BOOK OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE (continued 2)

Mich. Michaelmas; Michigan.

Mid. Middle; Midshipman.

Mil., Milit. Military.

M. I. M. E. Member of the Institute of Mining Engineers.

Min. Mineralogy, mineralogical; Minute, minutes.

Minn. Minnesota.

Min. Plen. Minister Plenipotentiary.

Miss. Mississippi.

Mlle. (Fr. mademoiselle). Miss.

MM. Their Majesties.

MM. (Fr. messieurs). Gentlemen.

mm. Millemetres; Micrometers.

Mme. (Fr. madame). Madame.

M. N. A. S. Member of the National Academy of Sciences.

Mo. Missouri; Month.

Mod. Modern.

Mod. (Ital. moderato). Moderately.

Mon. Monday.

Mons. (Fr. monsieur). Sir, Mr.

Mont. Montana.

M. P. Member of Parliament.

M. P. P. Member of Provincial Parliament.

M. P. S. Member of the Pharmaceutical Society; Member of the Philological Society.

Mr. Master, Mister.

M. R. A. S. Member of the Royal Asiatic Society.

M. R. C. P. Member of the Royal College of Physicians.

M. R. C. S. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons.

M. R. G. S. Member of the Royal Geographical Society.

M. R. I. Member of the Royal Institution.

Mrs. Mistress (when abbreviated pronounced mis´sis).

M. S. Master of Surgery.

M. S. Master of Science.

M. S. (Lat. Memoriæ sacrum). Sacred to the memory of.

MS. Manuscript.

MSS. Manuscripts.

Mt., Mts. Mount, mountains.

Mus. Museum; Music, musical.

Mus. B. (Lat. Musicæ Baccalaureus). Bachelor of Music.

Mus. D., Mus. Doc., Mus. Doct. (Lat. Musicæ Doctor). Doctor of Music.

Myth. Mythology, mythological.

N. Noon; North; Noun; Number; New; Neuter.

N. A. North America, North American.

Nap. Napoleon.

Nat. Natural; National; Natal.

Nat. Hist. Natural History.

Nat. Phil. Natural Philosophy.

Naut. Nautical.

N. B. New Brunswick; North Britain (i. e. Scotland).

N. B. (Lat. Nota bene). Note well, Take notice.

N. C. North Carolina.

N. D., N. Dak. North Dakota.

N. E. New England; Northeast.

Neb. Nebraska.

Neg. Negative, negatively.

Neth. Netherlands.

Neut. Neuter.

Nev. Nevada.

New Test., N. T. New Testament.

N. F. Newfoundland.

N. H. New Hampshire.

N. J. New Jersey.

N. Lat. North Latitude.

N. M. New Mexico.

N. N. E. North-northeast.

N. N. W. North-northwest.

No. (Lat. numero). Number.

nol. pros. (nolle prosequi). To be unwilling to proceed.

Nom. Nominative.

Non con. Non-content, dissentient. (The formula in which Members of the House of Lords vote.)

Non obst. (Lat. non obstante). Notwithstanding.

Non pros. (Lat. non prosequitur). He does not prosecute.

Non seq. (Lat. non sequitur). It does not follow (as a consequence).

n. o. p. Not otherwise provided for.

Nor., Norm. Norman.

Nor. Fr., Norm. Fr. Norman French.

Norw. Norway, Norwegian, Norse.

Nos. Numbers.

Nov. November.

N. P. Notary Public.

N. S. New style (since 1752); Nova Scotia.

N. T. New Testament.

Num., Numb. Numbers.

N. V. M. Nativity of the Virgin Mary.

N. W. Northwest.

N. W. T. Northwest Territory.

N. Y. New York.

N. Z. New Zealand.

O. Ohio; Old.

ob. (Lat. obiit.) He (or she) died.

Ob., Obad. Obadiah.

Obdt., Obt. Obedient.

Obj. Objective.

Obs. Obsolete.

Oct. October.

Oct., 8vo. Octavo.

O. H. Ger. Old High German.

O. K. “All correct.”

Okl. Oklahoma.

Old Test., O. T. Old Testament.

Olym. Olympiad.

Op. Opposite, opposition.

Opt. Optative; Optics, optical.

Ordn. Ordnance.

Ore. Oregon.

Orig. Original, originally.

Ornith. Ornithology, ornithological.

O. S. Old Style (previous to 1752); Old Saxon.

O. S. A. Order of St. Augustine.

O. S. F. Order of St. Francis.

O. T. Old Testament.

O. U. A. M. Order of United American Mechanics.

Oxf. Oxford.

Oxon. (Lat. Oxonia, Oxoniensis). Oxford; of Oxford.

Oxonien. (Lat. Oxoniensis). Of Oxford.

oz. Ounce. [The z in this contraction and in viz., represents an old symbol (ʒ), used to mark a terminal contraction.]

P. Page; Participle; Past; Pole; Port.

Pa. Pennsylvania.

P. a., par. a. Participial adjective.

Paint. Painting.

Pal., Palæont. Palæontology, palæontological.

Par. Paragraph.

Parl. Parliament, parliamentary.

Part. Participle.

Pass. Passive.

Pat. Patrick.

Payt. Payment.

P.C. (Lat. Patres Conscripti). Conscript Fathers.

P. C. Police Constable; Privy Council, Privy Councilor.

Pd. Paid.

P. E. Protestant Episcopal.

P. E. I. Prince Edward Island.

Penn. Pennsylvania.

Pent. Pentecost.

Per., Pers. Persia; Persian; Personal.

Per. an. (Lat. per annum). Yearly.

Per cent., per ct. (Lat. per centum). By the hundred.

Perf. Perfect.

Persp. Perspective.

Peruv. Peruvian.

Pet. Peter.

P. G. M. Past Grand Master.

Phar., Pharm. Pharmacy.

Ph. B. (Lat. Philosophiæ Baccalaureus). Bachelor of Philosophy.

Ph. D. (Lat. Philosophiæ Doctor). Doctor of Philosophy.

Phil., Phila. Philadelphia.

Phil. Philip; Philippians; Philosophy, philosophical.

Philol. Philology.

Philos. Philosophy, philosophical.

Ph. M. Master of Philosophy.

Photog. Photography, photographic, photographer.

Phren., phrenol. Phrenology, phrenological.

Phys. Physics, physical, physiology, physiological.

Physiol. Physiology, physiological.

Pinx., Pxt. (Lat. pinxit). He (or she) painted it.

Pk. Peck.

Pl. Place; Plate; Plural.

P. L. Poet Laureate.

Plff., Pltff. Plaintiff.

Plu. Plural.

Plup., Plupf. Pluperfect.

Plur. Plural.

P. M. (Lat. post meridiem). Afternoon.

P. M. Past Master; Peculiar Meter; Postmaster.

P. M. G. Postmaster-General.

P. O. Post-office.

P. & O. Co. Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company.

Pol. Polish.

Polit. Econ. Political Economy.

P. O. O. Post-office order.

Pop. Population.

Port. Portugal, Portuguese.

Poss. Possessive.

pp. Pages.

p. p. Past (or perfect) participle.

P. P. (Lat. pater patriæ). Father of his country.

P. C. C. (Ft. pour prendre congé). To take leave. [T. T. L.]

Pph. Pamphlet.

p. pr. Present participle.

Pr. Present; Priest; Prince.

P. R. (Lat. populus Romanus). The Roman people.

P. R. C. (Lat. Post Roman conditam). After the building of Rome. [A. U. C.]

Pref. Prefix; Preface.

prep. Preposition.

Pres. President; Present.

Prim. Primary.

Prin. Principal; Principles.

Print. Printing.

Prob. Problem; Probable, probably.

Prof. Professor.

Pron. Pronoun; Pronounced, pronunciation.

Prop. Proposition; Properly.

Pros. Prosody.

Pro tem. (Lat. pro tempore). For the time being.

Prov. Proverbs, proverbial, proverbially; Provincial, provincially; Provost.

Provinc. Provincial.

Prox. (Lat. proximo). Next of or of the next month.

Prs. Pairs.

Prus. Prussia, Prussian.

P. S. (Lat. post scriptum). Postscript.

P. S. Privy Seal.

Ps., Psa. Psalm, psalms.

Psychol. Psychology.

Pt. Part; Payment; Point; Port.

P. T. Post-town; Pupil teacher.

Pub. Public; Published, publisher.

Pub. Doc. Public Documents.

Pwt. Pennyweight.

Pxt. [Pinx.]

Q., Qu. Query; Question.

Q. d. (Lat. quasi dicat). As if he should say.

Q. e. (Lat. quod est). Which is.

Q. E. D. (Lat. quod erat demonstrandum). Which was to be proved.

Q. E. F. (Lat. quod erat faciendum). Which was to be done.

Q. E. I. (Lat. quod erat inveniendum). Which was to be found out.

Q. l. (Lat. quantum libel). As much as you please.

Q. M. Quartermaster.

Q. M. Gen. Quartermaster-General.

Qr. Quarterly; Quire.

Q. S. Quarter Sessions.

Q. s. (Lat. quantum sufficit). A sufficient quantity.

Qt. Quart.

Qu. Queen; Query; Question.

Quar., quart. Quarterly.

Quar., 4to. Quarto.

Ques. Question.

Q. v. (Lat. quod vide). Which see.

Qu. Query.

R. Railway; Réaumur; River.

R. (Lat. rex). King; (Lat. regina.) Queen.

R. (Lat. recipe). Take.

R. A. Royal Academy, Royal Academician; Rear-Admiral; Royal Arch; Royal Artillery.

Rad. (Lat. radix). Root.

R. C. Roman Catholic.

R. E. Reformed Episcopal.

Réaum. Réamur.

Rec. Recipe.

Recd. Received.

Recpt. Receipt.

Ref. Reference.

Ref. Ch. Reformed Church.

Ref. Pres. Reformed Presbyterian.

Reg. Regular.

Reg., Regr. Registrar.

Reg., Regt. Regiment, regimental.

Rel. Pron. Relative Pronoun

Rem. Remark, remarks.

Rep. Report; Representative.

Rep. Repub. Republic; Republican.

Res. Resolution.

Retd. Returned.

Rev. Revelation; Revenues; Reverend; Reviews; Revise.

Revd. Reverend.

Revs. Reverends.

Rev. Stat. Revised Statutes.

R. F. D. Rural Free Delivery.

Rhet. Rhetoric, rhetorical.

R. I. Rhode Island.

Riv. River.

R. M. S. Royal Mail Steamer; Royal Mail Service.

R. N. Royal Navy.

Robt. Robert.

Rom. Roman, Romans.

Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic.

R. P. Regius Professor.

R. R. Railroad.

R. S. V. P. (Fr. Repondez s’il vous plait). Please reply.

Rt. Right.

Rt. Hon. Right Honorable.

Rt. Rev. Right Reverend.

R. T. S. Religious Tract Society

Rt. Wpful. Right Worshipful.

Russ. Russia, Russian.

R. V. Revised Version; Rifle Volunteers.

Ry. Railway.

S. Saint; Saturday; Section; Shilling; Sign; Signor; Solo; Soprano; South; Sun; Sunday; Sabbath.

s. Second, seconds; See; Singular; Son; Succeeded.

S. A. South Africa; South America.

S. A. (Lat. secundem artem). According to the rules of art.

Sab. Sabbath.

Sam., Saml. Samuel.

Sam., Samar. Samaritan.

Sans., Sansc., Sansk. Sanscrit, Sanskrit.

Sat. Saturday.

Sax. Saxon, Saxony.

S. C. South Carolina.

Sc. [Scil. Scull.]

S. caps., Sm. caps. Small capitals. (In printing.)

Sc. B. (Lat. scientiæ baccalaureus). Bachelor of Science.

Sc. D. (Lat. scientiæ doctor). Doctor of Science.

Sch. (Lat. scholium). A note.

Sci. Science.

Sci. fa. Scire facias.

Scil. Sc. (Lat. scilicet). Namely; to wit.

Sclav. Sclavonic.

Scot. Scotland, Scotch, Scottish.

Scr. Scruple, scruples.

Scrip., Script, Scripture, scriptural.

Sculp. Sculpture.

Sculp., Sculpt., Sc. (Lat. sculpsit). He (or she) engraved it.

S. D. Doctor of Science.

S. D., S. Dak. South Dakota.

S. E. Southeast.

Sec. Second.

Sec., Sect. Section.

Sec., Secy. Secretary.

Sec. Leg. Secretary of Legation.

Sen. Senate, senator.

Sen. Doc. Senate Document.

Sep., Sept. September.

Seq. (Lat. sequentes, sequentia). The following or the next.

Serg., Sergt. Sergeant.

Serg. Maj. Sergeant-Major.

Serv. Servian.

Sess. Session.

S. G. Solicitor-general.

Sh. Shilling, shillings.

Sing. Singular.

S. J. Society of Jesus.

S. J. C. Supreme Judicial Court.

Skr. Sanskrit.

Slav. Slavonic.

Soc., Socy. Society.

Sol.-gen. Solicitor-general.

Sp. Spain, Spanish; Spirit.

s. p. (Lat. sine prole). Without issue.

S. P. C. A. Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.

S. P. C. C. Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.

S. P. C. K. Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge.

Spec. Special, specially.

sp. gr., s. g. Specific gravity.

S. P. Q. R. (Lat. Senatus Populusque Romanus). The Senate and the People of Rome.

sq. Square; sq. ft. Square foot, feet; sq. in. Square inch, inches; sq. m. Square mile, miles; sq. yd. Square yard; sq. rd. Square rod.

Sr. Senior; sir.

S. R. I. (Lat. Sacrum Romanum Imperium). The Holy Roman Empire.

SS. Saints.

S. S. Sunday-school.

S. S. E. South-southeast.

S. S. W. South-southwest.

St. Saint; Stone; Strait; Street.

st. (Lat. stet). Let it stand (in printing).

Stat. Statute, statutes; Statuary.

S. T. B. Bachelor of Sacred Theology.

S. T. D. (Lat. sacræ theologiæ doctor). Doctor of Divinity.

ster., stg. Sterling.

Str. Steamer, steam vessel.

Subj. Subjunctive.

Suff. Suffix.

Sun., Sund. Sunday.

Sup. Superior; Superlative; Supplement; Supine.

Sup. Ct. Supreme Court.

Supt. Superintendent.

Sur., Surg. Surgeon, surgery.

Sur.-gen. Surgeon-general.

Surv. Surveying, surveyor.

Surv.-gen. Surveyor-general.

S. v. (Lat. sub voce). Under the word or title.

S. W. Senior Warden; Southwest.

Sw. Sweden, Swedish.

Switz. Switzerland.

Syn. Synonym, synonymous.

Synop. Synopsis.

Syr. Syria, Syriac; Syrup.

T. Tenor; Ton; Tun; Tuesday.

Tab. Table; Tabular statement.

Tan. Tangent.

Tech. Technical, technically.

Ten., Tenn. Tennessee.

Ter. Territory.

Term. Termination.

Teut. Teutonic.

Tex. Texas.

Th. Thomas; Thursday.

Theo. Theodore.

Theol. Theology.

Theor. Theorem.

Thess. Thessalonians.

Tho., Thos. Thomas.

Thu., Thur., Thurs. Thursday.

Tier. Tierce.

Tit. Title; Titus.

Tom. Tome, volume.

Tonn. Tonnage.

Topog. Topography, topographical.

Tp. Township.

Tr. Translation, translator, translated; Transpose; Treasurer; Trustee.

Trans. Transaction; Translation, translator, translated.

Trav. Travels.

Treas. Treasurer.

Trig., Trigon. Trigonometry, trigonometrical.

Trin. Trinity.

Tu., Tues. Tuesday.

Turk. Turkey, Turkish.

Typ. Typographer.

Typog. Typography, typographical.

U. C. (Lat. urbis conditæ). From the building of the city—Rome. [A. U. C.]

U. K. United Kingdom.

Ult. (Lat. ultimo). Last, of the last month.

um. Unmarried.

Unit. Unitarian.

Univ. University.

Up. Upper.

U. P. United Presbyterian.

U. S. United States.

U. S. A. United States of America; United States Army.

U. S. L. United States Legation.

U. S. M. United States mail; United States marine.

U. S. M. A. United States Military Academy.

U. S. N. United States Navy.

U. S. N. A. United States Naval Academy.

U. S. S. United States Senate; United States ship or steamer.

U. S. S. Ct. United States Supreme Court.

Usu. Usual, usually.

V. Verb; Verse; Victoria; Violin.

V., vs. (Lat. versus). Against.

V. (Lat. vide). See.

V. A. Vicar Apostolic; Vice-admiral.

Va. Virginia.

Val. Valve; Value.

Var. Variety.

Vat. Vatican.

V. aux. Verb auxiliary.

V. C. Vice-chancellor; Victoria Cross.

Ven. Venerable.

V. G. Vicar-General.

V. g. (Lat. verbi gratia). For the sake of example.

V. i. Verb intransitive.

Vice-pres. Vice-president.

Vid. (Lat. vide). See.

V. imp. Verb impersonal.

V. irr. Verb irregular.

Vis., Visc. Viscount.

Viz. (Lat. videlicet). Namely; to wit. [Oz.]

V. n. Verb neuter.

Voc. Vocative.

Vol. Volume.

Vols. Volumes.

V. P. Vice-president.

V. Rev. Very Reverend.

Vs. (Lat. versus). Against.

V. S. Veterinary surgeon.

V. t. Verb transitive.

Vt. Vermont.

Vul., Vulg. Vulgate.

vv. ll. (Lat. variæ lectiones). Various readings.

W. Wednesday; Week; Welsh; West, western.

Walt. Walter.

Wash. Washington.

w. c. Water closet.

W. C. A. Women’s Christian Association.

W. C. T. U. Women’s Christian Temperance Union.

Wed. Wednesday.

Wel. Welsh.

w. f. Wrong font (in printing).

Whf. Wharf.

W. I. West Indies, West Indian.

Wis., Wisc. Wisconsin.

Wk. Week.

W. Long. West Longitude.

Wm. William.

W. N. W. West-northwest.

Wp. Worship.

Wpful. Worshipful.

W. S. W. West-southwest.

Wt. Weight.

W. Va. West Virginia.

Wyo. Wyoming.

Xm., Xmas. Christmas.

Y. Year.

Yd. Yard.

Yds. Yards.

Ye. The; Thee.

Y. M. C. A. Young Men’s Christian Association.

Y. M. Cath. A. Young Men’s Catholic Association.

Y. M. H. A. Young Men’s Hebrew Association.

Y. P. S. C. E. Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor.

Yr. Year; Younger; Your.

Ys. Years; Yours.

Y. W. C. A. Young Women’s Christian Association.

Zach. Zachary.

Zech. Zechariah.

Z. G., Zoo. Zoölogical Gardens.

Zoöl. Zoölogy, zoölogical.

PUNCTUATION

Punctuation is the indication, by means of stops, of the different pauses necessary to show the meaning of a sentence.

Stops, therefore, are used to elucidate the meaning of words in their relation to other words.

The Period [.].—Declarative and imperative sentences, when not connected in construction with what follows, are closed by periods.

Examples:—The child is father of the man.

Examples:—The king is dead, long live the king.

A period should be placed after every abbreviation. The period thus used is part of the abbreviation.

Examples:—Wash., Washington; Gen., General; Pro tem., pro tempore, for the time being; Esq., Esquire; Gov., Governor.

Such expressions as 3d, 18th, 8mo, are not abbreviations and do not require a period after them.

A period should always be placed after the Roman numerals.

Examples:—I., II., III., IV., V., VI., VII., VIII., IX., X., etc.

Interrogation Point [?].—The interrogation point is used for marking all questions. When the question consists of several parts, or when several questions are contained in one sentence, there is some difficulty in deciding whether there should be one or more interrogation points. The principle is that if one answer is sufficient for all, one point is enough; if different answers are required, a point should be placed after each question.

Examples:—What can I do for you?

Examples:—Now, you understand?

Exclamation Point [!].—The exclamation point is placed at the end of every sentence, clause, phrase, or word intended to convey strong emotion.

Examples:—Praise be thine, O God!

Examples:—Lost! Lost! O that I were home!

Colon [:].—Two clauses, one or both of which are subdivided by the semicolon, should be separated from each other by the colon.

Example:—This chapter is divided into two sections: the first, which was written many years since, being a history of the institution; the second, a prophecy as to its future.

The colon is used before all direct quotations, if formally introduced, and after all words which formally introduce a sentence to follow. If the quoted matter begins a new paragraph, the colon should be followed by a dash.

Examples:—Cæsar spoke as follows: (His speech to follow.)

He replied in these words: “I shall always be prepared in future.”

My dear Friend: (A letter following.)

The colon is sometimes used between complete sentences where the period would indicate too long a pause, and the semicolon too short a pause.

Examples:—It was a dark and dreary night: the wind was blowing in fitful gusts.

It is over: let us go.

Semicolon [;].—When two clauses are united by either of the conjunctions for, but, and, or an equivalent word—the one clause perfect in itself, and the other added as a matter of inference, contrast or explanation—they are separated by a semicolon.

Example:—Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on a little than to outlive a great deal.

A semicolon is placed between two or more parts of a sentence when these, or any of them, are divisible by a comma into smaller portions.

Example:—Men are not to be judged by their looks, habits, and appearances; they should be judged by the character of their lives and conversations, and by their works.

When in a series of expressions the particulars depend on a commencing or concluding portion of the sentence, they should be separated from each other by a semicolon if laid down as distinct propositions or of a compound nature.

Example:—Philosophers assert that Nature is unlimited in her operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that knowledge will always be progressive; and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries of which we have not the slightest idea.

When several short sentences follow one another, slightly connected in sense or in construction, they should be separated by a semicolon.

Example:—Stones grow; vegetables grow and live; animals grow, live, and feel.

A semicolon is put before as, viz., to-wit, namely, i. e., or that is, when they precede an example or a specification of particulars, or subjects enumerated; and also between these particulars when they consist each of a disjunct pair of words, or of a single word or phrase but slightly connected with the others.

Example:—Many words are differently spelled in English; as, “Inquire, enquire; jail, gaol; skeptic, sceptic.”

Comma [,].—Two words belonging to the same part of speech, or used as such, when closely connected by one of the conjunctions and, or, nor, are not separated by a comma from each other.

Example:—Pay supreme and undivided homage to goodness and truth.

Two words of the same part of speech and in the same construction, if used without a conjunction between them, are separated from each other by a comma.

Example:—We are fearfully, wonderfully made.

Two nouns or pronouns in apposition, or a noun and a pronoun, should not be separated by a comma if they may be regarded as a proper name or as a single phrase.

Example:—The poet Milton wrote excellent prose and better poetry.

But a noun or pronoun and a phrase, or two or more phrases, if put in apposition so that they may not be so regarded, are separated by a comma from each other, and from what follows in the same sentence.

Example:—Homer, the greatest poet of antiquity, is said to have been blind.

Words or phrases contrasted with each other, or having a mutual relation to others that follow them in the same clause, are separated by commas.

Example:—False delicacy is affectation, not politeness.

A comma is put before a relative clause when it is explanatory of the antecedent or presents an additional thought.

Example:—Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom and die.

But the point is omitted before a relative that restricts the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense.

Example:—Every teacher must love a boy who is attentive and docile.

Expressions of a parenthetical or intermediate nature are separated from the context by commas.

Example:—The sun, with all its attendant planets, is but a very little part of the grand machine of the universe.

A word or an expression used independently in addressing a person or an object is separated by a comma from the rest of the sentence.

Example:—Antonio, light my lamp within my chamber.

Adjectival, participial, and absolute phrases are each separated by a comma from the remainder of the sentence.

Example:—Awkward in his person, James was ill qualified to command respect.

Adverbs or adverbial phrases, when used as connectives, or when they modify not single words, but clauses or sentences, are each followed by a comma; and if used intermediately they admit a comma before as well as after them.

Example:—The most vigorous thinkers and writers are, in fact, self-taught.

When a phrase beginning with a preposition, an adverb, or a conjunction relates to or modifies a preceding portion of the sentence, a comma is unnecessary if the parts are closely connected in sense.

Example:—For that agency he applied without a recommendation.

Many phrases which, in their natural or usual order, do not require to be punctuated, are, when placed in some other or unnatural position, set off by a comma from the rest of the sentence.

Example:—By Cowley, the philosopher Hobbes is compared to Columbus.

When one of two clauses depends on the other, they are separated by a comma.

Example:—If you would be revenged on your enemies, let your life be blameless.

Two correlative expressions united by the conjunction as or than are written without a point between them.

Example:—Men are never so easily deceived as when they plot to deceive others.

But when united by any other word than one of these conjunctions, the correlative expressions are separated by a comma.

Example:—Though learned and methodical, yet the teacher was not a pedant.

Words or phrases in the same construction, forming a series, are separated from each other by commas.

Example:—Scrooge was his sole executor, his sole administrator, his sole assign, his sole residuary legatee, his sole friend, and sole mourner.—Dickens.

But when the members of the series are closely connected in sense, the commas should be omitted.

Example:—Government of the people by the people for the people.

When in a compound sentence the clauses have each a different nominative, but have only one verb, expressed in the first clause and understood in the others, the ellipsis, or place of the verb, should be supplied by a comma.

Example:—A wise man seeks to shine in himself, a fool to outshine others.

A short quotation, or any expression that resembles a quotation, is separated by a comma from an introductory clause.

Example:—Dr. Thomas Brown truly says, “The benevolent spirit is as universal in its efforts as the miseries which are capable of being relieved.”

Dash ―.—The dash denotes an abrupt break in a sentence.

Example:—Here lies the great—false marble, where?

Example:—Nothing but sordid dust lies here.

The dash is used to indicate that something is left unfinished.

Example:—We cannot hope to succeed unless—

Example:—But we must succeed.

The dash is sometimes used instead of brackets before and after a parenthesis.

Example:—The man actually—this is in the strictest confidence—filled his pocket with my cigars when he thought I was not looking.

The dash is used instead of the colon where the word “namely” is implied but not expressed.

Example:—The sentence should be amended to read “—whenever and wherever the president shall determine.”

Parentheses[()]. —Parentheses are used to inclose an explanation, authority, definition, reference, translation, or any matter not belonging to the grammatical construction of the sentence.

Example:—He gained from heaven (’twas all he wished) a friend.

Brackets ([]).—The use of brackets is about the same as that of the marks of parenthesis, but is generally confined to words inserted in quotations for the sake of explanation.

Example:—Dickens has given a very lively account of this place [the Academy] in his paper entitled “Our School,” but it is very mythical in many respects.

Quotation Marks [“”].—Quotation marks are used before and after a passage quoted in the exact words of another.

Example:—“My very dog,” sighed poor Rip, “has forgotten me.”

Matter quoted indirectly, or given only in substance, is not placed within quotation marks.

A quotation within a quotation is inclosed in single marks.

Example:—“His staff and knapsack, her little bonnet and basket, etc., lie beside him. ‘She’ll come to-morrow,’ he says, when it gets dark, and goes sorrowfully home.”

Where a quotation consists of several paragraphs, quotation marks should be used at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the close of the last paragraph only.

Titles of books, essays, newspapers, etc., should be placed within quotation marks, unless in italics or capitals.

Hyphen [-].—The hyphen is used between the parts of certain compound words, and to mark the division of syllables in showing the spelling of words. It is sometimes used in place of the diæresis after a prefix ending in a vowel before a word beginning with a vowel.

Example:—Horse-chestnut, Franco-Prussian, re-edit, de-vi-ate, truth-telling, text-book.

Compound Words.—Rule I.—Compounds made by omitting particles, and used literally, are generally written with a hyphen.

Many such words that coalesce in pronunciation, and have become very familiar, are written continuously.

after-events

almond-oil

arrow-head

battle-ax

broomstick

eyeball

milkman

outlook

Rule II.—Two or more normally separate words are joined with hyphens if used in an adjective sense before a noun.

A sight never to be forgotten.

A never-to-be-forgotten sight.

Rule III.—A full phrase used as the name of something not literally indicated by the phrase is written with a hyphen or hyphens.

Those here given are names of plants:

Aaron’s-beard

forget-me-not

Rule IV.—Compound words showing arbitrary application of the literal idea expressed by their separated elements take no hyphen.

blackberry

bluefish

everybody

however

cottonwood (a tree)

pronghorn (antelope)

marrowfat (a pea)

arrowhead (a plant)

matchlock (a gun)

(Care should be taken not to apply this rule in cases where it does not really fit. Thus, any one, one’s self, etc., are often wrongly printed as anyone, oneself, etc.)

Apostrophe[’]. —The apostrophe is used in the possessive case of nouns, to denote the plural of figures and letters, and to mark the elision of letters at the beginning or middle of a word, and the omission of figures in a number or date.

Example:—John’s, men’s, 2’s, 7’s, p’s and q’s, I’ve, I’ll, don’t, won’t, Po’keepsie, tho’, ’92, ’76.

MISCELLANEOUS MARKS

Ellipsis [* * * *] signifies a leaving out, defect, omission.

Leaders [...] serve to carry the eye across the pages of indexes, tables, contents, etc.; thus:

Needle-gun invented...................1856

Brace [{].—It is the vertical curved line used to signify that two or more words or lines are to be taken together—thus:

Americans { Aboriginal

Native

Emigrants

Asterisk [*].—It is used in printing or writing as a reference to a passage or note in the margin or at the bottom of a page, and also to supply the omission of letters or words.

Dagger, or Obelisk [†] is so called from its resemblance to a dagger, or inverted obelisk. It is also a mark of reference to a note in the margin or at the bottom of the page.

Double Dagger [‡] is the third reference mark used when there are more than two used on a page.

Parallels [‖].—This character is used in writing and printing to call attention to a similarly marked note in the margin or at the foot of the page.

Section Mark [§] is the character often used to denote a division of a writing or subdivision of a chapter; a paragraph.

Paragraph [¶] is the sign which notes the division of a writing into distinct parts, sections or subdivisions.

Index, or Pointer [☞] is used to direct particular attention to a note or paragraph. It is sometimes called a fist.

Asterism [⁂ or ⁂], or cluster of stars, is used as a sign to direct attention to a passage, or paragraph, especially when such attention is deemed very important.

RHETORICAL FIGURES OF SPEECH

Figures of speech, or tropes, are used to make language more effective by adding special strength and beauty. They are words used in meanings not their own designed to secure a peculiarly happy effect. Thus when the poet writes:

he uses “king of day” for “sun”; and no one can fail to notice the pleasureable effect produced.

Chief Rhetorical Figures of Speech

Resemblance. Contiguity. Contrast or Surprise.

a. Comparison or Simile. a. Autonomasia— Individual for class. a. Antithesis and Epigram.

b. Metaphor— b. Hyperbole.

1. Identification of like quali- ties. b. Synecdoche— Part for whole.

c. Irony and Euphemism.

2. Identification of like things. c. Metonymy— Cause for effect, badge for class, etc.

Arrangement.

a. Climax.

c. Personification. b. Anti-climax.

d. Allegory. c. Emphasis, or Inversion.

But the new word images introduced must really be suited to add strength or beauty. Notice the contrast between these two descriptions of morning:

Principal Figures—The common figures are metaphor, simile, allegory, personification, apostrophe, euphemism, hyperbole, antithesis, epigram, irony, climax, onomatopœia (ŏn-ŏm-a-tō-pœ´-ĭ-a), and alliteration.

Simile.—A simile is a comparison between objects that are not of the same class, and usually expressed by either like or as.

Examples:—The warrior fought like a lion.

Examples:—His spear was like the mast of a ship.

Examples:—His wrath was as the storm.

Metaphor.—A metaphor is a comparison which is implied between two objects that are not of the same class. Unlike the simile, it does not state the resemblance, it takes that for granted and proceeds as if the two things were one—we no longer say, “He fought like a lion,” but, “He was a lion in the fight.”

Allegory.—Under which head fall Fables and Parables, is an extended Metaphor generally accompanied by Personification.

Example:—Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress; Spenser’s Faerie Queene.

Personification.—Attributes life to inanimate objects. It speaks of “The childhood of a nation,” of “a learned age” of “the thirsty ground,” of “eager darts,” of “winged words.”

Apostrophe.—Is a Personification accompanied by an address, or an address to an absent person.

Example:—

Hyperbole is effective exaggeration.

Example:—

Antithesis is a contrast of words or thoughts.

Examples:—

Epigram is a short antithesis. It is often of the nature of a proverb.

Examples:—

Irony is hidden satire.

Example:—

Metonymy.—Metonymy is a figure of rhetoric in which the name of one object is put for another, the two being so related that the mention of one recalls the other.

Examples:—

Synecdoche occurs where the part is taken for the whole, the species for the genus, the material for the thing made of it, where the person is designated by the most conspicuous trait of his character or the effect he produces.

Thus we may speak of “all hands being at work,” of so many “head” of cattle.

Climax.—Climax, or the rhetorical ladder, is the arrangement of a succession of words, or clauses, in such a way that the weakest may stand first; and that each in turn may rise in importance and make a deeper impression on the mind than that which preceded it.

Anti-climax reverses the order: this is often used in humorous writings.

Examples:—

Alliteration repeats the same sound in words for the purpose of adding to the euphony.

Examples:—

*Onomatopœia emphasizes the meaning by adapting the sound to the sense.

Example from Cataract of Lodore:—

* Name-making; the formation of words in imitation of the sounds made by the things signified: as, buzz, hiss, peewit, etc. It is held by some philologists that all language had its origin in onomatopœia, words formed by this principle being the most natural, and readily suggesting the actions or objects producing the sounds which the words are intended to represent.

Euphemism is the form of expression by which bad or dangerous things are spoken of in gracious terms. As an example we say death is “parting” or “falling asleep.”

Emphasis, or Inversion, adds greatly to the precision as well as vigor of style when temperately used. That is, when the predicate or object are much more impressive or mentally prominent than the subject they may with advantage precede it.

Any special emphasis may justify inversion. It is frequently used to indicate a swift or abrupt action—Commands frequently assume this form and owe to it half their force.

Examples:—

FORMS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH

All forms of language composition are either Prose or Poetry; and these in turn are subdivided rhetorically into certain well-recognized special forms. The following classification shows at a glance the most important of these:

I. PROSE

Letter Writing.—Business and public letters, social letters, ceremonial letters and notes.

Narration.—Letters, journals, memoirs, biographies, history, travel, news, fiction.

Description.—Descriptions of external objects, of character and its development, of intellectual processes.

Exposition.—Essays, treatises, editorials, reviews, criticisms.

Argument.—Argumentative essays, debates, briefs, etc.

Persuasion or Oratory.—Orations, addresses, lectures, sermons.

II. POETRY

Epic and Narrative Poetry.—The great epics, metrical romances, metrical tales, ballads, pastorals, idylls, etc.

Dramatic (including all narrative poetry which presents actors as speaking and acting for themselves).—Tragedy, comedy, farce, opera, melodrama, mask, interlude, etc.

Lyric.—Odes, sacred and secular songs, elegy, sonnets, simple lyrics.

Didactic.—Moral essays in verse, satiric poetry, etc.

LETTER WRITING, OR CORRESPONDENCE.

A letter is a written communication on any subject from one person to another. In other words, it is written conversation, or “speaking by the pen.” Letters deserve very careful attention, for no species of composition is more generally used by all classes of persons. Remember that the letter “bespeaks the person,” and that many will judge of a person’s character and attainments from his correspondence.

The first endeavor of a writer should be to express himself as easily and naturally as in conversation, though with more method and conciseness.

So, before you begin to write a letter, arrange in your mind the ideas you wish to convey; then express them as if you were talking to the person to whom you are writing.

Divisions of a Letter.—In every business or social letter there are five things to consider: the heading, the introduction, the body of the letter, the complimentary close, and the signature. Business letters should have an introductory address before the salutation.

The Heading.—The heading consists of the name of the place at which the letter is written, and the date. If you write from a city like St. Louis, Boston, or New York, give the door number, the name of the street, of the city, and of the state. If you are at a hotel or a school, its name may take the place of the door number and the name of the street. If in a small country place, give your postoffice address, the name of the county, and that of the state.

The date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year.

Leave at least one inch vacant on the top of the first page.

Put on the first line, and to the right, your own postoffice address; and, either on the same line or on the next, the date—that is, the month, day, and year, thus:

25 Endicott Street, Boston, Mass., August 6, 1904.

The Introduction.—The introduction consists of the address—the name, the title, and the place of business or the residence of the one addressed—and the salutation.

The Salutation and the Complimentary Close should be appropriate to the person addressed. (See list of forms of Salutation and Complimentary Close on page 737).

Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the address. Prefix Mr. to a man’s name; Messrs. to the names of several gentlemen; Miss to that of a young lady; Mrs. to that of a married lady. Prefix Dr. to the name of a physician, but never Mr. Dr.; Rev. to the name of a clergyman, or Rev. Mr. if you do not know his christian name; Rev. Dr. if he is a Doctor of Divinity, or write Rev. before the name and D. D. after it.

Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer’s degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as Sir, Rev. Sir, General, Madam, etc.; acquaintances as Dear Sir, Dear Madam, etc.; friends as My dear Sir, My dear Madam, My dear Jones, etc.; and near relatives and other dear friends as My dear Wife, My dear Boy, Dearest Ellen, etc. Examples:

Mr. William C. Jones, Washington, D. C.

Dear Sir: Your letter, etc.

American Book Co., New York City.

Dear Sirs: Kindly send, etc.

The Body.—Begin the body of the letter at the end of the salutation, and on the same line, if the introduction consists of four lines—you may do so even if the introduction consists of but three—in which case the comma after the salutation should be followed by a dash; otherwise, on the line below. (See general observations as to subject matter, style, etc.)

The Conclusion consists of the complimentary close and the signature. The forms of the complimentary close are many, and are determined by the relation of the writer to the one addressed. In letters of friendship may be used Your sincere friend; Yours affectionately; Your loving son or daughter, etc. In business letters, use Yours; Yours truly; Truly yours; Yours respectfully; Very respectfully yours, etc. In official letters use I am, with respect, your obedient servant; I have the honor to be your obedient servant, etc.

The complimentary close often forms part of the last paragraph; at other times it stands separately, and then it usually begins about the middle of the line. Example:

Very sincerely Mary E. Shattuck.

A married woman should sign her own given name, but indicate her proper title of address; thus:

Mrs. J. F. Martin.

The Superscription, on the outside of the envelope, is the same as the address, consisting of the name, the titles, and the full directions of the one addressed. It should be written very plainly, and include the town, county, state, and country, if it goes abroad.

The number of the postoffice box, or the door number and the name of the street, or the name of the county, may stand at the lower left-hand corner.

Style of Letters.—It makes a considerable difference in our style whether we write as officials or business men, or as individual members of society.

The style should be determined in some measure by the nature of the subject, but in a still greater degree by the relative positions of the writer and the person addressed. On important subjects, the composition is expected to be forcible and impressive, on lighter subjects, easy and vivacious; in condolence, tender and sympathetic; in congratulation, lively and joyous. To superiors, it should be respectful; to inferiors, courteous; to friends, familiar; and to relatives, affectionate.

We may, therefore, usefully distinguish letters into three kinds—official or business letters and personal or social letters, and ceremonial letters or notes.

Official or Business Letters.—These include all those written by a person in the capacity of an officer, a professional man, a merchant, a tradesman, etc. They are classed together because they are mainly subject to the same rules.

In writing business letters, the following rules should be observed:

1. Be very clear, so that your exact meaning cannot fail to be understood at first sight. Read your letter over with close attention to see that all your thoughts are correctly, fully, and clearly expressed.

2. Take care that the handwriting be legible, else you may get boots for books, matches for hatchets or latches, two ponies instead of one hundred pansies.

3. Be brief and to the point; business men have no time to waste.

4. Confine yourself to strict business. If you wish to add matters of friendship, it is well to write them on a separate leaf, that the business portion may be separately filed.

5. Write grammatical and idiomatic English, and paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of writing.

Personal and Social Letters.—Under this head may be placed those letters written by any person in his private capacity as an individual. Such letters may be dictated by friendship, by charity or kindness, by politeness, by respect, by gratitude, by self-interest, or by any other reasonable motive.

Among these are the following:

Letters of Friendship are such as are dictated by mutual affection between relatives and friends. They should be natural, easy, frank, without the least affectation. “I wish you to open to me your soul, not your library,” said Mme. de Sévigné, who wrote exquisitely herself. Such letters may treat of any subject of common interest to the parties concerned. Their language is that of the heart. Kindness, affection, charity, good-nature should dictate, prudence and common sense supervise them.

Letters of Congratulation are written on occasion of the New Year, a birthday, a preferment, or when a friend has met with some uncommon good fortune, and should be dictated by genuine friendship and sincere esteem, and expressed modestly without any exaggerated praise.

Letters of Condolence.—These require great skill and care. Act like the humane surgeon who touches the wound gently, and only to heal it. If your correspondent knows the sad news already, sympathize sincerely with him. If you are to announce the bad news yourself, prepare the way slowly; state the news as delicately as you can. Express your grief again before you conclude.

Letters of Introduction or Recommendation require special prudence. Think first whether it is proper to write such a letter at all for such a person. Avoid two dangers: do not offend the applicant for a recommendation, do not deceive your correspondent by exaggerated praise of the one recommended.

If the applicant is worthy state his merits, express reasonable confidence in him. If he is unworthy or doubtfully worthy, give him a letter which he will prefer not to present; for every such letter is an open letter, which the bearer is expected to read before delivering.

A letter of introduction or recommendation should never be sealed, as the bearer to whom it is given ought to know the contents.

Letters of Petition should be modest and every way moderate. Ingratiate yourself in a manly way; state your reasons briefly but forcibly; show your appreciation of the trouble your correspondent may be put to in consequence of the favor; promise gratitude.

In answering such letters favorably be brief and show your pleasure at rendering the little service asked. In refusing show how reluctantly you do so; give good reasons for it. Express your hope of finding, some other time, a better opportunity of showing your affection or esteem.

Letters of Thanks should never be neglected when a favor has been received. Express your appreciation both of the favor and of the kindness with which it was bestowed. Hope for an opportunity, not of repaying the person, but of showing your gratitude.

Ceremonial Letters and Notes.—Under this heading may be classed notes of invitation, acceptance, and regret, both formal and informal.

Informal invitations, acceptances, and regrets are simply friendly notes written always in the first person. They vary in form to suit the occasion. They should be cordial in tone, but brief, and are in better taste when confined to the subject of the invitation, outside items being permissible only under special circumstances which may require their mention.

An informal invitation should never, under any circumstances, be answered in the third person.

Invitation:—

30 Rampart St.,

May 4th, 1917.

Dear Mr. Brooks:

We would be very pleased to have you dine with us on Monday next, the 12th, at seven o’clock, if disengaged.

Cordially yours, Helen Clements.

Acceptance:

Eastern Point,

April 29th, 1917.

Dear Mrs. Clements:

I will be most happy to dine with you on Monday, the 12th, at seven o’clock.

Faithfully yours, Arthur Brooks.

Formal notes are always expressed in the third person, and all answers to such should correspond in form and style.

Although invitations to large affairs are usually printed from engraved plates, a few forms are here given, principally to show the correct forms of reply to the several kinds of invitation.

Invitation to a reception:

Mr. and Mrs. Charles L. Harrington request the pleasure of your company on Thursday evening, November tenth, from eight until eleven o’clock,

896 Fifth Avenue.

Acceptance:

Miss Evelyn Hall accepts with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Charles L. Harrington’s invitation for Thursday evening, November tenth.

Dinner invitation:

Mr. and Mrs. Henry W. King request the pleasure of Mr. and Mrs. Mayhew Marbury’s company at dinner on Tuesday evening, April tenth, at eight o’clock,

40 Maple Avenue.

Acceptance:

14 West Street,

March 31st, 1917.

Mr. and Mrs. Mayhew Marbury accept with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Henry W. King’s invitation to dinner on Tuesday evening, April tenth, at eight o’clock.

Additional Suggestions.—Always use good paper and black ink. Decorated or highly colored writing papers are in poor taste. Plain white or slightly tinted paper of medium weight is best.

All letters and notes should be written legibly and neatly, carefully punctuated, and absolutely correct as to spelling.

All letters and notes, with a few special exceptions, require a prompt acknowledgment of receipt, if not an immediate answer.

This is especially the case in business letters and those containing enclosures of any kind.

All letters and notes should be courteous. To inferiors in station be kindly; to superiors, respectful; and to equals, friendly.

All letters and notes asking information should be re-read immediately before answering.

OFFICIAL AND TITLED SALUTATIONS

Titles in the United States are either official or academic.

OFFICIAL TITLES

To the President of the United States, an official letter commences, Sir.

Conclusion: I have the honor to remain your most obedient servant.

Salutation of a social letter: My dear Mr. President.

Conclusion: I have the honor to remain most respectfully [or sincerely] yours.

Inscription on envelope: President Woodrow Wilson.

To the Vice-President, an official letter begins, Sir, or Dear Sir.

Conclusion: I have, Sir, the honor to remain your most obedient servant.

Salutation of a social letter: My Dear Mr. Marshall.

Conclusion: as given for president.

Inscription on envelope: The Vice-President, Thomas R. Marshall.

To a Justice of the Supreme Court, an official letter begins and concludes as in the case of a vice-president.

Salutation of a social letter: Dear Mr. Justice White, or Dear Justice White.

Conclusion: Believe me, truly [or most sincerely] yours, etc.

Inscription on envelope: Mr. Justice Edward D. White.

To a Senator, an official letter begins and concludes as to a vice-president.

Salutation of a social letter: My Dear Senator Lewis.

Conclusion: as given for a justice.

Inscription on envelope: Senator Hamilton Lewis or To the Hon. Hamilton Lewis.

To a Member of the House of Representatives, an official letter begins as to a senator.

Conclusion: as in the case of a vice-president.

Salutation of a social letter: My dear Mr. Clark.

Conclusion: as given for a justice.

Inscription on envelope: Hon. Champ Clark.

To a Member of the Cabinet, an official letter begins and concludes as to a vice-president.

The salutation and conclusion of a social letter are as in the case of a member of the House of Representatives.

Inscription on envelope: Honorable Robert Lansing, Secretary of State.

To the Governor of a State, an official letter begins: Sir.

Conclusion: I have the honor, Sir, to remain your obedient servant.

A social letter begins: Dear Governor McCall or Dear Mr. McCall.

Conclusion: Believe me, truly [or most sincerely] yours.

Inscription on envelope: Governor [or Hon.] Samuel W. McCall.

To a Mayor, an official letter begins: Sir or Your Honor.

Conclusion: Same as a governor.

Social letter begins: My dear Mayor Rockwood or Dear Mr. Rockwood.

Conclusion: Same as a governor.

Inscription on envelope: His Honor the Mayor of Cambridge, Wendell D. Rockwood.

CLERICAL TITLES

The Pope—His Holiness Pope Benedict XV.

To a Roman Catholic Archbishop, an official or a social letter begins: Most Reverend and Dear Sir.

Conclusion: I have the honor to remain your humble servant.

Inscription on envelope: The Most Reverend John J. Keane, Archbishop of Dubuque, Iowa.

To A Cardinal, whether official or social, a letter begins: Your Eminence.

Conclusion: as to an archbishop.

Inscription on envelope: His Eminence Cardinal Gibbons.

To a Roman Catholic Bishop, either an official or a social letter begins: Right Reverend and Dear Sir.

Conclusion: as to an archbishop.

Inscription on envelope: To the Right Reverend Philip J. Garrigan, Bishop of Sioux City, Iowa.

To A Protestant Bishop, an official letter begins as in the case of a Roman Catholic bishop. A social letter begins: Dear Bishop Lawrence.

Conclusion: I have the honor to remain your obedient servant, or I remain respectfully or sincerely yours.

Address on envelope: The same as to a Roman Catholic bishop.

To an Archbishop of the Anglican Church, an official letter begins: My Lord Archbishop, may it please your Grace.

Conclusion: I remain, My Lord Archbishop, your Grace’s most obedient servant.

Salutation of a social letter: My dear Lord Archbishop.

Conclusion: I have the honor to remain, my dear Lord Archbishop.

Inscription on envelope: The Most Rev. His Grace the Archbishop of York.

To an Anglican Bishop, an official letter begins: My Lord.

Conclusion: I have the honor to remain your Lordship’s obedient servant.

Salutation of a social letter: My Dear Lord Bishop.

Conclusion: I have the honor to remain, my dear Lord Bishop, faithfully yours.

Inscription on envelope: To the Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Oxford.

ENGLISH TITLES OF ROYALTY, NOBILITY AND OFFICE

The following list illustrates the various titles used for the different ranks among individuals either in the complimentary address or superscription on the envelope:

1. In Letters or Conversation.

2. The Directions of Letters.

The Royal Family

The King—

1. Sir; Most Gracious Sovereign; May it please your Majesty.

2. To the King’s Most Excellent Majesty.

The Sons and Daughters, Brethern and Sisters of Sovereigns—

1. Sir, or Madam, May it please your Royal Highness.

2. To His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales.

To Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Cambridge.

Other Branches of the Royal Family—

1. Sir, or Madam, May it please your Highness.

2. To His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge; or, To Her Highness the Princess Mary of Cambridge.

The Nobility

A Duke, or Duchess—

1. My Lord, or My Lady, May it please your Grace.

2. To His Grace the Duke of Bedford; or, To Her Grace the Duchess of Bedford.

A Marquis, or Marchioness—

1. My Lord, or My Lady, May it please your Lordship, or May it please your Ladyship.

2. To the Most Noble the Marquis, or Marchioness, of Westminster.

An Earl or Countess—The same.

To the Right Honorable the Earl, or Countess, of Shrewsbury.

A Viscount or Viscountess—

1. My Lord, or Madam, May it please your Lordship, or, May it please your Ladyship.

2. To the Right Honorable Viscount, or Viscountess, Lifford.

A Baron or Baroness—The same.

To the Right Honorable, the Lord Wensleydale, or The Lady St. John.

The Widow of a Nobleman is addressed in the same style, with the introduction of the word Dowager in the superscription of her letters.

To the Right Hon. the Dowager Countess of Chesterfield.

The Sons of Dukes and Marquises, and the Eldest Sons of Earls, have, by courtesy, the titles of Lord and Right Honorable; and all the daughters have those of a Lady and Right Honorable.

The Younger Sons of Earls, and the Sons and Daughters of Viscounts and Barons, are styled Honorable.

Official Members of the State

A Member of His Majesty’s Most Honorable Privy Council—

1. Sir, or My Lord, Right Honorable Sir, or My Lord, as the case may require.

2. To the Right Honorable ——,[14] His Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.

Ambassadors and Governors—

1. Sir, or My Lord, as the case may be; May it please your Excellency.

2. To his Excellency the French (or other) Ambassador.

3. To his Excellency ——,[14] Lieutenant General and General Governor of that part of the United Kingdom called Ireland.

Judges—

1. My Lord, May it please your Lordship.

2. To the Right Honorable ——, Lord Chief Justice of England.

The Lord Mayor of London, York, or Dublin, and the Lord Provost of Edinburgh, during office—The same.

1. My Lord, May it please your Lordship.

2. To the Right Honorable ——, Lord Mayor of London. To the Right Honorable ——, Lord Provost of Edinburgh.

The Lord Provost of every other town in Scotland is styled Honorable.

The Mayors of all Corporations (excepting the preceding Lord Mayors), and the Sheriffs, Aldermen, and the Recorder of London, are addressed Right Worshipful; and the Aldermen and Recorders of other Corporations, and the Justices of the Peace, Worshipful.

The Parliament

House of Peers—

1. My Lords, May it please your Lordships.

2. To the Right Honorable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, in Parliament assembled.

House of Commons—

1. May it please your Honorable House.

2. To the Honorable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

The Speaker of Ditto—

1. Sir, or Mr. Speaker.

2. To the Right Honorable James W. Lowther, the Speaker of the House of Commons.

A Member of the House of Commons Not Ennobled—

1. Sir.

2. To Thomas Hughes, Esq., M.P.

NARRATION

Narration is a species of composition which relates the particulars of a real or fictitious event in the order of their occurrence. In a wider meaning, narration is the statement of successive facts. In a story or drama the plot is the series of incidents which form the skeleton of the story.

If the subject deals with real facts, as in biography, or history, or news, the rule of fidelity to the truth is essential. It requires that not only the main facts shall be true as they are narrated, but also that all the striking and important details be faithfully stated as they are known to have occurred or happened.

Biography.—After the letter, the simplest form of composition is biography. The order of events from youth to age is established.

This style of composition is strongly to be recommended for beginners. It affords excellent practice for all. It promotes a habit of putting things in order.

Outline scheme of biography:—

1. When was he born?

2. Where was he born?

3. Who were his parents?

4. Where was he educated?

5. Whom did he marry?

6. What was his profession?

7. What great work did he do?

8. When and where did he die?

9. Where was he buried?

Answer each question in a complete sentence.

You have nine statements in chronological order.

Each of these can be expanded into one or more paragraphs.

Fiction and Drama.—If the composition is a story or drama, the principal requirements involve the following:

The story should develop one or more of the following: plot, situation, character.

The story should have interest.

1. It should begin attractively and as directly as possible.

2. It must move, and not simply “mark time.”

3. It may be made effective by dramatic situations and turning points.

4. It may use description, but the description must be closely connected with the story and must not hinder the movement.

5. It should discriminate in the number and the importance of details.

6. It may make effective use of suspense and suggestion.

7. It should have no inconsistency in the speech or the actions of the characters.

8. It should have an effective ending.

News, or the Newspaper “Story,” is another very important form of narrative. The newspaper is the great popular educator of the day, and in its columns are found not only excellent examples of vivid and telling narratives, but frequently excellent types of spontaneous writing.

News and news reporting require accuracy, clearness, brevity, and a style that either charms, or compels interest. Indeed, it too frequently happens that to secure the element of interest practically all else is sacrificed.

Reporting and news writing are best learned by careful study of the daily papers, and from constant practice. Shorthand is an invaluable aid in securing the exact words of the speaker if the news takes the form of an interview, or report of a public address or meeting.

The relation of the “facts” and “story” may be illustrated in the following:

Report of exact words of the speaker:—

“I assure you, my friends, that I for my part, will do all I possibly can to resist this measure. You know that I have always been opposed to it; as recently as yesterday I spoke against it here in this very hall. Do you think that the people of this country will tolerate such injustice? I am sure they will not.”

How the newspaper report appeared:—

He assured his friends that he for his part would do all he possibly could to resist that measure. They knew that he had always been opposed to it; as recently as the day before he had spoken against it there in that very hall. Did they think, he asked, that the people of this country would tolerate such injustice? He was sure they would not.

EXPOSITION

Exposition is a form of composition designed to explain. Its important characteristic is clearness, and it, therefore, makes large use of illustration.

The main points may be stated in various ways in order to make them clear.

Essays and editorials are among the best known forms of exposition.

Essay.—An essay is a short composition upon any subject. The subject may be of any kind whatever, one fit for treatment, and with great fulness, in any of the species of discourse described above, or one without sufficient dignity for such treatment. No other species of writing ranges over so wide and varied a field of topics—nothing less than that of all others combined—and none other allows such freedom and diversity in the handling.

In style of thought the essay may be dreamy and semi-poetical, and charm by its beauty, it may be simply instructive or critical, it may blaze with its brilliancy, sting with its satire, convulse with its humor, convince with its logic, inflame with its appeal and move to instant duty. The author may wander off in leisurely excursions to the right and the left, and load his pages with gleanings by the way; or, like the orator, he may keep his eye on the point he would reach, and move, with the directness of an arrow’s flight, toward it.

The style of expression should fit the thought, and October woods are not more varied in color than this department of literature in utterance.

Outline of the Essay.—1. Give a clear definition of the subject or proposition to be discussed, amplified, paraphrased, or explained.

2. Set out the reason for, or the truth of, the proposition.

3. Add the confirmation of further proofs, including demonstration of the unreasonableness of the contrary.

4. Illustrate the truth of the proposition by comparison or analogy from nature or art.

5. Give direct examples or instances to corroborate the truth.

6. Quote the testimony of standard authors.

7. Conclude by summing up, with pertinent observations.

Remember that all this working to a formula is only a training in the habit of clear thinking—a mental discipline.

When you can do without the formula, and not till then, you will begin to be a writer.

Editorials are, in point of fact, simply little essays, usually following closely the news or issues of the day. Their function is to elucidate, summarize, inform, persuade, or merely comment. In their highest form they are to prose writing what the sonnet is to verse; but it must be confessed that numerous editorials are so completely dominated by the so-called “editorial policy” of newspaper owners, or colored by one of the various hues of partisanship, that their otherwise beneficent influence and power are largely neutralized.

Description.—We mean by a description the delineation of some object or scene. Narration deals with successive facts; description with objects that exist at the same time. We rarely find any literary production of great length which is entirely descriptive; but descriptions are often introduced into narratives with happy effect.

Sometimes they serve the purpose of making the narration impressive, by moving the passions of the reader. At other times they are intended to make the events more intelligible. Thus we have seen that some narratives of battles are hard to follow because the writer has neglected to give us a clear description of the battle-field.

Descriptions frequently serve as ornaments, affording an agreeable variety to the narration, and presenting scenes of striking interest to the imagination.

Rules.—The governing rules in description are the following:

1. In every good description a point of view should be established.

2. The description should be governed by the point of view.

3. The general outline of the picture should, ordinarily, be given first.

4. The number of details should be so few and so insignificant as to make a vivid picture.

5. The order of the details should be determined by the character of the object described.

Argument.—This form of composition is designed to prove the truth or the falsity of a proposition.

A brief is a summary of an argument showing the development of the argument by a series of headings and sub-headings.

The first step in the argument should be to define the terms of the proposition or to determine the facts in the case.

State reasons to establish facts.

The conclusion should be warranted by the premises.

Illustrations may be used effectively, but not conclusively.

Analogy should be used for illustration, not as a basis for conclusions.

Arguments should usually be arranged in the order of their strength, the strongest last.

POETRY AND POETICS

Poetry is usually classified as epic, lyric, dramatic, and didactic.

Epic Poetry is that which deals with the life and adventures of some real or mythic personage, called a hero.

1. The great epic is considered the highest effort of poetic talent, on account of the loftiness of its conceptions, the dignity of its character, and the difficulty of its execution. Few epic poems have gained general admiration. Those most highly prized are Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey; Virgil’s Æneid; Milton’s Paradise Lost; and Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered.

2. The Metrical Romance differs from the great epic in its theme, which is less serious; its metre, which is lighter; and its control of events, which is mainly human; the love element is more prominent in this form of the epic. Examples: Scott’s Marmion and The Lady of the Lake.

3. The Tale is a simple form of narrative poetry telling a complete story. Examples: Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales; Tennyson’s Enoch Arden.

4. The Ballad is a direct, rapid, and condensed story, having peculiarities of phrase and poetic accent. Examples: Chevy Chase; Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner.

5. Pastorals and Idylls have a great deal of description, often of simple country scenes, mingled with the narrative. Examples: Goldsmith’s Deserted Village; Tennyson’s Idylls of the King.

Dramatic poetry tells a story by means of characters speaking and acting in such a way as to develop a plot. The drama is divided into acts, often five, the fifth act showing the results of the plot which has been developing.

The classes of dramatic poetry are tragedy and comedy.

Tragedy deals with the grave situations and problems of life and engenders in the spectator noble emotions.

Comedy deals with the pleasanter and more trivial side of life and chooses its subjects from everyday follies, accidents, or humors.

Lyric poetry expresses the deepest emotions of sentiment of the poet. The lyric, as the word suggests, was originally designed to be sung to the music of the lyre.

Lyric poetry includes five classes, as follows:

Song may be either sacred or secular.

The Ode is the loftiest form of lyric, and expresses great range and depth of feeling. This range of emotion often varies the metre. Examples: Tennyson’s Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington; Lowell’s Commemoration Ode.

The Elegy laments the fleeting condition of human affairs. Examples: Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard; Milton’s Lycidas; Tennyson’s In Memoriam.

The Sonnet is a short poem of fourteen iambic pentameter lines, and had originally a prescribed arrangement of rhyming lines. The great English sonnet writers are Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth, and Mrs. Browning.

Many lyrics have none of the special aims already mentioned. These may be called Simple lyrics. Example: Burns’s To a Daisy.

Didactic verse is not the highest type of poetry.

Its aim is not to give pleasure, but to instruct.

Example: Pope’s Essay on Man.

POETICS

Poetry differs from prose in three particulars: in its purpose, in its style, and in its form.

The chief object of poetry is to give pleasure. Of all literature it is the most spontaneous because addressed particularly to the feelings.

It has its own diction and imagery, conforming to the order, gradations and subtleties of its thought. Like other forms of genius, too, it is permitted certain liberties and variations of language or expressions in order to avoid monotony and maintain the life and music of the verse. These are more strictly rhetorical, however, and next in importance to the poetic content is poetic form.

By poetic form we mean the mould and measure whereby, in English, poetry gets itself into the expression adapted to produce its designed effect.

Metre.—All impassioned language, as in eloquence for instance, tends to fall into a more or less regular rhythmic swing. In poetry, which is both impassioned and imaginative, this rhythm is timed to definite lengths and called metre, which is the Greek word for measure.

The unit of poetic measure is the foot. A foot is a combination of syllables, two or three distinguished, after the Greek, as long and short, but more truly accented and unaccented, because our syllabic values, unlike the Greek, are more accentual than quantitative. A variety of poetic feet are employed in English, whose names and values are derived from Greek prosody.

Poetic Feet.—For brevity of description a notation is used to designate the foot: the sign (―) for a long, and (◡) for a short syllable. The kinds of feet in most common English use, here marked by their signs and illustrated by a word, are: Iambic or Iambus, a short and a long (◡ ―, e. g. forbid); Trochaic or Trochee, a long and a short (― ◡, e. g. lightly); Spondaic or Spondee, two longs (― ―, e. g. all day); Anapestic, two shorts and a long (◡ ◡ ―, e. g. arabesque); and Dactylic, a long and two shorts (― ◡ ◡, e. g. silently).

Other feet, such as Tribrach, three shorts (◡ ◡ ◡, e. g. rapidly); Amphibrach, short long short (◡ ― ◡, e. g. tremendous), and Amphimacer, long short long (― ◡ ―, e. g. undismayed), are used less frequently, and only as blends with other measures.

Verse.—The first combination of poetic feet results in the verse or line, somewhat analogous to the clause in a prose sentence. The word verse means by derivation a turning; perhaps because where it reaches a certain designed length the writer turns back and begins a new line. The kinds of verse employed are named by Greek names according to the number of feet they contain; and along with this, if the measure is fully described, is named the kind of foot.

The same notation as given above is kept up through the line, the feet being separated by an upright line. Thus, taking the Iambic foot as unit, we note: Monometer, one-measure, or one foot long (◡ ―); Dimeter, two-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ―); Trimeter, three-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―); Tetrameter, four-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―); Pentameter, five-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―); and Hexameter, six-measure, (◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―). English names are sometimes used, as 8 and 7, or fourteeners.

A few poetic lines may here be given, with their notation, by way of illustration:

◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ―

I wan dered lone ly as a cloud

(Iambic tetrameter)

― ◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ― ◡

Heard the lapping of the water

(Trochaic tetrameter)

― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― ◡

This is the forest pri meval; the murmuring pines and the hemlocks

(Dactylic hexameter)

◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ―

Oh, young Lochinvar is come out of the West

(Anapestic tetrameter)

― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡

One more un fortunate

(Dactylic dimeter)

◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ―

This was the no blest Ro man of them all

(Iambic pentameter)

At some place within a long line, pentameter or hexameter, occurs a natural pause, called the cæsura. The continual varying of the place of the cæsura is one means of breaking up the monotony to which blank verse (Iambic pentameter unrhymed) tends.

Stanzas.—The next step of procedure as the combination of poetic elements goes on from the single verse, is some form of stanza structure.

The simplest approach to the stanza, employed principally in what is called Heroic verse, is the couplet (also called the Heroic couplet), two lines, Iambic pentameter, rhymed, and generally pausing at the end of the second line. They form only partially a stanza, however, because these couplets go on, according to the requirements of the thought, to group themselves in paragraphs after the manner of prose. Pope is the great master of the heroic couplet.

Sometimes, if the lines are long, a poem is made up of couplet stanzas, as in Tennyson’s Locksley Hall.

There are certain standard stanza structures, such as the Elegiac stanza, four lines Iambic pentameter, rhymed either in pairs or alternately, of which Gray’s Elegy (rhymed alternately) is the type; the Ballad stanza, four lines Iambic pentameter and trimeter alternating, with second and fourth lines rhymed together, sometimes also first and third; various hymn stanzas, designated Long Metre (L. M.), Common Metre (C. M.), Short Metre (S. M.), 8 and 7, 6 and 4, etc., which can be studied in any hymn-book; and most elaborate of all, the Sonnet, a fourteen-lined stanza which is also a whole poem, with a rather intricate rhyme scheme.

Generally speaking, however, the liberties and varieties of stanza structure, as to kind of measure, length of line and stanza itself, combination of long and short line, and rhyme scheme, is almost unlimited.

Rhyme.—A new poetic element enters into the stanza: the element of rhyme. The most prominent regulative feature of English lyric verse, perhaps, is the rhyme by which recurring periods are grouped. Technically speaking, there are three kinds of rhyme, only one of which plays an important, or at least essential part, in modern English poetry.

1. Beginning rhyme, or alliteration (e. g. the mother of months), which in Anglo Saxon poetry was the main principle of verse, but is now introduced only furtively and delicately.

2. Middle rhyme, or assonance, wherein only the vowels rhyme (e. g. blarney, charming), which is introduced with even more caution than alliteration.

3. End-rhyme, which is so constant and essential a principle of the stanza that it needs no further definition here.

In the skillful management and disposition of the end-rhymes, to produce its poetic effects without monotony or undue obtrusiveness, there is room for the finest poetic taste and workmanship. On single rhymes (e. g. face, embrace), double rhymes (e. g. rally, sally), and triple rhymes (e. g. pentameter, sham metre), which explain themselves, there is no occasion to enlarge.

The arrangement of lines in a stanza is indicated, in brief notation, by letters of the alphabet. Thus a a b b indicates a four-line stanza in which the first and second lines rhyme, and the third and fourth; ab ab, a stanza in which the rhymes alternate; a b b a, a stanza like that of Tennyson’s In Memoriam, in which this arrangement is reversed.

In this way, with the use of the other notation mentioned, a complete description of poetic construction, from foot to stanza, may be made in very short space.

How Rhythm is Applied.—Lyric poetry, of which the type is the song; was originally designed to be associated with music. It is in this class of poetry, especially, that the stanza form and the rhyme system prevail; but besides the song and the ballad, which most suggest musical accompaniment, there are the ode, the elegy, the sonnet, the didactic poem, and many others, with which music, except in the natural melody of the verse, has little to do.

In epic poetry, the vehicle of great national deeds and ideals, and the enshrining of deep religious and moral truths, the verse employed is generally blank verse (i. e. unrhymed verse), in paragraphs instead of stanzas, and generally Iambic pentameter. For less sublime or universal purposes, however, this epic class has been enlarged to include narrative and romantic poetry, often rhymed, as in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales and Scott’s The Lady of the Lake; and sometimes in stanzas, as in Spencer’s Fairy Queene.

Dramatic poetry, designed for representation on the stage, and written in blank verse of a less severe and rigid artistic kind than in the epic, is modeled more after the natural rhythm of impassioned speech. The range and tone of such dramatic verse is very generous and elastic; from the free and colloquial, as in Browning’s dramatic monologues, up to the so-called closet drama, designed to be read rather than played, wherein the artistic demands are as subtle and exacting as in the epic, and the sentiment generally more intense.

While, therefore, the ancient classification remains fundamental and true, the modern art of printing and the discontinuance of the custom of reading aloud, have operated to enlarge the scope of poetry within these elemental lines till every requirement of impassioned and imaginative utterance is freely open to it, in vital and enduring forms.

WORDS AND PHRASES FROM THE MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES.

Including proverbs, maxims, quotations, mottoes, idioms, allusions, references, and numerous terms used in law, literature, cookery, the drama, social life, and everyday affairs.

KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

ä, as in farm, father; ȧ, as in ask, fast; a, as in at, fat; ā, as in day, fate; â, as in care, fare; e, as in met, set; ē, as in me, see; ẽ, as in her, ermine; i, as in pin, ill; ī, as in pine, ice; o, as in not, got; ō, as in note, old; ô, as in for, fought; oo, as in cook, look; ōō, as in moon, spoon; u, as in cup, duck; ū, as in use, amuse; û, as in fur, urge; th, as in the, though; y, as in yet, you; ow, as in cow, now; ng, as in sing, ring; ch, as in church, choose.

FOREIGN SOUNDS

ö cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of u in burn is perhaps the nearest equivalent to ö. ü cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of u in luke and duke resembles the original sound of ü. N represents the nasal tone (as in French) of the preceding vowel, as in encore (äN-kôr´). K represents ch, as in German ich, ach. zh, sound of s in pleasure. j and g before i or e in Spanish, strongly aspirated h.

Phrases not designated are from the French; those from other languages are distinguished thus: (Ger.)—German; (It.)—Italian; and (Sp.)—Spanish.

A

a bas (ȧ bä´), down.

a bas le traitre (ȧ bä´le tretr´), down with the traitor.

a beau jeu beau retour (ȧ bō zhö´ bō retōōr´), one good turn deserves another.

a bon chat, bon rat (ȧ bôN rȧ´), (to a good cat, a good rat), well matched; set a thief to catch a thief.

a bon marché (ȧ bôN mȧr shā´), cheap.

abonnement (ȧ bôn mäN´), subscription.

a bras ouverts (ȧ brȧzōō ver´), with open arms.

abrégé (ȧ brā zhā´), abridgment.

absence d’esprit (ȧp säNs des prē´), absence of mind.

a causa persa, parole assai (It.), (ä kä´ ōō zä per´sa, pä rô´lāäsä´ē), when the cause is lost, there is enough of words.

accueil (ȧ kö´ē), reception; greeting; welcome.

à charge (ȧ shȧrzh´), at expense.

à cheval (ȧ she vȧl´), on horseback.

à compte (ȧ kôNt´), on account.

à corps perdu (ȧ kôr per dū´), headlong; neck or nothing.

à coup sur (ȧ kōō sür´), with certainty; surely.

à couvert (ȧ kōō ver´), under cover, protected, sheltered.

acqua Tofana (It.), (ä kwä tō fä´nä), a subtle poison.

à demi (ȧ de mi´), by halves.

à dessein (ȧ de sâN), designedly.

à deux mains (ȧ dö mâN´), (for both hands), having a double office or employment.

adieu (ȧ dēö´), (I commit you to God), good-bye.

adieu, la voiture, adieu, la boutique (ȧ dēö´, lȧ vwȧ tür´, ȧ dēö´ lȧ bōō tēk´), (good-bye, carriage; good-bye, shop), all is over.

à discrétion (ȧ dēs krā sēôN´), at discretion, unrestrictedly.

à droite (ȧ drwȧt´), to the right.

affaire d’amour (ȧ fer dȧ mōōr´), a love affair.

affaire d’honneur (ȧ fer dô nör´), an affair of honor, a duel.

affaire du coeur (ȧ fer dü kör´), an affair of the heart, a love affair.

affiche (ȧ fēsh´), a placard; a notice; bulletin.

affreux (ȧ frö´), frightful.

à fin (ȧ fâN), to the end or object.

à fond (ȧ fôN´), to the bottom; thoroughly.

à forfait (ȧ fôr fe´), by contract, by the job.

à gauche (ȧ gōsh´), to the left.

à genoux (ȧ zhe nōō), on one’s knees.

agneau (ä-nyō), lamb.

à grands frais (ȧ gräN fre´), at great expense.

a haute voix (ȧ ōt vwȧ), loudly; openly.

a huis clos (ȧ wē klō´), (with closed doors), secretly; in camera.

aide-toi, et le ciel t´aidera (ed twȧ´, ā le sēel ted rȧ´), help yourself, and Heaven will help you.

air distingué (er dēs tâN gā´), a distinguished appearance.

air noble (er nôbl´), a distinguished, patrician air, manner, or presence.

à la (ä lä), au (ō), aux (ō).—With; according to; after the manner of; as huitres aux champignons, oysters with mushrooms.

If a dish is cooked, or served, or made, with anything as an ingredient or garnish, the dish may be said to be “à la” that substance. So it may be possible to ascertain the meaning of phrases not given below by looking elsewhere in the vocabulary under the word used with the words “à la.”

à l’abandon (ȧ lȧ bäN dôN´), disregarded, uncared for.

à la béarnaise (ä lä bā-är-nāz´).—With a sauce of tarragon vinegar in which shallots have been boiled till it is reduced, then combined with egg yolks and butter, and beaten in a bain-marie, then seasoned with red pepper and lemon juice.

à la béchamel (ä lä bā-shä-mel´).—After the fashion of Béchamel (a French gastronomer); said of a sauce (see Bechamel); also prepared or served with this sauce.

à la belle étoile (ȧ lȧ be lā twȧl´), under the canopy of Heaven; in the open air.

à la Bercy (ȧ lȧ bâr-sē´).—Served with béarnaise sauce, stuffed green pepper and stuffed tomato.

à la bigarade (ȧ lä bē-gā-räd´).—Flavored with (Seville) orange juice or peel.

à la bonne femme (ȧ lȧ bôn fȧm).—Of, or in the style of, the housewife; specifically said of a kind of maigre soup made with fish, bouillon, legumes, and an assortment of vegetables.

à la bonne heure (ȧ lȧ bô nör´), well-timed, in good time; favorably; good.

à la bordelaise (ä lä bôr-de-lāz´).—With Bordeaux wine; said of various preparations containing it; as of a sauce, with garlic, shallots, or onions, chopped mushrooms, and a piece of marrow; also with sauce a la bordelaise.

à la bourguignotte (ā lä boor-gē-nyot).—Generally prepared with the addition of red wine of Burgundy, or of Bordeaux, or of the Midi (i.e., meridional provinces of France). At Bordeaux, or when made elsewhere with Gironde wine, the dish would be à la bordelaise.

à la caledo´nian (ä lä).—Boiled slowly in plain water and then baked with dressing of butter, chopped parsley, and a little lemon juice; said of finnan haddie when so cooked.

à la Camerani (ä lä kä-mā-rä´nē).—After the fashion of Camerani; said of a kind of rich chicken-liver soup.

à la campagne (ȧ lȧ käN päny´), in the country.

à la carte (ȧ lȧ kȧrt´), by the card.

à la Chateaubriand (ä lä shä-tō-brē-äN´).—With maitre d’hotel butter.

à la chevreuil (ä lä she-vrû´y´).—Served with a savory sauce; said of fillets of beef.

à la chipolata (ä lä chē-pō-lä´tä).—Containing an addition of the strongly flavored Italian sausages, or the mince with which they are filled.

à la chiffonade (ä lä shē-fo-näd´).—See chiffonade.

à la cocotte (ä lä kō-kot´).—Baked (as eggs) in a cocotte, with butter and cream, or with cheese, or the like, and served in a cocotte.

à la crapaudine (ä lä krä-pō-dēn´).—Like a crapaudine (the flat piece of iron on which a grate pivot rests;) said of grilled chicken, pigeon, etc., when prepared by boning, removing the legs and wings, and pressing flat.

à la Créole (ä lä krā-ōl).—With tomatoes.

à la Croissy (ä lä krwä-sē´).—Containing carrots in quantity, or at least strongly flavored with them; said specifically of a puree of onions, carrots, turnips, and parsnips stewed in coulis. According to others, containing turnips in quantity, or strongly flavored with them.

à la daube (ä lä dōb).—Stewed in daube; said specifically of dishes cooked with small square pieces of salt pork, the round slices of carrots, glaced onions, and turnips.

à la Dauphiné (ä lä dō-fē-nā´).—With various vegetables, spinach, lettuce, leek, onions, sorrel, beets, etc.; said of a kind of soup.

à la Dauphinoise (ä lä dō-fē-nwäz´).—Generally, sauced over with a thick sauce (or with egg yolk), bread-crumbed, and then fried.

à la dérobée (ȧ lȧ dā rô bā), stealthily.

à la diable (ä lä dē-ä´bl).—Deviled.

à la faveur (ȧ lȧ fȧ vör´), by the favor of.

à la financière (ä lä fē-näN-syâr´).—With extract of truffles (literally, after the style of a financier); said of a variety of espagnole sauce, and of dishes served with it.

à la Flamande (ä lä flä-mäNd´).—Containing cabbage, but more particularly Brussels sprouts, and, usually turnips and carrots cut in big slices.

à la Florentine (ä lä flō-räN-tēn´).—See à l’Italienne.

à la Française (ȧ lȧ fräN sez), in French fashion.

à la Génevoise (ä lä zhā-ne-vwäz´).—Cooked with champagne; said of certain dishes of fish.

à la godiveau (ä lä gō-dē-vō).—With balls made of mincemeat, usually of veal.

à la Grecque (ȧ lȧ grek´), after the Greek fashion.

à la Holstein (ä lä hōl´ stīn).—Fried, and served with a fried egg, sardelles, capers, pickled beets, and pickles, and sometimes scraped horse-radish.

à la jardinière (ä lä zhär-dē-nyâr´).—Made with a typical collection of cooked vegetables, as soups, ragoûts, and removes. See jardinere.

à la julienne (ä lä zhü-lyen´).—With various vegetables sliced in strips, as carrots, turnips, leeks, onions, celery, lettuce, tarragon, sorrel; said especially of a kind of rich stock soup. Also said of potatoes cut in very slender strips and fried crisp floating in hot fat.

à l’Algérienne (ä läl-zhā-rē-en´).—Cooked with slices of raw ham; said of a preparation of fowl.

à la Languedoc (ä lä läNg-dok´).—Cooked with or in olive oil; with olive oil.

à l’Allemande (ä läl-mäNd´).—Having a German provincial peculiarity of preparation, as a garnish of sauerkraut, prunes stewed in wine, quenelles of potatoes, etc.

à la Loren´zo (ä lä).—Made of minced crab meat, put on toast spread with anchovy paste, then all covered with parmesan cheese and bread crumbs, buttered, browned in the oven, and served.

à l’Alsacienne (ä läl-sä-syen´).—With pork and frankfurters; also with onions and pork.

à la lyonnaise (ä lä lē-ō-nāz´).—With flaked or sliced fried onions; as, potatoes à la lyonnaise, or lyonnaise potatoes; sauce à la lyonnaise, or Lyons sauce, that is, espagnole sauce with flaked onions fried in oil.

à la macedoine (ä lä mä-sā-dwän´).—Made with or of a typical collection of green vegetables, mostly in white sauce; also applied to collections of ripe fruit imbedded in jellies, etc.

à la Maintenon (ä lä maN-te-nôN´).—A term variously used to designate a mode of cooking mutton or lamb chops; as, (a) wrapped in caul; (b) garnished with cockscombs and truffles; (c) served with a soubise; (d) served with financière sauce; (e) served with d’Uxelles sauce, etc.

à la maître d’hôtel (ä lä mā´tr dō-tel´).—Prepared by a substantial, but homely, modest sort of cooking. Also served with maitre d’hotel butter.

à la Marengo (ä lä mä-ren´gō).—With some garlic and oil.

à la Marseillaise (ä lä mär-sāy-āz´).—With Marsala wine.

à la Ma´ryland (ä lä).—With a sauce of butter and cream, with or without wine. It is like à la Newburgh, but less rich.

à l’Américaine (ȧ lȧ mā rē ken´), after the American fashion.

à la Meyerbeer (ä lä mâ-ûr-bâr´).—Shirred and served with broiled kidney and truffle sauce; said of eggs.

à la Milanaise (ä lä mē-lä-nāz´).—See à l’Italienne.

à la mode (ȧ lȧ môd´), in the fashion; according to the custom or fashion.

à la mode de Caën (ä lä mōd de käN).—A term used to designate tripe prepared with vegetables, leeks, wine, cognac, etc.

à la Napolitaine (ä lä nä-pō-lē-tān´).—See à l’Italienne.

à la neige (ä lä nāzh´).—In some form that suggests snow, as with white-of-egg froth, or in balls of white boiled rice, or the like.

à la New´burgh (ä lä).—With a sauce made of cream, egg yolks, Madeira or sherry wine, and butter shaken in a dish over a slow fire until they thicken. Said also of this sauce.

à l’Anglaise (ȧ läN glez´), after the English fashion.

à la nivernaise (ä lä nē-vâr-nāz´).—Containing a nivernaise; said of a kind of soup à la julienne. See nivernaise.

à la Normande (ä lä nôr-mäNd´).—Generally, with apples in the composition of the dish in some shape or other.

à la Parisienne (ȧ lȧ pȧ-rē-zēen´), after the Parisian fashion.

à la Périgord (ä lä pā-rē-gôr´).—Flavored with, or consisting of, truffles—alluding to the circumstance that these mushrooms grow of excellent size and quality in the province of Perigord.

à la Polonaise (ä lä pō-lō-nāz´).—Having red beets or red cabbage, so as to have their juice, color, and taste, as Polish ragoût, or borsh, which is the type of dishes à la Polonaise.

à la poulette (ä lä poo-let´).—With white velouté sauce.

à la printanière (ä lä praN-tä-nyâr´).—Made with a typical collection of cooked early or spring vegetables; of a somewhat wider application than à la jardinière.

à la Provençale (ä lä prō-väN-säl´).—Generally, prepared with more or less of olive oil, and flavored with garlic.

à la Reine (ä lä rān).—Of, or after the style of, the queen; said specifically of a kind of chicken soup [potage à la reine, (pō-täzh´ ä lä rān)] containing white meat of chicken pounded and rubbed to a powder.

à la Ro’land (ä lä).—Made of minced lobster meat in the same manner as à la Lorenzo dishes of crab meat. See à la Lorenzo.

à la Saint Cloud (ä lä saN´kloo).—With sliced truffles; said of a kind of velouté sauce.

à la serviette (ä lä ser-vyet).—Served in or on a napkin as braised truffles.

à la Soubise (ä lä soo-bēz´).—Generally containing onions in quantity; or, at least, strongly garnished and flavored with them; especially, served with a white onion sauce used with lamb or mutton.

à la Sourdine (ȧ la sōōr dēn´), silently; with bated breath.

à la tartare (ä lä tär-tär´).—With tartare sauce, or a sauce of similar ingredients. Also, said of a steak chopped and garnished with onions, pickles, pickled beets, sardelles, and yolk of egg, to be eaten raw.

à la Tartufe (ȧ lȧ tȧr tüf), like Tartufe, the hypocritical hero of Molière’s comedy, Tartufe, hence hypocritically.

à la turque (ä lä türk).—Shirred and served with chicken livers and mushrooms; said of eggs. Also boiled with rice and saffron; said of chicken.

à l’Aurore (ä lō-rōr´).—With a pink sauce made by coloring velouté sauce with lobster coral or Armenian bole. Also said of sliced hard-boiled eggs put in a dish, covered with velouté, sprinkled with grated egg yolk, and baked.

à la vert pré (ä lä vâr prā).—Colored green with vegetables, as with a puree of spinach.

à la Viennoise (ä lä vyā-nwäz´).—Applied to dishes usually and typically prepared in the Austrian capital, such as the dumplings termed nockerlin, quenelles of potatoes, and others.

à la Villeroi (ä lä vēl-rwä´).—With atelets sauce. Also, said of a poached egg put in a thick white sauce, then covered with egg yolk and bread crumbs, and fried.

à la vinaigrette (ä lä vē-nē-gret´).—With vinaigrette sauce.

al buon vino non bisogna frasca (It.), (äl bwôn vē´ nō nōn bē zô´ nyä fräs´kä), good wine needs no bush.

à l’envi (ȧ läN vē´), with emulation.

à l’espagnole (ä lā-spä-nyōl´).—Made savory with espagnole sauce; specifically, served with a garnish of onions, garlic, green peppers, mushrooms, tomatoes, and minced ham cooked together, and bound with espagnole sauce.

a l’extremite (ȧ lek strā mē tā´), at the point of death; without resource.

al fresco (It.), (äl frās´ko), in the open air.

alguazil (Sp.), (äl gwä zēl´), a Spanish constable.

à l’huile (ä-lwēl).—In olive oil; with olive oil dressing.

Alici (ä-lē´chē).—Anchovies, or a similar small fish preserved in oil according to the Italian fashion.

à l’imperatrice (ä lâN-pā-rē-trēs´).—Said of shirred eggs served with a slice of paté de fois gras upon each egg.

à l’improviste (ȧ lâN prô vēst´); unawares, on a sudden.

à l’Irlandaise (ä lēr-län-dez´).—Containing potatoes in some form, and often cabbage, etc., in mass or as a prevailing garnish.

à l’Italienne (ä lē-tä-lē-en´).—Generally made of, or garnished with, savory macaroni, or paste of that kind, or with ravioli; or made savory with Parma cheese.

all’alba (It.), (äl läl´bä), at daybreak.

alla Siciliana (It.), (äl lä sē chē lē ä´nä), in the Sicilian manner; in shepherd’s dress.

allégresse (á lä gres´), liveliness; geniality.

allemande (ál mäN d´), a kind of German dance.

Allemande sauce (äl-mäNd´).—Veloute sauce, with the addition of essence of mushrooms, cream, and a leason, or binding, of yolk of eggs.

alles hat seine Zeit (Ger.), (ä les hät zīne tsīt´), all in good time.

allez-vous en (ȧ lā vōō zäN´), away with you, be off.

allons (ȧ lôN´), come on.

allons donc (ȧ lôN dôN), nonsense.

allzuviel ist ungesund (Ger.), (äl tsōō fēl´ist oon´ ge-zoont), too much of a good thing.

al occorrenza (It.), (ä lō kō ren´dzä), according to circumstances.

à l’ordinaire (ȧ lôr dē ner´), in the ordinary manner.

alose (ä-lōs´).—Shad.

á l’outrance (á lōō träNs´), to the death.

aloyau (ä-lwä-yō´).—Loin of beef; short rib of beef.

al piu (It.), (äl pyōō´), at most.

alto rilievo (It.), (äl tō rē lye´vō), in high relief.

à main armée (ȧ mâN ȧr mā´), by force of arms.

am Anfang (Ger.), (äm än´fäng), at the beginning.

amar y saber no puede ser (Sp.), (ä mär ē sä vār´nō pooāthā sār´), no one can love and be wise at the same time.

âme de boue (lit., soul of mud), (äm de bōō), a base minded person.

amende honorable (ȧ mäN dô nô rȧbl´), fit reparation; a satisfactory apology.

à merveille (ȧ mer vāy´), marvelously, extraordinarily.

ami du cour (lit., a friend of the court), (ȧ mē dü kōōr), a false friend; one who is not to be depended on.

ami du peuple (ȧ mē dü pöpl´), friend of the people.

à moitié (ȧ mwȧ tēā´), by halves.

Amontillado (ä-mōn-tēl-yä´dō).—A cheaper variety of wine classed as sherry, but in reality a wine from Sicily or other Mediterranean or Atlantic islands, mixed with a little real sherry.

amour propre (ȧ mōōr prôpr´), vanity, self-love.

ananas (ä-nä-nä´).—Pineapple.

anchois (äN-shwä´).—Anchovies.

anchovy (an-chō´vi).—A small fish of the herring family caught in the Mediterranean, and pickled for exportation.

ancienne noblesse (äN sē en nôbles´), (the old nobility), French families ennobled before the revolution of 1792.

ancien régime (äN sēâN rā zhēm), (the former government or administration), the rulers of the ante-revolution period.

andouile (äN-doo´y).—Tripe.

anguilles (än-gē´y).—Eels.

anguilles grillée (än-gē´y grē-yā´).—Spitch-cocked, or grilled, eels.

anisette´.—A cordial or liqueur flavored with anise seeds.

à outrance (ȧ ōō träNs´), to the last extremity.

à pas de géant (ȧ päd zhā äN), with a giant’s stride.

à peindre (ȧ pâNdr´), worth painting.

à perte de vue (ȧ pert de vü´), till out of sight.

à peu près (ȧ pö pre´), nearly.

à pezzi (It.), (ä ped´zē), by the piece.

à piacere (It.), (ä pyä´chā rā), at pleasure.

à pied (ȧ pēā´), on foot.

à plomb (ȧ plôN´), perpendicularly; firmly.

à point (ȧ pwâN´), just in time; exactly right.

appui (ȧ pwē´), point of support; prop.

à prima vista (It.), (ä prē mä vēs´tä), at the first sight.

à prix d’or (ȧ prē dôr´), (at price of gold), very costly; fetching a fancy price.

à propos (ȧ prô pō´), to the point.

à propos de rien (ȧ prô pō de rēâN´), apropos to nothing; not pertinently.

arc-en-ciel (ȧr käN sēel´), rainbow.

à rez de chaussée (ȧ rā d shō sā´), even with the ground.

argent comptant (ȧr zhäN kôN täN´), ready money.

à rivederci (It.), (ȧ rē vā dār´chē), adieu until we meet again.

à Rome comme à Rome (ȧ rôm´ kô mȧ rôm´), at Rome do as Rome does.

arrière pensée (ȧ rēer päN sā´), mental reservation; unavowed purpose.

arroz à la Valencia´na (är-rō´ä lä).—Valencia rice, a farinaceous substance in grains like rice.

artichaut (är-tē-shō).—Artichoke.

asperge (ä-spârzh´).—Asparagus.

aspic (äs-pēk´).—A savory jelly made of calves’ feet, etc., or with extract of meat, flavored to suit the fancy, and stiffened with gelatine.

assignat (ȧ sē nya´).—French paper money issued after the revolution at the end of last century.

atelier (ȧt lēā´), a work-shop; studio.

à tort et à travers (ȧ tôr ā ȧ trȧ ver´), at random.

à toute outrance (ȧ tōō tōō träNs´), desperately; tremendously; with a vengeance.

à tout hasard (ȧ tōō ȧ zȧr´), at all hazards; at all events.

à tout prix (ȧ tōō prē´), at any price.

attaché (ȧ tȧsh´), an official belonging to an embassy.

au (ō).—See à la.

au beurre roux (ō bûr roo).—With browned butter.

au bon droit (ō bôN drwȧ´), to the just right.

au bout de son Latin (ō bōōd sôN lȧ tâN´), at the end of his Latin; to the extent of his knowledge.

au chingaras (ō shaN-gä-rä´).—Sandwiched with ham and grilled; said of ox palates.

au contraire (ō kôN trer´), on the contrary.

au courant (ō kōō räN´), fully acquainted with matters.

au désespoir (ō dā zes pwȧr´), in despair.

au fait (ō fe´), expert.

au fond (ō fôN´), to the bottom; in the rear (of the stage).

au four (ō foor).—Baked in the oven, as a stuffed fish.

au fromage (ō frō-mäzh´).—With cheese.

auf Wiedersehen (Ger.), (owf vē´der zā en), till we meet again.

au gras (ō grä).—Containing meat; said of soups so made.

au gratin (ō grä-taN´).—With a crust made by browning in the oven; as spaghetti is often served au gratin.

au jus (ō zhü).—In juice; in broth.

au kirsch (ō kërsh).—With kirschwasser; as an omelet or a punch containing this liqueur is termed au kirsch.