BOOK OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISH

HOW TO WRITE CORRECT ENGLISH

ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS AND DEGREES

FORMS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH

LETTER WRITING AND CORRESPONDENCE

DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES

WORDS AND PHRASES FROM MODERN LANGUAGES

DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE

CHARTS OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS

DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS

PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY

CHART OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHS

BOOK OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISH—Fundamental Rules—The Organ of Speech—Vowels—Consonants—Table of Consonants—Rules of Pronunciation—Common Errors in Pronunciation—Expression—Inflection of the Voice—WRITTEN ENGLISH—Rules Relating to Style—Grammatical Construction—Right and Wrong Use of Words in Speaking and Writing—Use of Capital Letters—Abbreviations, Contractions and Degrees—Punctuation—Rhetorical Figures of Speech—FORMS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH—Letter Writing or Correspondence—Official and Titled Salutations—Narration—(Biography—Fiction and Drama—News)—Exposition—(Essay—Editorials)—Description—Argument—Poetry and Poetics—PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES—PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF WORDS AND PHRASES FROM THE MODERN LANGUAGES—ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE—OUTLINE CHARTS OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS—DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS: Famous Books, Poems, Dramas, Literary Characters, Plots, Pen Names, Literary Shrines and Geography, and other Miscellany—PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY: Gods, Heroes, and Mythical Wonder Tales—CHART OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHS, their Origin, Relationship and Descent.

HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISH

Correctly spoken English is quite as important as correctly written English. Errors in pronunciation, modulation and general expression are of frequent occurrence, and it sometimes seems that the erroneous utterance of whole classes of words league the tongue and ear against their right use. An improved standard of pronunciation, therefore, is the safest bulwark against a permanent deterioration of our language, as well as a positive influence in advancing individual culture of speech.

Five Fundamental Rules.—The essential steps toward securing the unconscious ability to speak correctly may be set down as follows:

1. To thoroughly study the elementary sounds, and their mode of representation.

2. To observe the current usage of the best speakers with regard to such words as are most liable to be mispronounced.

3. To note the standard of pronunciation and expression of the best dramatic theaters.

4. By forming the habit of frequent reference to the dictionary and learning to interpret at sight the authorized pronunciation.

5. Ample practice in the reading and application of the leading principles of pronunciation that give words their true spoken values.

The Organ of Speech.—The mouth is the organ of speech; and the manner of production of the various sounds is of the first importance in the cultivation of correct pronunciation.

The sound uttered depends upon the form of the mouth. Change the form and you change the sound. Each particular sound is produced from a particular position.

Not more than one sound can be produced from one position of the mouth.

To produce a different sound you must change the position.

Each sound should be clear and precise. There should be no slurring.

The muscles must be under perfect control so that the mouth (lips and tongue included) may readily assume the position necessary for the emission of the required sound.

The proper use of the lips is the great factor in fluent speech.

It is from inability to use or negligence in using the muscles of the organ of speech that Americans are such indifferent linguists and frequently even incapable of distinct utterance of their own language.

The manner of production of the various sounds is of the first importance in the cultivation of correct pronunciation.

Vowels.—Pronounce the following words: moor; meer; merry; marry; mar; more. The whole compass of the mouth is brought into exercise by these words.

The first sound is produced from the lips. The second comes from a point just inside the mouth. The third sound point is farther back still. The last vowel is uttered from the throat.

If the sound a (long) as in bare, fair, is included, we have a scale of seven sounds produced by a gradual opening of the mouth, the sound point receding note by note from the front of the lips to the back of the throat, thus: moor, meer, merry, Mary, marry, mar, more.

In cultured English centers and in some parts of New England, the long sound of ä, No. 4, appears in such words as dance, France, glass, castle, cast, past, grasp, grant, etc.

In pronouncing the four words—meer merry, marry, mar—the mouth is gradually opened. The four separate “sound points” may be clearly recognized.

Repeat slowly:

1 2 3 4

meer merry marry mar

mee mé mâ mä

mee mé mâ mä

O is a single sound. In conversation, however, it usually becomes double, being combined with the sound—oo (as in too, tooth, woo)—thus:

so is pronounced so-oo

no is pronounced no-oo

go is pronounced go-oo

The short o sound is pronounced as in hot, pot, nod, God.

O followed by a double consonant is short:

off not awf

office not awfice

coffee not cawfee

cross, dross, loss, toss

The sound oo unites with the open sound ä to form the double sound in such words as—cow, how, now:

cä-oo cow

nä-oo now

dä-oo-n down

ä-oo-t out

The sound u is a peculiar combination of at least three sounds. It is really a continued flow from ee to oo.

The letter is pronounced exactly as the word you. Speak the vowel very slowly.

The intermediate sound of û may be represented thus:

u is ee-û-oo

duke is dee-û-oo-k

tube is tee-û-oo-b

mute is mee-û-oo-t

The same sounds occur in such words as few, new, mew.

The middle sound is the most important, and the first and last must be cut very short for a good style.

Ru and lu. When u is preceded by r or l, the first portion of the triple sound is omitted and a double vowel sound is heard—the last part also being cut very short.

Consonants.—Speak slowly and pronounce every letter.

Initial Consonants.—Of these only two require special attention:

th and sh followed by r.

Children frequently say:—one, two, free; and grown-up people will speak of—shrimps as srimps.

Examples: three, shrimp; thread, shrill; throat, shrink; thrush, shroud; through, shrew.

Final Consonants.—The slurring or omission of final consonants is a greater fault than the mispronunciation of vowels, for it points directly to carelessness and indolence on the part of the speaker.

R. It is sometimes stated that there is no r sound in English.

In singing the r is always made distinct.

It should also be apparent in conversation. Thus: father and farther are quite distinct. So, too, ma and mar.

The t belongs to the preceding syllable and the words should be pronounced thus: nat-ure, feat-ure, pict-ure, premat-ure, creat-ure, fut-ure, indent-ure, nurt-ure.

The consonant values of w and y are never terminal in a syllable, but are followed in the same syllable by a vowel. In attempting, for phonic practice, to sound either of these consonants apart from its vowel, make it continuous, not abrupt.

H cannot be separated from its accompanying vowel. Pronounce ha, he, hi, ho, hu, hy. Notice that the office of h is to cover the following vowel with breath. It will be seen, on careful examination, that any attempt to sound h alone will result in whispering a vowel with it.

Wh has for its initial sound simply unvocalized breath, poured through the lips placed in position for w. As a whole the digraph is sounded as it would naturally be if the order of the letters were reversed, thus, hw; as, when, while, whip, pronounced hwen, hwile, hwip.

Lisping children and Germans need to carefully observe the sounds of s and th.

The sound of s is formed by forcing unvocal breath between the tip of the tongue and the upper gum.

Th is produced by placing the tip of the tongue between the teeth or against the upper front teeth, and forcing vocal or unvocal breath between the tongue and the teeth. If vocal breath is used, sonant th is heard, as in this; if unvocal breath, then non-sonant th is produced, as in thin—this last is the sound made for s by those who lisp (lithp).

TABLE OF CONSONANTS

Name according to exit of sound Checks Spirants, Breathings[13] Liquids Trills Nasals

Name according to quality of sound Tenues Sharp Hard Mediæ Flat Soft Sharp Hard Flat Soft

Or- gan- ic Names - Labials p b ... w ... m

Labio- dentals ... ... ... v ... ...

Dentals t d th in thunder th in this l n

Palatals ... ... - s z ... ...

sh - j in (Fr.) jour ... ...

s in pleasure ... ...

ch in church j in John r ...

ch in (Germ.) ich y in you ... ...

Gutturals k, q, c g in go ch in Scotch (loch) g in (Germ.) tage ... ng

ACCENT OF WORDS

One syllable of every word with two or more syllables receives, in pronouncing, more force than another. This stronger force is called Accent, and the syllable which receives this force is said to be accent´ed.

Marks of Accent.—The primary accent is marked with a firm oblique stroke, thus: ob´ject, object´, discov´er. The secondary accent is marked by a similar but lighter stroke, or sometimes by two light strokes, thus: lem´on-ade´ (or lem´´on-ade´).

Unaccented Vowels.—Every vowel, when under either the primary or the secondary accent, is distinct; that is, the exact sound of the vowel is evident, as short a, long i, broad o, etc. In an unaccented syllable, the vowel sound is sometimes doubtful; in most instances, however, it is not. For instance, a correct speaker says: ăttĕn´tĭve, ăn´ĕcdōte, cōmprēhĕnd´, ăllēgā´tiȯn, chăp´ĕl, prĕs´ent, ĕm´ĭnĕnt, prāi´rĭe, a̤u´dĭĕnce, căl´loŭs.

RULES OF PRONUNCIATION

Rule I.—The letter u should not be sounded as ōō, except when immediately preceded by the sound of r.

Exceptions: sure and its derivatives, also sumac, tulle, hurrah, pugh.

Pronounce rule, fruit, garrulous, ruin, sure, tūne, mūle, institūte, constitūtion, sūture, dūty, lūcid.

Rule II.—A constituting or ending an unaccented syllable is short Italian a.

Examples: cȧnine´, lȧpel´, ȧgain´, ȧlas´, fȧtal´ity, al´kȧli, or´nȧment, pal´ȧtȧble.

When the a of terminal ary or any is immediately preceded by an accented syllable, it has the sound of short Italian a; thus, pri´mȧry, epiph´ȧny.

Rule III.—E or o constituting or ending a syllable is long.

Examples: ēvent, mēmentō, lōcōmōtion, sōciety, nōtōriety, sōbriety, supērior, infērior, thēōries, cōteriē, lōcō-fōcō.

Rule IV.—I constituting or ending an unaccented syllable not initial, is always short, and is usually short even in initial syllables, if unaccented.

Examples: Dĭvide, dĭrect, fĭnance, phĭlosophy, imĭtate, pĭazza, tĭrade, intĭmate, indĭvisĭble, nobilĭty.

In the initial syllables i, bi, chi, cli, cri, pri, tri, however, i is generally long.

Examples: īdea, īdle, īsothermal, bīology, Chīnese, chīrurgery, clīmatic, crīterion, prīmeval, trīangular, trīpod.

Rule V.—E before terminal n should always be silent in participles, and also in most other words.

Examples: given (giv n), taken (tak n), bitten (bit n), broken, spoken, riven, fallen.

But in the following words e must be sounded:

Aspĕn, chickĕn, glutĕn, kitchĕn, lichĕn, lindĕn, martĕn, mittĕn, suddĕn.

It must also be sounded in any word (not a participle) in which terminal en is immediately preceded by l, m, n, or r.

Examples: womĕn, lĭnen, omĕn, barrĕn, Helĕn, Allĕn, Ellĕn, woolĕn, pollĕn.

Rule VI.—E before terminal l should usually be sounded.

Examples: levĕl, bevĕl, novĕl, nickĕl, cancĕl, vessĕl, chapĕl, gravĕl, hovĕl, camĕl, channĕl, kernĕl, Abĕl, Mabĕl, panĕl, modĕl, funnĕl, flannĕl.

But in the following words the e before terminal l must not be sounded:

Betel (bē´tl), chattel (chat´tl), drivel, easel, grovel, hazel, mantel, mussel, navel, ravel, shekel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, swivel, teasel, weasel, and their derivatives.

Rule VII.—In all but the following words, i before terminal l or n must be sounded: devil, evil, weevil, basin, cousin, raisin.

Pronounce Latĭn, satĭn, matĭn, spavĭn, anvĭl, civĭl, cavĭl, councĭl, perĭl, javelĭn, lentĭl, pistĭl, resĭn, fusĭl, coffĭn, codicĭl, axĭl.

Rule VIII.—The eight words, bath, cloth, lath, moth, mouth, oath, path, wreath, and these only, require sonant ths in the plural.

Pronounce moths, paths, truths, oaths, heaths, cloths, baths, laths, deaths, wreaths, mouths, Sabbaths, sheaths, piths, plinths, lengths, widths, depths, breadths, earths, myths, Goths, fourths, breaths.

Rule IX.—O in a final unaccented syllable ending in a consonant, frequently verges toward the sound of short u; as in custom, felon, bigot, bishop, method, carol, Briton. But it has its regular short sound in pentagon, hexagon, octagon, etc.

When, however, the termination on is immediately preceded by c, ck, s or t, the o is commonly suppressed.

Examples: bacon, beacon, beckon, benison, button, cotton, crimson, damson, deacon, garrison, glutton, lesson, mason, mutton, parson, person, poison, prison, reason, reckon, season.

Rule X.—I accented in most words from the French has the sound of long e.

Examples: pĭque, caprĭce, guillotĭne, quarantĭne, routĭne, suĭte, fatĭgue, valĭse, antĭque, Bastĭle, critĭque, palanquĭn, tambourĭne, regĭme (rā-zheem´), cuĭsĭne (kwe-zeen´), unĭque, intrĭgue, magazĭne.

Rule XI.—Ou in most words from the French has the value of ōō, but in Anglo-Saxon words it has the sound of ow, as in cow.

Examples: bouquet, contour, croup; out, bound, sound.

Note.—Ou has also other values, as in soul, rough, adjourn, could, ought, hough (hŏk), trough.

Rule XII.—X followed by an accented vowel, or by an accented syllable beginning with a silent h, has the sound of gz.

Examples: luxu´rious, exam´ple, exhaust´, exhale´, exhib´it, exam´ine, exalt´, exec´utive.

Rule XIII.—The termination tion is always shun, except when it follows the letter s or x, as in question (kwestyun), bastion, combustion.

Examples: notation, completion, equation, relation, suggestion, transition (tranzish´un).

Rule XIV.—The termination sion immediately preceded by an accented vowel is zhun; when not so preceded it is shun.

Examples: expulsion, immersion, mansion, excursion, diversion, explosion, adhesion, delusion.

Rule XV.—C is soft (s) before e, i and y, and hard (k) in other positions.

Examples: ca, ce, ci, co, cu, cy.

Exceptions: c is hard (k) in sceptic and scirrhus; and in the following words it has the sound of z: sacrifice (fīz), sice, suffice, discern, and their derivatives. It is silent in czar, victuals, indict, and their derivatives, and also in the termination scle, as in muscle, corpuscle.

Rule XVI.—G is generally soft (j) before e, i and y, and always hard (g) before other vowels.

Examples: ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy.

Note.—The exceptions to the rule that g is usually soft before e, i and y are many; but they are nearly all common Anglo-Saxon words, such as get, give, gild, girl, girdle, giddy, foggy, gimlet, geese, gig, giggle, gift, gills, begin, gimp, beget, gird, gear, gizzard.

Rule XVII.—In an accented syllable of any primitive word, a vowel before r followed by a syllable beginning with a vowel or another r has its short sound.

Examples: Ărab, ărabesque, ărid, Ăristotle, Săracen, bĕryl, pĕril, delĭrious, ĭrritate, mĭracle, delĭrium, abhŏrrence, flŏrid, cŏroner, fŏreign, tŭrret, bŭrrow, cŭrry, coŭrage, fŭrrow, py̆rrhic, empy̆real.

Rule XVIII.—N ending an accented syllable has the sound of ng, if immediately followed by hard g or k, or any equivalent of k (c, q, or x).

Examples: co̱ṉ´gress, ga̱ṉ´grene, co̱ṉ´cord, tra̱ṉ´quil, u̱ṉ´cle, a̱ṉ´ger, hu̱ṉ´ger, mo̱ṉ´key, sa̱ṉ´guine, si̱ṉ´gle, cla̱ṉ´gor, exti̱ṉ´guish, bla̱ṉ´ket, twi̱ṉ´kle, co̱ṉ´course, Li̱ṉ´coln.

Exceptions: concrete, penguin, mangrove, Mongol, pancreas, and some others.

Rule XIX.—C, s, or t, when immediately preceded by an accented syllable and followed by e, i or u, has usually the force of sh, and is said to be “aspirated,” as in ocean, nauseate, Asiatic, negotiation.

Rule XX.—In pronouncing the terminal syllables, ble, cle, dle, fle, gle, kle, ple, stle, tle, and zle, no vowel sound is heard. Terminal cre, however, is pronounced kẽr. The combination of any of these terminations with ing forms but one syllable.

Examples: quibbling, doubling, circling, meddling, huddling, ruffling, shuffling, giggling, struggling, pickling, trickling, coupling, rippling, battling, whittling, whistling, jostling, puzzling, muzzling, massacring.

COMMON ERRORS IN PRONUNCIATION

1. Do not pronounce ing like in; as eve´nin for eve´ning, writ´in for writ´ing.

Pronounce the following: Speak´ing, read´ing, talk´ing, walk´ing, stop´ping, smok´ing, suppos´ing, expect´ing, cel´ebrating.

2. Do not pronounce ow like ur or uh; as hol´lur or hol´luh for hol´low, shad´ur or shad´uh for shad´ow.

Pronounce the following: Bor´row, to-mor´row, nar´row, yel´low, fel´low, wid´ow, pil´low, mel´lowing, swal´lowing.

3. Do not pronounce ed like id or ud; as unit´id or unit´ud for unit´ed, provid´id or provid´ud for provid´ed.

Pronounce the following: Rest´ed, resid´ed, decid´ed, regard´ed, exhib´ited, cel´ebrated, excit´ed, delight´ed, support´ed.

4. Do not pronounce ess like iss; as good´niss for good´ness, bold´niss for bold´ness.

Pronounce the following: Hard´ness, bad´ness, harm´less, care´less, clear´ness, ful´ness, seam´stress, host´ess, em´press.

5. Do not pronounce el like il, nor et like it, nor est like ist; as cru´il for cru´el, bask´it for bask´et, for´ist for for´est.

Pronounce the following: Fu´el, du´el, bush´el, yet, get, mark´et, hatch´et, rock´et, rack´et, riv´ulet, hon´est, bold´est, larg´est, small´est, young´est, strong´est.

6. Do not pronounce ent like unt, nor ence like unce; as si´lunt for si´lent, sen´tunce for sen´tence.

Pronounce the following: Pru´dent, de´cent, mo´ment, gar´ment, mon´ument, gov´ernment, superintend´ent, par´liament (par´lĭ-ment), pa´tience, expe´rience, superintend´ence.

7. Do not insert the sound of short u before a final m; as hel´um for helm, chas´um for chasm.

Pronounce the following: Spasm, rhythm, phan´tasm, bap´tism, pa´triotism, elm, film, overwhelm´, worm.

8. Do not give the drawling sound ăōō for ou (i. e. äōō); as căōō for cow, hăōōs for house.

Pronounce the following: How, now, ground, sound, bound, found, town, gown, pound, confound´, around´, astound´.

9. Do not sound sh before r like s; as srub for shrub, srink for shrink.

Pronounce the following: Shred, shrine, shriek, shroud, shriv´el, shrunk´en.

10. Do not sound wh like w; as wen for when, wat for what.

Pronounce the following: Where, wheat, wharf, whale, whine, white, whim´per, whis´per, whip´ping, whit´tle.

11. Do not omit to give the sound of r after a vowel in the same syllable, as in arm, form, etc., not ahm, fawum, etc.

Pronounce the following: Dark, hark, start, chart, are, tar, remark´, course, for, nor, door, floor, lord, hon´or, do´nor, short, support´, report´, pa´per, or´der, horse, purse, warm, alarm´ing, return´ing, reform´ing.

12. Do not add the sound of r to a final vowel or dipthong; as lawr for law, ide´ar for ide´a.

Pronounce the following: saw, draw, paw, claw, pota´to, toma´to, com´ma, Em´ma.

13. Do not shorten the sound of long o in certain words by leaving off its vanishing element ōō.

Pronounce the following: Boat, bone, broke, choke, cloak, colt, comb, dolt, hole, home, home´ly, hope, jolt, load, on´ly, road, rogue, smoke, spoke, spok´en, stone, throat, toad, whole, wrote, yoke, bolster.

14. Do not omit the sound of d when preceded by n; as stan for stand, frenz for friends.

Pronounce the following: Stands, bands, wĭnds, wīnds, depends´, defends´, demands´, blind´ness, grand´mother, grand´father, hand´ful.

15. Do not omit the sound of d in the terminal letters lds; as wīlz for wilds, fēlz for fields.

Pronounce the following: Folds, holds, scolds, builds, scalds, unfolds´, child´s.

16. Do not omit the sound of t when preceded by c hard in the same syllable; as aks for acts, exak´ly for exact´ly.

Pronounce the following: Facts, tracts, com´pacts, inspects´, respects´, inducts´, instructs´, correct´ly, direct´ly, ab´stractly, per´fectly.

17. Do not omit the sound of t in the terminal letters sts; as fis´s for fists, pes´s for pests.

Pronounce the following: Posts, boasts, coasts, hosts, ghosts, accosts´.

18. Do not improperly suppress the vowel sounds in unaccented syllables; as ev´ry for ev´er-y, his´try for his´to-ry.

Pronounce the following: Belief´, crock´ery, fam´ily, fa´vorite, des´perate, des´olate, nom´inative, mis´ery, li´brary, sal´ary, com´pany, com´fortable, perfum´ery, mem´ory, vic´tory, slip´pery, part´iciple, sev´eral, bois´terous.

19. Do not suppress the sound of e or of i before l or n in those words in which it should be articulated; as lev´l for lev´el, civ´l for civ´il, kitch´n for kitch´en, Lat´n for Lat´in.

Pronounce the following: Trav´el, nov´el, bar´rel, par´cel, hov´el, chap´el, quar´rel, sor´rel, pen´cil, chick´en, lin´en, sud´den, mit´ten, sat´in.

20. Do not sound e or i before n or l in those words in which it is properly silent; e´ven for e´vn, heav´en for heav´n, ba´sin for ba´sn, haz´el for ha´zl, e´vil for e´vl.

Pronounce the following: Ha´ven, sev´en, gold´en, o´pen, short´en, wood´en, wak´en, wid´en, fro´zen.

21. After r, ch, or sh do not give the sound of long u when the simple sound of oo (long or short) should be heard; as rule for rool, fruit, for froot.

Pronounce the following: True, truth, grew, chew, sure, sug´ar, tru´ly, crew, brute, bru´tal, rude, through, cru´el, ru´by, ru´bicund.

22. Do not substitute the sound oo for that of long u; as toon for tune, doo´ty for du´ty.

Pronounce the following: Tube, duke, mute, nude, mu´sic, Tues´day, du´bious, lute, blue, illume´, illude´, in´stitute.

23. The vowel a, when unaccented, at the end of a word has the sound of ä (as in far) somewhat shortened; as com´ma not com´mĭ nor commā.

Pronounce the following: Dra´ma, da´ta, pi´ca, so´fa, al´gebra, Chi´na, Amer´ica, dilem´ma, mi´ca, alpac´a, a´rea, neb´ula.

24. Give to the vowel a in the unaccented terminal syllables al, ant, ance, its short sound, but do not make it prominent.

Pronounce the following: Na´tional, par´tial, fi´nal, eter´nal, ig´norant, ty´rant, in´stant, fla´grant, vig´ilance, ig´norance, in´stance, fra´grance.

25. Do not give to the vowel a (as in far), when unaccented and made brief, the sound of short u; as ŭbase´ for abase´, ŭrouse for arouse´.

Pronounce the following: Abound´, abate´, above´, about´, abridge´, amuse´, fanat´ic, ag´gravate, traduce´.

26. Do not give to long e, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the sound of short u; as ŭvent´ for event´, soci´ŭty for soci´ety.

Pronounce the following: Emo´tion, vari´ety, sobri´ety, sati´ety, anxi´ety, impi´ety.

27. Do not give to long o, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the sound of short u; as ŭbey´ for obey´, prŭpose´ for propose´.

Pronounce the following: Opin´ion, obe´dience, provide´, promote´, provoke´, pota´to, tobac´co, posi´tion, soci´ety, el´oquence, disposi´tion, mel´ody, composi´tion.

28. Do not sound short o, when unaccented, as short u; as ŭbscure´ for obscure´, cŭmmit´tee for commit´tee.

Pronounce the following: Observe´, oppose´, command´, conceal´, condi´tion, contain´, content´, possess´.

29. Do not lay too much stress on an unaccented syllable or a syllable having a secondary accent; as pri´ma´ry for pri´mary, ex´act´ly for exact´ly.

Pronounce the following: Gigan´tic, precise´ly, salva´tion, loca´tion, vaca´tion, ter´ritory, sec´ondary, mat´rimony, prom´issory, vac´cinated.

30. In unaccented syllables do not bring out the quality of the vowel too distinctly.

In many words, “there would be pedantry in scrupulously avoiding the short and easier sounds which the organs are inclined to adopt.” For instance, cab´bage in common conversation might be cab´bij, pal´ace, pal´ăs, etc.

a. When a at the end of an unaccented syllable is followed in the next syllable by n or r, it has nearly the sound of short e, as in mis´cel-la-ny, cus´tom-a-ry.

b. In the unaccented final syllable ate, of adjectives and nouns, the vowel a generally has a sound verging toward short e, as in del´i-cate, con-sum´mate (adj.).

EXPRESSION

Speak firmly; take time. Articulate clearly; do not slur.

Correct pronunciation: requires—1. Exact vowel sounds. 2. Distinct terminal consonants.

Read just as you would speak under the same circumstances, so that if you could be heard without being seen, it would be impossible to tell whether you were reading or talking.

Avoid a monotone. Dull repetition of words in the same pitch is disagreeable. Enter into the spirit of what you read, and give expression to your natural feeling.

The simplest way to emphasize a word is to pause after it. The word may be spoken a little louder or may be pronounced more slowly than the other words in the sentence.

When speaking in public, address the person standing just behind the back row.

INFLECTION OF THE VOICE

Rising inflection is used in incomplete thought, or thought carried through consecutive phrases. It is used to express emotion, surprise, prayer.

Falling inflection denotes complete thought. It expresses command, authority.

The voice has three pitches:—upper, middle, lower.

The upper register is the medium for the expression of excitement and earnestness. It must be used with care and artistic moderation, otherwise it is unpleasant.

Use it rarely. Be careful of straining the voice.

The middle register is used in familiar speaking, and general conversation. It is the most durable, and is the vehicle for everyday use.

The lower register is suited to grave, solemn, impassioned utterances. It should be used cautiously. Practice will mellow the voice.

WRITTEN ENGLISH.

Written English is the art of putting words together in order to convey our thoughts to others. Good composition conveys our thoughts correctly, clearly, and pleasantly, so as to make them readily understood and easily remembered.

To express ourselves well we must first have something to say. If we have not been able to come to any definite conclusion about a subject, we should be silent.

We must next choose the right names for the things or actions of which we are going to speak. This is not always easy, for we are apt to talk loosely of quantities and qualities; to say there are “thousands” when there are only hundreds, to call an event “marvelous” when it is only unusual, or to refer to “ages” when there are only years.

Again, we must arrange our words in the right way, so that they shall fit one another and combine to make good sense, just as we must put bricks or stones together properly to make a building stand. All language is a construction; it is the building or binding of words.

There are many forms of written English, or composition—from a simple letter to the most elaborate treatise—but all are made up of the same elements, namely: words, sentences and paragraphs. It is essential, therefore, that these elements be thoroughly mastered at the outset. Beyond this comes the matter of style, the essentials of which may be summed up in four words: Accuracy, Clearness, Strength and Grace.

Accuracy and Clearness are requisite in all kinds of writing to insure the faithful presentation of thought.

Strength and Grace are more especially applicable to the higher branches of prose composition and to poetry.

Grammatical Connections.—No expression can form part of a good composition unless it be constructed in accordance with correct grammar. Every sentence is inaccurate which gives wrong forms of the parts of speech, or violates the rules of syntax. The most common errors are of two kinds:

(1) Errors in the use of single words or forms.

(2) False concords, that is, wrong genders, numbers, cases and tenses. (See Right and Wrong Use of Words.)

RULES RELATING TO STYLE

GOOD STYLE POOR STYLE

Purity prescribes the use of - Correct forms and concords. - Wrong forms. Solecisms.

Classic or good English words. - Barbarisms.

Proper words, i.e., words fit for the occasion. - Improprieties.

Perspicuity prescribes - Simplicity. - Roundabout, inflated or pedantic words or phrases.

Brevity. - Tautology.

Pleonasm.

Verbosity.

Precision. - Ambiguity or Obscurity.

a. In words.

b. In sentences from bad arrangement.

Choice and Use of Words.—Good usage—the usage of the best writers and speakers—sanctions only words that are in reputable, national, and present usage.

The term Barbarism is applied to unauthorized language. Some offenses against good usage are the following:

1. Obsolete words, words gone out of use.

2. Provincialisms, words peculiar to some locality.

3. Colloquialisms, words peculiar to familiar conversation.

4. Solecisms, ungrammatical expressions.

5. Archaisms, expressions which would be obsolete except for their occasional use in poetry.

The term Impropriety is used to designate reputable words misapplied.

Slang is a general name for current, vulgar, unauthorized language. It may take the form of barbarism or impropriety.

Use the fewest and simplest words that the subject will bear.

Specific words are usually more forcible than general terms.

Foreign and technical terms should be used with care.

Use idioms wherever it is possible.

Coherence demands that the parts shall be so connected that the thought will be clear and compact.

The length of sentences is governed by the effect to be produced. Short sentences give vigor, emphasis, and rapidity. Long sentences give weight and rhythm.

A well-constructed sentence keeps the same subject as long as possible.

All modifying elements should be placed as near as possible to the words they modify.

A Dangling Element—one that modifies nothing—must be avoided. Example: Looking into the water, a fish was seen.

A “Squinting Construction” is one that is so poorly placed in the sentence as to modify equally well the part preceding and the part following. Example: Will you say to Mr. Brown, when he comes, I will be ready.

Redundancy—A weak repetition of an idea—must be avoided.

Pleonasm consists in the addition of words which can be omitted without affecting the construction or the meaning of the sentence.

Tautology, or repeating a thought that has just been stated.

Verbosity or Prolixity is the fault in sentence-making caused by using needless words.

Don’t begin a sentence with—and, but, also, so, then, next, however, after this, of course, in consequence, as a matter of fact.

The Paragraph.—A Paragraph is a division in composition treating only one part of the subject. A paragraph must conform to the same rules that should govern the whole composition; that is, it must show unity, massing, and coherence.

Unity demands that all the thoughts in a sentence, in a paragraph, or in the whole theme shall cluster about one main idea.

Massing demands that the important thoughts shall be placed in prominent places.

Coherence demands that thoughts shall be closely connected.

The length of paragraphs is not to be regulated absolutely: the subject-matter to be treated, the appearance of the page, and the comfort of the reader must all be considered. In a dialogue a new paragraph is begun with each change of speaker.

The Sentence.—Rhetorically, sentences may be classified as periodic, loose, and balanced.

A Periodic sentence is one that holds the thought in suspense until the end. Example: In all his long life, from the time when, as a twelve-year-old boy, he was roaming in the fields and fishing the streams, to the days of his manhood, when he was upholding the honor of his state in the Senate, he showed the same simple, democratic nature.

A Loose sentence is one in which there is no attempt to show suspense; the different parts may come in where natural ease of expression suggests.

A Balanced sentence is one in which contrasting thoughts are stated in similar forms. Example: God made the country and man made the town.

The periodic and the balanced sentence are likely to result in artificiality of expression unless used with care. The loose sentence gives ease and naturalness, but these desirable qualities may easily change to slovenliness of expression in the hands of a careless writer.

Sentences, like paragraphs, should show unity, massing, and coherence.

Unity demands that the sentence shall have one main idea. The unity of a sentence is destroyed by putting together ideas that should be separated, by making the wrong idea subordinate, or by making ideas coördinate that are not of equal importance.

Examples of lack of unity:—

1. The words are very simple and I think it very strange that a tinker could write such a good book.

2. We went up the main road about half a mile, when we came to a pasture.

Massing in the sentence demands that the main thought shall be placed where it will “readily catch the eye.”

RIGHT AND WRONG USE OF WORDS IN SPEAKING AND WRITING

A and An.—a is used before a consonant sound; an, before a vowel sound; as, “a boy;” “an eye;” when a vowel has a consonant sound, as in the word eulogy, a, and not an, is required. In the case of words beginning with h, an is always required when h is silent; as, “an heir;” when h is aspirated, a is required, unless the accent is on the second syllable, when an is used; as, “a history;” “an historian.”

Abbreviations.—Such abbreviations or contractions as e’er, ne’er, o’er, e’en, ’tis, ’mid, and ’neath, are legitimate in verse, but should not be used in prose.

Ability for capacity.—Ability is the power of doing; capacity the faculty of receiving. “The ability is in me to do him good.” “Man’s capacities have never been measured.”

Abortive.—That is abortive which is premature, not brought to completion. A plan may be abortive but not an act. We may speak of an abortive effort.

About.—Not to be used as almost. “The day is almost gone,” not “The day is about gone.”

Above is an adverb, not an adjective. Say “The address given above,” not “The above address;” the “foregoing section,” not the “above section.”

Accept of.—Never use the preposition after this verb. We accept invitations, presents, hospitality, and the like.

Accept and Except.—Accept means to take when offered; except means to leave out, to exclude. I accepted the gift. All except two will go.

Accord.—To accord means to render or bestow upon another, as honor: therefore one should never say, “The information he desired was accorded him.”

Administer.—The man died from blows administered by the policeman. Oaths, medicine, affairs of state are administered. Blows are dealt.

Affect, Effect.—To affect means to influence or to pretend. To effect means to bring about. “He affected intoxication.” “He affected the audience strongly.” “I shall effect a reform.”

Afraid.—The adjective afraid should not be used for the verb fear; thus: we say, “I am afraid of fire,” but “I fear I cannot go,” not “I am afraid I cannot go.”

Aggravate means to heighten, intensify, or make worse. Do not use it for annoy or provoke.

Ain’t.—This is illiterately employed as a contraction for are not, am not, is not. Even as a contraction of am not it is censured by many critics, the form I’m not being universally preferred. “Am I not?” is required in interrogative sentences.

Allow.—This word is frequently misused for think, as “I allow that I shall go to town.” Say, “I think that,” etc.

Allude means to refer to indirectly, and not the same as mention. “By mentioning his lifelong companion he alluded to his wife.”

Almost.—Careless speakers sometimes err in saying most for almost, as, for example, “I have read most all the books in the library,” for “almost all.”

Among and Between.—Among is distributive, and may apply to any number more than two; between is used of only two persons or things; as, “They discussed this among themselves;” “This is between us two.”

Among One Another.—“Among one another” is censured by critics, “with one another,” or “among themselves” being suggested as preferable.

And should not be used instead of to in such sentences as “I’m going to go and get it,” for “I’m going to get it”; “Try and do it,” for “Try to do it.”

Angry At and Angry With.—“Angry at” is used when expressing anger for an animal or an inanimate object; “Angry with,” for a human being; as, “He is angry at his dog;” “He is angry with his brother.”

Anybody else’s, Anybody’s else.—The predominance of usage seems to be in favor of the first form, which is correct according to analogy of similar cases, which “throw” the apostrophe and s to the last word of the unified expression, generally nouns in apposition.

Any One, One, anybody, each, any one, everybody, either, neither, one, some one, somebody, should be followed by singular pronouns, or verbs.

Any one, anybody, each, every one, everybody, either, neither, nobody, some one, somebody, may be followed by he or his.

“Any one of these patterns is suitable.” “Every one of the ladies is here.” “Each one of the soldiers has a new uniform.” “If any one wishes to make a suggestion, I wish he (or she, or he or she) would make it.” “Anybody in his senses would have done it.”

One should be followed, by one or one’s. “One dislikes to be told of one’s errors.”

Appreciate means to estimate justly. “I appreciate his ill-will.” means “I am fully aware of the extent and intensity of his ill-will.”

Apt, Likely, Liable.—Apt means quick or skillful. “He is apt to learn,” means that he learns readily. “He is likely to learn,” means that he will probably learn. “He is liable to learn,” is incorrect. Liable for means responsible for; liable to means subject to. “He is liable for the entire sum, and liable to imprisonment if he does not pay.”

Apprehend and Comprehend.—Apprehend means to perceive; as, “I apprehend danger.” Comprehend means to understand; as, “I comprehend your meaning.”

As should not be used for that in such constructions as, “I do not know that I do.”

As—As, So—As.—Use the former in affirmative and the latter in negative propositions. “We are as wise as our teachers.” “I am not so young as I used to be.”

As If It Was.—Were, and not was, is required after as if, for the reason that the supposition is not known; thus: “It looks as if it were all right,” not “it looks as if it was all right.”

As though is often used for as if. In the sentence “He walked as though he were lame,” if the ellipsis is supplied the error will be evident. “He walked as (he would walk) though he were lame.” As though is seldom correct.

At, At and To, At All.—The presence of at improves such constructions as “He is at home,” instead of “He is home.” At and to are superfluous in such sentences as, “Where is he?” and “Where has he gone?” hence, their use should be avoided. At all is superfluous in such sentences as, “There is no use in your going;” “I do not know him.”

Authoress, Actress.—The terms “authoress,” “doctress,” “editress,” “poetess,” “lecturess,” are no longer used, author, doctor, etc., being correct for both sexes. Actress, not actor, however, is the required form for the feminine gender.

Avocation, Vocation.—Avocation should not be used for vocation. Vocation is one’s employment; avocation, one’s diversion from that employment.

Awful, Awfully.—Do not use these words as intensives or for supposed force. Awful should mean that which inspires awe. “The awful mysteries of the world unseen.”

Bad, Badly.—Bad is not to be used for severe, as “I have a bad headache.” Badly is also inelegantly used for very much, as “I need money badly.”

Character.—It is in general wrong to speak of a person as a character. Character is justly applied to the ideal personages delineated by novelists. Possessing no real personality, they are characters and nothing more.

Character, Reputation.—One’s character is what one really is; one’s reputation is what people think of one. We may have a good character and a poor reputation, and vice versa.

Choose, Chosen.—“She has chose the blue silk.” Say “has chosen.” But say, in the imperfect, “she chose him in preference to the others.”

Combine together.—“He combined them together.” Omit together.

Commence, Begin.—Begin, when followed by a verb, takes to and the infinitive after it. Commence should take the present participle. We “begin to do,” we “commence working.” Begin may take the participle, but commence should take the infinitive.

Consonant.—“It is consonant to our nature,” is a more usual expression than “it is consonant with.” But consonant with is not improper.

Contractions, while not permissible in dignified utterance or in formal writing, are in accordance with the conversational employment of the language. The following is the list:

I’m not, you’re not, he’s not, we’re not, they’re not are used in the declarative form, and isn’t he (she, or it), aren’t you (we, they) in the interrogative. In the declarative form, You’re not, he’s not, etc., are preferable to you aren’t, he isn’t, etc. Am I not is not contracted, ain’t being regarded as objectionable for am I not, and as a vulgarism for isn’t. [See ain’t.]

“He (she or it) don’t” for He (she or it) doesn’t is always incorrect. I don’t, you don’t, he doesn’t, we don’t, you don’t, they don’t, are in accordance with the conversational employment of the language.

Mayn’t I (or may I not) is correct in the interrogative form; you can’t (or you can not) in the declarative form. In this connection note that may is used when asking and granting permission, and that can, which ordinarily expresses ability, is used in the declarative form when denying permission; thus: “May I go.” “No, you can not.”

The contractions shan’t and won’t are in accordance with conversational usage.

Conversant.—We are conversant with men and in things. Conversant about things is improper.

Converse together.—“They conversed together for more than an hour.” Omit together.

Copy.—We copy after a person; we copy after actions. We copy from things, as from a picture, or from a statue. In such case, a copy from the work is also said to be a copy after the artist.

Correspond.—Correspond, meaning to hold intercourse by means of letters, is followed by with. “I have corresponded with him for several years.” With is also used with correspond, to signify consistent with. Correspond is frequently followed by to, when it expresses adaptability or appropriateness. “His style of living corresponded to his means.”

Cover over.—“He covered it over.” Say “he covered it.”

Dead corpses.—“Evil spirits are not occupied about the dead corpses of bad men.” Omit dead; it is implied in corpses.

Dependent.—“He is dependent of his father.” Say “dependent on.” But with independent say of.

Derogate.—Say derogate from, derogatory to, “derogation from,” or to.

Depot, Station.—A depot is properly a place where goods or stores are kept. The place where a railway train stops for passengers may better be called a station.

Did, Done.—“Who done it?” Say “who did it?” “who has done it?”

Differ.—We differ with a person in opinion. One differs from another in other respects. The English barbarism of differ to, different to, is intolerable, and reverses the meaning of the word to.

Direct, Address.—We address a letter to a person. We direct it to his post office, to the point at which, or to the person through whom, he will receive it. A letter addressed to the president may be directed to his secretary.

Disappointed, Agreeably Disappointed.—It is better to say agreeably surprised. The meaning most closely associated with disappointment is that it is not agreeable.

Dissent.—We dissent from, not with.

Distinct, Distinctly.—“The girl speaks distinct.” Say “speaks distinctly.”

Divide.—We divide things between two, among many.

Drank, Drunk.—“He was very thirsty, and drunk eagerly.” Say “drank.” “He has drank three glasses of soda water.” Say “has drunk.” “Drunken,” the ancient form of the participle, is not now used.

Drove, Driven.—“They have drove very fast.” Say “they have driven.” But, using the imperfect, say “They drove the people out, and locked the gates.”

Dry.—“I am dry, let me have a glass of water.” Say “I am thirsty.” Using dry in this sense suggests the dramshop.

Each, Either.—“A row of trees stood on either side of the river.” The use of either in such cases is disapproved by some writers, but it is sanctioned by long and unexceptional usage, and by the deliberate judgment of well-informed critics. The use of each—“a row of trees stood on each side of the river” is indisputably correct.

Each, Every, Either are singular, and take the verb in the singular number. Such errors as the following should be guarded against: “Each of the daughters take an equal share.” Say “takes.” “Every leaf, every twig, every blade, every drop of water, teem with life.” Say “teems.” Also, instead of “one of those houses have been sold,” say “has been sold.”

Eat, Ate, Eaten.—Say “I ate my breakfast at five o’clock this morning,” not “I eat it,” or “I et it.” “I have eaten my dinner,” not “I have ate it,” or “I have et it.”

Either is followed by or. “I shall either send it or bring it myself.”

Either and Neither are used when two objects are mentioned, or two assertions are made; when there are more than two objects or assertions, they need not be employed. In such case, instead of either, no pronoun or conjunction need be used; instead of neither, no or not may be employed. When two persons are mentioned, “Either you or I must go.” In case of three persons, “You or I or John must go.” With two assertions, negative, “He will neither do it himself nor let any one else do it.” With three negative assertions, “He will not publish the accounts of his office, or allow the public access to them, or permit them to be examined by competent, impartial parties.” Usage on the last point is not uniform. Very many good writers use neither, nor, nor, with three or more negative assertions.

Emigrant, Immigrant.—An emigrant is a person who goes out from a country or a state to reside in another; an immigrant is one who comes into the state to live, from abroad.

Equally as.—As should not be used after equally. Say equally high, equally dear, equally handsome, etc.; not equally as high, equally as dear, equally as handsome.

Equally as well as.—“I can do it equally as well as he.” Omit equally; it is implied in the words as well as.

Equally the same.—“It is equally the same.” Say “it is the same.”

Everybody, Anybody.—Refers to male and female.

For want of a pronoun of common gender, use the masculine—he, his, him—unless the other sex is specified. “They” is plural and must not be used.

Anybody can do what they like. (wrong.)

Anybody can do what he likes.

Everybody will have to make up their minds. (wrong.)

Everybody will have to make up his mind.

Everybody has their faults. (wrong.)

Everybody has his faults.

If anybody calls, let them wait. (wrong.)

If anybody calls, let him wait.

Exceeding, Exceedingly.—“He was exceeding kind to me.” Say exceedingly kind. “She was exceeding careful.” Say exceedingly careful.

Except, Unless, are often used confusedly. “I shall go except I am ill.” Say “unless I am ill.” “I saw them all unless two or three.” Say “except two or three.” The correct usage is easily learned by observing that except should be used as a preposition, unless as a conjunction.

Fall.—We fall under reproach, notice, censure, etc. We fall from our friends, from virtue; we fall upon our enemies, among evil associations, into bad habits.

Farther, Further.—Farther refers to space; further to time, degree, and extensions of thought. The distinction is not a necessary one, but it is now very generally observed.

Fewer, Less.—Fewer relates to numbers, less to quantities. “No man had less friends,” should be fewer friends. But say less money, less strength, etc.

Few, Little, Many, Much.—Few and many refer to number; little and much to quantity. In speaking of articles that are rated by counting, use few and many; in speaking of articles which are rated by measure, use little and much. “A few potatoes,” “so many days.”

First.—“The two first” should be “the first two.” There can be only one first.

Fluent, Fluently.—“He speaks very fluent.” Say very fluently.

Forward, backward, toward, upward, onward, downward, hitherward, thitherward, afterward, heavenward, earthward, etc., should be written without the final s which is often added to them.

Funeral obsequies.—Say obsequies. The sense of funeral is contained in this word. It would be as proper to speak of a “wedding marriage-ceremony” as of “funeral obsequies.”

Generally, always, never, often, rarely, seldom, sometimes, are adverbs which generally come before the verb.

Gentleman friend, Lady friend.—Instead of “my gentleman friend,” say “my friend Mr. ——.” Instead of “my lady friend,” say “my friend Miss ——,” or Mrs. ——.

Gentleman, Lady.—These titles have been applied without discrimination till they have lost almost all the meaning they once had. Many persons have ceased to use them entirely, and employ man and woman as good enough titles for anybody. There are no nobler titles than man, woman; no higher expressions for qualities of grace or virtue than manly, womanly.

Get.—“I am afraid Mary is getting crazy.” Say “is growing,” or “is becoming crazy.” “John got left by the train.” Say “was left.” We get anything that we come in possession of. We may also get a disease. But get must be followed by a noun as its object.

Good for Well.—“He can do it as good as any one else can.” Say as well.

Got.—I have a pen. Not I have got a pen.

Gratuitous.—“That is a gratuitous assumption.” It is better to say “unfounded,” “unreasonable,” or “unwarranted.”

Guess.—Guess is commonly used in the United States to mean think, as in “I guess you are right” for “I think,” etc.

Had ought.—Provincial and incorrect. Had or any form of the verb to have cannot correctly be used as an auxiliary with ought. Use should or ought not. Not “He hadn’t ought to have gone,” but “He should not have gone.”

Hain’t.—A vulgarism. There is no such contraction for have not or has not.

Hang, Hanged.—The verb hang has two forms for the past participle, hanged and hung. Hanged is used for persons; hung for other objects. “The man was hanged.” “The coat was hung on the rack.”

He, Him.—It is him whom.—“It is him whom you said it was.” Say “it is he.”

Healthy, Healthful.—That is healthy which is in good health; that is healthful which promotes health. “Bread and milk is a healthful food which makes healthy children.”

I and Me.—“They went with James and I.” Say “with James and me.”

If I was.—Use the subjunctive in all cases where the conditions are contrary to fact. “If I were you, I should go.” “If I were a man, I should practice law.” I am not you, and I am not a man. Use the indicative in cases of uncertainty. “If I was in town that day, I did not see you.” I am uncertain as to whether I was or not.

In, Into.—Use in to signify rest in a place; use into to signify motion toward a place. “He was standing with his hands in his pockets.” “I put my hands into my pockets.” “I came in an automobile.” “The stranger walked into the room.”

Indeterminate possessive.—“Every child should obey their parents.” Say “his parents.” “No one should incur censure for being careful of their good character.” Say his, or her if talking more particularly of women. “Let each of us mind their own business.” Say “his own business.” Their is frequently used improperly, as a substitute. In such cases, his or her should be used, according as the object most prominent in the expression, or in the speaker’s thought, is masculine or feminine. In cases of doubt or indifference, use his. In the nominative we may say one. But in the possessive and objective we must say his, him or her.

Indifferent, indifferently.—“He was indifferent honest.” Say “indifferently honest.”

Infinitive.—See Split Infinitive.

Ingenuous, Ingenious.—Ingenuous is simple, honest, open, unaffected. Ingenious is skillful, versatile, ready in contriving.

Jew, Hebrew, Israelite.—A Jew is a member of the Hebraic division of the Semitic race; in consequence Hebrew is the linguistic name of the Jews. Historically, under the theocracy, they were known as Hebrews; under the monarchy, as Israelites; and during foreign domination, as Jews. The modern representatives of this stock call themselves Hebrews in race and language, and Israelites in religion, but Jews in both senses.

Jewelry, Jewels.—Jewelry is a collective noun, and jewels is a plural noun. In nice usage the term jewelry designates the stock of a jeweler; jewels, the articles of adornment worn by a lady.

Join issue and Take issue.—In nice usage, “join issue” means to admit the right of the denial of a statement. “Take issue” means merely to deny.

Kind of should not be used for somewhat. Instead of “I am kind of tired,” one properly says, “I am somewhat tired.”

Kind of a.—A is superfluous in such constructions as, “What kind of man is he?” (not “kind of a”). The same rule applies to sort.

Kind and Kinds.—See These and This.

Know, Knew, Known.—“I knowed it.” Say “I knew it.” “I have knowed it all along.” Say “I have known it.”

Latter end.—“I expect to get through by the latter end of the week.” Say “by the end of the week.” “The latter end of that man shall be peace.” Say “the end of that man.”

Learn, Teach.—These words are often confounded. The pupil learns, the instructor teaches. One person cannot learn another, but must teach him.

Leave, Lief.—Say “give me leave to tell you,” not lief. But “I would as lief do it as not,” not leave.

Leisure upon one’s hands.—“If you have any leisure upon your hands.” Say “if you are at leisure.”

Lend, Loan.—“Loan me five dollars.” Say “lend me five dollars.” The money having been lent him, the borrower has obtained a loan of that sum, or has borrowed it.

Lengthways, Sideways, Otherways.—These forms are erroneous. Say, and write, lengthwise, sidewise, otherwise.

Lie, Lay.—Distinguish between the verbs:—

lie—to tell lies

Present Tense—He lies like truth.

Present Tense—He is lying.

Past Tense—But he lied unto him.

Past Tense—Wherefore have ye lied to me?

Past Tense—Why have you been lying to me?

lie—to lie down

Present—The dog lies under the table.

Present—The dog is lying under the table.

Past—He lay upon the bed.

Past—He has lain there for hours.

Past—He has been lying there for hours.

lay—to put a thing down

Present—The boy lays his books on the table.

Present—The boy is laying his books on the table.

Past—He laid his head upon the block.

Past—The hen has laid an egg.

Past—The hen has been laying all the winter.

Liable, Apt.—Apt means fit, ready, quick to do a thing, or to be subjected to certain conditions. It generally implies willingness. Liable signifies bound to duties, subject or exposed to inconveniences or dangers, and implies no regard to the will of its subject. “John will be apt to catch the fever if he goes into that house,” should be “John will be liable,” etc. A person who is studious may be spoken of as apt to learn, and liable to become dyspeptic.

Like.—“We don’t do that like you do.” Say “as you do.” This misuse of like is common with English women novelists. As should be used when a verb follows, or is understood to follow. Where no verb is implied, like may be employed.

Like for As.—Like should not be used as a conjunction. Say: “Do as I do,” not, “do like I do,” or, “do like me.”

Like, Love.—Love is often used instead of like, and is thereby made to lose all its force. We love what the heart goes out to, that for which we entertain a fond and lasting affection. We love wives, husbands, parents, children, near friends. We like what we have a taste for, what pleases us in passing, or what is generally agreeable to us, as acquaintances, sweetmeats, pleasant weather, music, painting, reading. We regret for a long time the loss of what we love, we soon cease to be troubled at missing what we like.

Limb.—“She fell, and bruised her limb.” Say what limb. The arm is a limb, as well as the leg. The foolish shame which avoids mentioning the leg by name, is not modesty, but prudery.

Lit.—Not to be used for lighted. Instead of saying “He lit the gas,” say “he lighted the gas.” Do not say “He lit on his feet,” but “he lighted on his feet.”

Locate.—“I shall locate in Iowa.” Say settle. Locate has acquired a certain technical currency. The purchaser of land warrants locates by selecting a particular tract to claim under it. Place, settle, fix, establish, can be substituted for it in most cases, and are better.

Mad.—Should not be used for angry.

Mail man.—An inelegant form for postman.

Me being.—“Me being absent, the young folks lived high.” Say “I being absent,” or “while I was absent,” or “during my absence.”

Me, I.—“Is it me you mean?” Say “is it I?” or “do you mean me?”

Me, My.—“In consequence of me neglecting.”—“The horse got away in consequence of me neglecting to fasten the gate.” Say “in consequence of my neglecting,” etc.

Monstrous.—Monstrous does not mean large. It means ill-formed, misshapen, deviating from the course of nature, of a character to inspire unpleasant feelings. But an object so unusually large as to appear terrible may be figuratively styled monstrous.

More—than, not more—as. “He was more beloved but not so much admired as his brother.” This sentence must be recast.

“He was more beloved than his brother, but not so much admired.” Or,

“Though not so much admired as his brother, he was more beloved.”

Mortgagor, Mortgagee.—The mortgagor is the debtor, who pledges the property which is in mortgage. The mortgagee is the creditor, to whom the mortgage is made.

Most.—Not to be used for almost; as “He is here most every day.”

Mutual.—Does not mean common, but reciprocal. “We may have a common friend, but a mutual dislike”; that is, a dislike for each other.

Myself.—Not to be used for I. Do not say “John and myself are friends”; but “John and I,” etc.

Near, Nearly.—“I lost near twenty pounds.” Say “nearly twenty pounds.”

Neither for Either.—“That is not the case, neither.” Say “either.” The double negative is wrong.

Neither, Nor.—Negatives other than neither may take or or nor as their correlative. With subjects connected by “either—or,” “neither—nor,” the verb must be singular:—

Neither he nor his brother were trained for the ministry.

should be

Neither he nor his brother was trained for the ministry.

Either the master or his servant was responsible.

Neither ignorance nor negligence has been the cause of his ruin.

New beginner.—Say beginner. When one begins anything, he is new at it of course.

Nice.—A very generally misused word. Properly nice means delicate, discriminating, fastidious. The works of a watch show nice construction; a man may be nice in his manners. The word should not be used to mean agreeable or charming as “I had a nice time.”

Nicely.—Do not use nicely for well, as “The sick man is doing nicely.”

Nobody else.—“There was nobody else but him.” Omit else.

No for Not.—“I cannot tell whether this is correct or no,” is wrong. Say, “I cannot tell whether this is correct or not.”

None, is the same as no one, and is properly singular. It is, however, used in both numbers, according as the context seems to make appropriate.

Not as I know of.—Incorrectly used for not that I know of.

Not me.—“Who made that noise?” “Not me.” Say “not I.” “It wasn’t me.” Say “it wasn’t I.” The use of me is defended by some writers.

Not only—but also.—Correlatives must be placed immediately before the words connected.

“He not only lent me his horse but also sent his carriage.”

“He lent me not only his horse but also his carriage.”

Number, Quantity.—Number should be used in speaking of objects that are counted, quantity with those that are measured. Much, little, and less, answer to quantity, and many, few, and fewer, to numbers; more answers to both.

Of.—“A child of four years old.” Say “a child four years old,” or “a child of four years.”

Off of.—“There were ten yards of the cloth before I cut this piece off of it.” Say “before I cut this piece off it,” or “from it.”

One.—One is the only singular personal pronoun of common gender.

“One must not forget one’s duty to one’s country.” This frequent repetition is disagreeable.

“No man must forget his duty to his country.”

“A man must not forget his duty to his country.”

Only is best placed immediately before the word it modifies. In case there can be no ambiguity it may be placed immediately after the word it modifies.

Only I wrote to him to-day. (No one else wrote.)

I only wrote to him yesterday. (I did not telephone.)

I wrote only to him to-day. (I wrote to no one else.)

I wrote to him only to-day. (No longer ago than to-day.)

I wrote him to-day only. (I had not written before.)

This car for members only. (For none but members.)

Only, Alone.—“He alone can do it,” implies that he can do it without help. It would be better, “He can do it alone.” “He only can do it,” signifies that he, and no other person, can do it. Using alone in the sense of only may lead to ambiguity.

Onto.—We get on a horse and on a chair, not onto.

Orate.—An unauthorized form commonly used to mean to give an oration.

Over.—Do not use over in the sense of more than; as, “I have over a hundred dollars”; “The stick is over a yard long.”

Over a bridge.—“He went over the bridge.” It is more exact to say, “he went across the bridge.” A bird may fly over a bridge, if it does not touch the bridge.

Overhead and ears.—“We went in overhead and ears.” Say overhead. The head carries the ears. But “overhead and ears in debt” is a phrase which it will be hard to abolish.

Partial, Partially.—“This view is partially correct.” “Partly correct,” or “in part correct,” is better. Partially means, properly, one sided, with bias.

Persuasion, in the sense of religious denomination or belief, is objectional. Sect, denomination, belief, or “school of belief,” are proper substitutes.

Plunge down.—“He plunged down into the stream.” Omit down.

Possessives.—

Rule.—Use the apostrophe and the letter s (or change the form) only when the noun (or pronoun) itself represents the possessor.

This is a photograph of my uncle.

She is a servant of my aunt’s.

This is a criticism of John. (Some one else wrote it about John.)

This is an opinion of John’s. (John’s opinion; that is, John uttered it.)

This is an opinion of John. (Some one else uttered it.)

Plural and Singular Words.—Molasses is singular. The habit of giving it a plural construction is an error. Say “that molasses is souring,” not “them molasses are souring.”

Words like scissors, snuffers, tongs, trousers, etc., denoting articles which are paired or coupled, are plural, and take a plural verb. “The scissors are dull,” not “is dull.”

This is the birthplace of the President. (Not President’s.)

This is the private office of the Secretary. (Not Secretary’s.)

He is a friend of the Bank’s. (One of several friends.)

He is an enemy of mine. (One or more possessed by me.)

He is a brother of mine. (One or more possessed by me.)

He is a friend of hers. (One or more possessed by her.)

I cannot endure that rasping voice of Bridget’s. (One voice.)

Prepositions.—Never use a preposition to end a sentence:

For whom is that? To whom are you writing? The matter to which I am referring.

Two prepositions should not come together, as: “That is the man I went to for advice.” But, “That is the man to whom I went for advice.”

Previous, Previously.—“He wrote me previous to his coming.” Say “previously to his coming.”

Quantity, Number.—Quantity is used of that which can be measured; number, of that which can be counted; as, “There is a large quantity of sugar on hand”; “There are a large number of eggs in the basket.”

In connection with the use of the singular or the plural verb with the word number, note that the plural verb is used when number means several; the singular, when number is used to stand for a unit; as, “A number of persons are going” (several); “The number is limited to five.”

Quite.—“There are quite a number of Americans here.” Say “there are several.” One is quite a number. It is correct to say “there are quite twenty” to express that the number is completely made up—which is the meaning of quite.

Raised.—“I was raised in the South.” Say “brought up.” “I was raised in Mr. Stephens’ family.” Say “taken care of,” “brought up,” “instructed,” or “trained.” We “raise” horses, cattle, sheep, swine, poultry and crops, but apply a more refining process to human beings.

Ran, Run.—Say “this horse has often run a mile in two minutes and a half; yesterday he ran a mile in two minutes and three-quarters.”

Rang, Rung.—“I have rang the bell half a dozen times.” Say “have rung.” But say in the imperfect, “they rang the bells merrily for Christmas day.”

Rather—than, Prefer—to.—“He preferred doing nothing rather than run the risk of doing wrong,” should be “He preferred doing nothing rather than running the risk of doing wrong”; or “He preferred to do nothing rather than to run the risk of doing wrong.”

Receipt and Recipe.—One properly says, “The receipt calls for three cupfuls of flour,” recipe being restricted in its use as a medical term. Century gives the following: Receipt is distinguished from recipe by the common restriction of that word [recipe] to medical and relative uses; as, “A receipt for a pudding.”

Reckon.—Provincial for think. “I reckon he will come soon.” Say “I think” or “I believe.”

Reference, Recommendation.—A person seeking employment or position, names certain persons who know him as his references. They may, if they are so disposed, and can do so with truth, give him their recommendation.

Regard.—“In regard of this matter.” Say “in regard to,” or “with regard to.”

Regarded from that standpoint, but looked at in that light.

Relations, Relatives, Kin, Kindred.—It is better to speak of ones relatives than of his relations. Relations has other meanings. Kin and kindred are old English words, which deserve to be more in fashion than they are.

Relative Pronouns.—Who is used exclusively with persons, which exclusively with things, and that with persons and things. In common conversation that is more frequently used with persons than who. But who is considered more elegant.

Examples of the correct use of the relative pronouns, who, which, that, and what:

I gave the money to the driver, who will give it to his employer.

I brought her a book, from the library, which she enjoyed very much.

This is the house that she bought.

I do not want you to repeat what I have told you.

(1) In the last sentence what is equivalent to that which or the thing which. It differs from the other relative pronouns in that its antecedent is never expressed, it being implied in the word itself (that which).

(2) What is always of the neuter gender, and is used in only the nominative and the objective case. Who, whose, and whom are either masculine and feminine (common gender) and are used, respectively, in the nominative, the possessive, and the objective case.

(3) Which is neuter and may be used in either the nominative or the objective case.

(4) Whose is the form of the possessive for either who or which.

Remarkable, Remarkably.—“She is a remarkable pretty girl.” Say remarkably pretty.

Reside and Live.—The simple word live is preferable to reside when referring to one’s place of residence, reside being reserved for more stately occasions.

Respect.—Instead of “in respect of,” say “in respect to,” or “with respect to.”

Respectfully and Respectively.—Respectfully mean in a respectful manner; respectively refers to persons or things thought of singly; as, “He behaved respectfully toward his parents”; “The names of the boys are, respectively, John, Henry, and James.”

Rise up.—“He rose up and left the room.” Say “he rose”; say also, raise, lift, hoist; not raise up, lift up, hoist up.

Saw, Seen, See.—“I see him last Monday.” Say “I saw him.” “I seen him yesterday.” Say “I saw him.” “I haven’t saw him for along time.” Say “I haven’t seen him.” See is present, saw imperfect, seen the participle. The habit of confusing them prevails widely.

Section.—“Mr. —— does not live in this section.” Say “in this neighborhood,” “vicinity,” or “part of the country.” A section, in geography, is one square mile, or six hundred and forty acres of land, which has been laid out by the government.

Shall and Will.—Shall in the first person and will in the second and third persons denote mere futurity.

Will in the first person and shall in the second and third denote volition.

In asking questions shall must always be used with a subject in the first person. In the second and third persons we use shall and will according to the answers that we expect. When we expect the answer shall, we use shall in asking the question. When we expect the answer will, we use will in asking the question.

Similar statements are true of should and would.

The proper use of shall, will, should, and would in indirect discourse may be determined by turning the sentence into the direct discourse and choosing the proper word according to the rule.

With all three persons, we may use would to express a wish. Also we may use would without regard to future time, to denote that an action is customary; as, “He would often fish for days in succession.”

Should is sometimes used in its original sense of ought; as, “You should not do that.”

The forms given below are examples of the simple future statement.

Examples:

I shall be happy. We shall be happy.

You will be happy. You will be happy.

He will be happy. They will be happy.

If we wish to add the idea of a compelling force, or of determination or obligation, the proper auxiliary for the first person is will; for the second and third persons, shall.

Examples:

I will go means I am determined to go.

You shall go means You must go.

He shall go means He must go.

We will go means We are determined to go.

You shall go means You must go.

They shall go means They must go.

I shall have satisfaction means that the satisfaction will come in the course of time.

I will have satisfaction means I am determined to have it.

Sink down.—“The stone sunk down in the water.” Omit down.

Some for Somewhat.—“He is some better today.” It is better to say “he is somewhat better.”

Split Infinitive.—To explain, to thank (infinitive). These words should not be separated (split). “Have the goodness to clearly explain,” should be “Have the goodness to explain clearly.”

“I want to personally thank you,” should be “I want to thank you personally.”

Tenses.—In subordinate clauses the tense of the verb is relative to the tense of the principal verb.

“He intended to have done so,” should be “He intended to do so.”

The imperfect tense, I did is used in speaking of events which took place before a time that is past.

The perfect tense, I have done, is used in speaking of events which have been completed before the present time.

Than me.—“He is taller than me.” The word after than should be in the same case with the word before it.

Than him.—“You are stronger than him.” Say “than he.”

That.—See Relative Pronouns.

Thee and You.—“I owe thee a heavy debt of gratitude, and you will not permit me to pay it.” Avoid such confusion of numbers. Use the same word—either thee or you—in both clauses.

Them, They.—“It was them.” Say “it was they.”

These, This.—I don’t like these sort of folks (this sort).

Those kind of boots—that kind (those kinds).

These kind, Those sort.—Kind and sort are singular nouns, and should be modified by singular adjectives. Say “this kind,” “that sort.”

They, Everyone.—Do not use they indefinitely instead of everyone, as, “They are always in a hurry in the city”; better say “Everyone is in a hurry in the city.”

Though is followed by yet. “Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor.”

Through.—Often misused in the sense of finished. “I am through with my breakfast,” instead of “I have finished my breakfast.”

To be.—The verb “to be” takes the same case after it as before it. Example: “Who is there?” “It is I.” Say “It was I who rang the bell.”

Trousers, Waistcoat, Gown, Petticoat, are good old respectable English words, which point out particular garments without possibility of mistake. They are better than the new ones, pantaloons, vest, dress, skirt.

Try and.—“I will try and do it.” Say “I will try to do it.”

Unique is not properly modified by very, unique meaning the only one of its kind.

Use to.—Used to, not use to, is the correct form; as, “I used to go there very often.” In negative constructions “didn’t used to” is always incorrect.

View to and View of.—One properly says, “With a view to finding out.” or “With the view of finding out.”

Visit with.—Visit is improperly followed by with in such constructions as, “I am visiting with friends in New York,” “I am visiting friends,” etc., being the correct form.

Vocation.—A man’s vocation is his calling, his regular business. His avocation is something outside of his business with which he occupies himself incidentally. My friend’s vocation is the practice of law; his avocation is photography. Still, while avocation, in the sense of vocation, is usually avoided by good writers, such use has some sanction of authority.

Want.—Avoid want in the sense of “ought” or “had better,” as, “You want to hurry if you are going to catch the car”; better say “You had better hurry if you expect to catch the car.”

Was, Were.—“Was you?” “You was.” Say “were you?” “You were.”

Way, Away.—Way should not be used for away. “I saw him away (not way) down the road.”

What for Who, Which, and That.—See Relative Pronouns.

Where for In which.—“It is a cause where justice is particularly concerned.” Say in which. “We presented a paper where his case was fully explained.” Say “a paper in which.” But where may be used instead of which and a preposition when place is the predominant idea. “The old house where I was born.”

Whether is followed by or. “Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell.”

Which.—See Relative Pronouns.

Who.—See Relative Pronouns.

Without, Unless.—Without must not be used for unless. “You won’t catch the train without you run,” should be, “You won’t catch the train unless you run.”

“My uncle would not take me without my mother wished it,” should be “My uncle would not take me unless my mother wished it.”

Wrong and Wrongly.—Wrong is an adverb as well as an adjective. For this reason, wrong is often interchangeably used with wrongly; as, “The mail was sent off wrong” (or wrongly). When preceding the verb, wrongly is required; as “The letter was wrongly addressed.”

USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS

The following are the general rules for the use of capitals, together with the abbreviations most commonly used. Many special uses of capital letters are also insisted upon by writers which cannot be reduced to general rules.

Rule 1.—The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital letter.

A sentence preceded by an introductory word or clause such as Resolved, Be it enacted, etc., begins with a capital notwithstanding the introductory word.

Rule II.—The first word of a direct quotation, of an important statement, and of a direct question, should begin with a capital.

Examples:

One truth is clear: Whatever is, is right.—Pope. Ask yourselves this question: Are you doing right?

Rule III.—The first word of every line of poetry should begin with a capital.

Rule IV.—All proper names begin with capitals. If the proper name consists of several words, all are capitalized except articles, prepositions, and conjunctions.

Examples:—San Diego, Burton-on-Trent, the Grand Army of the Republic.

The words street, road, lake, river, mountain, etc., should begin with capitals when used in connection with proper names.

Examples:—Crawford Road, Prospect Street, Lake Erie, Cuyahoga River, Little Mountain.

North, South, East, and West, should begin with capitals when they mean sections of the country and not points of the compass.

Example:—Chicago, the largest city of the West, is south of Lake Michigan.

Capitalize city only when part of the corporate name, New York City, Washington City.

Rule V.—Names of days and months always take a capital; but the names of seasons of the year are not commonly capitalized.

Rule VI.—Titles of office before personal names, and other titles so placed which are not mere common names of vocation, are written with capitals.

Examples:—Senator Jones, Doctor (or Dr.) Brown, Aunt Jane, Miss or Master Gray; but coachman Smith, barber Harris, etc.

Titles of dignity are also commonly capitalized when used alone, as in address, or with the definite article.

Examples:—the President, Senator, Judge, the Judge, District Attorney.

When title, with or without Christian name, precedes “de,” use lower-case “d”; this rule applies also to “la,” “di,” “von,” “van,” etc.

Examples:—Marquis de Lafayette, Di Cesnola, Prince von Moltke, Von Humboldt, Dr. la Mond, De Chaulnes, Mr. van Renssalaer.

Rule VII.—Many special names of a common kind are, in particular uses, treated as proper nouns and capitalized.

Examples:—Congress, Parliament, Senate, House of Representatives, State (for one of the United States), Hudson River Railroad, Aldine Printing Company.

Capitalize the names of political parties; as, Republican Party, Democratic Party, Progressive Party, etc.

Capitalize Christmas Day, New Year’s Day, Lincoln’s Birthday, Washington’s Birthday, Good Friday, Decoration Day or Memorial Day, Fourth of July, Labor Day, Election Day, Thanksgiving Day, etc.; a noted day, as Black Friday, etc.; but blue Monday.

Capitalize Northerner, Southerner, Northern gentleman, Southern blood, etc.

Capitalize names of important events and periods: as, the Creation, the Fall, the Flood, the Reformation, the Revolution (French or American), Civil War (American), the Middle Ages, the Union, Reconstruction.

Capitalize religious denominations; as, Methodist, Episcopal Church, St. Mark’s Church, Church and State, etc.

Church is without the capital always when used alone or when meaning congregation or building; as, a Methodist church in Hoboken.

Capitalize College, Club, Society, etc., when referring to that particular body, in by-laws, proceedings, or other publications of a college, club, society, company, etc.

Capitalize Monsieur, Madame, Signor, etc.

Capitalize State only when referring to one of the United States.

Rule VIII.—Adjectives and nouns derived from proper names are written with capitals.

Examples:—Jacksonian, New Yorker, Congressman (if Congress has a capital).

Names of countries and places, and adjectives derived from them.

Examples:—a German dictionary. The best Spanish wines.

But such words used in some other common way are not capitalized.

Examples:—morocco leather, russia leather, india rubber, plaster of paris, etc.

Rule IX.—Names of families and larger groups in natural history, and of genera, are written with capitals; also botanical specific names derived from proper names, and those that have formerly been genus-names, though zoölogical usage gives a small initial to every specific name.

Examples:—Asplenium Trichomanes (a fern). Menticirrhus americanus (a fish). Carya alba (a hickory tree).

Rule X.—In headings the important words only should be capitalized.

Titles of books, newspapers, plays, and the like, are written with capitals beginning the important words, most commonly nouns, principal verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The word the is capitalized as part of the title if the title is quoted exactly.

Examples:—A History of the Rebellion.

Examples:—Free Trade and Protection.

Examples:—Put Yourself in his Place.

Examples:—Milton’s Select Poems.

Examples:—The Beginnings of Poetry.

Rule XI.—The pronoun I and the interjection O are capitalized.

Rule XII.—All names of God, all words that may be regarded as titles of the Deity, should begin with capitals.

Rule XIII.—In compound words, as vice-president, ex-president, etc., the prefix (vice) should not be capitalized.

Rule XIV.—In personification it is usual to capitalize the personified words.

Examples:— Vice is a monster; smiling Spring. The Voice of Nature; but: true to nature.

ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS AND DEGREES

Military or naval and some professional titles preceding names are nearly always abbreviated; as Capt. Jones, Dr. Brown, Rev. Dr. Smith.

Titles of collegiate degree are abbreviated; as, William Lee, Ph. D., LL. D.

In general writing, it is better to avoid abbreviation as far as possible.

A., a. Adjective.

A. Alto.

A., ans. Answer.

a., @ (Lat. ad). To; At.

ä, ää. The like quantity of each.

A. A. A. S. American Association for the Advancement of Science.

A. B. (Lat. artium baccalaureus). Bachelor of Arts.

Abbr., Abbrev. Abbreviated, Abbreviation.

Abl., ablat. Ablative.

Abp. Archbishop.

A. C. (Lat. ante Christum). Before Christ; Analytical Chemist.

Acad. Academy.

Acc., Accus. Accusative.

Acc., Acct. Account.

A. D. (Lat. anno Domini). In the year of our Lord.

A. D. C. Aide-de-camp.

Ad., advt. Advertisement.

Adj. Adjective.

Adjt. Adjutant.

Adjt. Gen. Adjutant-General.

Ad lib., Ad libit. (Lat. ad libitum). At pleasure.

Adm. Admiral.

Admr. Administrator.

Admx. Administratrix.

Adv. Adverb.

Æ., Æt. (Lat. ætatis). Of Age, Aged.

A. G., Agt.-Gen. Adjutant-General.

Ag. (Lat. argentum). Silver.

Agl. Dept. Agricultural Department.

Agr., Agric. Agriculture, Agricultural.

Agt. Agent.

A. L. of H. American Legion of Honor.

Al., Ala. Alabama.

Alas. Ter. Alaska Territory.

Ald. Alderman.

Alex. Alexander.

Alf. Alfred.

Alg. Algebra.

A. M. (Lat. anno mundi). In the year of the world.

A. M. (Lat. ante meridiem). Before noon.

A. M. (Lat. artium magister). Master of Arts.

Am., Amer. America, American.

Amer. Phil. Soc. American Philosophical Society.

Amt. Amount.

an. (Lat. anno). In the year.

Anal. Analysis.

Anat. Anatomy, Anatomical.

Anc. Ancient.

Anon. Anonymous.

Ans. Answer.

Ant., Antiq. Antiquities, Antiquarian.

Anthrop. Anthropology, Anthropological.

A. O. U. W. Ancient Order of United Workmen.

Ap., App. Apostle, Apostles.

A. P. A. American Protestant Association; American Protective Association.

Apoc. Apocalypse, Apocrypha.

Apog. Apogee.

App. Appendix.

approx. Approximate, -ly.

Apr. April.

Aq. (Lat. aqua). Water.

Ar. Arab. Arabic, Arabian.

A. R. A. Associate of the Royal Academy.

Arab. Arabic, Arabian.

Aram. Aramaic.

Arch. Architecture.

Archæol. Archæology.

Archd. Archdeacon.

Arith. Arithmetic, Arithmetical.

Ariz. Arizona.

Ark. Arkansas.

Art. Article.

A. S., A.-S. Anglo-Saxon.

Asst. Assistant.

A. S. S. U. American Sunday School Union.

Assyr. Assyrian.

Astrol. Astrology.

Astron. Astronomy, Astronomical.

Atty. Attorney.

Atty.-Gen. Attorney-General.

A. U. A. American Unitarian Association.

A. U. C. (Lat. anno urbis conditæ). In the year from the building of the city—Rome.

Aug. Augustus; August.

Auxil. Auxiliary.

Avoir. Avoirdupois.

B., Brit. British.

b. Born.

B. A. Bachelor of Arts [A. B.]

Bal. Balance.

Balt., Balto. Baltimore.

Bap., Bapt. Baptist.

Bar. Barrel, Barometer.

Bart., Bt. Baronet.

bbl., bbls. Barrel, Barrels.

B. C. Before Christ.

B. C. L. (Lat. baccalaureus civilis legis). Bachelor of Civil Law.

B. D. (Lat. baccalaureus divinitatis). Bachelor of Divinity.

Bd. Bound.

Bdls. Bundles.

B. E. Bachelor of the Elements; Bachelor of Elocution.

Belg. Belgic, Belgian.

Ben., Benj. Benjamin.

Bib. Bible, Biblical.

Biog. Biography, Biographical.

Biol. Biology, Biological.

B. L., B. L. L. (Lat. baccalaureus legum). Bachelor of Laws.

B. ès L. (F. Bachelier ès Lettres). Bachelor of Letters.

bls. Bales.

B. M. (Lat. baccalaureus medicinæ). Bachelor of Medicine.

B. M., B. Mus. (Lat. baccalaureus musicæ). Bachelor of Music.

B. O. Branch Office.

B. O. Bachelor of Oratory.

Boh. Bohemian or Czech.

Bot. Botany, Botanical.

Bp. Bishop.

Br., Bro. Brother.

Brig. Brigade.

Brig.-Gen. Brigadier-General.

Brit. Britain, Britannia, British.

B. S. Bachelor of Surgery; Bachelor of Science.

B. Sc. (Lat. baccalaureus scientiæ). Bachelor of Science.

Bt. Baronet.

bush. Bushel.

B. V. Blessed Virgin.

B. V. M. Blessed Virgin Mary.

bx., bxs. Box, Boxes.

C. Cent, Cents; Centigrade; Consul; Centime, Centimes; a hundred.

C., Cap. (Lat. caput). Chapter.

C. A. Chartered Accountant.

Cal. California; Calendar.

Cant. Canticle.

Cantab. (Lat. Cantabrigiensis). Of Cambridge.

Cap. (Lat. caput). Capital; Chapter.

Caps. Capitals.

Capt. Captain.

Card. Cardinal.

Cath. Catharine; Catholic.

C. D. V. Carte-de-Visite.

C. E. Civil Engineer.

Celt. Celtic.

Cent. (centum). A hundred; Centigrade.

Centig. Centigrade.

Cert., Certif. Certify; Certificate.

Cf. (Lat. confer). Compare.

C. ft. Cubic feet.

C. G. Coastguard; Commissary-General.

C. G. S. Centimetre-Gramme-Second.

C. H. Court House.

Ch. Church; Chapter.

Chal., Chald. Chaldee.

Chan. Chancellor.

Chap. Chapter.

Chas. Charles.

Chem. Chemistry, Chemical.

Ch. Hist. Church History.

Chr. Christ; Christian; Christopher.

Chron. Chronology, Chronological.

Cit. Citation; Citizen.

Civ. Civil.

C. J. Chief Justice.

Class. Classical.

Clk. Clerk.

cm. Centimetre.

C. M. Certified Master; Common metre.

C. M. (Lat. chirurgiæ magister). Master in Surgery.

C. M. G. Companion of the Order of St. Michael and George.

Co. Company; County.

C. O. D. Cash on delivery; Collect (payment) on delivery.

Col. Colonel; Colossians; Column.

Colloq. Colloquial; Colloquialism; Colloquially.

Colo. Colorado.

Com. Commander; Commerce; Commissioner; Committee; Commodore; Common.

Comm. Commentary; Commerce.

Comp. Compare; Comparative; Compound, Compounded.

Con., contra (Lat.). Against.

Con. Cr. Contra Credit.

Cong. Congregation, Congregational, Congregationalist; Congress.

Conj. Conjunction.

Conn. Connecticut.

Contr. Contracted, Contraction.

Cop., Copt. Coptic.

Cor. Corinthians.

Cor. Mem. Corresponding Member.

Corrup. Corruption, Corrupted.

Cor. Sec. Corresponding Secretary.

Cos. Cosine.

C. P. Clerk of the Peace; Common Pleas.

C. P. A. Certified Public Accountant.

C. P. C. Clerk of the Privy Council.

C. P. S. (Lat. custos privati sigilli). Keeper of the Privy Seal.

C. Q. D. Come quick—danger.

Cr. Credit, Creditor.

C. R. (Lat. Civus Romanus). Roman Citizen.

C. R. (Lat. custos rotulorum). Keeper of the Rolls.

Cres. Crescendo.

Crystall., Crystallog. Crystallography.

C. S. A. Confederate States of America.

C. S. Court of Sessions, Clerk to the Signet.

Csks. Casks.

Ct. (Lat. centum). A hundred.

Ct. Court.

Ct., Conn. Connecticut.

C. T. A. U. Catholic Total Abstinence Union.

Cu. (Lat. cuprum). Copper.

Cub., Cu. ft. Cubic, Cubic foot.

Cur., Curt. Current—this month.

Cwt. A hundredweight; Hundredweights.

Cyc. Cyclopædia.

d. (Lat. denarius, denarii). A penny, Pence.

d. Died.

Dan. Daniel; Danish.

Dat. Dative.

Dav. David.

D. C., Dist. Col. District of Columbia.

D. C. L. Doctor of Civil (or Canon) Law.

D. D. (Lat. divinitatis doctor). Doctor of Divinity.

D. D. S. Doctor of Dental Surgery.

D. E. Dynamic Engineer.

D. Eng. Doctor of Engineering.

Dec. December.

decim. Decimetre.

Def. Definition.

Deft. Defendant.

Deg. Degree, Degrees.

Del. Delaware.

Dep., Dept. Department.

Dep. Deputy.

Der. Derived, Derivation.

Deut. Deuteronomy.

D. G. (Lat. Dei gratia). By the grace of God.

Dict. Dictionary.

Dim., Dimin. Diminutive.

Dis., Disct. Discount.

Dist. District.

Dist. Atty. District Attorney.

Div. Divide; Dividend; Division; Divisor.

D. Lit., D. Litt. Doctor of Literature.

D. L. O. Dead Letter Office.

D. M., D. Mus. Doctor of Music.

D. M. D. Doctor of Dental Medicine.

D. O. Doctor of Osteopathy; Doctor of Optics.

Do. (Ital. ditto). The same.

Dols. Dollars.

Doz. Dozen.

Dpt. Deponent.

Dr. Debtor; Doctor; Dram, Drams.

Dram. Dramatic, Dramatically.

D. Sc. Doctor of Science.

D. T. (Lat. doctor theologiæ). Doctor of Theology.

Du., Dut. Dutch.

Dub. Dublin.

Duo., 12mo. Duodecimo (twelve folds).

D. V. (Lat. Deo volente). God willing.

D. V. M. Doctor of Veterinary Medicine.

D. V. S. Doctor of Veterinary Surgery.

Dwt. (Lat. denarius, an English weight). Pennyweight, Pennyweights.

Dynam. Dynamics.

E. East, Eastern; English; Edinburgh.

Ea. Each.

Eccl., Eccles. Ecclesiastical.

Econ. Economy.

Ed. Editor; Edition; Edinburgh.

Ed., Edm. Edmund.

Edin. Edinburgh.

Edw. Edward.

E. E. Electrical Engineer.

e. g. (Lat. exempli gratia). For example.

Elec., Elect. Electric, Electricity.

Eliz. Elizabeth, Elizabethan.

Emp. Emperor, Empress.

Ency., Encyclo. Encyclopædia.

E. N. E. East-northeast.

Eng. England, English.

Eng., Engin. Engineer, Engineering.

Eng. Dept. Department of Engineers.

Ent., Entom. Entomology, Entomological.

Env. Ext. Envoy extraordinary.

Eph. Ephesians; Ephraim.

Epiph. Epiphany.

Epis. Episcopal.

Epist. Epistle, epistolary.

Eq. Equal, equivalent.

Equiv. Equivalent.

Esd. Esdras.

E. S. E. East-southeast.

Esq., Esqr. Esquire.

et al (Lat. et alibi). And elsewhere.

et al. (Lat. et alii, or aliæ, alia). And others.

etc., &c. (Lat. et cæteri, cæteræ, or cætera). And others, and so forth.

Ethnol. Ethnology, ethnological.

et seq., sq., or sqq. (Lat. et sequentes, or et sequentia). And the following.

Etym. or Etymol., Etymology.

Ex. Example; Examined; Exception; Exodus.

Exc. Excellency; Except, excepted.

Exch. Exchange; Exchequer.

Ex. Doc. Executive Document.

Exec. Executor.

Execx. Executrix.

Exod. Exodus.

Exon. (Lat. Exonia). Exeter.

Exr. Executor.

Exx. Executrix.

Ez. Ezra.

Ezek. Ezekiel.

E. & O. E. Errors and omissions excepted.

F. Fellow; Folio; Fahrenheit.

f. Farthing, farthings.

f., fem. Feminine.

f. Franc, francs.

Fahr. Fahrenheit.

F. A. S. Fellow of the Society of Arts.

F. C. Free Church of Scotland.

Fcp. Foolscap.

F. C. S. Fellow of the Chemical Society.

F. D., Fid. Def. (Lat. Fidei Defensor). Defender of the Faith.

Feb. February.

Fec. (Lat. fecit). He (or She) did it.

Fem. Feminine.

F. E. S. Fellow of the Entomological (or Ethnological) Society.

Feud. Feudal.

F. F. V. First Families of Virginia. (Humorous).

F. G. S. Fellow of the Geological Society.

fi. fa., Fieri facias. (Lat.). A form of judicial writ.

Fig. Figure, figures; figurative, figuratively.

Fl. Flemish; Florin, florins; Flourished.

Fla. Florida.

Flem. Flemish.

F. L. S. Fellow of the Linnæan Society.

F. M. Field Marshal.

Fo., Fol. Folio.

F. O. Foreign Office; Field Officer.

F. O. B. Free on board.

For. Foreign.

Fort. Fortification.

F. P. Fire-plug.

Fr. France, French; Francis; Francs.

fr. From.

F. R. C. S. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.

Fred. Frederick.

F. R. G. S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.

Fri. Friday.

F. R. S. Fellow of the Royal Society.

F. S. A. Fellow of the Society of Arts, or of Antiquaries.

Ft. Fort; Foot, feet.

Fth. Fathom.

Fur. Furlong.

F. Z. S. Fellow of the Zoölogical Society.

F. & A. M. Free and Accepted Masons.

G. Genitive; Guinea, guineas; Gulf.

Ga. Georgia.

Gael. Gaelic; Gadhelic.

Gal. Galatians.

gal. Gallon, gallons.

G. A. R. Grand Army of the Republic.

G. C. B. Grand Cross of the Bath.

G. C. H. Grand Cross of Hanover.

G. C. L. H. Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor.

G. C. M. G. Grand Cross SS. Michael and George.

G. C. S. I. Grand Commander of the Star of India.

G. D. Grand Duke, Grand Duchess.

Gen. General.

Gen. Genesis; Genitive.

Gend. Gender.

Genit. Genitive.

Gent. Gentleman, gentlemen.

Geo. George; Georgia.

Geog. Geography, geographical.

Geol. Geology, geological.

Geom. Geometry, geometrical.

Ger., Germ. German.

Gi. Gill, gills.

G. L. Grand Lodge.

G. M. Grand Master.

Go., Goth. Gothic.

G. O. P. Grand Old Party.

Gov. Governor.

Gov.-Gen. Governor-General.

Govt. Government.

G. P.-O. General Post-Office.

gr. Grain, grains; Gross.

Gr. Great; Greek.

Gram. Grammar, grammatical.

gro. Gross.

G. T. Good Templars; Grand Tyler.

gtt. (Lat. gutta or guttæ). Drop or drops.

H. Hour, hours.

H. B. M. His (or Her) Britannic Majesty.

H. C. Heralds’ College; House of Commons.

H. C. M. His (or Her) Catholic Majesty.

h. e. (Lat. hoc est, hic est). That (or this) is.

Heb., Hebr. Hebrew, Hebrews.

Her. Heraldry, heraldic.

Hf.-bd. Half-bound.

H. H. His (or Her) Highness; His Holiness (the pope).

Hhd. Hogshead, hogsheads.

H. I. H. His (or Her) Imperial highness.

Hind. Hindu, Hindustan, Hindustani.

Hist. History, historical.

H. J., H. J. S. (Lat. hic jacet, hic jacet sepultus). Here lies, Here lies buried.

H. M. His (or Her) Majesty.

H. M. S. His (or Her) Majesty’s Service, Ship, or Steamer.

Hon., Honble. Honorable.

Hor., Horol. Horology, horological.

Hort., Hortic. Horticulture, horticultural.

H. P. Half-pay; High Priest; Horse power.

H. R. House of Representatives.

H. R. E. Holy Roman Empire, or Emperor.

H. R. H. His (or Her) Royal Highness.

Hun., Hung. Hungary, Hungarian.

Hund. Hundred, hundreds.

Hydraul. Hydraulics.

Hydros. (See Hyd.)

Hypoth. Hypothesis, hypothetical.

I. Island.

Ia. Iowa.

Ib., Ibid. (Lat. ibidem). In the same place.

Icel. Iceland, Icelandic.

Ich., Ichth. Ichthyology.

Id. (Lat. idem). The same.

Ida. Idaho.

i. e. (Lat. id est). That is.

I. H. S. (Lat. Iesus [or Jesus] Hominum Salvator). Jesus the Savior of Men.

Ill. Illinois.

Imp. (Lat. imperator). Emperor; Imperial; impersonal.

Imp., Imperf. Imperfect.

in. Inch, inches.

Incog. (Ital. incognito, incognita). Unknown.

Ind. India, Indian; Indiana.

Indic. Indicative.

Ind. Ter. Indian Territory.

Inf., Infin. Infinitive.

In loc. (Lat. in loco). In its place.

I. N. R. I. (Lat. Iesus [or Jesus] Nazarenus Rex Iudæorum [or Judæorum]). Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews.

Ins., Insur. Insurance.

Ins.-Gen. Inspector-General.

Inst. Instant; the present month; Institute, Institution.

Int. Interest.

Int. Dept. Department of the Interior.

Interj. Interjection.

Intrans. Intransitive.

In trans. (Lat. in transitu). On the passage.

Int. Rev. Internal Revenue.

Introd. Introduction.

Io. Iowa.

I. O. F. Independent Order of Foresters.

I. O. G. T. Independent Order of Good Templars.

I. O. O. F. Independent Order of Oddfellows.

I. O. R. M. Improved Order of Red Men.

I. O. S. M. Independent Order of Sons of Malta.

I. O. U. I owe you.

i. q. (Lat. idem quod). The same as.

Ir. Ireland, Irish.

Irreg. Irregular.

Is., Isa. Isaiah.

I. S. Irish Society.

Isl. Island.

I. S. M. Jesus Salvator Mundi.

It., Ital. Italy; Italic; Italian.

Itin. Itinerary.

J. Judge; Justice.

J. A. Judge-Advocate.

Jac. Jacob, Jacobus (= James).

Jan. January.

J. A. G. Judge Advocate General.

J. C. Jesus Christ.

J. C. D. (Lat. juris civilis doctor). Doctor of Civil Law.

J. D. (Lat. jurum doctor), Doctor of Laws.

Jer. Jeremiah.

J. H. S. [I. H. S.]

Jno. John.

Jon., Jona. Jonathan.

Jos. Joseph.

Josh. Joshua.

Jour. Journal.

J. P. Justice of the Peace.

Jr. Juror; Junior.

J. U. D. (Lat. Juris utriusque doctor). Doctor of both laws (i. e., of civil and canon law).

Jud. Judith.

Judg. Judges.

Jul. July; Julius; Julian.

Jun. June.

Jun., Junr. Junior.

Juris. Jurisprudence.

K. King; Knight.

Kan., Ks. Kansas.

K. B. Knight of the Bath.

K. B. King’s Bench.

K. C. King’s Counsel; Knights of Columbus.

K. C. B. Knight Commander of the Bath.

K. C. H. Knight Commander of the Guelphs of Hanover.

K. C. M. G. Knight Commander of St. Michael and St. George.

K. E. Knight of the Eagle.

Ken., Ky. Kentucky.

K. G. Knight of the Garter.

K. G. E. Knight of the Golden Eagle.

K. G. C. Knight of the Grand Cross.

K. G. C. B. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath.

K. G. F. Knight of the Golden Fleece.

K. G. H. Knight of the Guelphs of Hanover.

Kilog. Kilogramme.

Kilom., Kilo. Kilometre.

Kingd. Kingdom.

K. L. H. Knight of the Legion of Honor.

K. M. Knight of Malta.

Kn. N. S. Knight of the Loyal Northern Star (Sweden).

Knick. Knickerbocker.

Knt. Knight.

K. of P. Knights of Pythias.

Ks. Kansas.

K. S. Knight of the Sword (Sweden).

Kt. Knight.

K. T. Knight of the Thistle; Knight Templar.

K. T. S. Knight of Tower and Sword (Portugal).

Ky. Kentucky.

L. Latin; Lake; Lord; Lady.

L., l, £. (Lat. libra). Pound, pounds (sterling).

L., lb. ℔ lb. (Lat. libra). Pound, pounds (weight).

La. Louisiana.

L. A. Law Agent; Literate in Arts.

Lam. Lamentations.

Lat. Latin; Latitude.

lb. Pound, pounds (weight).

L. c. Lower case (in printing).

L. c., loc. cit. (Lat. loco citato). The place cited.

L. C. Lord Chamberlain; Lord Chancellor.

L. C. J. Lord Chief-Justice.

Ldp. Lordship.

Leg., Legis. Legislature, legislative.

Leip. Leipsic.

Lev. Leviticus.

Lex. Lexicon.

Lexicog. Lexicography, lexicographer, lexicographical.

L. G. Life Guards.

L. Ger. Low German or Platt Deutsch.

L. H. D. Doctor of Humanities.

L. I. Light Infantry; Long Island.

Lib. (Lat. liber). Book.

Lib. Library, librarian.

Lieut., Lt. Lieutenant.

Lieut.-col. Lieutenant-colonel.

Lieut.-gen. Lieutenant-general.

Lieut.-gov. Lieutenant-governor.

lin. Lineal, or right-line measures; e. g., lin. yd.; lin. ft., etc.

Linn. Linnæus, Linné, Linnæan.

Liq. Liquor, liquid.

Lit. Literally, literature, library.

Lit. D., Litt. D. (Lat. literarum doctor). Doctor of Literature.

Lith. Lithography.

Liv. Livre.

LL. B. (Lat. legum baccalaureus). Bachelor of Laws.

LL. D. (Lat. legum doctor). Doctor of Laws.

LL. M. Master of Laws.

L. M. Long metre.

Lon., Lond. London.

Lon., Long. Longitude.

Loq. (Lat. loquitur). He (or she) speaks.

Lou. Louisiana.

L. S. (Lat. locus sigilli). Place of the seal.

L. s. d. (Lat. libræ, solidi, denarii). Pounds, shillings, pence.

Lt. Lieutenant.

Lt. Inf. Light Infantry.

Luth. Lutheran.

m. Married; Masculine; Mètre, mètres; Mile, miles; Minute, minutes.

M. Marquis; Middle; Monday; Morning; Monsieur.

M. (Lat. mille). Thousand.

M. (Lat. meridies). Meridian, Noon.

M. A. (Master of Arts). [A. M.]

Mac., Macc. Maccabees.

Mad., Madm. Madam.

Mag. Magyar; Magazine.

Maj. Major.

Maj.-gen. Major-general.

Mal. Malachi; Malay, Malayan.

Manuf. Manufactures, manufacturing.

Mar. March; Maritime.

Marq. Marquis.

Mass. Massachusetts.

Math. Mathematics, mathematician, mathematical.

Matt. Matthew.

M. B. (Lat. medicinæ baccalaureus). Bachelor of Medicine.

M. B. (Lat. musicæ baccalaureus). Bachelor of Music.

M. C. Member of Congress; Master of Ceremonies.

Mch. March.

M. D. (Lat. medicinæ doctor). Doctor of Medicine.

Md. Maryland.

Mdlle. (Fr. mademoiselle). Miss.

Mdse. Merchandise.

M. E. Most Excellent; Military Engineer; Mining Engineer; Mechanical Engineer.

M. E. Methodist Episcopal.

Me. Maine.

Meas. Measure.

Mech. Mechanics, mechanical.

Med. Medicine, medical; Mediæval.

Mem. Memorandum, memoranda.

Messrs. (Fr. messieurs). Gentlemen.

Metall. Metallurgy.

Metaph. Metaphysics; Metaphorically.

Meteor. Meteorology, meteorological.

Meth. Methodist.

Mex. Mexico.

Mfd., Mfs. Manufactured, manufactures.

Mfg. Manufacturing.

M. H. Ger. Middle High German.

M. I. C. E. Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers.