan a Catholic reaction set in which culminated in 1462 with the revocation of the compacts made by the Council of Basel with the Hussites.

WARS OF THE ROSES—1455-1485.

(1) Yorkists (White Rose); vs (2) Lancastrians (Red Rose).

Causes: Misgovernment under Henry VI. encourages Richard, duke of York, representing the second line of descent from Edward III., to claim the throne against Henry VII. (third line).

Leaders: (1) Richard, duke of York, Edward IV., Richard III.; (2) Duke of Somerset, Queen Margaret, Earl of Warwick (“King-maker”), first a Yorkish and then a Lancastrian, Henry VII.

Chief Actions: (1) St. Albans, Northampton, Mortimer’s Cross, Towton, Barnet, Tewkesbury; (2) Wakefield, Bosworth Field.

Results: Henry Tudor (Lancastrian in the female line) secures throne as Henry VII. By his marriage with Elizabeth of York he unites the warring factions and establishes an almost despotic rule in England.

WARS FOR CONTROL OF ITALY—1494-1529.

(1) French vs. (2) Spanish.

Causes: Conflicting claims to the throne of Naples and to the duchy of Milan.

Leaders: (1) Charles VIII., Louis XII., Bayard, Francis I.; (2) Ferdinand of Aragon, Charles V., duke of Bourbon, Fürstenburg.

Chief Actions: Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. (1494), League Cambray (1508), Holy League (1511).

(1) Marignano; (2) Pavia.

Results: All the leading powers of western Europe were drawn into this struggle. By the peace of Cambraes (1529), France renounced her claims to Italy. One effect of these wars was to tie the hands of Charles V. so as to prevent his putting down Lutheranism in Germany.

SCHMALKALDIC WAR—1546-1547.

(1) Charles V. (2) League of Schmalkalden.

Causes: Charles V. attempts to crush Protestantism in Germany.

Leaders: (1) Emperor Charles V., Duke Maurice of Saxony; (2) John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, Philip, Landgrave of Hesse.

Chief Action: (1) Mühlberg.

Results: Protestantism temporarily crushed. Its recovery in 1552 was followed by the religious peace of Augsburg 1555.

RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE—1562-1598.

(1) Catholics vs. (2) Huguenots (Protestants).

Cause: Massacre of Huguenots at Vassy is a signal for uprising.

Leaders: (1) Duke of Guise, Henry III.; (2) Catherine de Medici, Conde, Coligny, Henry of Navarre (Henry IV.)

Chief Events: (1) Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572); (2) Siege of Paris, Ivry (1590), Henry of Navarre becomes a Catholic (1593). Riots of Image Breakers. Council of Blood.

Results: By the edict of Nantes (1598) the Huguenots are given equal political rights with Catholics, limited freedom of worship, the possession of La Rochelle and other strong places as cities of refuge.

WAR OF LIBERATION IN THE NETHERLANDS—1568-1648.

(1) Spain vs. (2) Revolted provinces in the Netherlands.

Causes: Political and religious tyranny of Spain. Duke of Alva enforces the Inquisition.

Leaders: (1) Duke of Alva, Alexander of Parma; (2) William of Orange, Jan van Oldenbarneveldt, Maurice of Nassau.

Chief Actions: (1) Mechlin, Haarlem; (2) Brill, Siege of Leyden, “Spanish Fury” at Antwerp, Pacification of Ghent (1576), Union of Utrecht (1579), Declaration of Independence (1581).

Results: By the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the independence of the seven northern provinces, the United Netherlands, is recognized. The ten southern provinces continue under Spanish rule until 1713.

THIRTY YEARS’ WAR—1618-1648.

(1) German Protestants and their Allies, England, Holland, Sweden and France vs. (2) Imperial German Catholics and their Allies, Spain, Italy.

Causes: Disputes over interpretation of peace of Augsburg (religious and political disputes leading to the revolt of Bohemia). The war passes through four phases: (1) Bohemian-Palatinate, (2) Danish, (3) Swedish, (4) Swedish-French.

Leaders: (1) Frederick, Elector Palatine, Mansfield, Gustavus Adolphus (Sweden), Turenne and Conde (France); (2) Emperor Ferdinand II., Maximilian of Bavaria, Tilly, Wallenstein.

Chief Actions: (1) Stralsund, Edict of Restitution, Breitenfeld, Lützen; (2) White Hill, Magdeburg, Nōrdlingen.

Results: This war is closed by the peace of Westphalia. Alsace thereby goes to France, Switzerland is separated from the empire and the Palatinate is divided. The secularized lands of northern Germany are secured to Protestantism, while leaving to Catholicism Austria, Bohemia and Bavaria. Germany is left desolate.

CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND—1642-1649.

(1) Royalists (Cavaliers) vs. (2) Parliamentarians (Roundheads) allied with Scots (to 1647).

Causes: Charles I. attempts to force a personal government on England. His disputes with Parliament covered (1) taxation, (2) privileges of Parliament, (3) religion, (4) control of the militia.

Leaders: (1) Charles I., Prince Rupert, Montrose; (2) Cromwell, Essex, Fairfax, Leslie.

Chief Actions: (2) Marston Moor, Naseby, Preston.

Results: The second civil war (1648) determines the army leaders to bring Charles I. to trial and execution (1649). A Commonwealth was then established without King or House of Lords but with Oliver Cromwell as Protector (1653 to 1659). The son of Charles I. restored in 1660 as Charles II.

FIRST THREE WARS OF LOUIS XIV.—1667-1697.

(1) France vs. a. Spanish Netherlands; b. Dutch republic; c. Grand Alliance (German States, England, Holland).

Causes: Louis XIV.’s passion for fame and desire to increase French territory in Europe.

Leaders: (1) Turenne, Conde, Luxembourg; (2) William III., De Ruyter.

Chief Actions: (1) Ravaging of Palatinate, Steenkirke, Neerwinden; (2) Sasbach, La Hogue, Namur.

Result: Extension of boundaries of France to the northeast.

SPANISH SUCCESSION (in America), QUEEN ANNE’S WAR—1701-1714.

(1) France, Spain and Bavaria vs. (2) Austria, England, Holland, Portugal, Savoy.

Causes: Acceptance by Louis XIV. of the bequest of the Spanish dominion to his grandson, Philip of Anjou, in violation of the partition treaty to which he had consented.

Leaders: (1) Vendome Villars, Leopold of Dessau; (2) Duke of Marlborough, Eugene of Savoy, Heinsius.

Chief Actions: (2) Gibraltar, Blenheim, Ramillies, Turin, Oudenarde, Malplaquet.

Results: By the peace of Utrecht in 1713 and that of Rastadt in 1714 Spain and the Indies go to Philip of Anjou; Naples, Milan, Sardinia and former Spanish Netherlands to the Austrians. England receives Newfoundland, Acadia and Hudson Bay Territory from France and Gibraltar from Spain.

NORTHERN WAR—1700-1721.

(1) Sweden vs. (2) Russia, Poland, Denmark, Saxony.

Causes: Peter the Great joins Poland, Denmark and Saxony for the purpose of despoiling Sweden, the first power of the north, of her Baltic ports.

Leaders: (1) Charles XII.; (2) Peter the Great (Russia), Augustus II. of Saxony.

Chief Actions: (1) Invasion of Denmark, Narva, Invasion of Saxony; (2) Pultava.

Results: By the peace of Nystadt (1721) Sweden cedes large territories to Russia. Russia takes the place of Sweden as the foremost power of the north.

WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION—1740-1748.

(1) Austria, supported by Hungary, Bohemia, England, Holland and Saxony vs. (2) Prussia, France, Spain, Bavaria.

Causes: When Maria Theresa succeeded her father, Charles IV. of Austria, Frederick the Great of Prussia seized Silesia. This precipitated a struggle for Austrian territories. At the death of Charles VI. of Austria the right of Maria Theresa to the throne is contested chiefly by Frederick the Great of Prussia, who seizes Silesia.

Leaders: (1) Maria Theresa, George II. of England, Charles of Lorraine; (2) Frederick the Great of Prussia, Emperor Charles VII., Schwerin.

Chief Actions: (1) Dettingen; (2) Mollwitz, Chotusitz, Prague, Fontenoy, Hohenfriedburg, Soor.

Results: By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Silesia is secured to Prussia, which state now becomes a great European power. This war is one phase of the long rivalry between France and Great Britain for sea power and dominion in America and India.

SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, OR THIRD SILESIAN WAR;

In America: FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR—1756-1763.

(1) England, Prussia vs. (2) France, Austria, Russia and Spain, Sweden.

Causes: Maria Theresa wishes to regain Silesia. Hostilities between French and English in America and India. George II.’s concern for his ancestral territory of Hanover.

Leaders: (1) Frederick the Great, Duke of Cumberland, Wolfe (America), Robert Clive (India); (2) Daun (Austria), Charles of Lorraine, Montcalm (America).

Chief Actions: (1) Dresden, Rossbach, Leuthen, Zorndorf, Minden; (2) Kolin, Hohkirchen, Kunersdorf.

In America: (1) Louisburg, Fort Duquesne, Quebec.

In India: (1) Plassey, Wandewash.

Results: The peace of Paris (1763) gives England Canada, the supremacy in India and certain islands, especially in the West Indies. Prussia retains Silesia. This war really founded the British empire which is based on sea power and colonial dominion.

WARS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION—1792-1802.

(1) Revolutionary France vs. (2) Coalitions of England, Austria, Prussia, Holland and Spain. The Empire, Russia.

a. First Coalition—1792-1797.

Causes: Intrigues of emigrés; horror of Europe at the execution of the king; French offer of aid to revolutionists in other countries.

Leaders: (1) Dumouriez, Kellermann, Jourdan, Hoche, Pichegru, Napoleon Bonaparte, Moreau; (2) Duke of Brunswick, Coburg, Charles of Austria.

Chief Actions: (1) Valmy, Occupation of Nice and Savoy, Jemmapes, Execution of king (1793), Annexation of Belgium, Fleurus, Lodi, Siege of Mantua; (2) Mainz, Neerwinden, Kaiserslautern, Wurzburg.

Results: By peace of Campo Formio (1797) the French frontier is advanced to the Rhine, Venice is given to Austria and the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics founded in Italy under French control.

b. Bonaparte’s Egyptian Expedition—1798-1799.

Causes: Bonaparte aims to prepare the way to attack Great Britain’s power in India and dreams of rivaling early conquerors of the east.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon Bonaparte; (2) Nelson (England).

Chief Actions: (1) Battle of the Pyramids; (2) Battle of the Nile at Aboukir, Acre.

Results: Nelson’s victory removes a serious menace to British power in India, cuts off the French in Egypt and deprives France of communication with its best troops and ablest general.

c. Second Coalition—1799-1802.

Causes: The mistakes of the government of the Directory and the prestige of Nelson’s victory enable Great Britain to form the Second Coalition.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon, Joubert, Moreau; (2) Suvaroff, Melas, Archduke John.

Chief Actions: (1) Marengo, Hohenlinden; Napoleon’s passage of the Alps (Great St. Bernard); (2) Novi.

Results: The Peace of Presburg ends the contest between France and Austria. Much harsher terms are imposed on Austria. Peace of Luneville with Austria (1801); Peace of Amiens with England (1802); Surrender of England’s conquests except Trinidad and Ceylon; Malta to be restored to Knights of Malta.

NAPOLEONIC WARS—1802-1815.

(1) France under Napoleon vs. (2) European Powers led by England.

a. Third Coalition—1805.

Causes: Neither England nor France regarded the peace of Amiens as more than a truce. Among the many causes of friction leading to renewal of war, chief place was given to England’s refusal to restore Malta.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon; (2) Nelson, Mack, Alexander I. (Russia), Kutusoff.

Chief Actions: (1) Ulm, Austerlitz; (2) Trafalgar.

Results: As a result of his brilliant successes, Napoleon, in 1802 becomes consul for life and in 1804 took the title emperor of the French. Confirmation of treaty of Campo Formio, with the recognition of Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine and Ligurian republics.

b. (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia—1806-1807.

Chief Actions: (1) Double battle of Jena and Auerstädt, Berlin decree, Eylau (indecisive), Friedland.

Results: By the treaties of Tilsit (1807) Russia recognizes Napoleon’s relatives as kings of Naples, Holland and Westphalia and consents to the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the grand duchy of Warsaw under Napoleon’s control. Alexander and Napoleon combine to dominate Europe. Prussia cedes territories containing half her population.

c. Peninsular War—1808-1814.

Causes: Rebellion of Spain against Joseph Bonaparte, whom Napoleon had placed on the throne.

Leaders: (1) Soult, Massena; (2) Duke of Wellington.

Chief Actions: (1) Corunna; (2) Talavera, Lines of Torres Vedras, Albuera, Salamanca, Vittoria, Toulouse.

Results: French expelled from the peninsula.

d. Fifth War with Austria—1809.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon; (2) Archduke Charles.

Chief Actions: (1) Aspern,, Wagram.

Results: Austria cedes thirty-two thousand square miles of territory, containing three and one-half million inhabitants.

e. Invasion of Russia—1812.

Cause: Alexander’s refusal to enforce Napoleon’s continental system, and other causes of dispute.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon, Marshal Ney; (2) Kutusoff, Barclay de Tolly.

Chief Actions: (1) Smolensk, Borodino. Burning of Moscow, Retreat from Moscow, Passage of the Beresina.

Result: Less than twenty thousand of the half million men in Napoleon’s army recrossed the Russian frontier.

f. War of Liberation—1813-1814.

Causes: The disastrous Russian campaign, together with the steady progress of the British in the peninsular war encouraged the oppressed states of Germany to rise against Napoleon’s tyranny, Prussia taking the lead.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon,, Ney, Macdonald; (2) Frederick, William III., Francis I., Alexander I., Schwarzenberg, Blücher, Bernadotte.

Chief Actions: (1) Lützen, Bautzen, Dresden; (2) Dennewitz, Leipzig, (Battle of the Nations). Allies enter Paris.

Results: Driven from Russia in 1812, from Germany in 1813, Napoleon in 1814 was forced to surrender France itself. By the treaty of Fontainebleau he was given the Island of Elba and an annual revenue of two million francs.

g. Waterloo Campaign—1815.

Causes: Quarrels among the allies and dissatisfaction of French with Louis XVIII. tempt Napoleon to return from Elba.

Leaders: (1) Napoleon, Ney; (2) Wellington, Blücher.

Chief Actions: Napoleon lands at Cannes (March 1); enters Paris March 20.

(1) Ligny; (2) Quatre Bras, Waterloo (June 18).

Results: Waterloo marks the final downfall of Napoleon. He is transported to the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821. In the Congress of Vienna the allies reconstructed Europe, restoring in general the legitimate rulers and erecting barriers against democratic movements and liberal ideas.

WAR OF GRECIAN INDEPENDENCE—1821-1829.

(1) Greeks, aided by England, Russia and France vs. (2) Turks.

Causes: Revived feeling of Greek nationality, stimulated by a widespread secret society working for a restoration of a Greek empire at Constantinople.

Leaders: (1) Ypsilanti, Diebitsch (Russia), Codrington (England), Byron (England); (2) Ibrahim, Pasha.

Chief Actions: Massacre of Greeks at Chios.

(1) Navarino, Adrianople; (2) Missolonghi.

Results: The treaty of Adrianople, 1829, compelled Turkey to acknowledge the independence of Greece, which chose as king the Bavarian prince Otto I.

CRIMEAN WAR—1854-1856.

(1) Russia vs. (2) Turkey aided by Great Britain, France and Sardinia.

Causes: The question of the political status and future of the lands of the Turkish empire. Immediate cause, the claim of Russia to a protectorate over all Greek Christians living under the sultan’s rule.

Leaders: (1) Mentchikoff, Gortchakoff; (2) Canrobert, Pelissier (France), Raglan, Simpson (England).

Chief Actions: (1) Balaclava; (2) Alma, Siege of Sebastopol, Inkermann.

Results: In the peace of Paris (1856) Russia’s claim to a protectorate is disallowed, the Danube is opened to navigation and the Black Sea is closed to war vessels of all powers.

SEPOY MUTINY—1857-1858.

(1) Sepoys vs. (2) English.

Causes: Uneasiness created by the rapid progress of British ways and rule causes a revolt of native Sepoy troops of India. Immediate cause the rumor that cartridges furnished troops were greased with a mixture of hog and beef fat—the one animal an object of loathing to Mohammedans, the other of religious worship to the Hindu.

Leaders: (1) Nana Sahib; (2) Nicholson, Havelock, Campbell.

Chief Actions: Mutiny of Sepoys at Meerut.

(1) Massacre at Cawnpore; (2) Delhi, Relief of Lucknow.

Results: Following the suppression of the mutiny the charter of the East India company is revoked and India passes directly under the crown, a secretary of state for India being added to the British ministry.

WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION—1859.

(1) Sardinia-Piedmont and France vs. (2) Austria.

Causes: Since 1848 Sardinia-Piedmont had been the center of the movement for Italian unity. Following promises of aid from Napoleon III. Cavour traps Austria into declaring war over the question of disarmament.

Leaders: (1) Victor Emmanuel, Napoleon III., Garibaldi; (2) Francis Joseph II., Gyulay.

Chief Actions: (1) Montebello, Magenta, Solferino. Peace signed at Zurich, November 10, 1859.

Results: By this war Victor Emmanuel gained Lombardy. In 1860 Tuscany, Parma, Modena and the papal legations were added. In 1861 he gained Sicily and Naples, together with the title King of Italy. Venetia followed as a result of alliance with Prussia in 1866 and the addition of Rome in 1871 completed the unification of Italy.

DANISH WAR—1864.

(1) Austria and Prussia vs. (2) Denmark.

Causes: Incorporation of the duchy of Schleswig with Denmark in violation of treaty of 1852.

Leaders: (1) Gablenz (Austria), Prince Frederick, Charles (Prussia); (2) Dermeza, Gerlach.

Chief Actions: (1) Invasion of Jutland, Storming of Düppel.

Results: Denmark gives up Schleswig-Holstein, which is jointly administered by Austria and Prussia.

AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR—1866.

(1) Prussia with smaller North German States and Italy vs. (2) Austria, Hanover, Saxony, and South German States.

Causes: Friction over Schleswig-Holstein enables Bismarck to force Austria into a war for supremacy in Germany.

Leaders: (1) William I., Prince Frederick, Charles, Moltke, Victor Emmanuel; (2) Benedek, Archduke Albert, Gablenz, Prince Charles of Bavaria.

Chief Actions: In Bohemia: (1) Soor, Koniggrätz or Sadowa; (2) Trautenau. In the West: (1) Aschaffenburg; (2) Langensala. In Italy: (2) Custozza, Lissa.

Results: Closed with the peace of Prague, August 23, 1866, which authorized the re-establishment of the federated German states, excluding Austria; Austria ceded Venetia to Italy, and her rights in Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia. Hanover, Hesse, Nassau are also annexed to Prussia.

FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR—1870-1871.

(1) France vs. (2) Prussia supported by all German States.

Causes: Jealousy of France at Prussian gains and friction over Hohenzollern candidacy for the throne of Spain. Bismarck’s falsification of the “Ems dispatch” tricked France into a declaration of war.

Leaders: Napoleon III., MacMahon, Bazaine; (2) William I., Moltke, Prince Frederick Charles, Crown Prince Frederic William.

Chief Actions: (1) Saarbrucken; (2) Weissenberg, Wörth, Vionville, Gravelotte, Sedan, Capitulation of Metz, Orleans, Capitulation of Paris.

Results: Closed in 1871 with the treaty of Versailles with the following results: (1) The French military power was destroyed; (2) the western frontier of Germany was rendered secure; (3) The German empire was established; (4) Germany acquired Alsace and Lorraine. In France Napoleon III. is deposed and the Third Republic established, 1870.

RUSSO-TURKISH WAR—1877-1878.

(1) Russia vs. (2) Turkey.

Causes: Turkish misgovernment and revolts in her Christian subject provinces, which were barbarously put down (“Bulgarian atrocities”) arouse all Europe but Russia alone declares war.

Leaders: (1) Grand Duke Nicholas, Gurka, Grand Duke Michael, Alexander II.; (2) Suleiman Pasha, Osman Pasha, Mukhitar Pasha.

Chief Actions: (1) Passages of the Danube at Shitova, Shipka Pass, Plevna, Storm of Kars.

Results: By the peace of San Stefano as revised in the congress of the powers at Berlin, Montenegro, Servia and Roumania become independent; Bulgaria remains tributary but receives a Christian prince; Russia obtains large indemnity and part of Armenia and also Bessarabia.

CHINESE-JAPANESE WAR—1894-1895.

(1) Japan vs. (2) China.

Causes: Rival claims to suzerainty over Korea.

Leaders: (1) Ito, Yamagata, Oyama, Nogi; (2) Tso, Yeh, Wei.

Chief Actions: Yalu River, Port Arthur, Wei-hai-wei, Niuchwang.

Results: Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed April 17, 1895, removed Korea from Chinese influence; ceded Formosa and the Pescadores to Japan, and awarded to the latter an indemnity of $180,000,000.

SOUTH AFRICAN OR BOER WAR—1899-1902.

(1) Great Britain vs. (2) Transvaal, Orange Free State.

Causes: Resistance by the Boers to the British form of government in the Transvaal.

Leaders: (1) Sir George White Buller, Methuen, Roberts, Kitchener, French; (2) Cronje, Botha, De Wet, Delarey.

Chief Actions: (1) Siege of Ladysmith, Paardeberg; (2) Colenso, Spion Kop, Vaal Krantz, Magersfontein.

Result: Boers surrendered May 31, 1902; are granted the right of self-government under British sovereignty, and united with other self-governing British colonies in South Africa, in 1910, to form the Union of South Africa.

RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR—1904-1905.

(1) Japan vs. (2) Russia.

Causes: Russian encroachments in Manchuria, and their fortification of Port Arthur.

Leaders: (1) Togo, Kuroki, Oku, Nodzu, Oyama, Nogi; (2) Kuropatkin, Alexieff, Makaroff, Stoessel, Stakelberg, Linievitch.

Chief Actions: (1) Port Arthur and Chemulpo, Vladivostok, Yalu River, Dalny, Siege of Port Arthur, Mukden, Sea of Japan.

Results: Closed September 5, 1905, by treaty of Portsmouth by which Korea passes under control of Japan, China regains Manchuria, and Japan is granted important railroad rights.

BALKAN WAR—1912-1913.

(1) Montenegro, Bulgaria, Servia and Greece vs. (2) Turkey.

Causes: Discontent with Turkish rule in Macedonia.

Leaders: (1) Savoff, Dimitrieff, Putnik, Constantine; (2) Nazim Pasha, Mukhtar Pasha, Abdullah Pasha.

Chief Actions: (1) Kirk Kilisseh, Lule Burgas, Monastir.

Results: Turkey appealed to the powers, November 3, 1912, for intervention, and an armistice was signed December 3, 1912, ending one of the shortest and most sanguinary wars in history. The treaty of peace was signed May 30, 1913.

(2) Servia, Greece, Roumania, Turkey vs. Bulgaria.

Causes: Disputes over the division of Macedonia.

Chief Actions: Mainly astounding atrocities and the re-occupation of Adrianople by Turkey.

Results: Reorganization of the Balkan states. Albania was made independent under an international commission of control; Crete was ceded to Greece; Macedonia was divided among Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria; and Roumania gained a strip from the northwest of Bulgaria. On September 17, 1913, an agreement between Bulgaria and Turkey provided that the latter retain Adrianople, Kirk Kilisseh, and Dimotika. September 28 the treaty between Bulgaria and Turkey was signed at Constantinople.

EUROPEAN WAR—1914-1917.

(1) Entente Allies (Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Belgium, Servia, Montenegro, Roumania, Portugal, Japan) vs. (2) Teutonic Allies (Germany, Austro-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria).

Causes: (1) The immediate occasion of this great conflict was the murder of the Crown Prince and Crown Princess of the Austro-Hungarian empire, on June 28, 1914, at Sarajevo, Bosnia, through the alleged instigation of a Servian revolutionary society, called the Narodna Odbrana, which had for its purpose the disrupting of the Austro-Hungarian empire, particularly those parts inhabited largely by Servians and other Slavic races, followed by a demand on the part of the Austro-Hungarian government that Servia suppress the criminal organization and permit the former to co-operate in the inquiry as to the accomplices on Servian territory in the murders of the Prince and Princess. This demand was refused by Servia, which immediately received the support of Russia, France and Great Britain, while Austria-Hungary received the support of Germany, and, later, of Turkey.

(2) The underlying causes were the following:

(a) The policy of Russia (popularly known as Pan-Slavism), an age-long political creed of Russian ambition, to dominate the Balkan countries and extend her dominions to the Bosphorus, the Ægean and the Adriatic.

(b) The ambition of France to regain Alsace-Lorraine, lost to her by the Franco-Prussian war.

(c) The determination of Great Britain to check the growth of Germany, politically, industrially, and especially commercially.

(3) More remote causes, and more specious ones, are alleged to be:

(a) The European political doctrine of the “Balance of Power,” which was the outgrowth of the Napoleonic wars, and received its first stamp of approval at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which settled the important boundaries of the map of Europe for more than half a century afterward. Subsequently, the “great powers” of Europe assumed the point of view that any acquisition of power, territory or population by any one of them entitled all the others to compensation; so that the relative strength and importance might not be disturbed. This rule has been applied to every important war since Napoleon’s time, and any threatened disturbance of this “balance” has always had in it the germ of a general conflict. Hence arose the historic “alliances,” known as the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Triple Entente, comprising France, Russia and Great Britain, on the other.

(b) Militarism, so-called, with its attendant jealousies and obstacles to social and economic reforms, and which might be said to be the direct fruits of the “balance of power” doctrine, as is also the doctrine of the “guaranteed neutrality” of certain small countries of Europe, which astute European diplomacy created for the purpose of “buffer” states.

Military Leaders: (1) Kitchener, French, Haig, Joffre, Grand Duke Nicholas, Kouropatkin, Brusiloff, Admirals Fisher and Jellicoe; (2) Emperor William, Hindenburg, Mackensen, Kluck, Falkenhayn, Archduke Frederick, Hoetzendorf, Crown Prince Frederick William, Admiral Tirpitz, Crown Prince Rupprecht, Enver Pasha.

Chief Theaters of Action: (1) Belgium; (2) Northern France; (3) Poland; (4) Dardanelles; (5) Servia and Balkans; (6) Roumania; (7) Austro-Italian Front; (8) Lithuania; (9) North Sea and Inlets; (10) Mediterranean; (11) German Colonial Possessions throughout the world.

Results: Except for the loss of Germany’s Colonial Possessions, the results of the war to date (1917) largely preponderate in favor of the Teutonic Allies—the land campaigns being almost overwhelmingly in their favor. (See further Great Battles of the World.)

Chronology of Great Events:

1914

June 28.—Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and the Duchess of Hohenberg at Sarajevo, Bosnia, by Servian student.

July 28.—Austria declares war on Servia, and hostilities commence, after Germany and Austria refuse England’s invitation to a conference.

August 1.—Germany formally declares war on Russia, and troops are ordered mobilized.

France mobilizes.

August 3.—Germany declares war on France. German troops enter Belgium.

August 4.—War declared by England on Germany.

August 6.—Austria declares war against Russia.

August 9.—Servia declares war on Germany.

August 11.—Montenegro declares war on Germany.

August 12.—France declares war on Austria-Hungary.

August 12.—England declares war on Austria.

August 23.—Japan in state of war with Germany.

August 25.—Austria declares war on Japan.

August 29.—Austria declares war on Belgium.

August 30.—Paris prepares for a siege.

September 5.—England, France and Russia agree not to treat for peace separately.

October 30.—Russia declares state of war exists with Turkey.

November 5.—Great Britain officially announces state of war with Turkey.

Servia severs diplomatic relations with Turkey.

1915

February 17.—Germans begin submarine campaign by sinking British collier without warning.

February 24.—Britain closes Irish and North channels to all navigation.

March 1.—Great Britain declares virtual blockade of German coast.

March 15.—British council order prohibits all traffic to and from Germany.

May 23.—Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary.

October 14.—Bulgaria declares war on Servia.

1916

August 27.—Italy declares war on Germany.

Roumania entered the war on the side of the allies.

October 11.—Upon demand of Great Britain and France the entire Greek fleet and sea-coast forts were turned over to the allies or dismantled.

December 7.—David Lloyd George accepted British post of Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury.

December 8.—Roumanian army trapped in Prahova Valley, surrendered to General von Mackensen’s forces.

December 12.—Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg announced to the Reichstag that Germany and her allies proposed to enter forthwith into peace negotiations.

1917

February.—The chief occurrences in the opening months of this year were the blockade declared by Germany against the Entente Allies, and the announcement of unrestricted submarine warfare upon neutral shipping to the nations composing that alliance. This course was justified by the German government as a retaliation against the starvation blockade instituted by Great Britain and her allies.

GREAT AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BATTLES.

This table includes those battles of decisive or far-reaching importance upon the destinies of the contestants. The dates are according to the Old Style, or Julian, calendar down to 1582; after that date, according to the New Style, or Gregorian, calendar. The victors in the various battles are printed in bold-face type. Details of minor American battles will be found in connection with the Outline Tables of American History. †Naval battles. *Indecisive results.

Name of Battle; Approximate Location; Date Contesting Nations or Parties Results and Marked Features of the Contest

Abensberg (ä´bens-berg), Bavaria, April 20, 1809 French and Bavarians vs. Austrians About 90,000 engaged on each side.

Aboukir (ä-bōō-kêr´), Battle of the Nile, Egypt, August 1, 1798 English vs. French Nelson cut off Napoleon’s return to Europe.

Aboukir, Egypt, July 25, 1799 French vs. Turks Two-thirds of Turkish troops killed.

† Abydos (ȧ-bī´dos), Hellespont, B. C. 411 Athenians vs. Peloponnesians ...

Acragas (ak´ra-gas), Siege of, Sicily, B. C. 406 Carthaginians vs. Greeks The citizens evacuated the fortress.

Acre (ä´ker or ā´ker), Siege of, Syria, 1189-1191 Christians vs. Saracens Richard the Lion Hearted won renown by this siege.

Acre, Siege of, Syria, March 17, 1799 Turks vs. French ...

† Actium (ak´shi-um), Greece, September 2, B. C. 31 Augustus vs. Antony At the critical moment Antony and Cleopatra sail away.

Adowa (ä´dō-wä), Northeast Africa, March 1, 1896 Ethiopians vs. Italians Italians routed with enormous loss.

Adrianople (ad-ri-an-ō´pl), Thrace, July 3, 323 Constantine vs. Licinius Constantine gained empire.

Adrianople, Thrace, 378 Visigoths vs. Romans Emperor Valens defeated and slain.

Adwalton (ad´wal-ton) Moor, England, January 30, 1643 Royalists vs. Parliamentarians ...

Ægadian Islands (ē-gā´di-an), Sicily, B. C. 241 Romans vs. Carthaginians This victory put an end to the first Punic war.

† Ægospotami (ē-gos-pot´a-mī), Thrace, B. C. 405 Spartans vs. Athenians Virtually ended Peloponnesian war.

Aghrim (ô´grim), Ireland, July 12, 1691 William III. vs. James II. Irish savagely slaughtered.

Agincourt (ȧ-zhan-kōōr); E. (aj´in-kört), France, October 25, 1415 English vs. French Great victory for Henry V.

Agnadello (ä-nyä-del´lō), Italy, May 14, 1509 French vs. Venetians One of the most disastrous battles in the history of Venice.

Agrigentum (ag-ri-jen´tum), Siege of, Sicily, B. C. 262 Romans vs. Carthaginians ...

Alamo (ä´lȧ-mō), Storming of the, Texas, U. S., February 22, 1836 Mexicans vs. Texans Survivors put to the sword.

Albuera (äl-bwā´rā), Spain, May 16, 1811 British vs. French Heavy losses on both sides.

Aleppo (ä-lep´ō), Syria, 638 Moslems vs. Syrians Last serious resistance in Syria to the invading Moslems.

Alexandria (ä-leks-än´dri-ä), Siege of, Egypt, 638 Moslems vs. Egyptians Left Moslems masters of Egypt.

Alexandria, Bombardment of, Egypt, July 11-12, 1882 English vs. Arabi Pasha Forts totally destroyed. English occupy Egypt.

Algiers (al-jērz´), Bombardment of, Algeria, 1816 English and Dutch vs. Dey of Algeria Dey agreed to total abolition of Christian slavery in his dominion.

Allia (al´i-ä), Italy, B. C. 390 Brennus and his Gauls vs. Romans Rome left defenseless.

Alma (äl´ma), Crimea, September 20, 1854 English and French vs. Russians British carried heights at the point of the bayonet.

Almansa (äl-män´sä), Spain, April 25, 1707 French vs. British and Portuguese Spain lost to the allies.

Amphipolis (am-fip´ō-lis), Siege of, Thrace, B. C. 422 Spartans vs. Athenians Both Brasidas and Cleon fell.

Anaquito (ä-nä-kē´tō), Peru, 1546 Pizarro vs. Viceroy Menez Government of Peru fell into Pizzaro’s hands.

Angora (an-gō´rȧ), Asia Minor, 1402 Tartars vs. Turks Tamerlane said to have had eight hundred thousand men.

Antietam (an-tē´tam), Maryland, U. S., September 17, 1862 * Confederates vs. U. S. Heavy losses on both sides. Lee’s army greatly outnumbered.

Antioch, Siege of, Syria, 1097-1098 Crusaders vs. Saracens Defenders massacred.

Antwerp (ant´wirp), Belgium, 1576 Spaniards vs. Walloons Massacre of inhabitants known as the “Spanish Fury.”

Appomattox (ap-pō-mat´oks), Virginia, U. S., April 9, 1865 U. S. vs. Confederates Marked the close of the American Civil war, and surrender of General Lee.

Aquae Sextiae (ā´kwe seks´ti-ē) Gaul, B. C. 102 Romans vs. Teutons Caius Marius annihilates the barbarian army.

Arbela (är-bē´lä), Persia, B. C. 331 Macedonians vs. Persians This victory made Alexander master of Asia.

Arcola (är´kō-lā), Italy, November 15-17, 1796 French under Napoleon vs. Austrians Napoleon prevented the junction of two Austrian armies.

Arcot (är-kot´), Siege of, India, August 31- November 15, 1751 English and Sepoys vs. French Robert Clive held out ten weeks against a far superior force before being relieved.

† Arginusae (är-ji-nū´sē), Asia Minor, B. C. 406 Athenians vs. Peloponnesians Command of the sea temporarily restored to Athens.

† Armada (är-mä´dä), The Invincible, English Channel, July, 1588 English vs. Spanish Beginning of English sea-power.

Arsuf (ar-suf), Syria, September 7, 1191 English Crusaders vs. Saracens Great victory of Richard the Lion Hearted over Saladin.

† Artemisium (ār-te-mish´um), Eubœa, B. C. 480 * Persians vs. Greeks Fought at the same time as the battle of Thermopylæ.

Ascalon (as´ka-lon), Syria, 1099 Crusaders vs. Saracens Moslem resistance to Christians ended for a time.

Asculum (as´ku-lum), Italy, B. C. 279 Pyrrhus vs. Romans Pyrrhus, though victorious, suffered great loss.

Aspern (äs´pern), Austria, May 21-22, 1809 * Austrians vs. French Napoleon retired. Each side lost about 20,000 men.

Assaye (ä-sī´), India, September 23, 1803 English vs. East Indians Sir Arthur Wellesley (later duke of Wellington) defeated forces almost ten times as numerous.

Austerlitz (ous´ter-lits), Austria, December 2, 1805 French vs. Russians, Austrians The Battle of the Three Emperors: Napoleon, Alexander I., Francis I.

† Azores (ȧ-zōrz´), Atlantic Ocean, 1591 Spanish vs. English Gallant fight made by Sir Richard Grenville in the Revenge.

Balaclava (bäl-ä-klä´vä), Crimea, October 25, 1854 Russians vs. English “Charge of the Light Brigade” celebrated by Tennyson.

Bannockburn (ban´ok-burn), Scotland, June 24, 1314 Scots vs. English Bruce drives back English invaders with great slaughter.

Barnet (bär´net), England, April 4, 1471 Yorkists vs. Lancastrians Earl of Warwick (“Kingmaker”) slain.

Bautzen (bout´sen), Germany, May 20-21, 1813 French vs. Prussians, Russians The allies lost 15,000 killed and wounded.

† Beachy Head, England, June 30, 1690 French vs. English, Dutch The French had been sent to create a diversion in favor of James II. in Ireland.

Belgrade (bel-grād´), Siege of, Servia, April, 1456 Hungarians vs. Turks John Hunyady’s last exploit.

Beneventum (ben-e-ven´tum), Italy, B. C. 275 Romans vs. Pyrrhus Pyrrhus’ last serious attack against the Romans.

Beresina (ber-yā´zē-nä), Crossing of the, Russia, November 28, 1812 Russians vs. French A most terrible disaster on the retreat from Moscow.

Bergen-op-Zoom (berch´en-op-zōm´), Siege of, Netherlands, 1747 French vs. English, Dutch French lost heavily in this siege.

Bibracte (bi-brak´tē), Gaul, B. C. 58 Romans vs. Helvetians A defeat would have meant destruction to Cæsar.

Blenheim (blen´im), Bavaria, August 13, 1704 British and Imperialists vs. French and Bavarians Brilliant victory of Marlborough and Prince Eugene.

Borodino (bor-o-dyē-nô´) commonly Anglicized, (bor-ō-dē´nō) * French vs. Russians One of the most bloody battles on record.

Bosworth Field, England, August, 1485 Lancastrians vs. Yorkists Richard III. slain; Henry Tudor becomes Henry VII. of England.

Bouvines (bö-vēn´) Flanders, 1214 French vs. Flemish, English and Germans Secures the position of Philip Augustus on the throne of France.

Bovianum (bö-vi-ä´num), Siege of, Italy, B. C. 305 Romans vs. Samnites End of second Samnite war.

Boyne (boin) river, Ireland, July 1, 1690 William III. vs. James II. Irish under James II. totally defeated.

Breitenfeld (brīt´en-felt), Germany, September 7, 1631 Swedes and Saxons vs. Imperialists Brilliant victory of Gustavus Adolphus over Tilly.

Breitenfeld, Germany, 1642 Swedes vs. Imperialists Victory of Tortenson over Piccolomini.

Brill, Seizure of, Holland, 1572 Netherlanders vs. Spanish The first success of the Netherlanders.

Buena Vista (bwā´nä vēs´tä), Mexico, February 22-23, 1847 Americans vs. Mexicans General Zachary Taylor victorious over much larger force.

Bull Run, Virginia, U. S. A., July 21, 1861 Confederates vs. Federals The first important battle of the Civil war.

Bunker’s Hill, Massachusetts, U. S. A., June 17, 1775 British vs. Americans Though dislodged from their position, the Americans won a practical victory.

Byzantium (bi-zan´shi-um), Siege of, Thrace, 323 Constantine vs. Licinius Byzantium refounded as Constantinople, the capital of the empire.

† Cadiz (kā´diz, Sp. kä´dēth), Spain, 1587 English vs. Spanish Here Drake “singed the King of Spain’s beard.”

Calais (Fr. kȧ-lä´), Siege of, France, 1346-1347 English vs. French Calais remained in English possession until 1558.

† Camperdown (kam-per-doun´), Holland, October 11, 1797 British vs. Dutch The Dutch fleet, allied with France, was practically destroyed.

Cannæ (kan´ē), Italy, B. C. 216 Carthaginians vs. Romans Hannibal inflicts one of the most disastrous defeats the Romans ever suffered.

† Cape St. Vincent, Portugal, February 14, 1797 British vs. Spanish Spanish fleet, allied with France, beaten by Admiral Jervis.

Capua (kap´ū-a; It. kä´pŏŏ-ä), Siege of, Italy, B. C. 211 Romans vs. Capuans and Carthaginians Hannibal was unable to break through Roman lines and relieve the city.

Carrhæ (kar´ē), Mesopotamia, B. C. 53 Parthians vs. Romans Crassus, one of the triumvirs, defeated and shortly after slain.

Carthage (kär´thij), Siege of, North Africa, B. C. 146 Romans vs. Carthaginians Carthage razed to the ground.

Castillon (käs-te-yôn´), France, July 17, 1453 French vs. English This victory ended the Hundred Years’ war.

† Catana (kä-tän´ä), Sicily, B. C. 387 Carthaginians vs. Syracusans Syracusans utterly routed. Carthaginians besieged Syracuse.

Caudine (kâ´din) Forks, Italy, B. C. 321 Samnites vs. Romans The whole Roman army was “sent under the yoke.”

Cawnpore (kân´pōr), India, December 6, 1857 British vs. Mutineers Sir Colin Campbell routs mutineers.

Chæronea (ker-ō-nēȧ), Greece, B. C. 338 Macedonians vs. Athenians and Thebans Philip of Macedon wins hegemony of Greece.

Chalons (shä-lôn´), France, 451 Romans and Visigoths vs. Huns Attila retreated and western Europe was saved from the Huns.

Chattanooga (chat-ȧ-nōō´gȧ) Tennessee, U. S. A., November 24-27, 1863 Federals vs. Confederates The “Battle above the Clouds” fought on Lookout Mountain.

Chickamauga (chik-ȧ-mô´-gȧ), Tennessee, U. S. A., Sept. 19-20, 1863 Confederates vs. Federals Federal losses 16,000; Confederate about 12,000.

Chioggia (kyod´jā), Blockade of, Venetia, January to June, 1380 Venetians vs. Genoese Loss of this city broke the power of the Genoese republic for many years.

Chotusitz (chō´tö-zits) (Caslau), Bohemia, May 17, 1742 Prussians vs. Austrians This victory led Austria to sign the peace of Breslau, June 11, 1742.

Clusium (klōō´shi-um), Italy, B. C. 225 Gauls vs. Romans Romans said to have lost 25,000.

† Cnidus (nī´dus), Asia Minor, B. C. 394 Athenians and Persians vs. Spartans Sparta lost her recently gained maritime ascendency.

Colenso (kō-len´sō), South Africa, December 15, 1899 Boers vs. British First action in Buller’s campaign for the relief of Ladysmith.

Colline (kol´in) Gate, Rome, B. C. 82 Optimates vs. Democrates and Samnites Sulla’s victory ended the Roman civil war.

† Constantinople (kon-stan-ti-nō´pl), Siege of, Thrace, 1204 Crusaders and Venetians vs. Greek Empire Baldwin of Flanders becomes Latin emperor of the East.

Constantinople, Siege of, Thrace, April 26-May 29, 1453 Turks vs. Greeks Final overthrow of Greek Empire.

Copenhagen (kō-pen-hā´gen), Bombardment of, Denmark, 1807 British vs. Danish England forces surrender of Danish fleet to save it from Napoleon.

Coronea (kor-ŏ-nē´ȧ), Greece, B. C. 394 Sparta vs. Thebes, Corinth, Argos and Athens Agesilaus, Spartan king, compelled to evacuate Bœotia.

Corunna (kō-run´ȧ), Spain, January 16, 1809 British vs. French Sir John Moore killed. French kept at bay while British embarked.

Courtral (kŏŏ-trā´), Flanders, July 11, 1302 Flemish vs. French “Battle of the Spurs.” Great carnage among French knighthood.

Crécy (krā´sē), France, August 26, 1346 English vs. French Victory due to English archers.

Crimisus (kri-mī´sus), the river, Sicily, B. C. 340 Sicilians vs. Carthaginians Secured Greek towns of Sicily peace for many years.

Culloden (ku-lō´den or -lod´en), Scotland, April 16, 1746 British vs. Scots under Young Pretender Last attempt of the Stuarts to recover British throne.

Cunaxa (kū-nak´sȧ), Babylonia, B. C. 401 Cyrus and the “Ten Thousand” vs. Persians Cyrus was slain and the Greeks made the “Anabasis” to the sea.

Custozza (kös-tōd´zā), Italy, June 24, 1866 Austrians vs. Italians Though defeated, the Italians gained Venetia through Prussia.

Cynoscephalae (sī-nō-sef´ȧ-lē or sin-ō), Greece, B. C. 197 Romans vs. Macedonians Philip V. forced to abandon the hegemony of Greece.

† Cyzicus (siz´i-kus), Propontis, B. C. 410 Athenians vs. Peloponnesians Alcibiades surprised and practically annihilated the Peloponnesian fleet.

Dardanelles (där-dȧ-nelz´) Campaign, Turkey, March 18, 1915, to January 9, 1916 Turks vs. British and French British and French withdrew after a loss of 115,000, killed, wounded or prisoners.

Delhi (del´i), Siege of, India, June 8 to September 20, 1857 British vs. Mutineers Delhi was the real center of the Indian mutiny.

Delium (dē´li-um), Greece, B. C. 424 Bœotians vs. Athenians Decisive and disastrous defeat for Athenians.

Dennewitz (den´ne-vits), Germany, September 6, 1813 Russians, Prussians, Austrians and Swedes, Allies, vs. French Victory of Bernadotte (afterward Charles XIV. of Sweden) over Ney.

Deorham (de-or´häm), England, 577 West Saxons vs. Welsh Wessex extended to Bristol channel, severing Welsh into two parts.

Dessau (des´ou), Germany, 1626 Imperialists vs. Protestants Wallenstein totally routed Mansfeld.

Dettingen (det´ing-en), Germany, June 27, 1743 British vs. French Last battle in which a British sovereign engaged in person.

Douro (dō´rŏŏ, Span. dwā´rō), the river, Portugal, May 12, 1809 British vs. French French driven out of Oporto.

† Downs, The, North Sea, June 11-14, 1666 * Dutch vs. English English fleet took shelter in the Thames; Dutch too crippled to pursue.

† Drepana (drep´a-nä), Sicily, B. C. 249 Carthaginians vs. Romans This and other defeats led Romans to abandon the sea temporarily.

Dresden (drez´den; Ger. drās´den), Germany, August 26, 27, 1813 French vs. Russians, Prussians, and Austrians Napoleon’s last great victory on German soil.

Drogheda (drô´he-dȧ or drô´e-dȧ), Storm of, Ireland, Sept. 12, 1649 British and Parliamentarians vs. Royalists Cromwell put the garrison to the sword.

Dunbar (dun-bär´), Scotland, Sept. 3, 1650 Parliamentarians vs. Scottish Royalists Cromwell’s victory followed by the surrender of Edinburgh and Glasgow.

Ebersberg (ā´bers-berg), Storm of, Bavaria, May 3, 1809 French vs. Austrians A horrible combat in which thousands were burned in the ruined village.

† Ecnomus (ek´no-mus), Sicily, B. C. 256 Romans vs. Carthaginians Romans laid waste Carthaginian territory in Africa.

Edgehill, England, October 23, 1642 * Royalists vs. Parliamentarians The first battle of the Civil war. Royalists march on London.

El Caney (el kä-nā´), Cuba, July 1, 1898 Americans vs. Spaniards The chief battle of the war in Cuba.

Ellandun (el´lan-dön), England, 825 West Saxons vs. Mercians The West Saxon Egbert becomes overlord of all the English.

Evesham (ēvz´ham), England, August 4, 1265 Prince Edward vs. Simon Montfort This defeat ended the war. Simon de Montfort fell.

Eylau (ī´lau), Prussia, February 8, 1807 * Russians and Prussians vs. French The bloodiest and most desperate battle of a century.

Falkirk (fôl´kerk; Scot., fô´kerk), Scotland, July 22, 1298 English vs. Scotch Edward I. utterly routed Wallace.

Fehrbellin (fār-bel-lēn´), Brandenburg, June 18, 1675 Brandenburgers vs. Swedes The first great victory of Brandenburg, Prussia.

Flodden (flod´n), England, September 9, 1513 English vs. Scots The Scottish king perished, with the bravest of his nobility.

Fontanet (fôn-tän-ā´), France, June 20, 841 Louis and Charles vs. Lothaire (Grandsons of Charlemagne) Followed by the famous Partition of Verdun (843).

Fontenoy (fôn-t´-nwä´), Belgium, May 11, 1745 French vs. British, Dutch and Austrians Last great victory of France under the Old Regime.

Fornovo (for-no´vō), Italy, July 6, 1495 French vs. Italians Charles VIII. enabled to continue his retreat following his conquest of Naples.

Friedland (frēt´länt or frēd´länt), Prussia, June 14, 1807 French vs. Russians This defeat induced the Czar to conclude the peace of Tilsit.

Gettysburg (get´iz-bûrg), Pennsylvania, U. S. A., July 1-3, 1863 Federals vs. Confederates One of the bloodiest battles of the war, forcing Lee from northern soil.

Gibraltar (ji-brâl´tär), Siege of, Spain, 1779-1782 British vs. French and Spanish The last formidable attack upon Gibraltar (British since 1704).

Granada (grä-nä´dä; Sp. grä-nä´thä), Capitulation of, Spain, January 2, 1492 Spaniards vs. Moors Completes the overthrow of the Moorish power in Spain.

Granicus (grä-nī´kus) River, Asia Minor, B. C. 334 Alexander the Great vs. Persians and Greek Mercenaries Destroyed the only army opposed to Alexander in Asia Minor.

Granson (gran-sôn´) Switzerland, March 2, 1476 Swiss vs. Burgundians First of the three great victories of the Swiss over Charles the Bold.

Gravelotte (gräv-lot´), Lorraine, August 18, 1870 Prussians vs. French The first great victory of the Prussians in the war.

Guinegate (gēn-gȧt´), France, August 16, 1513 English and Imperialists vs. French Called the “Battle of the Spurs” from the French haste in flight.

Haarlem (här´lem), Siege of, Holland, Dec. 9-July 14, 1572-1573 Spaniards vs. Dutch 30,000 Spaniards against 4,000 Dutch; 2,000 Dutch massacred.

Halidon (hal´i-dn), Hill, England, July 19, 1333 Edward III. of England vs. Scots Won by combination of archers and dismounted men-at-arms.

† Hampton (hämp´tn) Roads, Virginia, U. S. A., March 8, 1862 Monitor (Federal) vs. Merrimac (Confederate) After this wooden ships give way to ironclads in naval warfare.

Hastenbeck, Germany, July 26, 1757 French vs. Hanoverians Followed by the convention of Closter-Zeven, which George II. repudiated.

Hastings (hās´tingz), England, October 14, 1066 Normans vs. English Harold fell; William the Conqueror became king of England.

Heraclea (her-ȧ-klē´ȧ or -klī´ȧ), Italy, B. C. 280 King Pyrrhus vs. Romans “One more such victory and I shall be ruined.”—Pyrrhus.

Hexham (hek´sam), England, May 15, 1464 Yorkists vs. Lancastrians The Lancastrian cause was completely crushed by this defeat.

Himera (him´er-ȧ), Sicily, B. C. 480 Syracuse and Agrigentum vs. Carthaginians Hamilcar slain. Carthaginians purchased peace for 2,000 talents.

Himera, Siege of, Sicily, B. C. 409 Carthaginians vs. Sicilian Greeks Town sacked and prisoners sacrificed to the shade of Hamilcar.

Höchst (hûkst), Germany, June 20, 1622 Imperialists vs. Palatinate troops Practically ends the Bohemian-Palatinate phase of the Thirty Years’ war.

Hohenfriedburg (hō´ēn-frēd´-berg), Germany, June, 1745 Prussians vs. Austrians and Saxons One of Frederick the Great’s victories; due partly to Austrian overconfidence.

Hohenlinden (hō-en-lin´den), Bavaria, December 3, 1800 French vs. Austrians The crowning event of the winter campaign; won by Moreau.

Hohkirchen (hō´kirch-en), Germany, October 14, 1758 Austrians vs. Prussians Frederick the Great, though surprised by a night attack, made good his retreat.

Homildon (hom´l-dn), Hill, England, September 14, 1402 English vs. Scots Another great victory due to the prowess of the English longbowmen.

Hydaspes (hī-das´pēz) River, India, B. C. 326 Greeks vs. Asiatics The last important battle in the eastward advance of Alexander the Great.

Inkermann (ing-ker-män´), Crimea, November 5, 1854 British and French vs. Russians A series of hand-to-hand combats fought in a dense fog.

Inverlochy (in-ver-lock´i), Scotland, February 2, 1645 Royalist Highlanders vs. Campbells and Lowland Covenanters Power of the Campbells in the Highlands broken for many years.

Ipsus (ip´sus), Asia Minor, B. C. 301 Seleucus vs. Antigonus Chief battle between Alexander’s generals over the partition of his empire.

Issus (is´us), Asia Minor, B. C. 333 Macedonians vs. Asiatics Alexander’s brilliant victory over an immense horde of Persians.

Ivry (ēv-rē´), France, March 14, 1590 Huguenots vs. Catholics Henry IV. gained a complete victory and invested Paris, his capital.

Jarnac (zhär-nak´), France, March 13, 1569 Catholics vs. Huguenots Prince de Condé slain.

Jemmapes (zhe-mäp´), Belgium, November 6, 1792 French vs. Austrians Followed by annexation of the Austrian Netherlands to France.

Jena (yā´nä), Germany, October 14, 1806 French vs. Prussians Napoleon advanced thence to Berlin and issued the decree for a continental blockade.

Jerusalem (jē-rōō´sȧ-lem) Siege of, Syria, 70 Jews vs. Romans Titus destroyed the city and massacred or sold into slavery its inhabitants.

Jerusalem, Storm of, Syria, July 15, 1099 Crusaders vs. Moslems A terrible massacre; feudal kingdom established under Godfrey of Bouillon.

† Jutland, Baltic Sea, May 31, 1916 Germans vs. British British admitted the loss of six large cruisers and destroyers, the Germans a battleship, a cruiser, four light cruisers and five destroyers. The loss of life totaled 9,500 and the battle ended with the withdrawal of the German fleet.

Kappel (käp´pel), Switzerland, October 11, 1531 Swiss Catholic Cantons vs. Zurichers Zwingli, the Swiss Protestant reformer, fell in this battle.

Kars (kärs), Storm of, Armenia, November 17-18, 1877 Russians vs. Turks Russian success caused angry negotiations between England and Russia.

Katzbach (käts´baK), Germany, August 26, 1813 Prussians vs. French A decisive victory of Blücher over one of Napoleon’s marshals.

Khartoum (kär-töm´), Siege of, Soudan, March 12-January 26, 1884-1885 Mahdi vs. Gordon “Chinese” Gordon killed; the Soudan evacuated by the Anglo-Egyptian government.

Killiecrankie (kil-i-krang´ki), Scotland, July 17, 1689 Highland Jacobites vs. Royalists The Jacobite victory was nullified by the fall of their leader, Dundee.

Kimberley (kim´ber-li), Siege of, South Africa, October 15, 1899 to February 15, 1900 British vs. Boers The brilliant defense of Kimberley was a notable feature of the war.

Kin-chau (kin-chow´), Manchuria, May 26, 1904 Japanese vs. Russians General Oku opened the way for the land investment of Port Arthur.

Koniggrätz (kû´nich-gräts´), (or Sadowa), Germany, July 3, 1866 Prussians vs. Austrians This victory gave the supremacy in Germany to Prussia, unity to North Germany.

Kolin (kō-lēn´), Bohemia, June 18, 1757 Austrians vs. Prussians Following this defeat, Frederick the Great evacuated Bohemia.

Kossova (kos´ō-vō), Servia, June 15, 1389 Turks vs. Christian Slavs A battle famed in the history, legend and literature of Servia.

Kossova, Servia, October 17-19, 1448 Turks vs. Christians The hero, John Hunyady, overcome at the cost of 40,000 Turkish lives.

Kotzim (cho-tem´), Russia, November 11, 1673 Poles vs. Turks John Sobieski, by sheer personal ascendency, stems tide of Turkish advance.

Kulm (kōōlm), Germany, August 29-30, 1813 Austrians, Russians and Prussians vs. Napoleon 7,000 French capitulate; “The Caudine Forks of modern war.” Conduces to the defeat at Leipzig.

Kunersdorf (kōō´ners-dorf), Germany, August 12, 1759 Austrians and Russians vs. Prussians Inactivity of the allies saved Frederick the Great from annihilation.

† Lade (lā´dē), Asia Minor, B. C. 494 Persians vs. Ionian Greeks This defeat put an end to the Ionian revolt.

Ladysmith (lā´di-smith), Siege of, South Africa, November 2, 1899 to February, 1900 British vs. Boers Like the siege of Kimberley, a notable incident of the war.

† La Hogue (lä hōg), Northwestern France, May 10-20, 1692 English and Dutch vs. French Overthrew the hopes of James II. of recovering his throne.

† Lake Erie, Lake Erie, September 10, 1813 Americans vs. British “We have met the enemy and they are ours.”—Perry.

† La Rochelle (lä rō-shel´), France, June 22-23, 1372 French and Spaniards vs. English Control of the sea passes for a time to the side of the French.

La Rochelle, Siege of, France, November 1, 1627 to October 28, 1628 Richelieu vs. Huguenots and English Huguenots no longer an armed political party but a tolerated sect.

Lechfeld (lech´feld), Germany, August 10, 955 Otto I. vs. Hungarians A crushing defeat inflicted on the waning power of the Hungarians.

Lech (lech), the river, Germany, April 15, 1632 Gustavus Adolphus vs. German Catholic League Tilly mortally wounded.

Legnano (len-yä´nō), Italy, May 29, 1176 Lombard League vs. Frederick Barbarossa In the peace of Constance (1183), Frederick renounced all regal privileges over the cities.

Leipzig (līp´sik), Saxony, September 17, 1631 Swedes and Saxons vs. Catholic Imperialists Brilliant victory of Gustavus Adolphus saves Protestant cause.

Leipzig, Saxony, October 16, 18-19, 1813 Allies vs. Napoleon This disaster lost Germany to Napoleon.

Le Mans (le mon´), France, January 6-12, 1871 Prussians vs. French French army almost annihilated.

† Lepanto (le-pan´tō), Gulf of Corinth, October 7, 1751 Don John of Austria vs. Turks One of the most splendid naval victories ever achieved.

Leuctura (lūk´tra), Greece, B. C. 371 Thebans vs. Spartans Epaminondas’ overthrow of Sparta gives Thebes the hegemony in Greece.

Leuthen (loi´ten), Germany, December 5, 1757 Prussians vs. Austrians This battle “would alone make Frederick immortal and rank him among the greatest generals.”—Napoleon.

Lewes (lū´is), England, May 14, 1264 Simon de Montfort vs. Henry III. and Prince Edward Simon de Montfort’s victory followed by Parliament, the first to which borough representatives were called (1265).

Leyden (lī´den), Siege of, Holland, May 26 to October 3, 1574 Dutch vs. Spaniards Prince of Orange cut the dikes to bring the fleet to the relief of the city.

Liegnitz (lēch´nits), Germany, August 15, 1760 Prussians vs. Austrians Frederick prevented the union of the Austrians and Russians.

Ligny (lēn-yē´), Belgium, June 16, 1815 Napoleon vs. Blücher Napoleon’s last victory; Blücher joined Wellington at Waterloo on the 18th.

Lille (lēl), Siege of, France, August 12 to October 22, 1708 Imperialists vs. French France now lay open to the advance of the allies.

Lilybæum (lil-i-bē´um), Siege of, Sicily, B. C. 250-241 Carthaginian vs. Romans One of the most protracted sieges in history, surrendered only with Sicily at close of war.

Linkoping (lēn´chû-ping), Sweden, September 25, 1598 Swedes vs. Poles under King Sigismund Led to perpetual hostility between Sweden and Poland in seventeenth century.

† Lissa (lis´a), Adriatic, July 20, 1866 Austrians vs. Italians The only battle between ironclads fought in European waters.

Lobositz (lō´bō-zits), Bohemia, October 1, 1756 * Prussians vs. Austrians 18,000 Saxons besieged at Pirna were now forced into the Prussian army.

Lodi (lō´dē), Bridge of, Italy, May 10, 1796 Napoleon Bonaparte vs. Austrians This success gave the whole of Lombardy to the French.

Loigny-Poupry (lwän-ye´ poo-pree´), France, December 2, 1870 Prussians vs. French Prevented the French from relieving Orleans.

Louisburg (lö´ē-berg), Siege of, Canada, June 8 to July 27, 1758 British vs. French Destruction of one of the strongest fortresses in North America.

Lucknow (luk´nou), Siege of, India, March 19, 1857 to July 1, 1858 British vs. Sepoy mutineers The turning of the tide; next year the mutiny was totally quelled.

Lutter (löt´ter), Germany, August 26, 1626 Catholics and Imperialists vs. Danes and Protestant Germans Christian of Denmark, severely defeated, retires into Holstein and Mecklenburg.

Lützen (lüt´sen), Saxony, November 16, 1632 Swedes and Protestant Germans vs. Catholics and Imperialists Gustavus Adolphus slain in winning his third great victory.

Lützen, Saxony, May 2, 1813 Napoleon vs. Allies The first battle in the great German War of Liberation.

Luzzara (löt-sä´rä), Italy, August 15, 1702 * French vs. Imperialists Followed by French ascendency in Italy until 1706.

Macalo (mäk-ä´lo), Italy, October 11, 1427 Venice vs. Milan Carmagnola gained a brilliant victory over the famous condottieri, Sforza, Piccinino and Malatesta.

Madras (mä-dras´), Siege of, India, Dec. 12, 1758 to Feb. 16, 1759 English vs. French Failure to take Madras was a great blow to French power in India.

Maestricht (mäs´tricht), Siege of, Belgium, March 12 to June 29, 1579 Spaniards vs. Netherlanders Inhabitants and garrison massacred.

Mafeking (maf´e-king), Siege of, South Africa, Oct., 1899 to May 17, 1900 British vs. Boers Baden Powell’s resistance aroused world-wide enthusiasm.

Magdeburg (mäg´de-bŏŏrch), Storm of, Germany, May 20, 1631 Catholics and Imperialists vs. inhabitants The sack of Magdeburg is one of the darkest spots on the pages of history.

Magenta (mä-jen´tä), Italy, June 4, 1859 French and Piedmontese vs. Austrians Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel entered Milan.

Magnesia (mag-nē´shȧ), Asia Minor, B. C. 190 Romans vs. Antiochus the Great The kingdom of the Seleucidæ dismembered.

Malaga (mä´lä-gä), Spain, May 8 to August 18, 1487 Spaniards vs. Moors The inhabitants were sold into slavery.

† Malaga, Spain, August 24, 1704 * English and Dutch vs. French French fleet prevented from uniting with Spanish which was besieging Gibraltar.

Malakoff (mä-lä´kof), Storm of, Crimea, September 8, 1855 French vs. Russians Loss of this and other earthworks led that night to the evacuation of Sebastopol.

Malo-Jaroslavitz (mä´lō yä-rō-slä´vets), Russia, October 24, 1812 * Russians vs. French Napoleon was obliged to abandon southerly line of retreat from Moscow.

Malplaquet (mȧl-plȧ-kā´), France, September 11, 1709 British and Imperialists vs. French Bloodiest battle of this war; “carnage, not a battle.”

† Manila (mȧ-nil´ȧ) Bay, Philippines, May 1, 1898 Americans vs. Spaniards Admiral Dewey totally destroyed the Spanish fleet.

Mansurah (män-sōō´rä), Egypt, April 8, 1250 * French Crusaders vs. Saracens The last of the great pitched battles of the crusaders. Shortly after Louis IX. was captured and ruinously ransomed.

Mantineia (man-ti-nē´ȧ), Greece, B. C. 418 Spartans vs. Athenians and Argives The Spartans regained their supremacy in Peloponnesus.

Mantineia, Greece, B. C. 362 Thebans vs. Spartans The death of Epaminondas in this battle ends Theban supremacy.

Mantua (man´tū-ȧ), Siege of, Italy, June, 1796, to February 2, 1797 French vs. Austrians The close of Napoleon’s marvelous first Italian campaign.

Marathon (mär´ȧ-thon), Greece, B. C. 490 Athenians and Plataeans vs. Persians Miltiades’ victory causes Persians to abandon their first expedition against Greece.

Mardia (mär´di-ä), Thrace, 315 Licinius vs. Constantine the Great Licinius lost all his European territory except Thrace.

Marengo (mä-reng´gō), Italy, June 14, 1800 French vs. Austrians Won for Napoleon largely by General Desaix.

Marignano (ma-rēn-yä´nō), Italy, September 13, 14, 1515 French vs. Swiss Francis I. reconquered Milan by this brilliant victory.

Marne (märn), a river in France, September 5-7, 1914 Allies vs. Germans Germans forced to retreat and capture of Paris averted.

Marsaglia (mär-säl´yä), Italy, October 4, 1693 French vs. Duke of Savoy French infantry with bayonets charged the cavalry, a new maneuver.

Marston Moor, England, July 2, 1644 Parliamentarians vs. Royalists This victory, due to Cromwell’s Ironsides, gave the north to parliament.

Maserfield (mä´ser-feld), England, 642 Mercians vs. Northumbrians Mercia becomes a competitor with Northumbria for English hegemony.

Maxen (mäks´en), Germany, November 20, 1759 Austrians vs. Prussians The capitulation of Finck with 12,000 Prussian soldiers disastrous to Frederick.

Maypu (mä´pö), Chili, April 5, 1818 Chilians vs. Spaniards Established the independence of Chili.

Medellin (mā-tnel-yēn´), Spain, March 28, 1809 French vs. Spaniards Spaniards mercilessly sabered in the pursuit, losing 18,000.

Megalopolis (meg-ȧ-lop´ō-lis), Greece, B. C. 331 Macedonians vs. Spartans Antipater, in absence of Alexander, puts down revolted Spartans in a bloody battle.

Mentana (men-tä´nä), Italy, November 3, 1867 Garibaldians vs. French and Papal troops Garibaldians routed after defeating papal forces.

† Messina (mes-sē´nä), Sicily, September 28, 1282 Sicilians and Aragonese vs. French Charles of Anjou evacuated Sicily, which his descendants never recovered.

Metaurus (mā-tau´rus), Italy, B. C. 207 Romans vs. Carthaginians Italy saved by preventing the junction of Hasdrubal with Hannibal.

Metz (mets), Siege of, Lorraine, August 19 to October 27, 1870 Prussians vs. French The release of the besieging army for service elsewhere was fatal to the French cause.

Milazzo (mē-lät´sō), Sicily, July 20, 1860 Garibaldians vs. Neapolitans This completes the expulsion of the Neapolitans from Sicily.

Minden (min´den), Prussia, August 1, 1759 English, Hessians and Hanoverians vs. French The French were decisively beaten and driven from Hesse.

Miraflores (mē-rä-flō´res), Argentina, January 13 and 15, 1883 Chilians vs. Peruvians Practically ended the war of the Pacific (1879-1884) between Chili, and Bolivia and Peru.

Missolonghi (mis-ō-long´gē), Siege of, Greece, April 27, 1825 to April 22-23, 1826 Turks vs. Greeks Greek heroism excited sympathy throughout Europe. (Byron died here, 1824.)

Mitylene (mit-i-lē´nē), Siege of, Lesbos, B. C. 428-427 Athenians vs. Revolted inhabitants Prisoners killed, walls pulled down, fleet forfeited, annual tribute imposed.

Modder (mod´er) River, South Africa, November 28, 1899 British vs. Boers Lord Methuen drives Cronje from his intrenchments after a fierce fight.

Mohacs (mō´häch), Hungary, August 29, 1526 Turks vs. Hungarians “Never was a single battle so disastrous to a people.”

Mollwitz (mōl´vitz), Germany, April 10, 1741 Prussians vs. Austrians Frederick’s victory forces Europe to recognize in Prussia a new power.

Montaperti (mon-tä-per´tē), Italy, September 4, 1260 Florentine Ghibellines, Siennese vs. Guelphs of Florence Secured the triumph of the Ghibellines over all Tuscany.

Monterey (mon-te-rā´), Mexico, September 21-23, 1846 Americans vs. Mexicans Followed by the occupation of the whole of northern Mexico.

Montreal (mont-ri-ôl´), Canada, September 8, 1760 British vs. French Completes the British conquest of Canada from France.

Mook (mōk), Holland, April 14, 1574 Spaniards vs. Dutch The battle terminated in a horrible butchery of the patriot army.

Morgarten (mōr´gār-ten), Switzerland, November 15, 1315 Swiss vs. Austrians The first battle fought for Swiss independence.

Mortimer’s (môr´ti-mer) Cross, England, February 2, 1461 Yorkists vs. Lancastrians The Yorkist prince advanced to London and was proclaimed king as Edward IV.

Mukden (mŏŏk-den´), Manchuria, February 24 to March 10, 1905 Japanese vs. Russians Release of Japanese from before Port Arthur enables Oyama to crush Kuropatkin.

Mühlberg (mül´berg), Saxony, April 24, 1547 Charles V. and Prince Maurice vs. Saxony and Hesse Maurice in 1552 retrieves his treason to Protestantism by driving Charles V. from Germany.

Muhldorf (mül´dorf), Bavaria, September 28, 1322 Louis of Bavaria vs. Frederick of Austria The disputed imperial election, over which this battle was fought, began a new struggle between empire and papacy.

Munda (mun´dä), Spain, B. C. 45 Julius Cæsar vs. Pompeians Cæsar’s last battle; it put an end to armed resistance.

Muret (mü-rā´), France, September 12, 1213 Crusaders vs. Albigenses and Aragonese Practically ends the Albigensian crusade; Toulousean territories pass ultimately to the French crown.

Mycale (mik´ȧ-lē), Asia Minor, B. C. 479 Greeks vs. Persians This battle and that of Platæa end the Persian wars against Greece.

† Mylæ (mī´lē), Sicily, B. C. 260 Romans vs. Carthaginians First naval victory of Romans; due to boarding bridges.

Näfels (nā´fels), Switzerland, April 9, 1388 Swiss vs. Austrians Hapsburgs renounced all feudal claims over the Swiss cantons (1389).

Nancy (nän-sē´), Lorraine, January 5, 1477 Swiss vs. Charles the Bold Charles was slain, leaving his motley territories a prey to neighboring princes.

Narva (när´vä), Russia, November 30, 1700 Swedes vs. Russians Charles XII. won a brilliant victory over the much larger army of Peter the Great.

Naseby (näz´bi), England, June 14, 1645 Parliamentarians vs. Royalists Complete defeat of Charles I., followed by the general ruin of his cause.

† Naupactus (nô-pak´tus), Gulf of Corinth, B. C. 429 Athenians vs. Peloponnesians Victory wrested from defeat by the genius of Phormio, the Athenian commander.

† Navarino (nā-vā-rē´nō), Greece, October 20, 1827 English, French and Russians vs. Turks Destruction of Turkish naval power; Ibrahim retreats from Morea.

Navas de Tolosa (nā´väs dā-tō-lō´sä), Spain, July 16, 1212 Spaniards vs. Moors Secured forever the preponderance of Christianity in Spain.

Neerwinden (nār´vin-den), Belgium, July 24, 1693 French vs. English The French won a brilliant but barren victory over William III.

Neville’s (nev´ilz) Cross, England, October 17, 1346 English vs. Scots Scots crushed at home, while Edward III. was winning Crécy.

New Orleans (ôr´li-anz), Louisiana, U. S. A., January 8, 1815 Americans vs. British Owing to slowness of communication, Jackson fought this battle after peace had been made.

Nicæa (nī-sē´ȧ), Siege of, Asia Minor, 1097 Crusaders vs. Turks First conquest of crusaders in the East.

Nicopolis (ni-kop´ō-lis), Asia Minor, B. C. 66 Pompey vs. Mithradates Mithridates’ last fight against the legions of Rome.

Nördlingen (nerd´ling-en), Bavaria, September 6, 1634 Catholics and Imperialists vs. Swedes and German Protestants One of the most bloody and decisive battles of the war; followed by the peace of Prague.

Northampton (nôrth-amp´tn), England, July 10, 1460 Yorkists vs. Lancastrians Capture of Henry VI.; flight of Queen Margaret and her son to Scotland.

Numantia (nū-man´shi-ȧ), Siege of, Spain, B. C. 142-133 Romans vs. Celtiberian tribes City razed by Scipio Æmilianus and its inhabitants sold as slaves.

Obligado (ōb-lē-gä´thō), Bombardment of, Argentina, Nov. 28, 1845 British and French vs. Argentines Over the opening the waters of the Parana to the shipping of all nations.

Olmutz (ol´müts), Siege of, Moravia, May 27 to July 1, 1758 Austrians vs. Prussians General Daun forced Frederick the Great to raise the siege and retire.

Orleans (or-lā-än´); Eng. (ôr´li-anz), Siege of, France, October 13, 1428, to May 8, 1429 French vs. English Joan of Arc saves France by driving back English and crowns Charles VII. at Rheims.

Ostend (ost-end´), Siege of, Belgium, July, 1601 to September, 1604 Spaniards vs. Dutch garrison and inhabitants Scarcely a house in the town left standing; Spaniards lost 70,000.

Ostrolenka (os-tro-leng´kä), Poland, May 26, 1831 Russians vs. Poles Poland becomes a province of the Russian Empire (1832).

Otterburn (ot´er-bûrn), England, August 10, 1388 Scots vs. English The ballad of Chevy Chase deals with this battle.

Otumba (ō-töm´bä), Mexico, July 8, 1520 Cortez vs. Aztecs Two hundred Spanish horsemen rout an immense army and make good their retreat.

Oudenarde (ou-de-när´de), Belgium, July 11, 1708 English and Imperialists vs. French One of the great victories of Marlborough and Prince Eugene over Louis XIV.

Palmyra (pal-mī´rȧ), Siege of, Syria, 272-273 Roman vs. Queen Zenobia Palmyra destroyed and Zenobia taken captive to Rome.

Palo Alto (pä´lō-äl´tō), Mexico, May 8, 1846 Americans vs. Mexicans Mexicans completely routed at small cost to the victors.

Panormus (pa-nôr´mus), Sicily, B. C. 251 Romans vs. Carthaginians Brilliant victory restored confidence to Romans; demonstrated value of elephants in warfare.

Paris (par´is), Siege of, France, Sept. 19, 1870 to Jan. 28, 1871 Prussians vs. French City reduced to desperate conditions through bombardment, famine and disease.

Pavia (pä-vē´ä), Italy, 1525 Emperor Charles V. vs. Francis I. of France The capture of Francis was followed by the peace of Madrid, which, however, was soon repudiated.

Pharsalus (fär-sā´lus), Greece, B. C. 48 Cæsar vs. Pompey The West and the new monarchy completely triumphed over the East and the old republic.

Philippi (fi-lip´ī), Thrace, B. C. 42 Antony and Octavius vs. Brutus and Cassius Cassius and Brutus committed suicide following their defeat.

Pinkie (ping´ki), Scotland, September 10, 1547 English vs. Scots Scots thrown into the arms of France and the little queen, Mary, married to the dauphin.

Plassey (pläs´ē), India, June 23, 1757 English vs. Bengalese Established English control in Bengal and ultimately in all India.

Platæa (pla-tē´ȧ), Greece, B. C. 479 Greeks vs. Persians Won by the discipline and prowess of the Spartan hoplites.

Plevna (plev´nä), Siege of, Bulgaria, July 16 to December 10, 1877 Russians vs. Turks Brilliant defense by Osman Pasha, who surrendered only after four desperate battles.

Poitiers (pwȧ-tyā´), France, September 19, 1356 English vs. French Brilliant victory by the Black Prince over five times his numbers.

Pollentia (po-len´shi-ä), Italy, April 6, 402 Romans vs. Visigoths Alaric, attacked by Stilicho on Easter Sunday, was driven out of Italy.

Pondicherry (pon-di-sher´i), Siege of, India, Aug., 1760 to Jan., 18, 1761 English vs. French Destroyed French power in India.

Port Arthur, Siege of, Manchuria, Feb. 8, 1904 to Jan. 1, 1905 Japanese vs. Russians Port Arthur, the Sea of Japan and Mukden were turning points in the war.

† Portland, English Channel, February 18-20, 1653 English vs. Dutch This battle completely restored to England the lordship of the seas.

Potidæa (pot-i-dē´ȧ), Siege of, Thrace, B. C. 432, September 430 Athenians vs. Potidæans and Corinthians Inhabitants and foreign soldiers were allowed to leave the city, which Athens then colonized.

Prague (prāg), (White Hill), Bohemia, November 8, 1620 Catholic League vs. Frederick V. and Bohemian rebels Frederick proved but a “Winter King” of Bohemia.

Preston (pres´tun), England, August 17-19, 1648 Cromwellians vs. Scottish Royalists This second civil war determined the army to put Charles I. to death.

Pultava (pōl´tä-vä), Russia, July 8, 1709 Russians vs. Swedes Russia takes the place of Sweden as the leading power of the North.

Pydna (pid´nä), Macedonia, B. C. 168 Romans vs. Macedonians Brilliant triumphs of Paulus Æmilius over the phalanxes of King Perseus.

Pyramids, Egypt, July 21, 1798 French vs. Mamelukes The crowning victory of Napoleon in Egypt.

Pyrenees (pir´a-nēz), Battles of, Spain, July 25 to August 1, 1813 British and Spaniards vs. French Followed by the fall of San Sebastian and Pampeluna, and expulsion of French from Spain.

Quatre Bras (kātr-brä´), Belgium, June 16, 1815 British and Allies vs. French The allied success here was rendered fruitless by the Prussian reverse at Ligny.

Quebec (kwē-bek´; locally often ki-bek´), Siege of, Canada, June to September 18, 1759 British vs. French Wolfe was slain and Montcalm mortally wounded in the battle of the Plains of Abraham (September 13).

† Quiberon (kē-brôn), Bay, France, November 20, 1759 British vs. French Hawke, with a loss of forty men, captured, burned, or drove on shore most of the French vessels.

Ramillies (rȧ-mē-yē´), Belgium, May 23, 1706 English and Allies vs. French Followed by French evacuation of the chief towns of the Netherlands.

Rhe (rā), Siege of, France, July 20 to November 8, 1627 French vs. English An attempt of Buckingham to prevent the reduction of the Huguenot stronghold of La Rochelle.

Rhodes (rōdz), or Rhodos (rō´dos), Siege of, Mediterranean, July 28-December 26, 1522 Turks vs. Knights of Rhodes Following the loss of Rhodes the Knights (Hospitallers) retired to Malta.

Rieti (ri-ā´tē), Italy, March 7, 1821 Austrians vs. Neopolitan rebels The defeat of General Pepe enabled Austria to restore the absolute monarchy.

Rivoli (rē´vō-lē), Italy, January 14-15, 1797 French vs. Austrians Napoleon’s victory, followed by surrender of Mantua, completed the conquest of Lombardy.

Rocrol (rō-krwä´), France, May 19, 1643 French vs. Spaniards This victory, won by Condé, made France the first military power of Europe.

Rome, Sack of, Italy, B. C. 390 Gauls Following the battle of the Allia, the Gauls plundered and destroyed city.

Rome, Sieges of, Italy, 408, 409, 410 Visigoths vs. Romans Following the third siege, Alaric sacked city.

Rome, Sack of, Italy, 455 Vandals For fourteen days Genseric’s Vandals plundered Rome.

Rome, Storm of, Italy, May 6, 1527 Mutinous Army of Charles V. vs. Papal troops Marks the end of the artistic, pleasure-loving Rome of the Renaissance.

Rome, Siege of, Italy, June 4 to July 3, 1849 French and Papalists vs. Roman Republicans The republic, founded by Mazzini, overthrown and Pope Pius IX. restored.

Roncesvalles (rōn-thes-väl´yes), Spain, 778 Basques vs. Franks Death of Charlemagne’s paladin, Roland (Chanson de Roland).

Roosebek (rös´bek), Flanders, November 27, 1382 French vs. Flemings A great triumph for the nobles against the cities.

Rossbach (ros´bak), Saxony, November 5, 1757 Prussians vs. French and Austrians Makes Frederick the Great a national hero of Germany.

Rouen (rŏŏ-än´), Siege of, France, June, 1418 to Jan, 1419 English vs. French Because of its desperate resistance, Henry V. granted the city honorable capitulation.

Sacriportis (sak-ri-pōr´tus), Italy, B. C. 82 Optimates vs. Democrates Followed by Sulla’s reign of terror.

Saguntum (sa-gun´tum), Siege of, Spain, B. C. 219 Carthaginians vs. Inhabitants Capture of this city by Hannibal the chief cause of the second Punic war.

St. Albans (sānt ôl´banz), England, May 22, 1455 Yorkists vs. Lancastrians The first battle of the wars of the Roses; Yorkists defeated here in a second battle (1460).

Salamanca (sal-ȧ-mang´kȧ), Spain, July 22, 1812 British vs. French This rout of the French lost them all southern Spain.

† Salamis (sal´ȧ-mis), Greece, September 20, B. C. 480 Greeks vs. Persians Themistocles’ great victory followed by Xerxes’ withdrawal to Asia.

San Jacinto (san jȧ-sin´tō), Texas, U. S. A., April 2, 1836 Texan Rebels vs. Mexicans Santa Anna captured by General Houston.

† Santiago (sän-tē-ä´gō), Cuba, July 3, 1898 Americans vs. Spaniards Fleet of Admiral Cervera totally destroyed.

Saragossa (sä-rä-gos´ȧ), Siege of, Spain, Dec., 1808 to Feb. 21, 1809 British vs. French An important success which broke the spell of French invincibility.

Saratoga (sar-a-tō´gä), New York, U. S. A., October 7, 1777 Americans vs. British Followed (October 17) by the surrender of Burgoyne, which was the turning point of the war.

† Sea of Japan, Sea of Japan, May 27-29, 1905 Japanese vs. Russians Russia’s naval power destroyed.

Sebastopol (se-bȧs´tō-pōl), Siege of, Crimea, September 26, 1854, 59 September 9, 1855 French, British and Sardinians vs. Russians Brought to a close the active operations of Crimean war.

Sedan (sē-dan´), France, September 1, 1870 Prussians vs. French Followed by the surrender of Napoleon III. with an army of 84,000 men.

Shipka (ship´kȧ), Pass, Bulgaria, August 20-23, 1877 Russians vs. Turks Russians hold this strategic position against blindfold violence of the Turks.

Sempach (zem´päK), Switzerland, July 9, 1386 Swiss vs. Austrians Celebrated for the heroic devotion of Arnold von Winkelried.

Sentinum (sen-tī´num), Italy, B. C. 295 Romans vs. Samnites and Gauls Failure of the coalition to crush Rome from the north.

Seringapatam (ser-ing´ga-pa-tam´), Siege of, India, April 24, to May 4, 1799 British vs. Tippoo Sahib With Bonaparte’s failure in Egypt, this battle foils French designs on India.

Shiloh (shī´lō), Tennessee, U. S. A., April 6 and 7, 1862 Federals vs. Confederates Defeated in the first day’s fighting, Grant turned the tables the next day.

Shrewsbury (shrŏŏz´ber-i), England, July 21, 1403 Henry IV. vs. Percies Hotspur defeated and slain.

Silistria (si-lis´tri-ȧ), Siege of, Bulgaria, March 28 to June 22, 1854 Turks vs. Russians A brilliant defense conducted by the Turks under three English officers.

† Sinope (si-nō´pē), Black Sea, November 30, 1853 Russians vs. Turks Turkish fleet destroyed and crews massacred.

Slivnitza (slēv-nēt´sä), Bulgaria, November 17, 18, 19, 1885 Bulgarians vs. Servians The decisive action in the Servo-Bulgarian war.

† Sluys (slois), Flanders, June 22, 1340 English vs. French Gave English control of the sea for thirty years, enabling them to land troops in France at will.

Smolensk (smol-yensk´), Russia, August 17-18, 1812 French vs. Russians First stand of the retreating Russians before Napoleon’s advance on Moscow.

Soissons (swä-sôn´), France, 486 Franks vs. Romans under Syagrius The first military exploit of Clovis.

Solferino (sōl-fā-rē´nō), Italy, June 24, 1859 French and Piedmontese vs. Austrians The horrors of this battle and Prussia’s threatening attitude caused Napoleon III. to make peace.

Somme (som), a river in northern France, July 1 to Sept. 15, 1916 * Germans vs. Allies During this period the Germans were enduring terrific attacks from the Allies, but lost little ground.

† Southwold (south´wōld) Bay, North Sea, May 28, 1672 English and French vs. Dutch A victory gained by the duke of York over De Ruyter’s superior numbers.

Sphacteria (sfak-tē´ri-ä), Greece, B. C. 425 Athenians vs. Spartans To the amazement of the Greek world, 292 Spartan hoplites surrendered.

Spicheren (spich´er-en), Palatinate, August 6, 1870 Prussians vs. French Reveals great superiority of Prussians from the outset of the war.

Stamford (stam´ferd) Bridge, England, September 25, 1066 English vs. Danes This diversion of Harold to the North left William to land in England undisturbed.

Standard, Battle of the (or Northallerton), England, August 22, 1138 English vs. Scots For 200 years saved Yorkshire from Scottish invasion.

Steenkerke (stān´kerk´e), Netherlands, July 24, 1692 French vs. English and Allies Five English regiments utterly cut to pieces.

Sterling, Scotland, 1297 Scots vs. English Before the end of the year all Scotland threw off the English yoke.

Stralsund (shträl´zŏŏnt), Siege of, Germany, March, August 3, 1628 Protestant Inhabitants vs. Catholic Imperialists Wallenstein fails to secure this important Baltic port.

Syracuse (sir´a-kūs), Siege of, Sicily, B. C. 415-413 Syracusans and Spartans vs. Athenians The weakening of Athenian resources in this siege was the final cause of their failure in the Peloponnesian war.

Syracuse, Siege of, Sicily, B. C. 387 Greeks vs. Carthaginians The Syracusan tyrant, Dionysius, connives at the escape of the Carthaginian Himilco.

Syracuse, Siege of, Sicily, B. C. 214-212 Romans vs. Carthaginians and Syracusans Syracuse captured and plundered by the Romans.

Talavera (tä-lä-vā´rä), Spain, July 28, 1809 British and Spaniards vs. French After this first great pitched battle in the Peninsular campaign Wellesley became commander-in-chief of all the English troops.

Tanagra (tan´ȧ-grȧ), Greece, B. C. 457 Spartans and Bœotians vs. Athenians The Spartans failing to follow up their victory, Athens conquered Bœotia the following year.

Tarentum (tȧ-ren´tum), Siege of, Italy, B. C. 274-272 Romans vs. Tarentines and Epirots Tarentum, deprived of her army, her ships and her walls, retained the right of local self-government.

Tauss (tous), Bohemia, August 14, 1431 Bohemian Hussites vs. Catholic Imperialists At Procop’s approach the Imperialists fled in confusion; this was the last effort to crush the Hussites by force of arms.

Telamon (tel´ȧ-mon), Italy, B. C. 225 Romans vs. Gauls The annihilation of the Gallic army was followed by the Roman invasion and conquest of Cisalpine Gaul.

Tel-el-Kebir (tel´el-kā-bēr´), Egypt, September 13, 1882 British vs. Egyptian Rebels Arabi Pasha’s army completely broken up; the British entered Cairo the next day.

Temesvar (tem´esh-vär), Hungary, August 9, 1849 Austrians vs. Hungarians The last stand made by the Hungarians in the war; their army was totally routed and dispersed.

Testry (tes-trē´), France, 687 Austrasians vs. Neustrians Pippin of Heristal, mayor of the palace, unites the Frankish territories under one rule.

Tewkesbury (tūks´ber-i), England, May 4, 1471 Yorkists vs. Lancastrians Ends armed opposition to Edward IV.; Margaret of Anjou was captured and her son slain.

† Texel (tek´sel), North Sea, June 2, 3, 1653 British vs. Dutch The command of the sea fell into the hands of the English fleet.

Thapsus (thap´sus), North Africa, February 6, B. C. 46 Cæsar vs. Followers of Pompey The battle of Thapsus was the death-knell of the Pompeian cause.

Thermopylæ (ther-mop´i-lē), Greece, B. C. 480 Persians vs. Spartans and Thespians Leonidas, with 300 Spartans and 700 Thespians, defended the pass to the last man against overwhelming forces.

Tiberias (tī-bē´ri-ȧs), Palestine, 1187 Saracens vs. Crusaders Followed by the conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin, which led to the third crusade.

Ticinus (ti-sī´nus), Italy, B. C. 218 Carthaginians vs. Romans Hannibal’s success brought in numerous adhesions from Gallic tribes; followed by the battle on the Trebia.

Ticonderoga (tī-kon-de-rō´gȧ), New York, U. S. A., July 8, 1758 French vs. British and Americans British and Americans displayed in vain prodigies of valor in the rush on Montcalm’s almost impregnable position.

Tigranocerta (tig-rā-no-cer´tä), Armenia, October 6, B. C. 69 Romans vs. Armenians Lucullus cut to pieces the huge army of Tigranes and secured immense booty.

Tinchebrai (tansh-brā), France, 1106 English vs. Normans Henry I. defeated and captured his brother Robert and annexed Normandy to the crown of England.

Tolbiac (tol-bī´ak), Germany, 496 Franks vs. Alemanni Clovis wins lands of the Alemanni; he and his followers become Roman Christians in fulfillment of a vow taken on the battlefield.

Torgau (tôr´gou), Saxony, November 3, 1760 Prussians vs. Austrians The last pitched battle of the Seven Years’ war, in which the Austrians are said to have lost 20,000 men.

Torres Vedras (tor´resh vā´dräsh), Lines of, Portugal, October 12, 1810 to March 5, 1811 British and Portuguese vs. French Wellington’s defense permanently arrested Napoleon’s march of conquest and was thus the turning point of the Peninsular campaign.

Toulon (tŏŏ-lôn´), Siege of, France, Sept. 18 to Dec. 17, 1793 French vs. Garrison of British, Spaniards, Italians and French Royalists This siege is memorable as the first important appearance of Napoleon, who commanded the artillery.

Tours (tör), France, 732 Franks vs. Saracens Here Charles Martel saved western Christendom from the Moslem invader.

Towton (tou´ton), England, March 28 and 29, 1461 Yorkists vs. Lancastrians This battle, the most obstinate and bloody of the war, secured Edward IV. in his possession of the crown.

† Trafalgar (traf-al-gär), Spain, October 21, 1805 British vs. French Nelson’s last and greatest victory destroyed all possibility of Napoleon’s invading England.

Trebia (trē´bi-ä), Italy, December, B. C. 218 Carthaginians vs. Romans By this splendid victory Hannibal justified his march into Italy; the way into Etruria was now open to him.

Tunis (tū´nis), Siege of, North Africa, 1270 Moslems vs. French Crusaders This crusade, in which Louis IX. lost his life, was the last.

Turin (tū´rin), Italy, September 7, 1706 Prince Eugene vs. French The French were permanently excluded from Italy.

Tyre (tīr), Siege of, Phœnicia, January to August, B. C. 332 Macedonians vs. Tyrians The greatest of Alexander’s triumphs; Alexandria in Egypt takes the place of Tyre as a commercial metropolis.

† Ushant (ush´ant), North Atlantic, June 1, 1794 British vs. French A brilliant victory won by Lord Howe.

Valmy (vȧl-mē´), France, September 2, 1792 French vs. Prussians Goethe said that from Valmy dates a new era. It showed that revolutionary France would and could resist Europe.

Varna (vär´nä), Bulgaria, November 10, 1444 Turks vs. Hungarians King Ladislas lost his life and his army was scattered to the winds.

Vercellae (ver-sel´ē), Italy, July 30, B. C. 101 Romans vs. Cimbri Marius and Catulus utterly destroyed the vast barbarian horde which had been threatening Italy with invasion.

Verdun (ver-dun´), Siege of, France, from February, 1916, on * Germans vs. French The powerful attacks of the Germans for almost a year against the fortress of Verdun were without success.

Vicksburg, Siege of, Mississippi, U. S. A., May 19 to July 4, 1863 Federals vs. Confederates Grant’s success at Vicksburg, together with the battle of Gettysburg, were the turning points of the war.

Vienna (vē-en´ȧ), Siege of, Austria, July 14 to September 12, 1683 Austrians vs. Turks The besieged were reduced to the last extremity when Sobieski intervened and put the invading Turks to flight.

† Vigo (vē´gō) Bay, Spain, October 12, 1702 English and Dutch vs. French and Spaniards The destruction of the Spanish galleons and the protecting French fleet gave a blow to the finances and prestige of the two crowns.

Vimiero (vē-mā´rō), Spain, August 21, 1813 British vs. French Wellesley inflicted a signal defeat on the French, but his senior officer made no use of the victory.

Vittoria (vē-tō´rē-ä), Spain, June 21, 1813 British vs. French This, the crowning victory of Wellington’s peninsular campaign, won Spain from Napoleon.

Wagram (vā´gräm), Austria, July 6, 1809 French vs. Austrians One of the most terrible and least decisive battles of all time.

Wakefield, England, December 30, 1460 Lancastrians vs. Yorkists Queen Margaret’s army completely defeated that of the duke of York, who was slain on the battlefield.

Wandewash (wän-de-wäsh´), India, January 22, 1760 British vs. French Coote’s victory was the death-blow to French power in India.

Warsaw (wôr´sô), Siege of, Poland, August 19 to September 7, 1831 Russians vs. Poles The fall of Warsaw ends the Polish insurrection and Poland becomes a province of the Russian empire.

Waterloo (wô-ter-lŏŏ´), Belgium, June 18, 1815 British and Prussians vs. French The final overthrow of Napoleon by Wellington and Blücher. Napoleon was transported to St. Helena, where he died in 1821.

Wavre (vä´vr), Belgium, June 18, 1815 French vs. Prussians Grouchy’s victory was useless, while he might have saved the day for Napoleon had he arrived at Waterloo when expected.

Wei-hai-wei (wā´hī´wā), China, January 30 to February 12, 1894 Japanese vs. Chinese The Chinese admiral gave up the remnant of his fleet and killed himself; followed by negotiations for peace.