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Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965

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Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md., 605. Action Coordinating Committee to End Segregation in the Suburbs (ACCESS), 601, 601n. Adler, Julius Ochs, 314. Advisory Committee on Negro Troop Policies (McCloy Committee), 34-35, 39, 41-43, 45, 56, 123. Advisory Commission on Universal Training (Compton Commission), 303. Ailes, Stephen, 574. Air Force Times, 411. Air forces Second, 273; Third, 273; Fourth, 273; Ninth, 282. Air Training Command, 402, 405. Air Transport Command, 273. Air Transport Wing, 1701st, 411. Airborne Division, 82d, 190-92, 200. Alaskan Command, integration of, 452. Alaskan Department, 190, 197. Alexander, Sadie T. M., 294, 302n. Almond, Lt. Gen. Edward M., 134, 135, 440-41. American Civil Liberties Union, 246, 418. American Legion, 225. American Veterans Committee, 321, 503, 518, 521. Anderson, Robert B., 421-23, 484-86. Andrews Air Force Base, Md., 604-05. Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, 492, 521. Antiaircraft Artillery Battalion, 3d (USMC), 269. Antilles Department, 190. Arkansas A&M Normal College, 571. Armed forces, Negroes in before 1940, 3-8. Armed Forces Qualification Test, 394-95, 523, 573, See also Intelligence levels and test scores. Armies First, 53; Sixth, 453; Seventh, 53, 210-11, 390, 452; Eighth, 208-10, 430, 433-34, 436-39, 442-47. Armored Division, 2d, 200. Armored Field Artillery Battalion, 58th, 445. Armstrong, Lt. Comdr. Daniel, 67. Army Air Forces efficiency, military, and segregation in, 26-30, 271-79; enlistment practices, 276; manpower shortages, black, 271-72; morale in, 273-74; officer training schools, integration of, 275; officers, black, 27-30, 272-73; postwar assignments, 140-41, 159-60, 195, 197, 272; quotas, 180-81, 183; racial policies, 1940-1947, 27-30, 271-79; training in, 271, 274-76. Army Forces, Pacific, 179. Army General Classification Test (AGCT), 24-25, 31, 55n, 137-38, 203-04, 215-16, 617-18, See also Intelligence levels and test scores. Army Ground Forces, 180, 189; and assignments, 194-95, 197; and postwar location of training camps, 223-24; and postwar use of black troops, 139-40, 160. Army Groups, 6th and 12th, 52-53. Army Service Forces, 42; and postwar quotas, 181, 190; and postwar use of black troops, 138-39, 160-61. Army Talk, 170, 226. Arnold, Maj. Gen. Henry H., 27, 271, 274. Assignments, Air Force postwar, 277-79; and reassignments during integration, 402-04, 410. Assignments, armed forces and civilian community attitudes, 37, 223-24, 262-65, 467-68; and embassy and special mission, 467, 577-78; and occupational distribution, 523-26, 572-73; and overseas restrictions, 38, 179, 385-89. Assignments, Army and Fahy Committee, 368-71; and Korean War, 433-34; postwar, 194-98; in World War II, 33-34, 37-38, 43-44, 51-54. Assignments, Coast Guard, 114-17. Assignments, Marine Corps and 1951 integration order, 466-68; postwar, 173, 253-57, 261-66, 335-38; in World War II, 104, 106-10. Assignments, Navy postwar, 244-45; in World War II, 72-75, 77-78, 84-86, 96. Attitudes, change in toward Negroes, 229-30, 447, 614. Attorney General, 587, 589. Availability of Facilities to Military Personnel, The, 512-15.

Bainbridge Naval Training Center, Md., 73, 77, 92, 243. Baker, Newton D., 46-47. Baldwin, Hanson W., 164, 317. Bard, Ralph A., 59, 62-63, 144. Bare, Maj. Gen. Robert O., 467-68. Barr, Col. John E., 280-81. Base Service Squadron, 3817th, 404. Battle Mountain, Korea, 436. Bayonne, N.J. (naval shipyard), 263-64. Bennett, L. Howard, 559n, 603. Benton, William, 392n. Berthoud, 2d Lt. Kenneth H., Jr., 472. Bethune, Mary McLeod, 302n. Biggs Air Force Base, Texas, 494. Billikopf, Jacob, 314. Blood banks, segregated, 36. Blytheville, Ark., 498. Bolte, Maj. Gen. Charles L., 194. Bombardment Group, 477th, 29-30, 271, 275. Bradley, General Omar N., 55, 188; and Fahy Committee, 350-51, 410; and a segregated Army, 228-29, 317-18, 321, 326. Branch, 2d Lt. Frederick, 266. Bremerhaven, Germany, 129. Broad, Stuart, 559n. Brookley Air Force Base, Ala., 512. Brooks, Lt. Gen. Edward H., 432. Brown, Edgar G., 49. Brown, Ens. Jessie, 246. Brown, John Nicholas, 242, 249, 329-30, 331. Brown, Ens. Wesley A., 246, 414. Brown v. Board of Education, 323, 476, 586. Brownell, Herbert, Jr., 480. Browning, Charles, 302n. Bull, Maj. Gen. Harold R., 326, 331. Buress, Maj. Gen. Withers A., 429n. Burgess, Carter L., 494. Burley, Dan, 302n. Burns, Maj. Gen. James H., 387. Byrd, Robert C., 551.

Caffey, Brig. Gen. Benjamin F., 194. Calypso, 114. Camp Barry, Ill., 67. Camp Campbell, Ky., 327. Camp Geiger, N.C., 269. Camp Hanford, Wash., 481. Camp Lejeune, N.C., 255, 259. Camp Perry, Va., 148. Camp Robert Smalls, Ill., 67, 68, 77. Campbell, 116. Career Guidance Program (War Department), 198-99. Carey, James B., 295n. Caribbean Defense Command, 190. Carlton, Sgt. Cornelius H., 440. Cates, General Clifton B., 334-36, 461-62. Cavalry Division, 2d, 31-33, 135n, 192, 439. Cavalry regiments, 9th and 10th, 4, 30-31, 33, 192, 454. Cemeteries, national, 224-25. Chamberlain, Col. Edwin W., 31-32. Chamberlin, Lt. Gen. Stephen J., 429. Chamberlin Board, 429-30, 432, 440. Charleston, S.C. (shipyard), 485, 486. Charyk, Joseph V., 563. Chemung, 86. Cherokee, Charlie, 316. Chicago Defender, 316, 408. Chicago Tribune, 41. Chief of Staff. See Eisenhower, General of the Army Dwight D. Chile, 38. China, 179, 385. Ch'ongch'on River line, 434. Civil Rights Act of 1964, 554, 587-88, 590, 595. Civil rights demonstrations, participation of servicemen in, 514-16, 541. Civil rights legislation (1964-1966), 477, 554, 586-90, 595, 610-12. Civil rights movement, 608; and armed forces before World War II, 13-16; and armed forces during World War II, 18-19, 23, 56, 123-30; and Department of Defense, 299-309, 510-17; and Eisenhower, 474-79, 485; and Johnson, 586-90, 602; and Kennedy, 473, 477, 504-07, 508-10, 535, 537, 546, 586; and off-base discrimination, 473, 479-83, 500-04; post-World War II, 474-79; and postwar use of Negroes in armed forces, 129-30, 152; prior to World War II, 8-13; and Roosevelt, 8, 18-19; and Truman, 124, 130, 292-97, 309-10, 483n, 488. Civil Rights Subcabinet Group (1961), 506-07. Civilian Aide to Secretary of War for Negro Affairs. See Gibson, Truman K. Jr.; Hastie, William H.; Ray, Marcus H.; Scott, Emmett J. Civilian communities. See also Committee on Equality of Opportunity in the Armed Forces (Gesell Committee) and assignment of black personnel, 37, 223-24, 262-65, 467-68; and off-base discrimination, 129, 473, 479-83, 500, 606-08, 619-21; and off-base discrimination overseas, 214-15, 578; and racial incidents, 38, 39, 393-94, 412. Clark, General Mark W., 133, 432-33, 443. Clay, Lt. Gen. Lucius D., 212. Clifford, Clark M., 308-11, 374, 605. Colley, Nathaniel S., 537, 552. Collins, General J. Lawton and the Fahy Committee, 369-70; and integration of the Army, 428-30, 431, 442, 443, 449-51, 454, 610n. Combat Service Group, 2d, 269. Command of Negro Troops, 44-45. Commerce, Department of, 587. Commission of Inquiry (1948), 306-07. Committee Against Jim Crow in Military Service and Training, 300, 302, 390. Committee on Civil Rights (1946), 294-95. Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (1961), 506. Committee on Equality of Opportunity in the Armed Forces (Gesell Committee), 535-37; conclusions of, 538-42, 566, 577-78; congressional opposition to, 550-51; and DOD Directive 5120.36 issued, 548; and final report, 552-55; and local commanders' responsibilities, 540, 542-55, 561, 621; and off-limits sanctions, 543-44, 546-47, 555, 581; operations of, 537-38; reactions to, 545-48; recommendations of, 542-45, 599. Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Forces (Fahy Committee), 312-14, 342, 616-17; and the Air Force, 352, 356-57, 398, 407-08, 411-12; and Army assignments, 368-71; and Army opposition to recommendations, 359-62; and Army proposals and counterproposals, 360-68; and Army quotas, 356, 371-75, 429-30; assessment of, 375-78; and Department of Defense racial policy, 343-48; and enlistment standards, 357-59; and initial recommendations, 357-58; and military efficiency in the Army, 350-56, 428, 613; and the Navy, 352, 357-58, 412, 425-26; purpose of, 348-50. Committee for Negro Participation in the National Defense Program (1938), 10. Committee on Negro Personnel (Navy), 144-46, 151. Community facilities, integrated, availability of for servicemen, 512-14. Composite Group, 477th, 275, 278. Composite units in the Army, 189-93; in the Marine Corps, 268-69, 335. Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), 126, 478, 504. Construction Battalion, 80th, 75. Contract compliance program, 510n. Cooke, Brig. Gen. Elliot D., 212. Crabb, Brig. Gen. Jarred V., 283. Craig, Maj. Gen. Lewis A., 431-32. Craig Air Force Base, Ala., 480, 493. Crime and disease rates, 206-09, 219, 273. Crisis, The, 9, 14, 66, 133.

Daniels, Jonathan, 294, 313. Darden, Colgate, 313. Darden, Capt. Thomas F., 76. Davenport, Roy K., 199, 204, 352-56, 358, 370-72, 380, 394-95, 535n, 576. Davis, Col. Benjamin O., Jr., 275, 283-84, 286, 341, 400, 402. Davis, Brig. Gen. Benjamin O., Sr., 19, 37, 39, 48, 53, 231. Davis, Dowdal H., 302n, 408. Davis, John W., 302n. Dawson, Donald S., 313-14, 316. Dawson William L., 314. Defense, Department of, 297-99; and basic regulations on equal opportunity, 564, 566; and civil rights, 298-308, 510-17; and civilian communities, 473, 479-83, 500, 607-08, 620-21; and discrimination in the services, 1950's, 473-74, 482-83, 500; and discrimination within the services, 1960's, 566-80; and equal opportunity directive, 1963, 547-51, 556-57, 581, 619-21; and field of community race relations, 531-35; and integration of dependents' schools, 489-97, 596-99, 620; and off-base discrimination, 500-03, 510-16, 583-85; and off-base housing, 515-16, 584-85, 589, 598-606, 621; and off-limits sanctions, 531-34, 543-44, 547-48, 556-57, 581, 604-05, 608, 621; and organization of a civil rights office, 558-66; and overseas assignments, 385-89; and racial designations, 380-85, 574-77; and voluntary compliance programs, 581-86, 592-93, 602-03, 607-08, 621. See also Committee on Equality of Opportunity in the Armed Forces (Gesell Committee); Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Forces (Fahy Committee). Defense Appropriations Act, 315. Defense battalions 51st (Composite), 101, 108-10; 52d, 109-10, 262. Denfeld, Admiral Louis E., 167-68. Depot companies 2d Medium 269; 7th and 8th, 111. Dern, George H., 225. Desegregation. See Integration of the four services. Detroit Free Press, 421-22. Devers, General Jacob L., 134, 165, 190-92. DeVoe, Lt. (jg.) Edith, 246. DeVoto, Bernard, 126-27. Dewey, Thomas E., 87, 309. Dickey, John S., 295n. Diggs, Charles C., Jr., 503, 520-22, 535, 537. Dillon, Lt. Comdr. Charles E., 76. Dillon, Douglas, 508. Discipline. See Crime and disease rates. Discrimination, racial. See also Civilian communities; Committee on Equality of Opportunity in the Armed Forces (Gesell Committee); Integration of the four services; Racial policies of the four services; and complaints of in the 1960's, 501-04, 510, 520-21, 557, 571, 584-86; and U.S. Commission on Civil Rights study of (1963), 521-22. Disease rates. See Crime and disease rates. District of Columbia v. John R. Thompson Co., 476. Divine, Maj. Gen. John M., 429n. Divisions. See Airborne Division, 82d; Armored Division, 2d; Cavalry Division, 2d; Infantry divisions; Marine divisions; National Guard divisions, 40th and 45th. DOD Directive 5120.36, 547-51, 556-57, 581, 619-20. Donahue, Alphonsus J., 314. Double V campaign, 9, 17, 56. Draper, William H., Jr., 193. Drew, Charles R., 36. DuBois, William E. B., 14, 124. Dutton, Frederick G., 506, 508, 512.

Eaker, Lt. Gen. Ira C., 159-60, 196. Earle Naval Ammunition Depot, N.J., 254, 263-65. Early, Stephen, 15. Eberstadt, Ferdinand, 298. Ebony, 408, 412. Eddy, Lt. Gen. Manton S., 451. Edgewood Arsenal, Md., 605. Education program, EUCOM, 216-19. Educational backgrounds, 24-25, 67, 75, 137, 171-72, 617-18. Edwards, Daniel K., 394. Edwards, Lt. Gen. Idwal H. and continued segregation in the Air Force, 285-89; and integration plan of 1949, 338-42, 352, 399-401, 616; and overseas restrictions, 387 and Army postwar racial policy, 159, 176. Efficiency, military, and segregation, 03, 152, 499, 612-13; in the Air Force, 270, 276-77, 280-81; in the Army, 18, 20, 24-26, 30-34, 43, 56-57, 350-56, 428; in the Marine Corps, 256, 261-66, 334-36; in the Navy, 62-63, 76-77, 235-37. Eisenhower, General of the Army Dwight D., 192, 392, 451; and the Army's racial policy, 227-29, 307, 618; and civil rights movement, 476-78, 485; and federal intervention, 473, 482, 487; and Gillem Board Report, 162; and integration of dependents' schools, 489-92, 495, 497-98; and Negro infantry training, 051-52. Ellender, Allen J., 11. Engineer Battalion, 94th, 452, 455. Engineer Combat Company, 77th, 445. Engineers, Chief of, 222-23. Eniwetok, 110. Enlistment in armed forces, 1960's, and black indifference, 567-69. Enlistment practices in the Air Force, 276, 280, 618-19; in the Army, 25-26, 32, 178, 182-84, 187-89, 203, 430, 618-19; in the Coast Guard, 112, 114-15; in the Marine Corps, 101-04, 107, 257-61; in the Navy, 66-67, 69-71, 167, 236, 237-249, 421-24, 618-19. Enlistment standards and the Fahy Committee, 356-59; and interservice controversy over in 1948, 324-26; and qualitative distribution program, 394-95, 415-16. Equal opportunity in the 1960's. See also Executive Order 9981. in the Air Force, 561, 563; in the armed forces assessments of, 578-80, 618-22 and DOD Directive 5120.36, 546-50, 555-56, 580, 619-20; in the Army, 560-61; and Executive Order 10925, 505-06, 512; in the Marine Corps, 561 in the Navy, 560-63. Ernst, Morris L., 295n. Ethiopia and the Assignment of American servicemen, 388-89. Ethridge, Mark, 62-63. European Command, 190, 197, 209, 448n; and education program, 216-19; and integration of, 450-53. Evans, James C. and DOD racial policies, 286, 299, 306-07, 435, 457, 506n; and foreign assignment of Negroes, 387; and integration of naval shipyards, 483, 486; and new civil rights office, 558; and off-base discrimination, 479-80, 502, 532-33; and racial designations, 382, 574-75. Evans, Joseph, 419. Ewing, Oscar, 309-11, 313. Executive Order 9980, 483. Executive Order 9981, 291, 309-14, 616; and immediate effect on the Air Force, 338-42; and immediate effect on the Army, 318-31; and immediate effect on the Marine Corps, 334-38; and immediate effect on the Navy, 331-34; limitations on, 479-483; public reactions to, 315-18. Executive Order 10925, 505-06, 512. Executive Order 11063, 506, 517.

Fahy, Charles, 314, 348-51, 352-56, 360-66, 368-71, 376, 378n, 410. Fahy Committee. See Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Forces (Fahy Committee). Fair Employment Practices Commission, 16, 62-63, 293. Fairchild, General Muir S., 339. Faix, Capt. Thomas L., 465. Falgout, 426. Far East Command, 197, 208, 210, 216, 443-45. Farmer, James, 478. Fay, Paul B., Jr., 538, 541-42, 560-62. Fechteler, Rear Adm. William M., 245. Federal Housing Authority, 476-77, 479, 601. Ferguson, Homer, 479. Fighter Group, 332d, 29, 275. Fighter Squadron, 99th, 29, 428. Fighter Wing, 332d, 282-84, 398-99, 408. Finkle, Lee, 9. Finletter, Thomas K., 384-85. Finucane, Charles C., 497. Fish, Hamilton, 11-12. Fitt, Alfred B. and assignments, 577-78; and dependents' schools, 596-98; and effort to attract black officer candidates, 569-70; as first civil rights deputy, 536n, 551, 559-60, 563-64, 571n, 579, 601; and Gesell Committee, 546-47; and racial designations, 576-77; and voluntary action programs, 582-83, 585-86, 592. Foner, Jack, 7. Forrestal, James V., 57, 59, 345, 609; and changes in Navy's policy, 84-85, 87-89, 94-96, 98, 128-29, 235, 244-45, 248, 614-15; and Executive Order 9981, 311, 314; and Fahy Committee, 343-44, 356, 376; and integration approach as Secretary of Defense, 292, 297-99, 301-02, 305, 307-09, 324-25, 327, 330; and postwar policy aims, 144-45, 147, 151, 166-70. Fort Belvoir, Va., 493, 597. Fort Benning, Ga., 50, 216, 490. Fort Bliss, Tex., 494. Fort Bragg, N. C., 223. Fort Dix, N. J., 201, 223-24, 435-36. Fort George G. Meade, Md., 494, 605. Fort Holabird, Md., 605. Fort Hood, Tex., 514-15. Fort Jackson, S. C., 223-24, 435. Fort Knox, Ky., 201, 223, 303, 436. Fort Leavenworth, Kans., 209-10. Fort Lee, Va., 434, 596. Fort Lewis, Wash., 223. Fort Mifflin, Pa., 264, 265. Fort Ord, Calif., 223-24, 435. Fort Snelling National Cemetery, Minn., 225. Fortas, Abe, 537. Fowler, Maj. James D., 201-02, 354. Francis, H. Minton, 559n. Freedom to Serve, 375, 408. Freeman, Douglas Southall, 313. Freeman, General Paul, 578. Freeman Field, Ind., 45, 128, 273. Fulbright, J. William, 551.

Garrison, Lloyd K., 314. Garvey, Marcus, 16. German Army and segregated units, 23n. Gesell, Gerhard A., 535-39, 542-44, 547, 552-54, 561, 604. Gesell Committee. See Committee on Equality of Opportunity in the Armed Forces (Gesell Committee). Gibson, Truman K., Jr., 21, 41, 132, 137-38, 141-42, 157-58, 163, 165, 299-300, 302n, 304, 310, 558n. Gillem, Lt. Gen. Alvan C., Jr., 153-55, 165. Gillem Board, 153-54, 165-66, 232-33, 275, 278, 614; and attitudes toward new policy, 163-65; conclusions and recommendations of, 154-57, 161-62, 430-31, 437, 459; and reactions to recommendations, 157-61. Gilliam, Jerry, 483. Gillmor, Reginald E., 314. Gilpatric, Roswell L., 510, 512-13, 520, 532, 534, 536n. Ginzberg, Eli, 450-51. Gittelsohn, Roland B., 295n. Godman Field, Ky., 30, 272. Goldwater, Barry M., 551. Goode, James P., 498, 565. Grafenwohr Training Center, Germany, 217. Graham, Annie N., 267. Graham, Frank P., 295n, 313. Granger, Lester B., 88, 92, 124, 169, 249-50, 252; and Fahy Committee, 313-14, 371; and inspection of black units, 147-51; and racial problems of Department of Defense, 301-02, 305, 307, 324, 326, 484-85; and recommendations to Navy Department, 95-98, 144-46, 150-51, 166-68, 614; and reforms in Steward's Branch, 242, 421-22, 426; and shortage of black officers, 245, 247. Gravely, Lt. Comdr. Samuel L., Jr., 77, 80n, 426. Gray, Gordon and Fahy Committee, 360, 362-64, 367-70, 373-74; and integration of the Army, 428-30. Great Britain, 037-39. Great Falls Air Force Base, Mont., 411. Great Lakes Training Center, Ill., 67, 77, 79, 82, 244. Greenland, 38, 386. Gregg, Bishop J. W., 302n. Gross, H. R., 550. Gruenther, General Alfred M., 452. Guam and black Marines at, 110, 150, 254-55, 258; and race riot at, 92-93. Guide to the Command of Negro Naval Personnel, 83-84.

Haas, Francis J., 295n. Hague, Rear Adm. W. McL., 483. Haislip, General Wade H., 228-29, 364, 440. Halaby, Najeeb, 386-87. Hall, Lt. Gen. Charles P., 189-92, 195. Hall, Durward G., 550. Hampton Institute, Va., 67-68. Handy, General Thomas T., 226, 450-51. Hannah, John A., 454-56, 486, 489, 499. Harper, Robert, 398. Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections, 589. Hastie, William H., 19-20, 23, 30, 36, 40-42, 49, 51, 56, 558n. Havenner, Franck R., 393. Hawaii, 149, 265. Hayes, Arthur Garfield, 306. Healey, Capt. Michael, 113n. Health, Education, and Welfare, Department of, 492, 596, 598-99. Hebert, F. Edward, 550. Hector, Louis, 537. Heinz, Comdr. Luther C., 414. Hershey, Maj. Gen. Lewis B., 70, 103, 384. Hesburgh, Father Theodore, 505. Hewes, Laurence I., III, 537, 543. Hill, Maj. Gen. Jim Dan, 321-22. Hill, Lister, 11, 511. Hill, T. Arnold, 9, 15. Hillenkoetter, Capt. Roscoe H., 145. Hingham, Mass., 264-65. Hobby, Oveta Culp, 491-92. Hodes, Maj. Gen. Henry I., 196-97. Holcomb, Maj. Gen. Thomas, 64, 100-101, 105-06. Holifield, Chet, 381. Holloway, Vice Adm. James L., Jr., 421-23. Holloway program, 246. Holmes, John Haynes, 187. Hope, Lt. Comdr. Edward, 250. Hoquim, 120-21. Housing, off-base, 476-77, 479, 502, 506, 584; and Department of Defense, 516-17, 581, 585-86, 590, 599-608, 621; in Washington, D.C. area, 601-04. Houston, Charles H., 14, 302n. Huebner, Lt. Gen. Clarence R., 216-17, 219, 330-31. Huff, Sgt. Maj. Edgar R., 472. Hull, Lt. Gen. John E., 159. Humphrey, Hubert H., 309, 392, 488. Hunter College Naval Training School, N.Y., 88.

Iceland, 38, 179, 385-87. Infantry battalions 3d of 9th Infantry, 193; 3d of 188th Infantry, 193; 9th, 462; 370th and 371st (Separate), 217n. Infantry divisions 1st, 190, 217; 2d, 200; 3d, 327; 9th, 435; 25th, 445; 34th, 134; 69th, 53; 88th, 193; 92d, 7, 18, 30, 32, 43, 132, 136-37, 351-52, 440; 93d, 7, 32, 43, 135-37, 352. Infantry regiments 9th, 433; 14th, 444; 24th, 4, 7, 135, 192, 436-40, 442-45, 459; 25th, 4, 7, 136, 192; 27th, 437; 34th, 444; 35th, 437; 313th, 319; 364th, 436; 365th, 436. Installation Group, 3202d, 410. Integration of the Air Force directive for (1949), 401-02; and the Fahy Committee, 352, 357; and local commanders' responsibilities, 400-401; plan for in 1949, 338-42, 376, 397-400; and reassignment of black airmen, 402-04, 410; and screening at Lockbourne Field, 402-03; and social situations, 409-11; success of, 405-12, 615-16. Integration of the Army and continental Army commands, 453-54; in the Eighth Army, 442-47; and the European Command, 450-53; and military efficiency, 428-34; in officer training schools, 47-51, 275; and performance of 24th Infantry Regiment, 436-40; in platoons, 51-56; and review of racial policy (1951), 440-42; and social situations, 447, 449, 456; success of, 455-59, 616-17; and training units, 434-36. Integration of the Coast Guard, 118-22. Integration of the Marine Corps and assignments of Negroes, 466-68; and black reservists, 267-69; and the Korean War, 462-66, 617; new racial policy for (1949), 461-62; and recruit training, 334-35; and the Steward's Branch, 468-71. Integration of the Navy in the fleet, 77-78, 84-86, 167-68, 614-15; new plan for in 1949, 412-13; and recruitment of Negroes, 413-18; and shipyards, 483-87; and the Steward's Branch, 418-25. Intelligence levels and test scores, 24, 104, 137-38, 140, 198-99, 204, 271, 324-25, 372-73, 521-24, 527, 571-73. Interstate Commerce Commission, 476, 506, 531. Investigations on conduct of black soldiers, 210-13.

Jackson, Stephen S., 497, 517. Jacobs, Rear Adm. Randall, 68-70, 72, 84, 89. James, Lt. Gen. Daniel (Chappie), Jr., 401. James Connally Air Force Base, Tex., 405. Javits, Jacob K., 391-92, 435. Jenkins, Ens. Joseph C., 121. Johnson, Col. Campbell C., 19, 103. Johnson, Earl D., 395, 432, 436, 449-50. Johnson, John H., 302n. Johnson, Louis A. and Fahy Committee, 343, 345-48, 358-62, 364-67, 371, 374; as Secretary of Defense, 380-81, 386-87, 390-92, 396. Johnson, Lyndon B., and civil rights legislation, 587-91, 602; and Gesell Committee, 536, 552. Johnson, Mordecai, 247, 285, 302n. Jones, Col. Richard L., 316. Jones v. Mayer, 605. Jordan, Robert E., III, 592. Justice, Department of, 497, 505, 610.

Katzenbach, Nicholas B., 513. Kean, Maj. Gen. William B., 436-37. Keeler, Leonard, 211. Kelly Field, Tex., 128. Kennedy, John F. and civil rights, 473, 477, 504-06, 508-10, 586, 620; and Gesell Committee, 535, 537, 546; and training programs, 574. Kennedy, Robert F., 504, 506, 531-32, 553, 596. Kenworthy, Edwin W., 350-53, 356, 360, 362, 365-70, 377-78, 408, 430. Kerner Commission, 623. Key West, Fla., 291, 479, 498. Kilgore, Harley M., 212, 392n. Kimball Dan A., 240, 336, 359, 413, 418-20, 484. King, Admiral Ernest J., 59n, 77, 82, 85-86, 88-90, 91, 94, 166. King, Martin Luther, Jr., 478-79, 588. Kitzingen Air Base, Germany, 217-19, 450. Knowland, William F., 224. Knox, Frank, 20n, 100; and early views on integration, 59-61, 63-64, 101; and induction of Negroes into the Navy, 66-67, 70-71, 81-82, 86-87; and the Marine Corps, 106-07. Korean War, 431-34, 460, 462-65, 613, 617. Korth, Fred, 452-53, 488, 562-63. Krock, Arthur, 316. Kuter, Maj. Gen. Laurence S., 401.

Labrador, 38. LaFollette, Robert M., Jr., 187. Lamb, Ann E., 267. Langer, William, 308. Lanham, Brig. Gen. Charles T., 344-46, 361. Lautier, Louis R., 210, 302n. Lee, Ens. John, 246. Lee, Lt. Gen. John C. H., 51-52, 228. Lee, Ulysses, 39, 137. Legal assistance, 581, 587, 591, 598. LeGette, Col. Curtis W., 171. LeHavre, France, 128. Lehman, Herbert H., 392n, 393. Leva, Marx, 234, 301, 308, 311, 313, 327, 343- 44. Lewis, Anthony, 499. Lewis, Fulton, Jr., 49. Lewis, Ira F., 302. Lightship No. 115, 122. Little Rock, Ark., 476, 477. Little Rock, Air Force Base, Ark., 496-98. Local commanders, Air Force, 400-401, 408. Local commanders, armed forces and equal opportunity matters, 556, 561-64, 582-85, 592-93, 608, 621; and Gesell Committee's recommendations, 539-44, 554, 560, 620; and integration of off-base schools, 597-99; and local community attitudes, 502-03; and off-base housing, 600-601. Local commanders, Army and discipline, 207; and off-base discrimination, 39; and on-base discrimination, 36, 42, 44-45. Local commanders, Navy, 83. Lockbourne Field, Ohio, 275, 277, 281-82, 286, 341, 398-99, 402-03. Lodge, Henry Cabot, 307. Logan, Rayford W., 11. Long, John D., 235n. Long Island National Cemetery, 224. Louis, Joe, 66, 300. Lovett, Robert A., 30, 489. Luckman, Charles, 295n, 314, 314n.

McAfee, Capt. Mildred H., 86-88. McAlester Naval Ammunition Depot, Okla., 109, 254, 263. MacArthur, General Douglas, 14, 197, 439, 444, 463. McAuliffe, Maj. Gen. Anthony C., 432-33, 441, 443, 449-51, 453-54, 457. McCloy, John J., 21, 23, 128, 188; and Advisory Committee on Negro Troop Policies, 34-35, 42-43, 46, 56-57; and postwar use of black troops, 130-31, 135, 143, 153, 154n, 157-58, 165, 558. McConnaughy, James L., 319, 320. McCrea, Vice Adm. John L., 383. MacDill Airfield, Fla., 209, 277. McFayden, Brig. Gen. B. M., 392. McGill, Ralph, 313. McGowan, Maj. Gen. D. W., 594. McGrath, Earl J., 489. McGrath, Howard J., 314. MacKay, Cliff W., 302n. McMahon, Brian, 314. McNair, Lt. Gen. Lesley J., 43. McNamara, Robert S., 502, 504, 509, 609; and Civil Rights Act of 1964, 590-91; and equal opportunity directive (1963), 547-48, 556, 619-21; and equal treatment and opportunity, 530, 578-79; and Gesell Committee, 536, 546-49; and the National Guard, 519, 593; and off-base housing, 517, 600, 602-08; and off-limits sanctions, 547-48, 556, 581, 604-05; and organization of civil rights apparatus, 558-59, 563, 566; and racial reform directives, 511, 513, 516-17; and voluntary action programs, 582, 586. McNarney, General Joseph T., 210. McNutt, Paul V., 32, 70-71. Macy, John W., Jr., 575. Manhattan Beach Training Station, N. Y., 114-15, 121-22. Manpower shortages, black in the Air Force, 280, 282-83; in the Army, 32-33, 178, 219-22; in the Navy, 74, 414-15, 426. March, General Peyton C., 235. March on Washington Movement, 16. Mare Island, Calif., 92. Marine Air Group, 33, 463. Marine Air Wing, 1st, 463. Marine Barracks, Dahlgren, Va., 467. Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C., 467. Marine divisions 1st, 463-64; 2d, 269. Marine regiments 5th, 463 7th, 463-64. Maris, Maj. Gen. Ward S., 441. Marr, Lt. Col. Jack F., 287-88, 288n, 342, 616. Marshall, Burke, 513, 537, 547. Marshall, General George C., 43, 49, 55; and integration, 20-22, 31, 42, 131, 153; as Secretary of Defense, 380, 392-93, 435, 443, 449, 619. Marshall, S. L. A., 434. Marshall, Thurgood, 15, 92, 124, 438-39, 533. Martin, Louis, 302n. Mason, 77-78, 86. Matthews, Francis P., 295n, 387, 412-13. Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala., 404, 493, 511. Maxwell Field, Ala., 28. Mays, Benjamin E., 302n. Meader, George, 212. Medals of Honor, 440. Mediterranean theater, 190, 197. Meetings, segregated, 564-66. Miami Beach, Fla., 30, 50, 244. Midway, 481. Miller, Donald L., 559n. Miller, Dorie (Doris), 58, 58n. Miller, Lt. Col. Francis P., 212. Miller, Loren, 302n. Minneapolis Spokesman, 408. Mississippi Summer Project, 588-89. Mitchell, Clarence, 384, 393-94, 474, 478-79, 484. Mobilization plans, 10-13, 18-19, 24, 28. Montford Point, N. C., 101, 108-09, 253-55, 258, 269, 335. Montgomery, Ala., 503. Morale in the Air Force, 282, 398-99; in the armed forces, 528, 531, 542; in the Army, 20, 34-39, 350-51, 442; in the Marine Corps, 105, 110, 469-71; in the Navy, 75, 148-49. Morgan v. Virginia, 475. Morris, Thomas D., 586, 603. Morse, Wayne, 303, 390. Morse, Brig. Gen. Winslow C., 154. Moskowitz, Jack, 559n. Multer, Abraham J., 393, 595. Muse, Benjamin, 537, 542, 552, 621. Myrdal, Gunnar, 3, 9, 14.

Nash, Philleo, 310-11, 313, 366, 369. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the Army, 31, 49, 293, 438, 518; and enlistment quotas, 186; and integration in the armed forces, 8, 14-16, 126, 304, 500; and the Marine Corps, 462; and the Navy, 62, 66; and off-limits sanctions, 557; and racial violence, 393; and segregated dependents' schools, 498; and segregated national cemeteries, 225. National Defense Act of 1945, 320, 322. National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs (1948), 243, 285, 304-05, 324. National Emergency Committee Against Mob Violence (1946), 294. National Guard continued segregation in, 518-20, 553-54; and Executive Order 9981, 318-22; integration of, 593-95. National Guard divisions, 40th and 45th, 443, 445-46. National Negro Congress, 8, 66. National Negro Publishers Association, 302. National Security Act of 1947, 297-98. National Urban League, 8, 95, 126, 241, 414, 615. Naval Reserve Officers' Training Corps, 246-47, 414-15. Navy Circular Letter 48-46, 168-70. Nelson, Lt. Dennis D., 244, 246, 250, 305, 484; and recruitment of officer candidates, 247, 414, 417; and reform of Steward's Branch, 242-43, 419. New Orleans, La., 476. New Orleans Naval Air Station, La., 495. New York Times, 304, 324, 363. Newspapers. See Press, Negro; publications by name. Nichols, Lee, 426-27, 493-94. Niles, David K., 294-95, 314, 365-66, 373-74. Nimitz, Admiral Chester W., 94, 166-67. Nkrumah, Kwame, 509. Noble, Maj. Gen. Alfred H., 334. Norfolk, Va., 73, 77, 483, 485, 498. Norfolk Journal and Guide, 163, 258. Northland, 118. Nugent, Maj. Gen. Richard E., 287-88, 405. Nunn, William G., 302n. Nurse Corps, U.S. Navy, 72, 74-75, 96, 247-48.

Occupational distribution of assignments, 523-27, 572-73. Occupational specialties, 177, 194-95, 201, 354-55, 377, 524-27, 572-73. Off-base equal opportunity inventories, 583-85, 592. Off-limits sanctions by Department of Defense and housing, 580, 604-05, 608, 621; and question of using, 532-33; recommended by Gesell Committee, 543-44, 547-48, 556, 581; and requested by NAACP, 556. Office of War Information, 40. Officer training schools, integration of in the Air Force, 286; in the Army, 30, 47-51; in the Marine Corps, 266; in the Navy, 82, 87. Officers, black in the Air Force, 278, 282-83, 398, 406; in the armed forces, 568-71; in the Army, 30, 36-37, 47-51, 194, 219-23, 226; in the Coast Guard, 119, 121-22; in the Marine Corps, 111, 266-67, 461, 471-72; in the Navy, 79-82, 86-87, 243-48, 332, 414-15, 417-18, 426. Officers, white, attitudes of in the Army, 37, 133-34; in the Navy, 82-84, 89-90. Ohly, John H., 299, 327. OIR Notice CP75 (1952), 483-84. Okinawa Base Command, 190. Old, Maj. Gen. William D., 282, 284. O'Meara, Joseph, 537. Operations Research Office, 441-42. Opportunity, 67. Osthagen, Clarence H., 398. Overhead spaces in the Air Force, 279; in the Army, 177, 195-97. Overseas employment of black servicemen by the Army, 37-38; and the Gesell Committee, 552-53; by the Marine Corps, 109-11; restrictions on, 38, 179, 385-89. Overton, John H., 11. Oxford, Miss., 476, 505.

Pace, Frank, Jr., 224, 376, 377n, 395, 443-44, 447. Padover, Saul K., 294. Palmer, Dwight, 314. Panama Canal Zone, 38, 179, 386. Parachute Battalion, 555th, 190-92. Parks, Maj. Gen. Floyd L., 186-87. Parks, Rosa, 124, 478. Parris Island, S. C., 334. Parrish, Col. Noel F., 273, 279. Passman, Otto E., 550. Pastore, John, 392n. Patch, Lt. Gen. Alexander M., 53. Patterson, Robert P., 21-22, 28, 46, 225; and conduct of black troops in Europe, 212-13; and Gillem Board, 153, 162-63, 215, 232; and quotas, 176, 183-84, 187-88; sued for violation of Selective Service Act, 182, 186. Patuxent River Naval Air Station, Md., 494. Paul, Norman S. and civil rights legislation, 591, 597-98; and off-base discrimination, 582, 585-86; and organization of civil rights apparatus, 558-59, 564, 566. Paul, Maj. Gen. Willard S., 158-59, 217, 225; and assignment of black personnel, 194-96, 202, 213-14; and composite units, 192-93; and continued segregation, 231, 322; and expansion of school quotas, 198-201; and National Guard integration, 318; and postwar quotas, 176-79, 181, 185-86, 188-89; and shortage of black officers, 219-22. Paxton, Brig. Gen. Alexander G., 322. PC 1264, 77. Pea Island Station, N.C., 112, 115. Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, 148. Pensacola Naval Air Station, Fla., 493, 542-43. Personnel Policy Board, DOD, 398, 402; and Fahy Committee, 344-48, 358, 360; and facial designations, 381-84, 574. Petsons, Wilton B., 485. Petersen, 2d Lt. Frank E., Jr., 472. Petersen, Howard C., 163-64, 232; and postwar quotas, 177, 187; and postwar racial reforms, 223-24, 279. Philadelphia, Miss., 588. Philadelphia Depot of Supplies, Pa., 109. Pick, Maj. Gen. Lewis A., 154. Pinchot, Gifford, 63. Pine Bluff Arsenal, Ark., 494. Pittsburgh Courier, 10, 126, 164, 285, 316, 367, 399, 408. Platoons, integration of, 51-56. Plessy v. Ferguson, 6. Poletti, Charles, 59. Port Chicago, Calif., 263. Port Hueneme, Calif., 93. Powell, Adam Clayton, and discrimination in the services, 248, 304, 388-89, 423, 425, 468, 482, 485, 532. Prairie View A&M, Tex., 571. Press, Negro. See also by name of publication. and equal treatment in the armed forces, 10, 42-43, 126, 132-33, 169, 258, 284-85, 302, 304; and Executive Order 9981, 316, 324, 365. Price, Maj. Gen. Charles F. B., 110-11. Project Clear, 442, 449, 457. Promotions in the Air Force, 284; in the armed forces, 571-72; in the Army, 133, 322; in the Coast Guard, 121; in the Marine Corps, 150, 471-72; in the Navy, 75, 79, 417-18. Provisional Marine Brigade, 1st, 463. Public Laws 815 and 874, 487-88. Puner, Morton, 499. Pursuit Squadron, 99th. See Fighter Squadron, 99th.

Qualitative Distribution of Military Manpower Program, 394-95, 416-17. Quartermaster General, 222, 225. Quesada, Lt. Gen. Elwood R., 282. Quotas, Air Force, 615-16. Quotas, Army, 25-26, 32, 156n, 158, 166, 615-16; assessments of, 202-05, 458-59; and enlistment practices, 182-84, 187-89, 203; and expansion of for schools, 198-202; and the Fahy Committee, 356, 371-75, 429-30; and postwar opposition to, 176-81, 187; and qualitative balance, 184-86. Quotas, Coast Guard, 115. Quotas, Marine Corps postwar, 172, 174, 255-56; and postwar recruitment efforts, 257-61; in World War II, 103. Quotas, Navy, 69-71.

Rabb, Maxwell, M., 482, 485, 492. Racial designations, 224, 380-85, 574-77. Racial incidents, 126, 393; in the Air Force, 409; in the Army, 38-39, 45, 128, 209-10; in the Marine Corps, 92-93, 111; in the Navy, 75, 92-94, 128-29. Racial policies, Air Force 1940-1947, 271-80; and immediate effect of Executive Order 9981, 338-42; and military traditions, 270; and need for change of, 280-90. Racial policies, Army and arguments for continued segregation, 227-29; and an assessment of segregation in 1948, 231-33; and enlisted opinions on integration, 229-30; and immediate effect of Executive Order 9981, 318-31; and immediate postwar. See Gillem Board. and military traditions, 20, 234-35; postwar, 213-15; and postwar opposition to quotas, 176-81, 187; and postwar performance evaluation of black troops, 132-43; and reforms in 1947, 223-26; and search for a new postwar policy, 130-32, 141-43, 151; in World War II, 17-24, 34, 39-46. Racial policies, Coast Guard and limited integration, 118-22; pre-World War II experience, 112-13; in World War II, 114-17. Racial policies, Marine Corps and immediate effect of Executive Order 9981, 334-38; immediate postwar, 170-74, 253-54, 266-67; and military traditions, 100, 103, 170, 174, 269; and search for a postwar policy, 149-50; and steps toward integration, 266-69; in World War II, 100-12. Racial policies, Navy between world wars, 58; and blood processing, 36n; and commissioning of black officers, 79-82; and development of a wartime policy, 59-67; and employment of black recruits, 67-75; and failure to attract Negroes, 68-69, 248-52, 415-18, 426, 562-63; and immediate effect of Executive Order 9981, 331-34; and immediate postwar, 166-70; and military traditions, 234-35, 237, 252; and reforms under Forrestal, 84-92, 94-98; and search for a postwar policy, 143-46, 150-51; and Special Programs Unit reforms, 75-79, 82-83, 87-88. Racial policies, and social change in the armed forces, 21-22, 39, 227, 229, 232, 317, 610, 612; and Congress, 379-80, 389-90, 550-51. Randolph, A. Philip and civil rights movement, 478; and Executive Order 9981, 311, 316; and integration of the armed forces, 15-16, 66-67, 124, 267, 390; and proposed draft bill, 300, 302-06, 616. Randolph Field, Tex., 275, 286. Ray, (Lt. Col.) Marcus H., 133, 163, 211, 319, 558n and EUCOM education program, 216, 219; and postwar manpower needs, 177-78, 184; and postwar racial reforms, 223-24, 279, 330; and survey of black soldiers in Europe, 212-15. Recreational facilities, 37-38, 45-46, 411, 511-12. Recruitment. See Enlistment practices. Red Cross, 36. Reddick, L. D., 163, 300. Reeb, James, 589. Reenlistment. See Enlistment practices. Reese Air Force Base, Tex., 493. Reeves, Frank D., 508. Regimental Combat Team, 25th, 135, 189, 216. Reid, Thomas R., 344-48, 358-60. Render, Frank W., II, 559n. Reserve Officers' Training Corps, 221, 570-71. Reserves, Army, integration of, 519-20. Reuther, Walter P., 187, 478. Reynolds, Grant, 300, 306, 390. Reynolds, Hobson, E., 302n. Ribicoff, Abraham, 596. Richardson, Elliot, C., 496. Ridgway, General Matthew B., 439, 442-48, 617. Riley, Capt. Herbert D., 330. Rivers, L. Mendel, 550, 605. Robinson, Brig. Gen. Ray A., 260, 266, 268. Roosevelt, Eleanor, 8, 20, 74, 75n, 103. Roosevelt, Franklin D., 59, 235; and civil rights, 8; and integration in the Army, 15-16, 18-19; and integration in the Navy, 60-65, 69-73, 87, 97, 101, 609. Roosevelt, Franklin D., Jr., 295n. Roosevelt, James, 479. Rosenberg, Anna M., 392-93, 436, 443-44, 483, 488-89, 619. Rowan, Carl T., 80n. Royall, Kenneth C., 188, 212, 232; and enlistment standards, 324; and Executive Order 9981, 311-13; and the Fahy Committee, 347-48, 351; and further integration in the Army, 322-24; and integration experiments, 326-29; and integration of reserve components, 320-21; and shortage of black officers, 221-22. Rudder, 2d Lt. John E., 266-67. Runge, Carlisle P. and the National Guard, 518-19; and off-base discrimination, 502, 506n, 532, 534-35; and racial reform directives, 511-13, 515. Rusk, Dean, 184, 387. Russell, Ens. Harvey C., 122. Russell, Richard B., 308, 389-90, 456-57.

Sabath, Adolph J., 391. St. Julien's Creek, Va., 75. Saipan, 254-55, 258. Saltonstall, Leverett, 390. Samoa, 111. Samuels, Lt. (jg.) Clarence, 121. San Antonio, Tex., 277. Sargent, Lt. Comdr. Christopher S., 76, 242. Schmidt, Maj. Gen. Harry, 104-05. Schneider, J. Thomas, 383. Schools, Army, and quotas, 198-202. Schools, dependents' and impact aid legislation, 487-89; off-base, 476, 496-98, 596-99, 621 on-post, 489. Schuyler, George S., 9, 300. Scotia, N. Y., 265. Scott, Emmett, J., 19, 558. Sea Cloud, 119-22. Secretary of the Air Force. See Finletter, Thomas K.; Symington, W. Stuart. Secretary of the Army. See Gray, Gordon; Pace, Frank, Jr.; Royall, Kenneth C.; Stevens, Robert T. Secretary of Defense. See Clifford, Clark M.; Forrestal, James V.; Johnson, Louis A.; Lovett, Robert A.; McNamara, Robert S.; Marshall, General George C.; Wilson, Charles E. Secretary of the Navy. See Anderson, Robert B.; Forrestal, James V.; Kimball, Dan A.; Knox, Frank; Matthews, Francis P.; Sullivan, John L. Secretary of War. See Patterson, Robert P.; Royall, Kenneth C.; Stimson, Henry L. Segregation. See Discrimination, racial. Selective Service Act of 1940, 10-13, 32, 70, 612, 614. Selective Service Act of 1948, 299-300, 303-04, 308, 315, 612. Selective Service System, 69, 435; and quotas, 25-26, 182; and racial designations, 381, 383-84. Selfridge Field, Mich., 128. Selma, Ala., 503, 588-89. Sengstacke, John H., 314, 537. "Services and Their Relations with the Community, The," 507. Sexton, Vice Adm. Walton R., 114-15. Shaw, Bernard, 338. Shaw Air Force Base, S. C., 281. Sherrill, Henry Knox, 295n. Shipyards, naval, integration of, 483-87 Shishkin, Boris, 295n. Shulman, Stephen N., 559n, 570-72. Signal Construction Detachment, 449th, 210. Skinner, Lt. Comdr. Carlton, 118-21. Smedberg, Vice Adm. William R., 508. Smith, Lt. Gen. Oliver P., 462, 464. Smith, Lt. Gen. Walter Bedell, 52. Smith College, Mass., 87. Smothers, Curtis R., 559n. Snyder, Rear Adm. Charles P., 63-64. Sollat, Ralph P., 393. Somervell, General Brehon B., 54-55. Sommers, Lt. Col. Davidson, 142. South Boston, Mass., 77. Southern Christian Leadership Council, 478. Spaatz, General Carl and assignments, 195-96, 285; and postwar quotas, 176, 180-81. SPARS, 74, 122. Special Training and Enlistment Program (STEP), 568. Spencer, 121. Spencer, Comdr. Lyndon, 114. Sprague, Rear Adm. Thomas L., 414-15, 419-20. Stanley, Frank L., 302n. State, Department of, 386-87, 389. Stennis, John, 550-51. Stevens, Robert T., 490. Stevenson, Adlai E., 59, 80-81. Stevenson, William E., 314. Steward's Branch Coast Guard, 113, 116-17; Marine Corps, 107-08, 255-57, 259-61, 460, 468-71; Navy, 58, 145, 151, 236, 238-43, 332-33, 418-25. Stewart, Tenn., 498. Stickney, Capt. Fred, 359. Stimson, Henry L., 20-21, 32-34, 38, 43, 49, 69, 128, 131, 135. Strategic Air Command, 284. Strength ratios, Air Force, 276, 280n, 397, 405. Strength ratios, armed forces, 1962-1968, 568. Strength ratios, Army, 24, 33; 1946-1948, 181-82, 185-86, 326; in Korean War, 430, 450, 457-58; postwar overseas, 208. Strength ratios, Coast Guard, 116-17, 122. Strength ratios, Marine Corps postwar, 256, 326, 336, 472; in World War II, 102-03, 111. Strength ratios, Navy in 1941, 58; 1945-1948, 98, 236, 238, 250, 326, 332; 1949-1960, 412, 415-16. Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), 478. Sullivan, John L., 237, 242, 311, 335, 352. Surveys on Army segregation (1942-1943), 40; and enlisted opinion on segregation, 229-30; and Harris on open housing, 590; and Hodes on overhead spaces, 196-98; on integration of platoons, 54-55; by U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 521-22; of Washington, D. C. housing, 601. Sweetgum, 122. Swing, Lt. Gen. Joseph M., 453. Symington, W. Stuart, 286-87, 311, 320, 329, 387 and Executive Order 9981, 338-39, 341; and the Fahy Committee, 347, 352; and integration plan of 1949, 397-98, 407, 409, 615.

Tactical Air Command, 275, 277, 280-84. Taft, Robert A., 308. Talbott, Harold E., 480, 493. "Talented tenth," 75, 123. Talmadge, Herman E., 550. Tank battalions 64th, 445; 509th and 510th, 454. Taylor, Maj. Gen. Maxwell D., 432, 441, 443. Thomas, Charles S., 486. Thomas, Lt. Gen. Gerald C., 172-74, 254-55, 258-59, 268, 466. Thompson, Pfc. William, 440. Thurmond, Strom, 310. Tiana Beach, N.Y., 116. Tilly, Dorothy, 295n. Tobias, Channing H., 295, 300, 302n. Townsend, Willard, 302n. Training in the Air Force, 274-76, 278-79, 403; in the armed forces, 572-74, in the Army, 25, 28-30, 47-52, 434-36; in the Coast Guard, 114-15; in the Marine Corps, 102, 108-09; in the Navy, 67-68, 73, 77, 82, 87-88, 91, 243. Training camps, postwar location of, 223-24. Transportation, Chief of, 222. Transportation facilities, 38, 45, 148. Trieste, 387. Trinidad Base Command, 38, 190. Troop Carrier Command, I, 273. Truman, Harry S. and civil rights, 124, 130, 291-96, 308-09, 483n, 488; and Executive Order 9981, 291, 310-12, 315, 317, 473, 609, 612; and the Fahy Committee, 365-66, 369, 374-76, 379; and segregation in the services, 304, 308. Truscott, Lt. Gen. Lucian K., Jr., 134. Turkey, 388. Tuskegee, Ala., 28-30, 271-73, 275.

United Services Organization, 539-40. Units, attached v. assigned, 190-93. Universal military training, 142. U.S. Coast Guard Academy, 508. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 477, 502, 507, 511, 514, 518; and Civil Rights Act of 1964, 587, 599; and study of racial discrimination (1963), 521-22, 538, 541, 566. U.S. Commissioner of Education, 489-90, 492. U.S. Congress and the armed forces, 142, 379-80, 389-94, 398, 456-57, 550-52, 568, 579, 582, 600; and civil rights legislation, 477, 554, 586-90, 595; and Senate Special Investigations Committee, 211-12. U.S. Military Academy, 221. U.S. Office of Education, 487-88. U.S. Supreme Court, 6, 292, 323, 475-77, 586, 605. Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Army, 371.

V-12 program, 80-81, 243, 247. Vance, Cyrus R., 513, 536n, 565, 595, 601-04. Vandegrift, General Alexander, 171, 173-74, 255, 259, 265-66. Vandenberg, General Hoyt S., 283, 340, 399, 401, 405, 409. VanNess, Lt. Comdr. Donald O., 76. VanVoorst, Col. M., 429n. Venereal disease rates, 208-09, 219. Vinson, Carl, 339, 398, 551. Voluntary compliance programs, 581-86, 592-93, 602-03, 608, 621. Votes, black, 8, 475; and 1948 election, 307, 309, 316, 379; legislation for, 475, 588-89. Voting Rights Act of 1965, 475.

WAAC's, 33, 51, 434. Waesche, Rear Adm. Russell R., 114, 119. Wagner, Robert F., 11. Walker, Addison, 61-63. Walker, Lt. Gen. Walton H., 437. Wallace, Henry A., 307, 309. War Department Circular No. 105, 177. War Department Circular No. 124 and Gillem Board Report, 162, 206, 215, 223, 233, 322; and provisions of, 189, 192, 220-21, 231. War Department Pamphlet No. 20-6, 45. War Manpower Commission, 69. Warnock, Brig. Gen. Aln D., 154. Washington, Booker T., 13. Washington, D. C., and off-base housing, 601-04, 606. Washington Post, 304, 367. Watson, Col. Edwin M., 14. Watts, Calif., 589. WAVES, 72, 74, 86-88, 247-48, 332. Weaver, George L. P., 302n. Webb, James E., 386. Wesley, Carter, 302n. White, Lee C., 537-38, 552, 565, 574. White, Walter F., 224, 384, 393 and civil rights movement, 294, 302n, 375, 484-85, 492; and EUCOM's training program, 217n; and integration of the armed forces, 9, 14-15, 31, 49, 93, 124, 300, 311, 439, 471. Whiting, Capt. Kenneth, 64. Wilkins, Roy, 16, 247, 302n, 315, 590. Willkie, Wendell L., 19, 66. Wilson, Charles E. (Secretary of Defense), 480, 490-91, 496, 499-500. Wilson, Charles E., 295, 313. Wilson, Maj. Gen. Winston P., 554. Winstead, Arthur A., 390, 398, 492. Wofford, Harris L., 506-08, 529, 587, 599-600. Women, black in the Marine Corps Women's Reserve, 74, 267; in the Nurse Corps, U.S. Navy, 72, 74-75, 96, 247-48; in the WAAC's, 33, 51, 434; in the WAVES, 72, 74, 86-88, 247-48, 332-33. Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC). See WAAC's. Women's Army Corps (WAC). See WAAC's. Women's Reserve, U.S. Marine Corps, 74, 267. Wood, Capt. Hunter, Jr., 167. Woodard, Sgt. Issac, Jr., 129. Woods, Col. Samuel A., Jr., 101. Woodward, C. Vann, 474-76. Wright Field, Ohio, 279.

Yarmolinsky, Adam and civil rights, 424, 506n, 508, 510, 512; and Gesell Committee, 535-36, 613, 620-21; and need for a new DOD racial policy, 531, 534-35. Yokohama Base Command, 190. Young, P. B., Jr., 302n. Young, Thomas W., 302n. Young, Whitney M., Jr., 537, 541, 554. Youngdahl, Luther W., 320.

Zuckert, Eugene M., 285, 290, 386; and Air Force integration plans, 338-41, 398, 401-02, 406; and civilian communities, 479, 531; and the Fahy Committee, 345, 350, 352; and local commanders, 534, 563.

Zundel, Brig. Gen. Edwin A., 437.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1981 0-305-168

Notes in this chapter

Note 1 · Footnote 1-1: Gunnar Myrdal, The American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy, rev. ed. (New York: Harper Row, 1962), p. lxi.(BaNote 2 · Footnote 1-2: Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961), pp. 182-85. ThNote 3 · Footnote 1-3: Estimates vary; exact racial statistics concerning the nineteenth century Navy are difficult to locate. See Enlistment of Men Note 4 · Footnote 1-4: Ltr, Rear Adm C. W. Nimitz, Actg Chief, Bureau of Navigation, to Rep. Hamilton Fish, 17 Jun 37, A9-10, General Records of the Note 5 · Footnote 1-5: Memo, H. A. Badt, Bureau of Navigation, for Officer in Charge, Public Relations, 24 Jul 40, sub: Negroes in U.S. Navy, Nav-641Note 6 · Footnote 1-6: 163 U.S. 537 (1896). In this 1896 case concerning segregated seating on a Louisiana railroad, the Supreme Court ruled that so Note 7 · Footnote 1-7: Foner, Blacks and the Military in American History, p. 66.(Back)Note 8 · Footnote 1-8: Ulysses Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops, United States Army in World War II (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1966)Note 9 · Footnote 1-9: For a modern analysis of the two incidents and the effect of Jim Crow on black units before World War I, see John D. Weaver, TNote 10 · Footnote 1-10: On the racial attitudes of the Wilson administration, see Nancy J. Weiss, "The Negro and the New Freedom: Fighting Wilsonian Note 11 · Footnote 1-11: Special Report of the Provost Marshal General on Operations of the Selective Service System to December 1918 (Washington: GovNote 12 · Footnote 1-12: The development of post-World War I policy is discussed in considerable detail in Lee, Employment of Negro Troops, Chapters INote 13 · Footnote 1-13: The 1940 strength figure is extrapolated from Misc Div, AGO, Returns Sec, 9 Oct 39-30 Nov 41. The figures do not include someNote 14 · Footnote 1-14: This discussion of civil rights in the pre-World War II period draws not only on Lee's Employment of Negro Troops, but also oNote 15 · Footnote 1-15: The Jim Crow era is especially well described in Rayford W. Logan's The Negro in American Life and Thought: The Nadir, 1877-1Note 16 · Footnote 1-16: Frank Freidel, F.D.R. and the South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1965), pp. 71-102. See also Bayard RustinNote 17 · Footnote 1-17: Pittsburgh Courier, December 21, 1940.(Back)Note 18 · Footnote 1-18: The Crisis 47 (July 1940):209.(Back)Note 19 · Footnote 1-20: Lee Finkle, "The Conservative Aims of Militant Rhetoric: Black Protest During World War II," Journal of American History 60 (Note 20 · Footnote 1-21: Some impression of the extent of this campaign and its effect on the War Department can be gained from the volume of correspoNote 21 · Footnote 1-22: The Army's plans and amendments are treated in great detail in Lee, Employment of Negro Troops.(Back)Note 22 · Footnote 1-23: Hearings Before the Committee on Military Affairs. House of Representatives, 76th Cong., 3d sess., on H.R. 10132, Selective CNote 23 · Footnote 1-24: Congressional Record, 76th Cong., 3d sess., vol. 86, p. 10890.(Back)Note 24 · Footnote 1-25: 54 U.S. Stat. 885(1940).(Back)Note 25 · Footnote 1-26: Ibid. Fish commanded black troops in World War I. Captain of Company K, Fifteenth New York National Guard (Colored), which suNote 26 · Footnote 1-27: See especially Ltr, Houston to CofS, 1 Aug and 29 Aug 34; Ltr, CofS to Houston, 20 Aug 34; Ltr, Maj Gen Edgar T. Conley, ActgNote 27 · Footnote 1-28: Ibid. Ltr, Houston to CofS, 1 Aug 34.(Back)Note 28 · Footnote 1-29: The Crisis 46 (1939):49, 241, 337.(Back)Note 29 · Footnote 1-30: Ltr, Presley Holliday to White, 11 Sep 39; Ltr, White to Holliday, 15 Sep 39. Both in C-376, NAACP Collection, LC.(Back)Note 30 · Footnote 1-31: Ltr, White to Roosevelt, 15 Sep 39, in C-376, NAACP Collection, LC. This letter was later released to the press.(Back)Note 31 · Footnote 1-32: Memo, Marshall for White, 28 Oct 39; Ltr, Secy to the President to White, 17 Oct 39. Both in C-376, NAACP Collection, LC.(BacNote 32 · Footnote 1-33: Memo, White for Roy Wilkins et al., Oct 39; Ltr, Houston to White, Oct 39; Memo, Wilkins to White, 23 Oct 39. All in C-376, NNote 33 · Footnote 1-34: Walter White, "Conference at White House, Friday, September 27, 11:35 A.M.," Arthur B. Spingarn Papers, Library of Congress. Note 34 · Footnote 1-35: Ltr, White to Stephen Early, 21 Oct 40. See also Memo, White for R. S. W. [Roy Wilkins], 18 Oct 40. Both in C-376, NAACP CollNote 35 · Footnote 1-36: White, A Man Called White, pp. 187-88.(Back)Note 36 · Footnote 1-37: Roy Wilkins Oral History Interview, Columbia University Oral History Collection. See also A. Philip Randolph, "Why Should We Note 37 · Footnote 1-38: White, A Man Called White, pp. 190-93.(Back)Note 38 · Footnote 1-39: Herbert Garfinkle, When Negroes March: The March on Washington Movement in the Organizational Politics of FEPC (Glencoe: The Note 39 · Footnote 2-1: This survey of the Army and the Negro in World War II is based principally on Lee's Employment of Negro Troops. A comprehensivNote 40 · Footnote 2-2: For examples of how World War I military experiences affected the thinking of the civil rights advocates and military traditioNote 41 · Footnote 2-3: Memo, ACofS, G-3, for CofS, 3 Jun 40, sub: Employment of Negro Manpower, G-3/6541-527.(Back)Note 42 · Footnote 2-4: Memo, TAG for CG's et al., 16 Oct 40, sub: War Department Policy in Regard to Negroes, AG 291.21 (10-9-40) M-A-M.(Back)Note 43 · Footnote 2-5: The foregoing impressions are derived largely from Interviews, Lee Nichols with James C. Evans, who worked for Judge Hastie duNote 44 · Footnote 2-6: Memo, William H. Hastie for SW, with attachment, 22 Sep 41, sub: Survey and Recommendations Concerning the Integration of the Note 45 · Footnote 2-7: Stimson, a Republican, had been appointed by Roosevelt in 1940, along with Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox, in an effort to eNote 46 · Footnote 2-8: Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1947), pp. 461-64. TheNote 47 · Footnote 2-9: Memo, USW for CofS, 6 Oct 41, G-1/15640-120.(Back)Note 48 · Footnote 2-10: Memo, CofS for SW, 1 Dec 41, sub: Report of Judge William H. Hastie, Civilian Aide to the Secretary of War, dated 22 Sep 41, Note 49 · Footnote 2-11: Ibid. See also Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall: Organizer of Victory (New York: The Viking Press, 1973), pp. 96-99.(BackNote 50 · Footnote 2-12: The Army staff's mobilization planning for black units in the 1930's generally relied upon the detailed testimony of the commNote 51 · Footnote 2-13: Memo, USW for Maj Gen William Bryden (principal deputy chief of staff), 10 Jan 42, OCS 20602-250.(Back)Note 52 · Footnote 2-14: Col Eugene R. Householder, TAGO, Speech Before Conference of Negro Editors and Publishers, 8 Dec 41, AG 291.21 (12-1-41) (1).Note 53 · Footnote 2-15: Lee, Employment of Negro Troops, ch. VI.(Back)Note 54 · Footnote 2-16: Noteworthy is the fact that for several reasons not related to race (for instance, language and nationality) the German Army Note 55 · Footnote 2-17: Memo, ASW for Judge Hastie, 2 Jul 42, ASW 291.2, NT 1942.(Back)Note 56 · Footnote 2-18: Strength of the Army, 1 Jan 46, STM-30, p. 61.(Back)Note 57 · Footnote 2-19: Lee, Employment of Negro Troops, pp. 241-57. For an extended discussion of Army test scores and their relation to education, Note 58 · Footnote 2-21: Lee, Employment of Negro Troops, p. 113.(Back)Note 59 · Footnote 2-22: The Army's air arm was reorganized several times. Designated as the Army Air Corps in 1926 (the successor to the historic ArmNote 60 · Footnote 2-23: Memo, CofAC for G-3, 31 May 40, sub: Employment of Negro Personnel in Air Corps Units, G-3/6541-Gen-527.(Back)Note 61 · Footnote 2-24: USAF Oral History Program, Interv with Maj Gen Noel F Parrish (USAF, Ret.), 30 Mar 73.(Back)Note 62 · Footnote 2-25: William H. Hastie, On Clipped Wings: The Story of Jim Crow in the Army Air Corps (New York: NAACP, 1943). Based on War DepartNote 63 · Footnote 2-26: For a detailed discussion of the black training program, see Osur, Blacks in the Army Air Forces During World War II, ch. IIINote 64 · Footnote 2-27: Memo, CofAS for ASW, 12 Jan 43, ASW 291.2.(Back)Note 65 · Footnote 2-28: Ltr, Walter White to Gen Marshall, 22 Dec 41, AG 291.21 (12-22-41).(Back)Note 66 · Footnote 2-29: See C-279, 2, Volunteer Division Folder, NAACP Collection, Manuscripts Division, LC.(Back)Note 67 · Footnote 2-30: Ltr, CofS to Dorothy Canfield Fisher, 16 Feb 42, OCS 20602-254.(Back)Note 68 · Footnote 2-31: Draft Memo (initialed E.W.C.) for Gen Edwards, G-3 Negro File, 1942-44. See also Lee, Employment of Negro Troops, pp. 152-57.Note 69 · Footnote 2-32: Ltr, Paul V. McNutt to SW, 17 Feb 43, AG 327.31 (9-19-40) (1) sec. 12.(Back)Note 70 · Footnote 2-33: Ltr, SW to McNutt, 20 Feb 43, AG 327.31 (9-19-40) (1) sec. 12.(Back)Note 71 · Footnote 2-34: Ltr, McNutt to SW, 23 Mar 43, AG 327.31 (9-19-40) (1) sec. 12.(Back)Note 72 · Footnote 2-35: The danger was further reduced when, as part of a national manpower allocation reform, President Roosevelt removed the BureauNote 73 · Footnote 2-36: Strength of the Army, 1 Jan 46, STM-30, p. 60.(Back)Note 74 · Footnote 2-37: Memo, Dir of Mil Pers, SOS, for G-1, 12 Sep 42, SPGAM/322.5 (WAAC) (8-24-42). See also Edwin R. Embree, "Report of Informal VNote 75 · Footnote 2-38: Inactivation of the 2d Cavalry Division began in February 1944, and its headquarters completed the process on 10 May. The 9thNote 76 · Footnote 2-39: Ltr, SW to Rep. Hamilton Fish, 19 Feb 44, reprinted in U.S. Congress, House, Congressional Record, 78th Cong., 2d sess., pp. Note 77 · Footnote 2-40: War Department Pamphlet 20-6, Command of Negro Troops, 29 February 1944.(Back)Note 78 · Footnote 2-41: Army Service Forces Manual M-5, Leadership and the Negro Soldier, October 1944, p. iv.(Back)Note 79 · Footnote 2-42: Lee, Employment of Negro Troops, p. 84; for a full discussion of morale, see ch. XI. See also David G. Mandelbaum, Soldier GrNote 80 · Footnote 2-43: Memo, G-1 for CofS, 18 Jul 42; DF, G-1 to TAG, 11 Aug 42. Both in AG 334 (Advisory Cmte on Negro Trp Policies, 11 Jul 42) (1)Note 81 · Footnote 2-44: The committee included the Assistant Chiefs of Staff, G-1, of the War Department General Staff, the Air Staff, and the Army GNote 82 · Footnote 2-45: See, for example, Memo, Recorder, Cmte on Negro Troop Policies (Col John H. McCormick), for CofS, sub: Negro Troops, WDCSA 29Note 83 · Footnote 2-46: Memo, Hastie for SW, 22 Sep 41, sub: Survey and Recommendations Concerning the Integration of the Negro Soldier Into the ArmyNote 84 · Footnote 2-47: On 16 January 1942 the Navy announced that "in deference to the wishes of those for whom the plasma is being provided, the blNote 85 · Footnote 2-48: Eli Ginzberg, The Negro Potential (New York: Columbia University Press, 1956), p. 85. Ginzberg points out that only about oneNote 86 · Footnote 2-49: Memo, DCofS to CG, AAF, 10 Aug 42, sub: Professional Qualities of Officers Assigned to Negro Units, WDGAP 322.99; Memo, CG, VNote 87 · Footnote 2-50: Brig Gen B. O. Davis, "History of a Special Section Office of the Inspector General (29 June 1941 to 16 November 1944)," p. 8Note 88 · Footnote 2-51: Ltr, TAG to CG, AAF, et al., 13 May 42, AG 291.21 (3-31-42).(Back)Note 89 · Footnote 2-52: Stimson's comments were not limited to overseas areas. To a request by the Second Army commander that Negroes be excluded froNote 90 · Footnote 2-53: Memo, G-1 for TAG, 4 Apr 42, and Revised Proposals, 22 Apr and 30 Apr 42. All in G-1/15640-2.(Back)Note 91 · Footnote 2-54: Memo, Civilian Aide to SW, 17 Nov 42, ASW 291.2 NT.(Back)Note 92 · Footnote 2-55: See, for example, AAF Central Decimal Files for October 1942-May 1944 (RG 18). For an extended discussion of this subject, seNote 93 · Footnote 2-56: Memo, Brig Gen B. O. Davis for the IG, 24 Dec 42, IG 333.9-Great Britain.(Back)Note 94 · Footnote 2-57: Memo, ASW for CofS, 3 Jul 43, sub: Negro Troops, ASW 291.2 NT. The Judge Advocate General described disturbances of this typeNote 95 · Footnote 2-58: Lee, Employment of Negro Troops, p. 83.(Back)Note 96 · Footnote 2-59: Ltr, TAG to Dr. Amanda V. G. Hillyer, Chmn Program Cmte, D.C. Branch, NAACP, 12 Apr 41, AG 291.21 (2-28-41) (1).(Back)Note 97 · Footnote 2-60: Research Branch, Special Service Division, "What the Soldier Thinks," 8 December 1942, and "Attitudes of the Negro Soldier," Note 98 · Footnote 2-61: Office of War Information, The Negroes' Role in the War: A Study of White and Colored Opinions (Memorandum 59, Surveys DivisiNote 99 · Footnote 2-62: Special Services Division, "What the Soldier Thinks," Number 2, August 1943, pp. 58-59, SSD 291.2.(Back)Note 100 · Footnote 2-63: Dollard and Young, "In the Armed Forces," p. 68.(Back)Note 101 · Footnote 2-64: New York Times, December 2, 1943.(Back)Note 102 · Footnote 2-65: Gibson, a lawyer and a graduate of the University of Chicago, became Judge Hastie's assistant in 1940. After Hastie's resignaNote 103 · Footnote 2-66: Memo, Gibson to ASW, 3 Nov 43, ASW 291.2 NT. See also New York Times, December 2, 1943.(Back)Note 104 · Footnote 2-67: For discussion of Gibson's attitude and judgments, see Interv, author with Evans, 3 Jun 73.(Back)Note 105 · Footnote 2-68: Memo, Chmn, Advisory Cmte, for CofS, 3 Jul 43, sub: Negro Troops, ASW 291.2 NT. This was not sent until 6 July.(Back)Note 106 · Footnote 2-69: Memo, CofS for CG, AAF, et al., 13 Jul 43, sub: Negro Troops, WDCSA 291.21.(Back)Note 107 · Footnote 2-70: Memo, Advisory Cmte for CofS, 16 Mar 43, sub: Inflammatory Publications, ASW 291.2 NT Cmte; Memo, CG, 4th Service Cmd, ASF, tNote 108 · Footnote 2-71: Memo, J. J. McC (John J. McCloy) for Gen Marshall, 21 Jul 43, with attached note signed "GCM," ASW 291.2 NT.(Back)Note 109 · Footnote 2-72: Min of Mtg of Advisory Cmte on Negro Troop Policies, 29 Feb 44, ASW 291.2 Negro Troops Cmte; Lee, Employment of Negro Troops,Note 110 · Footnote 2-73: Memo, ASW for SW, 2 Mar 44, inclosing formal recommendations, WDCSA 291.2/13 Negroes (1944).(Back)Note 111 · Footnote 2-74: Pogue, Organizer of Victory, p. 99.(Back)Note 112 · Footnote 2-75: Memo, CG, AGF, for CG's, Second Army, et al., n.d., sub: Efficiency Ratings of Commanders of Negro Units Scheduled for OverseNote 113 · Footnote 2-76: WD PAM 20-6, Command of Negro Troops, 29 Feb 44.(Back)Note 114 · Footnote 2-77: The Army Service Forces published a major supplement to War Department Pamphlet 20-6 in October 1944, see Army Service ForcesNote 115 · Footnote 2-78: Ltr, TAG to CG, AAF, et al., 8 Jul 44, sub: Recreational Facilities, AG 353.8 (5 Jul 44) OB-S-A-M.(Back)Note 116 · Footnote 2-79: Actually, the use of officers' clubs by black troops was clearly implied if not ordained in paragraph 19 of Army Regulation 2Note 117 · Footnote 2-80: Memo, Secy, Advisory Cmte, for Advisory Cmte on Special Troop Policies, 13 Jun 45, sub: Minutes of Meeting, ASW 291.2 NT.(BacNote 118 · Footnote 2-81: Ltr, Actg SW to Gov. Chauncey Sparks of Alabama, 1 Sep 44, WDCSA 291.2 (26 Aug 44).(Back)Note 119 · Footnote 2-82: Ltr, ASW to Herbert B. Elliston, Editor, Washington Post, 5 Aug 43, ASW 291.2 NT (Gen).(Back)Note 120 · Footnote 2-83: Ltr, USW to Roane Waring, National Cmdr, American Legion, 5 May 43, SW 291.2 NT. Integrated hospitals did not appear until 19Note 121 · Footnote 2-84: Ltr, ASW to SecNav, 22 Aug 45, ASW 291.2 NT (Gen).(Back)Note 122 · Footnote 2-85: Ltr, William Hastie to Lee Nichols, 15 Jul 53, in Nichols Collection, CMH; see also Lee, Employment of Negro Troops pp. 15-20Note 123 · Footnote 2-86: As published in Mobilization Regulation 1-2 (1938 and May 1939 versions), par. 11d, and 15 Jul 39 version, par. 13b.(Back)Note 124 · Footnote 2-87: Lee, Employment of Negro Troops, p. 50.(Back)Note 125 · Footnote 2-88: TAG Ltr, 26 Apr 41, AG 352 (4-10-41) M-M-C.(Back)Note 126 · Footnote 2-89: Davis, "History of a Special Section Office of the Inspector General."(Back)Note 127 · Footnote 2-90: Eleven of these were candidates at the Infantry School, 2 at the Field Artillery School, 7 at the Quartermaster School, and 1Note 128 · Footnote 2-91: Ltr, Hastie to SW, 8 May 41, ASW 291.2 NT.(Back)Note 129 · Footnote 2-92: Memo, ACofS, G-3, for CofS, 12 May 41, sub: Negro Officers; Memo, ACofS, G-3, for ACofS, G-1 (ATTN: Col Wharton), 12 Jun 41, Note 130 · Footnote 2-93: Pogue, Organizer of Victory, p. 96.(Back)Note 131 · Footnote 2-94: Memo, Hastie for ASW, 5 Sep 41, G-1/15640-120; Ltr, Hastie to Nichols, 15 Jul 53; Tab C to AG 320.2 (11-24-42).(Back)Note 132 · Footnote 2-95: Telg, Walter White, NAACP, to SW and President Roosevelt, 23 Oct 41, AG 291.21 (10-23-41) (3); Ltr, Edgar W. Brown to PresideNote 133 · Footnote 2-96: Ltr, Horace Wilkinson to Rep. John J. Sparkman (Alabama), 24 Aug 43; Ltr, TAG to Rep. John Starnes (Alabama), 15 Sep 43. BothNote 134 · Footnote 2-97: Ltr, SGS to Sen. Carl Hayden (Arizona), 12 Dec 41, AG 352 (12-12-41). See also Memo, ACofS, G-3, for CofS, 23 Oct 41, sub: NeNote 135 · Footnote 2-98: Dollard and Young, "In the Armed Forces."(Back)Note 136 · Footnote 2-99: Memos, Hastie for ASW, 4 Nov 42 and 15 Dec 42; Ltr, Maj Gen A. D. Bruce, Cmdr, Tank Destroyer Center, to ASW, 31 Dec 42. All Note 137 · Footnote 2-100: For a detailed discussion, see Lee, Employment of Negro Troops, Chapter XXII.(Back)Note 138 · Footnote 2-101: Ltr, Lt Gen John C. H. Lee to Commanders of Colored Troops, ComZ, 26 Dec 44, sub: Volunteers for Training and Assignment as Note 139 · Footnote 2-102: Revised version of above, same date. Copies of both versions in CMH. Later General Eisenhower stated that he had decided to Note 140 · Footnote 2-103: The 92d Division was assigned to the Mediterranean theater.(Back)Note 141 · Footnote 2-104: Davis, "History of a Special Section Office of the Inspector General," p. 19.(Back)Note 142 · Footnote 2-105: ETO I&E Div Rpt E-118 Research Br, The Utilization of Negro Infantry Platoons in White Companies, Jun 45; ASF I&E DiNote 143 · Footnote 2-106: Memo, CG, ASF, to ASW, 11 Jul 45, ASW 291.2 NT.(Back)Note 144 · Footnote 2-107: The percentage of high school graduates and men scoring in AGCT categories I, II, and III among the black infantry volunteerNote 145 · Footnote 2-108: Msg, Hq ComZ, ETO, Paris, France (signed Bradley), to WD 3 Jul 45. For similar reports from the field see, for example, Ltr,Note 146 · Footnote 2-109: Memo, CofS for ASW, 25 Aug 45, WDCSA 291.2 Negroes (25 Aug 45).(Back)Note 147 · Footnote 2-110: Ltr, ASW to SecNav, 22 Aug 45, ASW 291.2 NT (Gen).(Back)Note 148 · Footnote 3-1: All statistics in this chapter are taken from the files of the U.S. Navy, Bureau of Naval Personnel (hereafter cited as BuPersNote 149 · Footnote 3-2: After some delay and considerable pressure from civil rights sources, the Navy identified Miller, awarded him the Navy Cross, Note 150 · Footnote 3-3: There were exceptions to this generalization. The Navy had 43 black men with ratings in the general service in December 1941: Note 151 · Footnote 3-4: One of Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders, a World War I field artillery officer, and later publisher of the Chicago Daily NewsNote 152 · Footnote 3-5: In 1940 the bureaus were answerable only to the Secretary of the Navy and the President, but after a reorganization of 1942 thNote 153 · Footnote 3-6: Ltr, SecNav to Lt. Gov. Charles Poletti (New York), 24 Jul 40, Nav-620-AT, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 154 · Footnote 3-7: Idem to Sen. Arthur Capper (Kansas), 1 Aug 40, QN/P14-4, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 155 · Footnote 3-8: Memo, Rear Adm W. R. Sexton, Chmn of Gen Bd, for Capt Morton L. Deyo, 17 Sep 40, Recs of Gen Bd, OpNavArchives.(Back)Note 156 · Footnote 3-9: Idem for SecNav, 17 Sep 40, sub: Enlistment of Colored Persons in the U.S. Navy, Recs of Gen Bd, OpNavArchives. 1st Ind to LtrNote 157 · Footnote 3-10: Quoted in White, A Man Called White, p. 191.(Back)Note 158 · Footnote 3-11: Ibid.(Back)Note 159 · Footnote 3-12: Memo, W. A. Allen, Office of Public Relations, for Lt Cmdr Smith, BuPers, 29 Jan 42, BuPers QN/P-14, BuPersRecs.(Back)Note 160 · Footnote 3-13: Ltr, Chief, BuNav, to Chmn, Gen Bd, 22 Jan 42, sub: Enlistment of Men of Colored Race in Other Than Messman Branch, Recs of GNote 161 · Footnote 3-14: Ibid.(Back)Note 162 · Footnote 3-15: The FEPC was established 25 June 1941 to carry out Roosevelt's Executive Order 8802 against discrimination in employment in dNote 163 · Footnote 3-16: "BuPers Hist," pp. 4-5; Ltr, Mark Ethridge to Lee Nichols. 14 Jul 53, in Nichols Collection, CMH.(Back)Note 164 · Footnote 3-17: Ltr, SecNav to Gifford Pinchot, 19 Jan 42, 54-1-15, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 165 · Footnote 3-18: Quoted in "BuPers Hist," p. 5.(Back)Note 166 · Footnote 3-20: Enlistment of Men of Colored Race (201), 23 Jan 42, Hearings Before the General Board of the Navy, 1942; Memo, Chmn, Gen Bd, Note 167 · Footnote 3-21: Quoted in "BuPers Hist," p. 6.(Back)Note 168 · Footnote 3-22: Memo, SecNav for Chmn, Gen Bd, 14 Feb 42, Recs of Gen Bd, OpNavArchives. The quotation is from the Knox Memo and is not necesNote 169 · Footnote 3-23: Memos, Chmn, Gen Bd, for Chief, BuNav, Cmdt, CG, and Cmdt, MC, 18 Feb 42, sub: Enlistment of Men of Colored Race in Other ThaNote 170 · Footnote 3-24: Memo, President for Secy of Navy, 31 Mar 42, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, New York.(Back)Note 171 · Footnote 3-25: New York Times, January 10 and March 20, 1942.(Back)Note 172 · Footnote 3-26: Office of SecNav, Press Release, 7 Apr 42.(Back)Note 173 · Footnote 3-27: "The Navy Makes a Gesture," Crisis 49 (May 1942):51. The National Negro Congress quotation reprinted in Dennis D. Nelson's suNote 174 · Footnote 3-28: Although essentially correct, the critics were technically inaccurate since some Negroes would be assigned to Coast Guard cutNote 175 · Footnote 3-29: Quoted in Nelson, "The Integration of the Negro," p. 37.(Back)Note 176 · Footnote 3-30: Opportunity (May 1942), p. 82.(Back)Note 177 · Footnote 3-31: Memo, Chief, BuNav, for SecNav, 17 Apr 42, sub: Training Facilities for Negro Recruits, Nav-102; Memo, SecNav for Rear Adm RaNote 178 · Footnote 3-32: Memo, SecNav for Chmn, Gen Bd, 7 Mar 42, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 179 · Footnote 3-33: For a discussion of Armstrong's philosophy from the viewpoint of an educated black recruit, see Nelson, "Integration of the NNote 180 · Footnote 3-34: With the exception of machinist school, where blacks were in training twice as long as whites, specialist training for NegroeNote 181 · Footnote 3-35: BuPers, "Reports, Schedules, and Charts Relating to Enlistment, Training, and Assignment of Negro Personnel," 5 Jun 42, Pers-Note 182 · Footnote 3-36: In May 1942 the name of the Bureau of Navigation was changed to the Bureau of Naval Personnel to reflect more accurately the Note 183 · Footnote 3-37: Memo, Chief, NavPers, for CO, Great Lakes NTC, 23 Apr 43. P14-1, BuPersRecs.(Back)Note 184 · Footnote 3-38: "BuPers Hist," p. 54.(Back)Note 185 · Footnote 3-39: Ibid., p. 9.(Back)Note 186 · Footnote 3-40: Memo, SW for SecNav, 16 Feb 42, sub: Continuing of Voluntary Recruiting by the Navy, QN/P14-4, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 187 · Footnote 3-41: Idem for President, 16 Mar 42, copy in QN/P14-4, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 188 · Footnote 3-42: Memo, President for SW, 20 Mar 42, copy in QN/P14-4, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 189 · Footnote 3-43: Executive Order 9279, 5 Dec 42.(Back)Note 190 · Footnote 3-44: Memo, SecNav for Rear Adm Randall Jacobs, 5 Feb 43, 54-1-22, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 191 · Footnote 3-45: Ltr, Paul McNutt to SecNav, 17 Feb 43, WMC Gen files, NARS.(Back)Note 192 · Footnote 3-46: Memo, President for SecNav, 22 Feb 43, FDR Library.(Back)Note 193 · Footnote 3-47: Ltr, Knox to McNutt, 26 Feb 43, WMC Gen files.(Back)Note 194 · Footnote 3-48: Ltr, McNutt to Knox, 23 Mar 43, WMC Gen files.(Back)Note 195 · Footnote 3-49: Ltr, SecNav to Paul McNutt, 13 Apr 43; Ltr, McNutt to Knox, 23 Apr 43; both in WMC Gen files.(Back)Note 196 · Footnote 3-50: Selective Service System, Special Groups, vol. II, pp. 198-201. See also Memos, Director of Planning and Control, BuPers, forNote 197 · Footnote 3-51: Memos, SecNav for President, 25 Feb and 14 Apr 43, quoted in "BuPers Hist," pp. 13-14; Memo, Actg Chief, NavPers, for SecNav,Note 198 · Footnote 3-52: "BuPersHist," p. 41.(Back)Note 199 · Footnote 3-53: Naval districts organized section bases during the war with responsibility, among other things, for guarding beaches, harborsNote 200 · Footnote 3-54: See CNO ALNAV, 7 Aug 44, quoted in Nelson, "Integration of the Negro," p. 46.(Back)Note 201 · Footnote 3-55: Memo, Actg Chief, NavPers, for Cmdts, AlNav Districts et al., 26 Sep 44, sub: Enlisted Personnel—Utilization of in Field for Note 202 · Footnote 3-56: Ltr, Eleanor Roosevelt to SecNav, 20 Nov 43; Ltr, SecNav to Mrs. Roosevelt, 27 Nov 43; both in BUMED-S-EC, GenRecsNav. Well kNote 203 · Footnote 3-57: For a discussion of these racial disturbances, see "BuPers Hist," pp. 75-80.(Back)Note 204 · Footnote 3-58: Interv, Lee Nichols with Rear Adm. R. H. Hillenkoetter, 1953, in Nichols Collection, CMH.(Back)Note 205 · Footnote 3-59: Nichols, Breakthrough on the Color Front, pp. 54-59. Nichols supports his affectionate portrait of Sargent, who died shortly Note 206 · Footnote 3-60: For further discussion, see Nelson, "Integration of the Negro," pp. 124-46.(Back)Note 207 · Footnote 3-61: BuPers Ltr, Pers 106-MBR, 12 Jul 43.(Back)Note 208 · Footnote 3-62: "BuPers Hist," p. 53.(Back)Note 209 · Footnote 3-63: Memo, Chief, BuPers, for CINCUSFLEET, 1 Dec 43, sub: Negro Personnel, P16/MM, BuPersRecs. The latter experiment has been chroNote 210 · Footnote 3-64: Memo, CNO for Cmdt, First and Fifth Naval Districts, 10 May 44, sub: Assignment of Negro Personnel, P-16-3/MM, BuPersRecs.(BaNote 211 · Footnote 3-65: For an assessment of the performance of the Mason's crew. see "BuPers Hist," pp. 42-43 and 92.(Back)Note 212 · Footnote 3-66: BuPers Ltr, P16-3, 12 Jul 43, sub: The Expanded Use of Negroes, BuPersRecs.(Back)Note 213 · Footnote 3-67: Ltr, Chief, NavPers, to Cmdts, All Naval Districts, 19 Aug 43, sub: Advancement in Rating re: Negro Personnel, P17-2/MM, BuPeNote 214 · Footnote 3-68: BuPers Cir Ltr 6-44, 12 Jan 44.(Back)Note 215 · Footnote 3-69: News that the Navy had inadvertently commissioned a black student at Harvard University in the spring of 1942 produced the foNote 216 · Footnote 3-70: Ltr, SecNav to Sen. David I. Walsh (Massachusetts), 21 May 42, 51-1-26; see also idem to Sen. William H. Smathers (Florida), Note 217 · Footnote 3-71: Interv, Lee Nichols with Lester Granger, 1953, in Nichols Collection, CMH.(Back)Note 218 · Footnote 3-72: Kenneth S. Davis, The Politics of Honor: A Biography of Adlai E. Stevenson (New York: Putnam, 1957), p. 146; Ltr, A. E. SteveNote 219 · Footnote 3-73: Memo, Stevenson for the Secretary [Knox], 29 Sep 43, 54-1-50, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 220 · Footnote 3-74: The V-12 program was designed to prepare large numbers of educated men for the Navy's Reserve Midshipmen schools and to increNote 221 · Footnote 3-75: BuPers Cir Ltr 269-43, 15 Dec 43.(Back)Note 222 · Footnote 3-76: Memo, SecNav for Chief, NavPers, 20 Nov 43, 54-1-50; Memo, Chief, NavPers, for SecNav, 2 Dec 43, sub: Negro Officers. Both inNote 223 · Footnote 3-77: Memo, SecNav for Rear Adm Jacobs, 15 Dec 43, quoted in "BuPers Hist," p. 33.(Back)Note 224 · Footnote 3-78: Quoted in Record of "Conference With Regard to Negro Personnel," held at Hq, Fifth Naval District, 26 Oct 43, Incl to Ltr, ChNote 225 · Footnote 3-79: Ibid.(Back)Note 226 · Footnote 3-80: NavPers 15092, 12 Feb 44.(Back)Note 227 · Footnote 3-81: "BuPers Hist," pt. II, pp. 2-3.(Back)Note 228 · Footnote 3-82: NavPers 15092, 12 Feb 44, p. 10.(Back)Note 229 · Footnote 3-83: Ibid., p. 1.(Back)Note 230 · Footnote 3-84: See Columbia University Oral Hist Interv with Granger; USAF Oral History Program, Interview with James C. Evans, 24 Apr 73.(BNote 231 · Footnote 3-85: Interv, Lee Nichols with Vice Adm Randall Jacobs, 29 Mar 53, in Nichols Collection, CMH.(Back)Note 232 · Footnote 3-86: Memo, SecNav for President, 20 May 44, Forrestal file, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 233 · Footnote 3-87: Ltr, CNO to CO, USS Antaeus et al., 9 Aug 44, sub: Negro Enlisted Personnel—Assignment of to Ships of the Fleet, P16-3/MM, OpNote 234 · Footnote 3-88: Idem to Cmdr, Antaeus et al., 9 Jan 45, P16-3, OpNavArchives.(Back)Note 235 · Footnote 3-89: Ltr, CO, USS Antaeus, to Chief, NavPers, 16 Jan 45, sub: Negro Enlisted Personnel—Assignment of to Ships of the Fleet, Ag67/PNote 236 · Footnote 3-90: Memo, Chief, NavPers, for CINCUSFLEET, 6 Mar 45, sub: Negro Personnel—Expanded Use of, with 1st Ind, from Fleet Adm, USN, forNote 237 · Footnote 3-91: BuPers Cir Ltr 105-45, 13 Apr 45, sub: Negro General-Service Personnel, Assignment of to Auxiliary Vessels of the Fleet.(BackNote 238 · Footnote 3-92: Ltr, Chief, NavPers, to CO, USS Mason, 16 Mar 45, sub: Negro Officer—Assignment of, Pers 2119-FB; see also idem to CO, USS KaNote 239 · Footnote 3-93: Quoted in Rowan, "Those Navy Boys Changed My Life." pp 57-58.(Back)Note 240 · Footnote 3-94: Ltr, Mildred M. Horton to author, 14 Mar 75, CMH files.(Back)Note 241 · Footnote 3-95: Memo, Chief, NavPers, for SecNav, 27 Apr 43, Pers 17MD, BuPersRecs, Memo, SecNav for Adm Jacobs, 29 Apr 43, 54-1-43, GenRecsNNote 242 · Footnote 3-96: See, for example, Ltr, SecNav to Algernon D. Black, City-Wide Citizen's Cmte on Harlem, 23 Apr 43, 54-1-43, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 243 · Footnote 3-97: Quoted in Ltr, Horton to author, 14 Mar 75.(Back)Note 244 · Footnote 3-98: Memo, Ralph Bard for Forrestal, 4 May 44, sub: Navy Policy on Recruitment of Negro Females as WAVES; Ltr, Nathan Cowan, CIO, Note 245 · Footnote 3-99: Memo, J. V. F. (Forrestal) for Adm Denfeld (ca. 7 Jun 44); Memo, Capt Mildred McAfee for Adm Denfeld, 7 Jun 44; both in 54-1-Note 246 · Footnote 3-100: Memo, Forrestal for President, 28 Jul 44, 54-1-4, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 247 · Footnote 3-101: Memo, Lt Cmdr John Tyree (White House aide) for Forrestal, 9 Aug 44, 54-1-4, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 248 · Footnote 3-102: Navy Dept Press Release, 19 Oct 44.(Back)Note 249 · Footnote 3-103: Oral History Interview, Mildred McAfee Horton, 25 Aug 69, Center of Naval History.(Back)Note 250 · Footnote 3-104: Ltr, Asst Chief, NavPers, to CO, NavTraScol (WR), Bronx, N.Y., 8 Dec 44, sub: Colored WAVE Recruits, Pers-107, BuPersRecs.(BNote 251 · Footnote 3-105: Quoted in the Columbia University Oral History Interview with Granger. Granger's incorrect reference to Admiral King as "chiNote 252 · Footnote 3-106: James V. Forrestal, "Remarks for Dinner Meeting at National Urban League," 12 Feb 58, Box 31, Misc file, Forrestal Papers, PNote 253 · Footnote 3-107: Intervs, Lee Nichols with Adm Louis E. Denfeld (Deputy Chief of Naval Personnel, later CNO) and with Cmdr Charles Dillon (foNote 254 · Footnote 3-108: ALNAV, 7 Aug 44, quoted in Nelson, "Integration of the Negro," p. 46.(Back)Note 255 · Footnote 3-109: Dir, CNO, to Forward Areas, Dec 44, quoted in Nelson's "Integration of the Negro," p. 51.(Back)Note 256 · Footnote 3-110: BuPers Cir Ltr 72-44, 13 Mar 44, sub: Negro Personnel of the Commissary Branch, Assignment to Duty of.(Back)Note 257 · Footnote 3-111: Idem, 182-44, 29 Jun 44, "Uniform for Chief Cooks and Chief Stewards and Cooks and Stewards."(Back)Note 258 · Footnote 3-112: Idem, 45-18, 21 Feb 45, and 45-46, 31 May 45, sub: Negro Enlisted Personnel—Limitation on Assignment of to Naval Ammunition Note 259 · Footnote 3-113: There is some indication that integration was already going on unofficially in some specialist schools; see Ltr, Dr. M. A. FNote 260 · Footnote 3-114: BuPers Cir Ltr 194-44, sub: Advanced Schools, Nondiscrimination in Selection of Personnel for Training in; Ltr, Chief, NavPeNote 261 · Footnote 3-115: Memo, CNO for Chief, NavPers, 30 Aug 44, sub: Negro Personnel—Assignment to ANs and YMs, P13-/MM, BuPersRecs.(Back)Note 262 · Footnote 3-116: BuPers Cir Ltr 227-44, 12 Aug 44, sub: Steward's Branch, Procurement of From General-Service Negroes.(Back)Note 263 · Footnote 3-117: Memo, Lt William H. Robertson, Jr., for Rear Adm William M. Fechteler, Asst Chief, NavPers, 20 Jul 45, sub: Conditions ExistNote 264 · Footnote 3-118: "BuPers Hist," p. 75.(Back)Note 265 · Footnote 3-119: Nelson, "Integration of the Negro," ch. VIII.(Back)Note 266 · Footnote 3-120: Henry I. Shaw, Jr., and Ralph W. Donnelly, Blacks in the Marine Corps (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1975), pp. 44Note 267 · Footnote 3-121: White's testimony before the Court of Inquiry was attached to a report by Maj Gen Henry L. Larsen to CMC (ca. 22 Jan 45), SeNote 268 · Footnote 3-122: As quoted in White, A Man Called White, p. 273. For a variation on this theme, see Interv, Nichols with Hillenkoetter.(Back)Note 269 · Footnote 3-123: Ltr, Rear Adm Hillenkoetter to Nichols, 22 May 53; see also Intervs, Nichols with Granger, Hillenkoetter, Jacobs, Thomas DarNote 270 · Footnote 3-124: Ltr, John H. Sengstacke to Forrestal, 19 Dec 44, 54-1-9, GenRecsNav; Interv, Nichols with Granger.(Back)Note 271 · Footnote 3-125: Memo, Under Sec Bard for SecNav, 1 Jan 45; Memo, H Struve Hensel (Off of Gen Counsel) for Forrestal, 5 Jan 45; both in 54-1-Note 272 · Footnote 3-126: Memo, SecNav for Eugene Duffield (Asst to Under Sec), 16 Jan 45, 54-1-9; idem for Rear Adm A. Stanton Merrill (Dir of Pub ReNote 273 · Footnote 3-127: Quoted in Forrestal, "Remarks for Dinner of Urban League."(Back)Note 274 · Footnote 3-128: Ltr, SecNav to Lester Granger, 1 Feb 45, Forrestal file, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 275 · Footnote 3-129: Ltrs, Granger to Forrestal, 19 Mar and 3 Apr 45, 54-1-13, Forrestal file, GenRecsNav. Granger and Forrestal had attended DarNote 276 · Footnote 3-130: Columbia University Oral Hist Interv with Granger.(Back)Note 277 · Footnote 3-131: Memo, Chief, NavPers, for Cmdr Richard M. Paget (Exec Office of the SecNav), 21 Apr 45, sub: Organization of Advisory Cmte, Note 278 · Footnote 3-132: Ltr, Granger to SecNav, 19 Mar 45; Ltrs, SecNav to Granger, 26 Mar and 5 Apr 45. All in 54-1-13, Forrestal file, GenRecsNav.Note 279 · Footnote 3-133: Ltr, Forrestal to Marshall Field III (publisher of PM), 14 Jul 45, 54-1-13, Forrestal file, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 280 · Footnote 3-134: Memo, SecNav for Rear Adm W. J. C. Agnew, Asst Surg Gen, 28 Jan 45; Memo, Surg Gen for Eugene Duffield, 19 Mar 45; both in 5Note 281 · Footnote 3-135: Ltr, Chief, NavPers, to Cmdts, All Naval Districts, 11 Jun 45, sub: Negro Recruit Training—Discontinuance of Special ProgramNote 282 · Footnote 3-136: Memo, SecNav for Artemus L. Gates, Asst Sec for Air, et al. 16 Jul 45; Ltr, SecNav to Granger, 14 Jul 45; both in 54-1-20, GNote 283 · Footnote 3-137: Ltr, Granger to Forrestal, 4 Aug 45, 54-1-13, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 284 · Footnote 3-138: Pers 215-BL, "Enlisted Strength—U.S. Navy," 26 Jul 46, BuPersRecs.(Back)Note 285 · Footnote 3-139: Pers 215-12-EL, "Number of Negro Enlisted Personnel on Active Duty," 29 Nov 45 (statistics as of 31 Oct 45), BuPersRecs.(BacNote 286 · Footnote 3-140: Pers-215-BL, "Enlisted Strength—U.S. Navy," 26 Jul 46.(Back)Note 287 · Footnote 4-1: 38 U.S. Stat. at L (1915), 800-2. Since 1967 the Coast Guard has been a part of the Department of Transportation.(Back)Note 288 · Footnote 4-2: Executive Order 8928, 1 Nov 41. A similar transfer under provisions of the 1915 law was effected during World War I. The serviNote 289 · Footnote 4-3: Ltr, SecNav to CominCh-CNO, 30 Mar 42, sub: Administration of Coast Guard When Operating Under Navy Department, quoted in FureNote 290 · Footnote 4-4: For a survey of the organization and functions of the U.S. Coast Guard Personnel Division, see USCG Historical Section, PersonNote 291 · Footnote 4-5: Quoted in Navy General Board, "Plan for the Expansion of the USMC," 18 Apr 41 (No. 139), Recs of Gen Bd, OpNavArchives.(Back)Note 292 · Footnote 4-6: Ltr, CMC to Harold E. Thompson, Northern Phila. Voters League, 6 Aug 40, AQ-17, Central Files, Headquarters, USMC (hereafter MNote 293 · Footnote 4-7: Memo, Off in Charge, Eastern Recruiting Div, for CMC, 16 Jan 42, sub: Colored Applicants for Enlistment in the Marine Corps, WNote 294 · Footnote 4-8: Memo, SecNav for Adm W. R. Sexton, 14 Feb 42, P14-4, Recs of Gen Bd, OpNavArchives. The quotation is from the Knox Memo and isNote 295 · Footnote 4-9: In devising plans for the composite battalion the Director of Plans and Policies rejected a proposal to organize a black raideNote 296 · Footnote 4-10: Memo, CMC for Chmn of Gen Bd, 27 Feb 42, sub: Enlistment of Men of the Colored Race in Other Than Messman Branch, AO-172, MC Note 297 · Footnote 4-11: Memo, Chmn of Gen Bd for SecNav, 20 Mar 42, sub: Enlistment of Men of the Colored Race in Other Than Messman Branch (G.B. No.Note 298 · Footnote 4-12: Memo, CMC for District Cmdrs, All Reserve Districts Except 10th, 14th, 15th, and 16th, 25 May 42, sub: Enlistment of Colored Note 299 · Footnote 4-13: Memo, CMC for Off in Charge, Eastern, Central, and Southern Recruiting Divs, 15 May 42, sub: Enlistment of Colored Personnel Note 300 · Footnote 4-14: Memo, CMC for SecNav, 23 Jun 42, AP-54 (1535-110), MC files.(Back)Note 301 · Footnote 4-15: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 29 Oct 42, sub: Enlistment of Colored Personnel in the Marine Corps Reserve, ANote 302 · Footnote 4-16: USMC Oral History Interview, General Ray A. Robinson (USMC Ret.), 18-19 Mar 68, p. 136, Hist Div, HQMC.(Back)Note 303 · Footnote 4-17: Memo, CMC for Chief, NavPers, 1 Apr 43, sub: Negro Registrants To Be Inducted Into the Marine Corps, AO-320-2350-60, MC filesNote 304 · Footnote 4-18: Memo, Dir, Pers, for Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, 21 Jul 48, sub: GCT Percentile Equivalents for Colored Enlisted Marines Note 305 · Footnote 4-19: Unsigned Memo for Dir, Plans and Policies Div, 26 Dec 42, sub: Colored Personnel, with attached handwritten note, AO-320, MC Note 306 · Footnote 4-20: Ltr, Actg CMC to Major Cmdrs, 20 Mar 43, sub: Colored Personnel, AP-361, MC files.(Back)Note 307 · Footnote 4-21: Ltr of Instruction No. 421, CMC to All CO's, 14 May 43, sub: Colored Personnel, MC files.(Back)Note 308 · Footnote 4-22: Ibid. The subject of widespread public complaint when its existence became known after the war, the instruction was rescindedNote 309 · Footnote 4-23: Memo, CMC for SecNav, 30 Dec 42, sub: Change of Present Mess Branch in the Marine Corps to Commissary Branch and EstablishmenNote 310 · Footnote 4-24: Memo, Dir of Recruiting for Off in Charge, Eastern Recruiting Div et al., 25 Feb 42, sub: Messman Branch, AP-361-1390; Memo, Note 311 · Footnote 4-25: Memo, Dir, Plans and Policies, for CMC, 18 May 43, sub: Assignment of Steward's Branch Personnel, AO-371, MC files.(Back)Note 312 · Footnote 4-26: Memo, H. E. Dunkelberger, M-1 Sec, Div of Plans and Policies, for Asst CMC, 5 Jul 44, sub: Steward's Branch Personnel, AO-660Note 313 · Footnote 4-27: Shaw and Donnelly, Blacks in the Marine Corps, pp. 29-46. See also, HQMC Div of Public Information, "The Negro Marine, 1942-1Note 314 · Footnote 4-28: Memo, CO, 51st Def Bn, for Dir, Plans and Policies, 29 Jan 43, sub: Colored Personnel, Ref Br, Hist Div, HQMC.(Back)Note 315 · Footnote 4-29: For charges and countercharges on the part of the 51st's commanders, see Hq, 51st Defense Bn, "Record of Proceedings of an InNote 316 · Footnote 4-30: Shaw and Donnelly, Blacks in the Marine Corps, p. 31.(Back)Note 317 · Footnote 4-31: For a discussion of black morale in the combat-trained units, see USMC Oral History Interview, Obie Hall, 16 Aug 72, Ref Br, Note 318 · Footnote 4-32: Ltr, Maj Gen Charles F. B. Price to Brig Gen Keller E. Rockey, 24 Apr 43; 26132, Ref Br, Hist Div, HQMC.(Back)Note 319 · Footnote 4-33: Brig Gen Rockey for S-C files, 4 Jun 43, Memo, G. F. Good, Div of Plans and Policies, to Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, 3 SeNote 320 · Footnote 4-34: Ltr, Phillips D. Carleton, Asst to Dir, MC Reserve, to Welford Wilson, U.S. Employment Service, 27 Mar 43, AF-464, MC files. Note 321 · Footnote 4-35: See, for example, Ltr, Mary Findley Allen, Interracial Cmte of Federation of Churches, to Mrs. Roosevelt (ca. 9 Mar 43); MemoNote 322 · Footnote 4-36: Capt. Michael Healy, who was of Irish and Afro-American heritage, served as commanding officer of the Bear and other major CoNote 323 · Footnote 4-37: Interv, author with Capt W. C. Capron, USCGR, 20 Feb 75, CMH files.(Back)Note 324 · Footnote 4-38: Enlistment of Men of Colored Race (201), 23 Jan 42, Hearings Before the General Board of the Navy, 1942.(Back)Note 325 · Footnote 4-39: Memo, Cmdt, CG, for Adm Sexton, Chmn of Gen Bd, 2 Feb 42, sub: Enlistment of Men of the Colored Race in Other Than Messman BrNote 326 · Footnote 4-40: Memo, Cmdt, CG, for Chmn of Gen Bd, 24 Feb 42. sub: Enlistment of Men of the Colored Race in Other Than Messman Branch, P-701Note 327 · Footnote 4-41: Unless otherwise noted, all statistics on Coast Guard personnel are derived from Memo, Chief, Statistical Services Div, for CNote 328 · Footnote 4-42: Memo, Chmn of Gen Bd for SecNav, 20 Mar 42, sub: Enlistment of Men of the Colored Race in Other Than Messman Branch, G.B. No.Note 329 · Footnote 4-43: Interv, author with Ira H. Coakley, 26 Feb 75, CMH files. Coakley was a recruit in one of the first black training companies Note 330 · Footnote 4-44: For a brief account of the Coast Guard recruit training program, see Nelson, "Integration of the Negro," pp. 84-87, and "A BlNote 331 · Footnote 4-45: Log of Pea Island Station, 1942, Berry Collection, USCG Headquarters.(Back)Note 332 · Footnote 4-46: Selective Service System, Special Groups, 2:196-201.(Back)Note 333 · Footnote 4-47: Testimony of Coast Guard Representatives Before the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the ArmNote 334 · Footnote 4-48: USCG Public Relations Div, Negroes in the U.S. Coast Guard, July 1943, Office of the USCG Historian.(Back)Note 335 · Footnote 4-49: Ltr, Cmdt, USCG, to Cmdr, Third CG District, 18 Jan 52, sub: ETHERIDGE, Louis C; ... Award of the Bronze Star Medal, P15, BuPNote 336 · Footnote 4-50: USCG Pers Bull 37-42, 31 Mar 43, sub: Apprentice Seamen and Mess Attendants, Third Class, Advancement of, USCG Cen Files 61A7Note 337 · Footnote 4-51: Intervs, author with Cmdt Carlton Skinner, USCGR, 18 Feb 75, and with Capron, CMH files.(Back)Note 338 · Footnote 4-52: For discussion of limited service of Coast Guard stewards, see Testimony of Coast Guard Representatives Before the President'Note 339 · Footnote 4-53: USCG Historical Section, The Coast Guard at War, 18:1-10, 36.(Back)Note 340 · Footnote 4-54: USCG Pers Bull 44-42, 25 Jun 42, sub: Relief of Personnel Assigned to Seagoing Units, USCG Cen Files 61A701.(Back)Note 341 · Footnote 4-55: Interv, author with Skinner; Ltr, Skinner to author, 29 Jun 75, in CMH files. The Skinner memorandum to Admiral Waesche, likeNote 342 · Footnote 4-56: A unique vessel, the Sea Cloud was on loan to the government for the duration of the war by its owner, the former Ambassador Note 343 · Footnote 4-57: Interv, author with Skinner.(Back)Note 344 · Footnote 4-58: Log of the Sea Cloud (IX 99), Aug-Nov 44, NARS, Suitland.(Back)Note 345 · Footnote 4-59: Interv, author with Skinner.(Back)Note 346 · Footnote 4-60: Interv, author with Rear Adm R. T. McElligott, 24 Feb 75, CMH files. For an example of the Coast Guard reaction to civil righNote 347 · Footnote 4-61: Ltr, Skinner to author, 2 Jun 75.(Back)Note 348 · Footnote 4-62: USCG Historical Section, The Coast Guard at War, 23:53; Intervs, author with Lt Harvey C. Russell, USCGR, 14 Feb 75, and withNote 349 · Footnote 4-63: "A Black History in WWII," pp. 31-34. For an account of Samuels' long career in the Coast Guard, see Joseph Greco and Truman Note 350 · Footnote 4-64: USCG Historical Section, The Coast Guard at War, 25:25. See also Oral History Interview, Dorothy C. Stratton, 24 Sep 70, CentNote 351 · Footnote 4-65: For discussion of this point, see Testimony of Coast Guard Representatives Before the President's Committee on Equality of TrNote 352 · Footnote 5-1: This discussion is based in great part on Arnold M. Rose, "The American Negro Problem in the Context of Social Change," AnnalsNote 353 · Footnote 5-2: For a discussion of this trend, see Bureau of Labor Statistics, "Social and Economic Conditions of Negroes in the United StateNote 354 · Footnote 5-3: Selective Service System, Special Groups, vol. I, pp. 177-78; see also Robert C. Weaver, "Negro Labor Since 1929," The JournalNote 355 · Footnote 5-4: E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1957), p. 513.(Back)Note 356 · Footnote 5-5: Clark, "The Civil Rights Movement," pp. 240-47.(Back)Note 357 · Footnote 5-6: Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, 1 March 1968, Kerner Report (Washington: Government Printing OfNote 358 · Footnote 5-7: Bernard De Voto, "The Easy Chair" Harper's 192 (January 1946):38-39.(Back)Note 359 · Footnote 5-8: Ltr, John H. Caldwell (Hartsdale, New York) to the Editor, Harper's 192 (March 1946): unnumbered front pages.(Back)Note 360 · Footnote 5-9: Ltr, Sen. W. Lee O'Daniel of Texas to SW, 27 Feb 46, ASW 291.2 (1946).(Back)Note 361 · Footnote 5-10: This important incident in the Air Force's racial history has been well documented. See AAF Summary Sheet, 5 May 45, sub: RacNote 362 · Footnote 5-11: Memo, ASW for SW, 4 Jun 45; Memo, SGS for DCofS, 7 Jun 45, sub: Report of Advisory Committee on Special Troop Policies, both Note 363 · Footnote 5-12: OPD Summary Sheet to CofS, 2 Apr 46, CS 291.2 Negroes; Memo, WD Bureau of Public Relations for Press, 5 Jan 46; Ltr, Exec to Note 364 · Footnote 5-13: ALNAV 423-45, 12 Dec 45.(Back)Note 365 · Footnote 5-14: Memo, Marcus H. Ray, Civ Aide to SW, for ASW, 11 Jun 46, ASW 291.2 (NT).(Back)Note 366 · Footnote 5-15: See Ltr, Walter White, Secy, NAACP, to SW, 6 May 46, and a host of letters in SW 291.2 file. See also copies of NAACP press rNote 367 · Footnote 5-16: Ltr, 28 Feb 46, copy in SW 291.2.(Back)Note 368 · Footnote 5-17: For a summary of these views, see Warman Welliver, "Report on the Negro Soldier," Harper's 192 (April 1946):333-38 and back pNote 369 · Footnote 5-18: Murray, Negro Handbook, 1946-1947, pp. 369-70.(Back)Note 370 · Footnote 5-19: Ltr, Exec Secy, National Urban League, to President Truman, 27 Aug 45, copy in Forrestal file, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 371 · Footnote 5-20: Memos, McCloy for Advisory Committee on Special Troop Policies, 31 Jul and 1 Sep 44, sub: Participation of Negro Troops in thNote 372 · Footnote 5-21: Ltr, John J. McCloy to author, 18 Sep 69, CMH files.(Back)Note 373 · Footnote 5-22: Memo, CofS for McCloy, 25 Aug 45, WDCSA 291.2 Negroes (25 Aug 45).(Back)Note 374 · Footnote 5-23: Ltr, TAG to CinC, Southwest Pacific Area, et al., 23 May 45, sub: Participation of Negro Troops in Post-War Military EstablisNote 375 · Footnote 5-24: Memo, Gibson for ASW, 30 May 45, ASW 291.2 (NT).(Back)Note 376 · Footnote 5-25: Ltr, Gibson to Gen John C. H. Lee, CG, ComZ, ETOUSA, 31 Mar 45, ASW 291.2 (NT).(Back)Note 377 · Footnote 5-26: Memo, Truman Gibson for Maj Gen O. L. Nelson, 12 Mar 45, sub: Report on Visit to 92d Division (Negro Troops), ASW 291.2.(BackNote 378 · Footnote 5-27: "Negro Soldier Betrayed," Crisis 52 (April 1945):97; "Gibson Echo," ibid. (July 1945):193.(Back)Note 379 · Footnote 5-28: Washington Afro-American, April 15, 1945, quoted in Lee, Employment of Negro Troops, p. 579. For details of the Gibson controNote 380 · Footnote 5-29: Mark W. Clark, A Calculated Risk (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1950), pp. 414-15.(Back)Note 381 · Footnote 5-30: Ltr, Ray to Gibson, 14 May 45, WDGAP 291.2. Ray later succeeded Gibson as Civilian Aide to the Secretary of War.(Back)Note 382 · Footnote 5-31: 1st Ind, Hq Fifth Army (signed L. K. Truscott, Jr.), 30 Jul 45, to Proceedings and Board of Review, 92d Inf Div, Fifth Army fNote 383 · Footnote 5-32: WD file 291.2 (Negro Troop Policy), 1943-1945, is full of statements to this effect. The quote is from 2d Ind, Hq USASTAF, 26Note 384 · Footnote 5-33: L. K. Truscott, Jr., Command Missions: A Personal Story (New York: Dutton, 1959), see pages 461-62 and 471-72 for comparison Note 385 · Footnote 5-34: Interv, author with General Jacob Devers, 30 Mar 71, CMH files.(Back)Note 386 · Footnote 5-35: Ltr, Lt Gen Edward M. Almond to Brig Gen James L. Collins, Jr., 1 Apr 72, CMH files. General Almond's views are thoroughly exNote 387 · Footnote 5-36: A third black division, the 2d Cavalry, never saw combat because it was disbanded upon arrival in the Mediterranean theater.(Note 388 · Footnote 5-37: Rad, Marshall to Lt Gen Millard Harmon, CG, USAFISPA, 18 Mar 44, CM-OUT 7514 (18 Mar 44).(Back)Note 389 · Footnote 5-38: Lee, Employment of Negro Troops, pp. 498-517. Lee discusses here the record of the 93d Infantry Division and War Department dNote 390 · Footnote 5-39: The above digested reports and quotations are from Lee, Employment of Negro Troops, pp. 513-17.(Back)Note 391 · Footnote 5-40: USAFFE Board Reports No. 185, 20 Jan 45, and 221, 25 Feb 45, sub: Information on Colored Troops. These reports were prepared Note 392 · Footnote 5-41: E. W. Kenworthy, "The Case Against Army Segregation," Annals of the American Academy of Political Science 275 (May 1952):28-2Note 393 · Footnote 5-42: Memo, Gibson for ASW, 23 Apr 45, sub: Report of Visit to MTO and ETO, ASW 291.2 (NT); see also Interv, Bell I. Wiley with TruNote 394 · Footnote 5-43: Eventually over thirty-five commands responded to the McCloy questionnaire. For examples of the attitudes mentioned above, seNote 395 · Footnote 5-44: Memo, Dir, WDSSP, for CG's, ASF et al., 23 May 45, sub: Participation of Negro Troops in the Postwar Military Establishment, Note 396 · Footnote 5-45: Memo, CofS, ASF, for Dir, Special Planning Division, WDSS, 1 Oct 45, sub: Participation of Negro Troops in the Postwar MilitaNote 397 · Footnote 5-46: Memo, Ground AG, AGF, for CofSA, 28 Nov 45, sub: Participation of Negro Troops in the Postwar Military Establishment, with InNote 398 · Footnote 5-47: Memo, CG, AAF, for CofSA, 17 Sep 45, sub: Participation of Negro Troops in the Postwar Military Establishment, WDSSP 291.2 (1Note 399 · Footnote 5-48: Ltr, OCSigO (Col David E. Washburn, Exec Off) to WDSSP, 31 Jul 45, sub: Participation of Negro Troops in the Postwar MilitaryNote 400 · Footnote 5-49: Ltr, Maj Gen James L. Collins, CG, Fifth Service Cmd, to CG, ASF, 24 Jul 45, sub: Participation of Negro Troops in the PostwaNote 401 · Footnote 5-50: Memo, CG, First Service Cmd, for CG, ASF, 23 Jul 45, sub: Participation of Negro Troops in the Postwar Military EstablishmentNote 402 · Footnote 5-51: Memo, Truman Gibson for ASW, 8 Aug 45, ASW 291.2.(Back)Note 403 · Footnote 5-52: Memo, Exec Off, ASW, for McCloy, 28 Aug 45, ASW 291.2 (NT).(Back)Note 404 · Footnote 5-53: Memos, Col Frederick S. Skinner for Dir, Special Planning Div, WDSS, 25 May and 2 Jun 45, sub: Participation of Negro Troops Note 405 · Footnote 5-54: Ltr, Forrestal to Field, 14 Jul 45, 54-1-13, Forrestal file, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 406 · Footnote 5-55: Ltr, Lester Granger to SecNav, 19 Mar 45, 54-1-13, Forrestal file, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 407 · Footnote 5-56: Memo, Chief, NavPers, for Cmdr Richard M. Paget (Exec Off, SecNav), 21 Apr 45, sub: Formation of Informal Cmte to Assure UnifNote 408 · Footnote 5-57: Memo, SecNav for Cmdr Richard M. Paget, 16 Apr 45, 54-1-19, Forrestal file, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 409 · Footnote 5-58: Other members of the committee included four senior Navy captains and representatives of the Marine Corps and Coast Guard. MeNote 410 · Footnote 5-59: Ltr, Granger to SecNav, 19 Mar 45, 54-1-13, Forrestal file, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 411 · Footnote 5-60: Memo, Cmte on Personnel for Under SecNav, 22 May 45, sub: Report and Recommendations of Committee on Negro Personnel, P. 16-3Note 412 · Footnote 5-61: Columbia University Oral Hist Interv with Granger.(Back)Note 413 · Footnote 5-62: Granger's findings and an account of his inspection technique are located in Ltrs, Granger to SecNav, 4 Aug, 10 Aug, 27 Aug, Note 414 · Footnote 5-63: Memo, J.F. [James Forrestal] for Vice Adm Jacobs (Chief of Naval Personnel), 23 Aug 45; Ltr, SecNav to Granger, 29 Dec 45, boNote 415 · Footnote 6-1: Memo, McCloy for SW, 17 Sep 45, SW 291.2; Ltr, McCloy to author, 25 Sep 69, CMH files.(Back)Note 416 · Footnote 6-2: See, for example, Memo, SW for CofS, 7 Nov 45, SW 291.2; see also Ltr, McCloy to author, 25 Sep 69.(Back)Note 417 · Footnote 6-3: Quoted in Memo, Gen Gillem for CofS, 17 Nov 45, sub: Report of Board of General Officers on Utilization of Negro Manpower in tNote 418 · Footnote 6-4: Interv, Capt Alan Osur, USAF, with Lt Gen Alvan C. Gillem (USA Ret.), 3 Feb 72, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 419 · Footnote 6-5: Memo, Maj Gen Ray Porter, Dir, Spec Planning Div, for Gillem, 28 Sep 45, sub: War Department Special Board on Negro Manpower, Note 420 · Footnote 6-6: In a later comment on the selections, McCloy said that the geographical spread and lack of West Point representation was accidNote 421 · Footnote 6-7: Memo, Gen Gillem for CofS, 26 Oct 45, sub: Progress Rpt on Board Study of Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Post-War Army, Note 422 · Footnote 6-8: Memo, Gillem for CofS, 17 Nov 45, sub: Report of Board of General Officers on the Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Post-WaNote 423 · Footnote 6-9: The 10 percent quota that eventually emerged from the Gillem Board was an approximation; Gillem later recalled that the World Note 424 · Footnote 6-10: Memo, Brig Gen H. I. Hodes, ADCofS, for Gillem, 24 Nov 45, sub: War Department Special Board on Negro Management, WDCSA 320.2Note 425 · Footnote 6-11: Memo, Civilian Aide for ASW, 13 Nov 45, ASW 291.2 Negro Troops (Post War); Ltr, idem to SW, 13 Nov 45; Memo, McCloy for PatteNote 426 · Footnote 6-12: For examples of this extensive review of the Gillem Board Report in G-1, see the following Memos: Col J. F. Cassidy (Exec OffNote 427 · Footnote 6-13: Memo, Gen Paul, G-1, for CofS, 27 Dec 45, sub: Policy for Utilization of Negro Manpower in Post-War Army, WDGAP 291.2 (24 NovNote 428 · Footnote 6-14: G-3 Summary Sheet to ADCofS, 2 Jan 46, sub: War Department Special Board on Negro Manpower, WDGCT 291.21 (24 Nov 45).(Back)Note 429 · Footnote 6-15: Memo, Lt Gen John E. Hull, ACofS, OPD (signed Brig Gen E. D. Post, Dep Chief, Theater Gp, OPD), for ACofS, G-3, 4 Jan 46, subNote 430 · Footnote 6-16: 1st Ind, Lt Gen Ira C. Eaker, Deputy Cmdr, AAF, to CofS, 19 Dec 45, sub: War Department Special Board on Negro Manpower, copyNote 431 · Footnote 6-17: Memo, Lt Col S. R. Knight (for CG, AGF) for CofS, 18 Dec 45, sub: Army Ground Forces Comments and Recommendations on Report oNote 432 · Footnote 6-18: Memo, Maj Gen Daniel Noce, Actg CofS, ASF, for CofS, 28 Dec 45, sub: War Department Special Board on Negro Manpower, copy at Note 433 · Footnote 6-19: Supplemental Report of War Department Special Board on Negro Manpower, "Policy for Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Post-Note 434 · Footnote 6-20: Eisenhower succeeded Marshall as Chief of Staff on 19 November 1945.(Back)Note 435 · Footnote 6-21: Memo, CofS for SW, 1 Feb 46, sub: Supplemental Report of Board of Officers on Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Post-War ANote 436 · Footnote 6-22: Ltr, TAG for CG's, AGF et al., 6 May 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Post-War Army, WDGAP 291.2.(Back)Note 437 · Footnote 6-23: WD Press Release, 4 Mar 46, "Report of Board of Officers on Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Post-War Army."(Back)Note 438 · Footnote 6-24: Memo, SW for CofS, 28 Feb 46, WDCSA 320.2 (28 Feb 46).(Back)Note 439 · Footnote 6-25: Memo, Truman Gibson, Expert Consultant to the SW, for Howard C. Petersen, 28 Feb 46, ASW 291.2 Negro Troops (Post-War).(Back)Note 440 · Footnote 6-26: Remarks of the Assistant Secretary of War at Luncheon for Negro Newspaper Publishers Association, 1 Mar 46, ASW 291.2.(Back)Note 441 · Footnote 6-27: Ray, a former commander of an artillery battalion in the 92d Infantry Division, was appointed civilian aide on 2 January 1946Note 442 · Footnote 6-28: Ltr, Marcus Ray to Capt Warman K. Welliver, 10 Apr 46, copy in CMH. Welliver, the commander of a black unit during the war, wNote 443 · Footnote 6-29: Norfolk Journal and Guide, March 9, 1946.(Back)Note 444 · Footnote 6-30: Ltr, L. D. Reddick, N.Y. Pub. Lib., to SW, 12 Mar 46, SW 291.(Back)Note 445 · Footnote 6-31: Ltr, Bernard Jackson, Youth Council, NAACP Boston Br, to ASW, 4 Apr 46, ASW 291.2 (NT).(Back)Note 446 · Footnote 6-32: Pittsburgh Courier, May 11, 1946.(Back)Note 447 · Footnote 6-33: Ltr, Charles G. Bolte, Chmn, Amer Vets Cmte, to SW, 8 Mar 46; see also Ltr, Ralph DeNat, Corr Secy, Amer Vets Cmte, to SW, 28Note 448 · Footnote 6-34: Ltrs, ASW to Bernard H. Solomon and to Bernard Jackson, 9 Apr 46, both in ASW 291.2.(Back)Note 449 · Footnote 6-35: Hanson Baldwin, "Wanted: An American Military Policy," Harper's 192 (May 1946):403-13.(Back)Note 450 · Footnote 6-36: Remarks by Gen J. L. Devers, Armored Conference Report, 16 May 46.(Back)Note 451 · Footnote 6-37: Ltr, CINCPAC&POA to SecNav via Ch, NavPers, 30 Oct 45, sub: Negro Naval Personnel—Pacific Ocean Areas, and 2d Ind, CNO, 7 DecNote 452 · Footnote 6-38: Memo, J. F. for Adm Jacobs, 23 Aug 45, 54-1-13, Forrestal file, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 453 · Footnote 6-39: Memo, Asst Ch, NavPers, for SecNav, 10 Sep 45, sub: Ur Memo of August 23, 1945, Relative to Lester B. Granger ... 54-1-13, FoNote 454 · Footnote 6-40: 1st Ind, Chief, NavPers, to Ltr, CINCPAC&POA to SecNav, 30 Oct 45, sub: Negro Personnel—Pacific Ocean Areas (ca. 15 Nov 45), Note 455 · Footnote 6-41: Forrestal's request for a progress report was circulated in CNO Dispatch 142105Z Dec 45 to CINCPAC&POA, quoted in Nelson, "InNote 456 · Footnote 6-42: Memo, CINCPAC&POA for CNO, 5 Jan 46, sub: Negro Naval Personnel—Pacific Ocean Areas, P10/P11, OpNavArchives.(Back)Note 457 · Footnote 6-43: Admiral Denfeld's statement to the black press representatives in this regard is referred to in Memo, Capt H. Wood, Jr., for Note 458 · Footnote 6-44: Ltr, Chief, NavPers, to CNO, 4 Jan 46, sub: Assignment of Negro Personnel, P16-3MM, BuPersRecs.(Back)Note 459 · Footnote 6-45: As reported in Ltr, Granger to author, 25 Jun 69, CMH files.(Back)Note 460 · Footnote 6-46: Ltr, Congressman Stephen Pace of Georgia to Forrestal, 22 Jun 46; Ltr, Forrestal to Pace, 14 Aug 46, both in 54-1-13, ForrestNote 461 · Footnote 6-47: The latest pronouncement of that policy was ALNAV 423-45.(Back)Note 462 · Footnote 6-48: See USMC Oral History Interviews, Lt Gen James L. Underhill, 25 Mar 68, and Lt Gen Ray A. Robinson, 18 Mar 68, both in Hist DNote 463 · Footnote 6-49: Memo, CO, 26th Marine Depot Co., Fifth Service Depot, Second FMF, Pacific, for CMC, 2 Nov 45, with Inds, sub: Information ConNote 464 · Footnote 6-50: AAA Gp, 51st Defense Bn, FMF, Montford Pt., Gp Cmdr's Endorsement on Annual Record Practice, Year 1943, 20 Dec 43; AAA Gp, 51Note 465 · Footnote 6-51: For the extensive charges and countercharges concerning the controversy between Colonel LeGette and his predecessor in the 51Note 466 · Footnote 6-52: Memo, CO, 51st Defense Bn, FMF, for CMC, 20 Jul 44, sub: Combat Efficiency, Fifty-First Defense Battalion, Serial 1085.(Back)Note 467 · Footnote 6-53: Shaw and Donnelly, Blacks in the Marine Corps, pp 47-49; Interv, James Westfall with Col Curtis W. LeGette (USMC, Ret.), 8 FeNote 468 · Footnote 6-54: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 8 Apr 46, sub: Negro Personnel in the Post-War Marine Corps. This memo was notNote 469 · Footnote 6-55: Memos, Dir, Aviation, for CMC, 26 Apr 46, sub: Negro Personnel in the Post-War Marine Corps, and 31 May 46, sub: Enlistment oNote 470 · Footnote 6-56: Div of Plans and Policies (signed G. C. Thomas), Consideration of Non-Concurrence, 2 May 46, attached to Memo, Dir, Aviation,Note 471 · Footnote 6-57: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 13 May 46, sub: Negro Personnel in the Post-War Marine Corps.(Back)Note 472 · Footnote 6-58: Idem for CMC, 25 Sep 46, sub: Post-War Negro Personnel Requirements. For examples of the proposals submitted by the various cNote 473 · Footnote 7-1: DF, ACofS, G-1, to CG, AAF, 15 Mar 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Postwar Army, WDGAP 291.2.(Back)Note 474 · Footnote 7-2: Memo, CG, AAF, for ACofS, G-1, 3 Apr 46, sub: Utilization of Manpower in the Postwar Army, WDGAP 291.2.(Back)Note 475 · Footnote 7-3: DF, ACofS, G-1, to ASW, 26 Mar 46, sub: Implementation of WD Cir 124, WDGAP 291.2.(Back)Note 476 · Footnote 7-4: Idem to ACofS, G-3, 29 Apr 46, sub: Implementation of WD Cir 124, WDGAP 291.2.(Back)Note 477 · Footnote 7-5: WD Cir 105, 10 Apr 46.(Back)Note 478 · Footnote 7-6: Memo, ASW for ACofS, G-1, 27 Apr 46, ASW 291.2.(Back)Note 479 · Footnote 7-7: G-1 Summary Sheet for CofS, 3 May 46, sub: Changes to WD Cir 105, 1946, WDGAP 291.2. Revision appeared as WD Circular 142, 17 Note 480 · Footnote 7-8: DF, ACofS, G-1, to ASW, 13 May 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in Postwar Army, WDGAP 291.2.(Back)Note 481 · Footnote 7-9: Ltr, TAG to CG's, AGF, AAF, and ASF, 6 May 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in Postwar Army, AGAM-PM 291.2 (30 Apr 46); Note 482 · Footnote 7-10: Memo, Marcus H. Ray for ASW, 22 Jan 46, ASW 291.2.(Back)Note 483 · Footnote 7-11: Memo, ACofS, G-1, for CofS, 25 Jan 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Postwar Army, WDGAP 291.2.(Back)Note 484 · Footnote 7-12: DF, ACofS, G-1, 23 Jan 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Personnel, WDGAP 291.2 (23 Jan 46); Ltr, TAG to CG's, Major Forces, and Note 485 · Footnote 7-13: G-1 Memo for Rcd, Col Coyne, Operations Gp, 19 Feb 47, WDGAP 291.2; prohibitions for certain areas are discussed in detail inNote 486 · Footnote 7-14: Memo, Actg Chief, Pac Theater Sec, OPD, for Maj Gen H. A. Craig, Dep ACofS, OPD, 12 Feb 46, sub: Utilization of Negro ManpoweNote 487 · Footnote 7-15: Memo, Chief, Eur Sec, OPD, for Maj Gen Howard A. Craig, Dep ACofS, OPD, 15 Feb 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Personnel, WDGOTNote 488 · Footnote 7-16: Memo for Rcd, Lt Col French, Theater Group, OPD, 7 May 46, sub: Negro Enlisted Strength, Pacific Theater, 1947, WDGOT 291.2. Note 489 · Footnote 7-17: Memo, CG, AAF, for ACofS, G-1, 25 Jan 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Postwar Army, WDGAP 291.2.(Back)Note 490 · Footnote 7-18: Memo, Brig Gen William Metheny, Off, Commitments Div, ACofS Air Staff-3, for ACofS Air Staff-3, 18 Feb 46, WDGOT 291.2.(Back)Note 491 · Footnote 7-19: DF, DCofAS (Maj Gen C. C. Chauncey) to G-3 25 Feb 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Postwar Army, WDGOT 291.2.(BaNote 492 · Footnote 7-20: Memo, Actg ACofS, G-3, for CG, AAF, 14 Mar 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Postwar Army, WDGOT 291.2.(Back)Note 493 · Footnote 7-21: Memo, ACofS, G-3, for CG, AAF, 21 Mar 46, sub: Authorized Military Personnel as of 31 December 1946 and 30 June 1947, WDGOT 3Note 494 · Footnote 7-22: Memo, Actg Dir, Plans and Policy, ASF, for PMG et al., 23 May 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Postwar Army, AG Note 495 · Footnote 7-23: The replies of the individual technical and administrative service chiefs, along with the response of the ASF Personnel DirecNote 496 · Footnote 7-24: Under WD Circular 134, 14 May 46, the War Department General Staff was reorganized, and many of its offices, including G-1 anNote 497 · Footnote 7-25: DF, D/OT to D/PA, 13 Jul 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Postwar Army, WDGOT 291.21 (21 Jun 46); DF, D/PA to D/Note 498 · Footnote 7-26: Strength of the Army (STM-30), 1 May 46; see also Memo, ACofS, G-1, for Chief, MPD, ASF, 3 Jun 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Note 499 · Footnote 7-27: Volunteers for the draft were men classified 1-A by Selective Service who were allowed to sign up for immediate duty often inNote 500 · Footnote 7-28: Report of the Director, Office of Selective Service Review, 31 March 1947, Table 56, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 501 · Footnote 7-29: Memo, Chief, Manpower Control Gp, D/PA, for TAG, 6 Sep 46, Utilization of Negro Manpower in Postwar Army, WDGPA 291.2; D/PA MNote 502 · Footnote 7-30: Figures vary for the number actually drafted; those given above are from Selective Service Monograph No. 10, Special Groups, Note 503 · Footnote 7-31: WD Cir 110, 17 Apr 46.(Back)Note 504 · Footnote 7-32: Ltr, TAG to CG, AAF, et al., 16 Apr 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Personnel, AGAO-S-A-M 291.2 (12 Apr 46).(Back)Note 505 · Footnote 7-34: Memo, ACofS, OPD, for CofS, 13 May 46, sub: Augmentation of the ETO Ceiling Strengths as of 1 Jul 46 (less AAF), WDCSA 320.2 Note 506 · Footnote 7-35: G-1 Memo for Rcd (signed Col E. L. Heyduck, Enl Div), 18 Jun 46, WDGAP 291.2; see also EUCOM Hist Div (prepared by Margaret LNote 507 · Footnote 7-36: Ltr, TAG to CG, Each Army, et al., 17 Jul 46, sub: Enlistment of Negroes, AGSE-P342.06 (9 Jul 46); D/PA Summary Sheet to CofSNote 508 · Footnote 7-37: D/OT Memo for Red, 15 Jul 46; DF, D/OT to D/PA, 15 Jul 46, sub: Basic Training of Negro Personnel; both in WDGOT 291.2.(Back)Note 509 · Footnote 7-38: WD Cir 241, 10 Aug 46.(Back)Note 510 · Footnote 7-39: WD Cir 93, 9 Apr 47; D/PA Summary Sheet, 1 Sep 49, sub: Method of Reducing Negro Reenlistment Rate, WDGPA 291.2 (6 Apr 49).(BNote 511 · Footnote 7-40: P&A Memo for Red, 30 Sep 46, attached to copy of Ltr, TAG to CG, Each Army, et al., 2 Oct 46, sub: Enlistment of Negroes, AGSNote 512 · Footnote 7-41: Ltr, TAG to CG, Each Army, et al., 2 Oct 46, sub: Enlistment of Negroes, AGSE-P342.06 (30 Sep 46).(Back)Note 513 · Footnote 7-42: Ibid., 31 Oct 46, sub: Enlistment of Negroes, AGSE-P342.06 (23 Oct 46); see also WD Cir 103, 1947. An exception to the AGCT 7Note 514 · Footnote 7-43: All figures are from STM-30, Strength of the Army. Figures for the Pacific theater were omitted because of the complex reorgaNote 515 · Footnote 7-44: Memo, Brig Gen J. J. O'Hare, Dep Dir, P&A, for SA, 9 Mar 48, sub: Implementation of WD Cir 124, CSGPA 291.2.(Back)Note 516 · Footnote 7-45: G-1 Memo for Rcd, 30 Sep 46, attached to Ltr, TAG to CG, Each Army, et al., 2 Oct 46, sub: Enlistment of Negroes, AGSE-P342.0Note 517 · Footnote 7-46: Ltr, Walter White to SW, 18 Jun 46; Telg, White to SW, 24 Jun 46; both in SW 291.2 (Negro Troops).(Back)Note 518 · Footnote 7-47: DF, OTIG to D/PA, 23 Jul 46, sub: Assignment of Negro Enlistees Who Have Selected ETO as Choice of Initial Assignment, WDSIG Note 519 · Footnote 7-48: Pittsburgh Post Gazette, December 19, 1946.(Back)Note 520 · Footnote 7-49: Memo, D/PRD for SW, ASW, and D/P&A, 19 Dec 46, ASW 291.2.(Back)Note 521 · Footnote 7-50: Ltr, American Veterans Committee, Manhattan Chapter, to SW, 17 Jul 46, SW 291.2 (NT).(Back)Note 522 · Footnote 7-51: Ltr, LaFollette to SW, 25 Jul 46, SW 291.2.(Back)Note 523 · Footnote 7-52: Ltr, Reuther and William Oliver to SW, 23 Jul 46, SW 291.2.(Back)Note 524 · Footnote 7-53: Ltr, J. H. Holmes to SW, 26 Jul 46; Ltr, Arthur D. Gatz, Nat'l Cmdr, United Negro and Allied Veterans of America, to SW, 20 JNote 525 · Footnote 7-54: See Ltrs, SW to Wesley P. Brown, Adjutant, Jesse Clipper American Legion Post No. 430, Buffalo, N.Y., 30 Aug 46, and to JesseNote 526 · Footnote 7-55: Memo, Maj Gen Parks for SW, et al., 19 Dec 46 (with attached note signed "HP"), SW 291.2.(Back)Note 527 · Footnote 7-56: DF, D/P&A to D/O&T, 28 Apr 47, sub: Negro Enlisted Strength, WDGPA 291.2 (12 Jul 46); idem for SA, 6 Aug 48, sub: Removing ReNote 528 · Footnote 7-57: Memo, ONB (Gen Bradley) for Gen Paul, 9 Aug 48, CSUSA 291.2 Negroes (6 Aug 48). Bradley succeeded Eisenhower as Chief of StafNote 529 · Footnote 7-58: AMP-1 Personnel Annex, 1 Jun 49, P&D 370.0 (25 Apr 49); see also Memo, Chief, Planning Office, P&A, for Brig Gen John E. DahlNote 530 · Footnote 7-59: Ltr, TAG to CG, Each Army, et al., 9 Jul 47, sub: Enlistment of Negroes AGSE-P291.2. (27 Jun 47).(Back)Note 531 · Footnote 7-60: T-7286, TAG to CO, Gen Ground, Ft. Monroe (AGF), 27 Aug 47, 291.254 Negroes; Ltr, TAG to CG, Each Army, et al., 3 Sep 47, subNote 532 · Footnote 7-61: Msg, TAG to CG's, All ZI Armies, 19 Dec 47, AGSE-P 291.254.(Back)Note 533 · Footnote 7-62: Msg, TAG to CG, All Armies (ZI), et al., 17 Mar 49, WCL 22839; D/PA Summary Sheet for VCofS, 1 Sep 49, sub: Method of ReducinNote 534 · Footnote 7-63: DF, D/PA to D/OT, 30 Jul 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Postwar Army, WDGPA 291.2 (15 Jul 46).(Back)Note 535 · Footnote 7-64: Cir as Memo, TAG for CG, AAF et al., 10 Jun 46, sub: Organization of Negro Manpower in Postwar Army, AG 291.2 (4 Jun 46).(BacNote 536 · Footnote 7-65: Memo, D/O&T for ASW, 18 Jul 46, sub: Organization of Negro Manpower in Postwar Army, WDGOT 291.2.(Back)Note 537 · Footnote 7-66: An attached unit, such as a tank destroyer battalion, is one temporarily included in a larger organization; an assigned unit Note 538 · Footnote 7-67: Memo, Actg, ACofS, G-3, for CG, AGF, 3 Jun 46, sub: Formation of Composite White-Negro Units, with attachment, WDGOT 291.21 (Note 539 · Footnote 7-68: Memo, CG, AFG, for CofS, 21 June 46, sub: Formation of Composite White-Negro Units, GNGCT-41 291.2 (Negro) (3 Jun 46).(Back)Note 540 · Footnote 7-69: DF, D/O&T to CG, AGF, 24 Jul 46, sub: Formation of Composite White-Negro Units, WDGOT 291.21 (30 Apr 46).(Back)Note 541 · Footnote 7-70: Memo, CG, AGF, for D/O&T, 1 Aug 46, sub: Formation of Composite White-Negro Units, CMT 2 to DF, D/O&T to CG, AGF, 24 Jul 46, Note 542 · Footnote 7-71: Memo, D/O&T for SW, 19 Sep 46, sub: Request for Memorandum, WDGOT 291.21 (12 Sep 46).(Back)Note 543 · Footnote 7-72: DF, CG, AGF, to D/P&A, 15 Sep 47, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Postwar Army. Policy; AGF DF, 27 Aug 47, same subNote 544 · Footnote 7-73: DA Cir 32-III, 30 Oct 47. The life of Circular 124 was extended indefinitely by DA Circular 24-II, 17 Oct 47, and DA Ltr AGAONote 545 · Footnote 7-74: Col. H. E. Kessinger, Exec Off, ACofS, G-1, "Utilization of Negro Manpower, 1946," copy in WDGPA 291.2 (1946).(Back)Note 546 · Footnote 7-75: DF, ACofS, G-1, to CofS, 3 Jun 46, sub: Implementation of the Gillem Board, WDGAP 291.2 (24 Nov 45); see also Routing Form, ANote 547 · Footnote 7-76: For the formation of quartermaster trains in Europe, see Geis Monograph, pp. 89-90.(Back)Note 548 · Footnote 7-77: Memo, D/P&A for Under SA, 29 Apr 48, sub: Negro Utilization in the Postwar Army, CSGPA 291.2.(Back)Note 549 · Footnote 7-78: Idem for CofS, 21 Jun 48, CSGPA 291.2.(Back)Note 550 · Footnote 7-79: DF, D/P&A to CG, AGF, et al., 16 Nov 46, sub: Proposed Directive, Utilization of Negro Military Personnel; see also P&A Memo Note 551 · Footnote 7-80: Ltr, Brig Gen B. F. Caffey, CG, 25th RCT (Prov), Ft. Benning Ga., to CG, AGF, 4 Dec 46, AGF 291.2; DF, CG, AGF, to D/P&A, 22 Note 552 · Footnote 7-81: DF, CG, AAF, to D/P&A, 27 Nov 45, sub: Utilization of Negro Military Personnel, WDGPA 291.2 (16 Nov 46).(Back)Note 553 · Footnote 7-82: Memo, D/O&T for D/P&A, 4 Dec 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Military Personnel, WDGOT 291.2 (16 Nov 46).(Back)Note 554 · Footnote 7-83: Tabs E and F to DF, D/P&A to DCofS, 10 Jan 47, sub: Utilization of Negro Military Personnel in Overhead Installations, WDGPA Note 555 · Footnote 7-84: DF, D/P&A to DCofS, 10 Jan 47, sub: Utilization of Negro Military Personnel in Overhead Installations, WDGPA 291.2 (12 Jul 46Note 556 · Footnote 7-85: DF, CG, AAF (signed by Dep CG, Lt Gen Ira C. Eaker), to D/P&A, 20 Jan 47, sub: Utilization of Negro Military Personnel in OveNote 557 · Footnote 7-86: Memo, ADCofS for D/P&A, 24 Jan 47, sub: Utilization of Negro Military Personnel in Overhead Installations, WDCSA 291.2 (10 JaNote 558 · Footnote 7-87: Memo, D/P&A for General Hodes, 29 Jan 47, sub: Utilization of Negro Personnel in Overhead Installations, WDGPA 291.2 (12 Jul Note 559 · Footnote 7-88: Memo, ADCofS for D/P&A, 4 Feb 47, sub: Utilization of Negro Military Personnel in Overhead Installations, WDCSA 291.2 (10 JanNote 560 · Footnote 7-89: Msg, CINCFE to WD for AGPP-P, 3 May 47, C-52352. Although CINCFE was a joint commander, his report concerned Army personnel oNote 561 · Footnote 7-90: Ltr, CG, MTO, to TAG, 16 Apr 47, sub: Utilization of Negro Military Personnel in Overhead Installations; Ltr, CG, Alaskan DepNote 562 · Footnote 7-91: The reports of all these services are inclosures to DF, TAG to D/P&A, 23 Apr 47, sub: Utilization of Negro Military PersonnelNote 563 · Footnote 7-92: WD Cir 118, 9 May 47.(Back)Note 564 · Footnote 7-93: P&A Memo for Rcd, attached to DF, D/P&A to TAG, 11 Jun 47, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Postwar Army in ConnectiNote 565 · Footnote 7-94: Davenport, "Matters Relating to the Participation of Negro Personnel in the Career Program," attached to DF, D/P&A to Brig GeNote 566 · Footnote 7-95: For a discussion of the reorganization of the general reserve, see the introduction to John B. Wilson's "U.S. Army Lineage anNote 567 · Footnote 7-96: Ltrs, TAG to CG, Each Army, et al., 18 Dec 47 and 1 Mar 48. sub: Activation and Reorganization of Certain Units of the GeneraNote 568 · Footnote 7-97: Army Memo 600-750-26, 17 Dec 47, sub: Enlistment of Negroes for Special Units; DF, D/P&A to TAG, 27 Jan 48, sub: Training DivNote 569 · Footnote 7-98: DF, D/P&A to TAG, 27 Jan 48, sub: Training Div Assignment Procedures for Negro Personnel Enlisting Under Provisions of DA MemNote 570 · Footnote 7-99: Ibid., 1 Mar 48, sub: Utilization of Negro School Trained Personnel, CSGPA 291.2 (7 Jan 48).(Back)Note 571 · Footnote 7-100: DF D/P&A for Brig Gen Joseph J. O'Hare, Chief Mil Pers Mgt Gp, 3 Nov 47, CSGPA 291.2 (3 Nov 47).(Back)Note 572 · Footnote 7-101: Memo, Chief, Morale, and Welfare Br, P&A, for Chief, Mil Pers Mgt Gp, P&A, 27 Feb 48, sub: School Input Quotas for Enlisted Note 573 · Footnote 7-102: Memo, Brig Gen J. J. O'Hare, Dep Dir, P&A, for SA, 9 Mar 48, sub: Implementation of WD Circular 124, CSGPA 291.2.(Back)Note 574 · Footnote 7-103: Ltr, Roy K. Davenport to author, 11 Dec 71, CMH files. Davenport became Deputy Under Secretary of the Army and later Deputy Note 575 · Footnote 8-1: STM-30, Strength of the Army, 1 Jan 47 and 1 Mar 48.(Back)Note 576 · Footnote 8-2: Geis Monograph, pp. 138-39 and Chart 4.(Back)Note 577 · Footnote 8-3: Ibid., pp. 138-39; Eighth Army (AFPAC) Hist Div, Occupational Monograph of the Eighth Army in Japan (hereafter AFPAC MonographNote 578 · Footnote 8-4: Geis Monograph; AFPAC Monograph, 3:87-88 and charts, 4:91-97 and JAG Illus. No. 3. It should be noted that on occasion individNote 579 · Footnote 8-5: "History of MacDill Army Airfield, 326th AAB Unit, October 1946," pp. 10-11, AFCHO files.(Back)Note 580 · Footnote 8-6: Florence Murray, ed., The Negro Handbook, 1949 (New York: Macmillan, 1949), pp. 109-10.(Back)Note 581 · Footnote 8-7: Geis Monograph, pp. 145-47.(Back)Note 582 · Footnote 8-8: AFPAC Monograph, 2:176.(Back)Note 583 · Footnote 8-9: Ltr, Louis R. Lautier to Howard C. Petersen, 28 May 46. ASW 291.2 (NT).(Back)Note 584 · Footnote 8-10: Frank L. Stanley, Report of the Negro Newspaper Publishers Association to the Honorable Secretary of War on Troops and ConditNote 585 · Footnote 8-11: Ray, Rpt of Tour of Pacific Installations to SW Patterson, 7 Aug-6 Sep 46, ASW 291.2.(Back)Note 586 · Footnote 8-13: U.S. Congress, Senate Special Committee Investigating National Defense Programs, Part 42, "Military Government in Germany," 8Note 587 · Footnote 8-14: Senate Special Committee, "Military Government in Germany," 80th Cong., 22 Nov 1946, pp. 26163-64; see also Geis Monograph, pNote 588 · Footnote 8-15: Geis Monograph, pp. 144-45; EUCOM Hist Div, Morale and Discipline in the European Command, 1945-1949, Occupation Forces in EuNote 589 · Footnote 8-16: Ray, "Rpt to SecWar, Mr. Robert P. Patterson, of Tour of European Installations," 17 Dec 46, Incl to Memo, SW for DCofS, 7 JaNote 590 · Footnote 8-17: WDGPA Summary Sheet, 25 Jan 47, sub: Utilization of Negroes in the European Theater, with Incls, WDGPA 291.2 (7 Jan 47).(BackNote 591 · Footnote 8-18: Interv, author with Lt Gen Clarence R. Huebner (former CG, U.S. Army, Europe), 31 Mar 71, CMH files.(Back)Note 592 · Footnote 8-19: Geis Monograph, pp. 143-44.(Back)Note 593 · Footnote 8-20: For the use of AR 315-369 to discharge low-scoring soldiers, see Chapter 7.(Back)Note 594 · Footnote 8-21: AFPAC Monograph, 4:193.(Back)Note 595 · Footnote 8-22: At the suggestion of Secretary Patterson, General Huebner established the position of Negro adviser. After several candidatesNote 596 · Footnote 8-23: Interv, author with Huebner.(Back)Note 597 · Footnote 8-24: The 370th and 371st Infantry Battalions (Separate) were organized on 20 June 1947. The men came from EUCOM's inactivated engiNote 598 · Footnote 8-25: Ltr, CG, Ground and Service Forces, Europe, to CG, 1st Inf Div, 1 May 47, sub: Training of Negro Infantry Battalions, quoted Note 599 · Footnote 8-26: The training center had already moved from Grafenwohr to larger quarters at Mannheim Koafestal, Germany.(Back)Note 600 · Footnote 8-27: Ltr, D/P&A to Huebner, 15 Oct 47, CSGPA 291.2. This approval did not extend to all civil rights advocates, some of whom objecNote 601 · Footnote 8-28: EUCOM Hist Div, EUCOM Command Report, 1951, pp. 128, 251, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 602 · Footnote 8-29: Ltr, Chief, EUCOM TI&E Div, to EUCOM DCSOPS, 18 Jun 48, cited in Geis Monograph, p. 130.(Back)Note 603 · Footnote 8-30: Geis Monograph, Charts 3 and 4 and p. 139.(Back)Note 604 · Footnote 8-31: Not comparable was the brief literacy program reinstituted in the 25th Regimental Combat Team at Fort Benning, Georgia, in 19Note 605 · Footnote 8-32: Ltr, Huebner to D/P&A, 1 Oct 47, CSGPA 291.2.(Back)Note 606 · Footnote 8-33: Memo, DCofS for D/P&A, 14 May 48, sub: Report of Visit by Negro Publishers and Editors to the European Theater, CSUSA 291.2 NNote 607 · Footnote 8-34: Ltr, D/P&A to Huebner, 15 Oct 47, CSGPA 291.2.(Back)Note 608 · Footnote 8-35: Memo, ASW for D/P&A, 23 May 46, sub: Negro Officers in the Regular Establishment; Memo, D/P&A for ASW, 29 May 46, same sub; MNote 609 · Footnote 8-36: Memo, Chief, Manpower Survey Gp, for Paul, 29 Apr 48, sub: Assignment of Officers of Negro T/O&E Units in Compliance with WD Note 610 · Footnote 8-37: Memo, D/P&A for TAG, 24 May 48, sub: Negro Officers in TO&E Units, CSGPA 291.2 (24 May 48).(Back)Note 611 · Footnote 8-38: Ibid.; "Report on Negro Officer Strength in Army," incl w/Memo, D/P&A for DCofS, 21 Jun 48, sub: Report of Negro Publishers aNote 612 · Footnote 8-39: Memo, Asst Secy, GS, for DCofS, 2 Jun 48, sub: Negro ROTC Units, CSUSA 291.2 Negroes (2 Jun 48); see also Department of NatioNote 613 · Footnote 8-40: "Report on Negro Officer Strength in Army," incl w/Memo, D/P&A for DCofS, 21 Jun 48, sub: Report of Negro Publishers and EditNote 614 · Footnote 8-41: Department of National Defense, "National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs," 26 Apr 48, morning session, pp. 20-21. Prior Note 615 · Footnote 8-42: These black officers were converted to Regular Army officers in the following arms and services: Infantry, 13; Chaplain CorpsNote 616 · Footnote 8-43: "Analysis of Negro Officers in the Army," incl w/Memo, D/P&A for DCAS, 21 Jun 48, sub: Report of Negro Publishers and EditorsNote 617 · Footnote 8-44: DF, D/P&A to Chief of Engrs, 25 Jul 47, sub: Appointment of Negro Officers to the Regular Army, w/attached Memo for Rcd, WDGPNote 618 · Footnote 8-45: DF, Chief of Engrs to D/P&A, 1 Aug 47, sub: Appointment of Negro Officers to the Regular Army, copy in WPGPA 291.2 (23 Jul 47Note 619 · Footnote 8-46: WD Memo 615-500-4, 21 Nov 46, sub: Flow of Enlisted Personnel From Induction Centers and Central Examining Stations.(Back)Note 620 · Footnote 8-47: Memo, Marcus Ray for ASW, 23 Jan 47, ASW 291.2.(Back)Note 621 · Footnote 8-48: Memo, ASW for DCofS, 7 Feb 47, ASW 291.2.(Back)Note 622 · Footnote 8-49: Ltr, SW Robert P. Patterson to Walter White, 7 Feb 47, SW 291.2.(Back)Note 623 · Footnote 8-50: Telg, Hugh F. Dormody, Mayor of Monterey, Calif., et al., to Sen. William F. Knowland, 31 Jul 48; Ltr, SA to Sen. Knowland, 1Note 624 · Footnote 8-51: AG Memo for Office of SW et al., 10 Jan 47, sub: Designation of Race on Overseas Travel Orders, AGAO-C 291.2 (6 Jan 47), WDGSNote 625 · Footnote 8-52: Memo, SA for CofSA, 2 Apr 52, sub: Racial Designations on Travel Orders, CS 291.2 (2 Apr 51).(Back)Note 626 · Footnote 8-53: G-1 Summary Sheet, 26 Apr 52, sub: Racial Designations on Travel Orders; Memo, CofS for SA, 5 May 51, same sub; both in CS 29Note 627 · Footnote 8-54: Memo, QMG for DCofS, 15 Apr 47, CSUSA, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 628 · Footnote 8-55: WDSP Summary Sheet, 22 Jan 47, sub: Staff Study—Segregation of Grave Sites, WDGSP/C3 1894.(Back)Note 629 · Footnote 8-56: Telg, Secy Veterans Affairs, NAACP, to SW, attached to Memo, SW for DCofS, 11 Apr 47, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 630 · Footnote 8-57: Memo, Civilian Aide for USW, 15 Mar 47, sub: Segregation in Grave Site Assignment, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 631 · Footnote 8-58: Memo, SW for DCofS, 15 Apr 47, copy in CMH. The secretary's directive was incorporated in the National Cemetery Regulations, Note 632 · Footnote 8-59: Ltr, Royall to Rep. Edward J. Devitt of Minnesota, 4 Sep 47; Ltr, Clifford Rucker to the President, 9 Aug 50; both in SW 291.Note 633 · Footnote 8-60: Ltr, CG, Atlanta Depot, to DQMG, 19 Mar 56, MGME-P. See also Memo, ASA (M&RF) for CofS, 27 Sep 52, sub: Segregation of NationNote 634 · Footnote 8-61: Memo, D/P&A for CofS, 26 Feb 47, sub: Army Talks on "Utilization of Negro Manpower," WDGPA 291.2 (7 Jan 47).(Back)Note 635 · Footnote 8-62: WD Cir 76, 22 Mar 47; see also Ltrs, Col David Lane (author of Army Talk 170) to Martin Blumenson, 29 Dec 66, and to author, Note 636 · Footnote 8-63: STM-30, Strength of the Army, 1 Jul 48. For an optimistic report on the execution of Circular 124, see Annual Report of the SNote 637 · Footnote 8-64: The Air Force became a separate service on 18 September 1947.(Back)Note 638 · Footnote 8-65: Unless otherwise noted, the following paragraphs are based on Nichols' interviews in 1953 with Generals Eisenhower, Bradley, Note 639 · Footnote 8-66: Ltr, DDE to Gen Bruce Clarke (commander of the 2d Constabulary Brigade when it was integrated in 1950), 29 May 67, copy in CMNote 640 · Footnote 8-67: The 1946 survey is contained in CINFO, "Supplementary Rpt on Attitudes of Whites Toward Serving With Negro EM," Incl to Memo,Note 641 · Footnote 8-68: Armed Forces I&E Div, OSD, Rpt No. 101, "Morale Attitudes of Enlisted Men, May-June 1949," pt. II, Attitude Toward IntegratioNote 642 · Footnote 8-69: Memo, Brig Gen B. O. Davis, Sp Asst to SA, for Under SA, 7 Jan 48, sub: Negro Utilization in the Postwar Army, WDGPA 291-2; iNote 643 · Footnote 8-70: Memo, D/P&A for Under SA, 29 Apr 48, sub: Negro Utilization in the Postwar Army, WDGPA 291.2.(Back)Note 644 · Footnote 8-71: DF's, CINFO to D/P&A, 9 Feb 48, and Dep D/P&A to CINFO, 12 Feb 48; both in WDGPA 291.2 (9 Feb 48).(Back)Note 645 · Footnote 8-72: For a detailed discussion of this point, see Mandelbaum, Soldier Groups and Negro Soldiers; Stouffer et al., The American SolNote 646 · Footnote 8-73: Final Rpt, WD Policies and Programs Review Board, 11 Aug 47, CSUSA files.(Back)Note 647 · Footnote 8-74: Ltr, Howard C. Petersen, ASW, to William M. Taylor, 12 May 47, ASW 291.2.(Back)Note 648 · Footnote 8-75: Department of National Defense, "National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs," 26 Apr 48, morning session, p. 24.(Back)Note 649 · Footnote 9-1: Interv, Lee Nichols with Marx Leva, 1953, in Nichols Collection, CMH.(Back)Note 650 · Footnote 9-2: On the survival of traditional attitudes in the Navy, see Karsten, Naval Aristocracy, ch. v; Waldo H. Heinricks, Jr., "The RolNote 651 · Footnote 9-3: Edward M. Coffman, The Hilt of the Sword (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966), p. 245.(Back)Note 652 · Footnote 9-4: Quoted in Marriner S. Eccles, Beckoning Frontiers: Public and Personal Recollections, ed. Sidney Hyman (New York: Knopf, 1951)Note 653 · Footnote 9-5: The influence of tradition on naval racial practices was raised during the hearings of the President's Committee on Equality oNote 654 · Footnote 9-6: SecNav (Josephus Daniels) General Order 90, 1 Jul 14. Alcohol had been outlawed for enlisted men at sea by Secretary John D. LNote 655 · Footnote 9-7: Unless otherwise noted the statistical information used in this section was supplied by the Office, Assistant Chief for ManageNote 656 · Footnote 9-8: Ltr, SecNav to Harvard Chapter, AVC, 26 Aug 46, P16-3 MM GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 657 · Footnote 9-9: Interv, Nichols with Secretary John L. Sullivan, Dec 52, in Nichols Collection, CMH. Sullivan succeeded James Forrestal as secNote 658 · Footnote 9-10: The BuPers Progress Report (Pers 215), the major statistical publication of the department, terminated its statistical breakdNote 659 · Footnote 9-11: Ibid., p. 143; Selective Service System, Special Groups (Monograph 10), 2:200. Between September 1945 and May 1946 the Navy dNote 660 · Footnote 9-12: "BuPers Narrative," 1:141, 192; see also BuPers Cir Ltr 41-46, 15 Feb 46.(Back)Note 661 · Footnote 9-13: See Ltr, Chief, NavPers, to CO, Naval Barracks, NAD, Seal Beach, Calif., 8 Oct 45, sub: Eligibility of Negroes for EnlistmentNote 662 · Footnote 9-14: BuPers, "Enlisted Strength—U.S. Navy," 26 Jul 46, Pers 215-BL.(Back)Note 663 · Footnote 9-15: Memo, Dir of Planning and Control, BuPers, for Chief, NavPers (ca. Jan 46), sub: Negro Personnel, Pers 21B, BuPersRecs.(Back)Note 664 · Footnote 9-16: BuPers, Memo on Discrimination of the Negro, 24 Jan 59. filed in BuPers Technical Library.(Back)Note 665 · Footnote 9-17: Memo, Lt Dennis D. Nelson for Dep Dir. Pub Relations. 26 Mar 48, sub: Problems of the Stewards' Branch, PR 221-5393, GenRecsNNote 666 · Footnote 9-18: Ltr, Under SecNav for Congressman Clyde Doyle of California. 24 Aug 49, MM(1), GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 667 · Footnote 9-20: Ltr, Nelson to author, 10 Feb 70.(Back)Note 668 · Footnote 9-21: Ltr, Dir, Plans and Oper Div, BuPers, to Richard Lueking, Berea College, 6 Dec 46, P16.1, BuPersRecs.(Back)Note 669 · Footnote 9-22: Department of National Defense, "National Defense Conference on Racial Affairs," 26 Apr 48, morning session, pp. 46-47.(Back)Note 670 · Footnote 9-23: Memo, Lt D. D. Nelson, office of Public Relations, for Capt E. B. Dexter, Office of Public Relations, 24 Aug 48, sub: Negro SNote 671 · Footnote 9-24: Ltr, Asst SecNav to Lester Granger, 22 Apr 48, QN-MM (2), GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 672 · Footnote 9-25: Interv, Nichols with Capt George A. Holderness, Jr., USN, in Nichols Collection, CMH.(Back)Note 673 · Footnote 9-26: Ltr, Granger to SecNav, 15 Mar 48, SO-3-18-56, SecNav files, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 674 · Footnote 9-27: Interv, Nichols with Sullivan; Intervs, author with Lt Cmdr D. D. Nelson, 17 Sep 69, and with James C. Evans, Counselor to thNote 675 · Footnote 9-28: Memo, Lt Nelson for Capt Dexter, Pub Rels Office, 24 Aug 48, sub: Negro Stewards, Petty Officer Ratings, Status of, PR 221-14Note 676 · Footnote 9-29: Ltr, Nelson to SecNav, 7 Jan 49, SecNav files, GenRecsNav. For discussion of the presidential inquiry, see Chapter 14.(Back)Note 677 · Footnote 9-30: BuPers Cir Ltr, 17 Oct 45.(Back)Note 678 · Footnote 9-31: Testimony of Capt Fred Stickney at National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs, 26 Apr 48, morning session, p. 47.(Back)Note 679 · Footnote 9-32: Change 12 to Ankle D-5114, BuPers Manual, 1942.(Back)Note 680 · Footnote 9-33: "BuPers Hist," pp. 83-85, and Supplement (LN), pp. 4-8, copy in CMH. Unless otherwise noted the data for this section on blacNote 681 · Footnote 9-34: Nelson, "Integration of the Negro," pp. 156-58.(Back)Note 682 · Footnote 9-35: "BuPers Hist," p. 85. The quotation is from Ltr, Chief, NavPers, to CO, USS Laramie, 16 Jul 45, BuPersRecs.(Back)Note 683 · Footnote 9-36: "BuPers Hist," p. 85.(Back)Note 684 · Footnote 9-37: Nelson "Integration of the Negro," p. 157.(Back)Note 685 · Footnote 9-38: ALNAV 252-46, 21 May 46, sub: Transfer to Regular Navy.(Back)Note 686 · Footnote 9-39: Ltr, Granger to SecNav, 31 Jul 46, 54-1-13, Forrestal file, GenRecsNav. One of these applicants was Nelson, then a lieutenantNote 687 · Footnote 9-40: Nelson, "Integration of the Negro," pp. 157-59; Ltr, Nelson to author, 10 Feb 70; Interv, Nichols with Sullivan.(Back)Note 688 · Footnote 9-41: Ltr. Exec Dir. ACLU, to SecNav, 26 Nov 57, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 689 · Footnote 9-42: "BuPers Narrative," 1:295.(Back)Note 690 · Footnote 9-43: Norfolk Journal and Guide, August 20, 1949.(Back)Note 691 · Footnote 9-44: Ltr, SecNav to William T. Farley, Chmn, Civilian Components Policy Bd, DOD, 4 Mar 50, Q4, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 692 · Footnote 9-45: Statement of Dr. Mordecai Johnson at National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs, 26 Apr 48, morning session, p. 42.(Back)Note 693 · Footnote 9-46: Ltr, Nelson to author, 10 Feb 70; see also "BuPersHist," p. 84.(Back)Note 694 · Footnote 9-47: Statement of Roy Wilkins at National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs, 26 Apr 48, morning session p. 44.(Back)Note 695 · Footnote 9-48: Testimony of Stickney at National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs, 26 Apr 48, morning session, p. 43.(Back)Note 696 · Footnote 9-49: U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Armed Services, Subcommittee No. 3, Organization and Mobilization, Hearings on S. 1641, ToNote 697 · Footnote 9-50: Ltr, SecNav to Congresswoman Margaret Chase Smith (Maine), 24 Jul 47, OG/P14-2, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 698 · Footnote 9-51: Memo, Dir, Pol Div, BuPers, for Capt William C. Chapman, Office of Information, Navy Dept, 21 Sep 65; Memo, Chief, NavPers, fNote 699 · Footnote 9-52: See Testimony of Lester Granger and Assistant Secretary Brown at National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs, 26 Apr 48, morNote 700 · Footnote 9-53: Memo, Asst SecNav for Air for Dep CNO, 3 Feb 48, sub: Racial Discrimination, P1-4 (8), GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 701 · Footnote 9-54: See Memo, Chief, NavPers, for CO, USS Grand Canyon (AD 28), 17 Dec 48, sub: Navy Department's Non Discrimination Policy—AllegNote 702 · Footnote 9-55: Memo, Nelson for Chief, NavPers, 29 Nov 48, sub: Complaint of Navy Enlisted Man Made to Pittsburgh Courier..., PR221, BuPersRNote 703 · Footnote 9-56: Memo, Chief, NavPers, for JAG, 11 Feb 47, sub: HR 279: To Prohibit Race Segregation in the Armed Forces of the United States,Note 704 · Footnote 9-57: For discussion of the problem of comparative enlistment standards, see Chapter 12.(Back)Note 705 · Footnote 9-58: Ltr, Lt Cmdr, E. S. Hope to SecDef, 17 May 48, with attached rpt, D54-1-10, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 706 · Footnote 9-59: See, for example, Ltr, Granger to SecNav, 10 Jun 47, 54-1-13, Forrestal file, GenRecsNav, and Granger's extensive comments anNote 707 · Footnote 10-1: Memos, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 25 Sep and 17 Oct 46, sub: Post War Personnel Requirements, A0-1, MC files. UNote 708 · Footnote 10-2: Memo, G. C. Thomas, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 6 Jan 47, sub: Negro Requirements, A0-1.(Back)Note 709 · Footnote 10-3: USMC Muster Rolls of Officers and Enlisted Men, 1946 and 1948.(Back)Note 710 · Footnote 10-4: Memo, G. C. Thomas for CMC, 11 Jun 47, sub: Negro Requirements and Assignments, A0-1.(Back)Note 711 · Footnote 10-5: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 28 Aug 47, sub: Requirements for General Duty Negro Marines, A0-1.(Back)Note 712 · Footnote 10-6: Idem for Div, Pub Info, 10 Nov 48, sub: Information Relating to Negro Marines, A0-1.(Back)Note 713 · Footnote 10-7: Unless otherwise noted, statistics in this section are from NA Pers, 15658 (A), Report, Navy and Marine Corps Military StatisNote 714 · Footnote 10-8: Memo, Dir, Plans and Policies Div, for CMC, 20 May 48, sub: Procurement and Assignment of Negro Enlisted Personnel, A0-1.(BacNote 715 · Footnote 10-9: Ibid., 28 Aug 47, sub: Requirements for General Duty Negro Marines, A0-1.(Back)Note 716 · Footnote 10-10: Ibid., 14 Nov 49, sub: Designation of Units for Assignment of Negro Marines, A0-1.(Back)Note 717 · Footnote 10-11: For criticism of assignment restrictions, see comments and questions at the National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs, 26Note 718 · Footnote 10-12: G-1, Div of Plans and Policies, Operational Diary, Sep 45-Oct 46, 23 Apr 47; Memo, Dir of Personnel (Div of Recruiting) for Note 719 · Footnote 10-13: Msg, CMC to CG, Cp Lejeune, 19 Feb 46, MC 122026; Memo, CG, Cp Lejeune, for CMC, 28 Feb 46, sub: Personnel and Equipment forNote 720 · Footnote 10-14: Memo, G. C. Thomas for Dir of Personnel, 6 Mar 48, sub: Replacements for Enlisted Personnel (Colored) Assignment of, RequestNote 721 · Footnote 10-15: Norfolk Journal and Guide, May 4, 1946. See also Murray, Negro Yearbook, 1949 pp. 272-73. On the general accuracy of the preNote 722 · Footnote 10-16: CO, Montford Point, Press Conference (ca. 1 May 47), quoted in Div of Plans and Policies Staff Report, "Rescinding Ltr of InNote 723 · Footnote 10-17: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 3 May 46, sub: Enlisting of Negroes in the Marine Corps From Civilian SourcesNote 724 · Footnote 10-18: Ibid., 23 Oct 46, sub: Enlistment of Negroes, 1335-110; Memo, CMC to Off in Charge, Northeastern Recruiting Div, et al., 23 Note 725 · Footnote 10-19: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 28 May 47, sub: Program for Accelerated Attrition of Negro Marines, A0-1; MajNote 726 · Footnote 10-20: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 12 Mar 46, sub: Steward's Branch Personnel, Information Concerning, A0-3, MC Note 727 · Footnote 10-21: Ltr, CG, Cp Lejeune, to CMC, 4 Apr 46, sub: Steward's Branch Personnel, 060105.(Back)Note 728 · Footnote 10-22: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 18 Mar 47, sub: Enlistment of Negro Personnel, 01A7647.(Back)Note 729 · Footnote 10-23: Ibid., 16 Apr 47, sub: First Enlistment of Negro Personnel, A0-1, and 9 Oct 47, sub: Procurement and Assignment of Stewards Note 730 · Footnote 10-24: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 15 Sep 47, sub: Disposition of Negro Personnel Who Enlisted With a View TowarNote 731 · Footnote 10-25: Ibid., 26 Dec 47, sub: Procurement of Steward Personnel, A0-1; see also Ltr, CMC to Chief of Naval Personnel, 6 Jan 48, sub:Note 732 · Footnote 10-26: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 19 Mar 48, sub: Procurement and Distribution of Steward Personnel, A0-1.(BackNote 733 · Footnote 10-27: Ibid., 12 Aug 48, sub: Steward Personnel, Allowances and Procurement, A0-1; Ltr, CMC to CG, Marine Barracks, Cp Lejeune, 16 Note 734 · Footnote 10-28: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 15 Oct 48, sub: Disposition of Negro Personnel Who Enlist "For Steward Duty ONote 735 · Footnote 10-29: Msg, CG, Cp Lejeune, N.C., to CMC, 31 Dec 48.(Back)Note 736 · Footnote 10-30: Memo, Chief of Naval Personnel and CMC for All Ships and Stations, 28 Feb 49, sub: Discharge of Stewards, USN, For the PurpoNote 737 · Footnote 10-31: Memo, CMC for CG, Marine Barracks, Cp Lejeune, N.C., 8 Dec 47, sub: Negro Recruits, 01A33847.(Back)Note 738 · Footnote 10-32: Ltr, CMC to CG, Cp Lejeune, 24 May 48, A0-1; Memo, CMC for Off in Charge of Recruiting Div, 29 Jan 49, sub: Enlistment of NeNote 739 · Footnote 10-33: Ltr, CO, 52d Defense Battalion, to CMC, 15 Jan 46, sub: Employment of Colored Personnel as Antiaircraft Artillery Troops, ReNote 740 · Footnote 10-34: Memo, Dir of Personnel for Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, 21 Jul 48, sub: General Classification Test Scores of Colored EnlNote 741 · Footnote 10-35: Ltr, CO, MB, NAD, McAlester, Okla., to CMC, 5 Nov 46, sub: Assignment of Colored Marines, 2385.(Back)Note 742 · Footnote 10-36: Ltr, CO, NAD, McAlester, Okla., to CMC, 5 Nov 46, 1st Ind to Ltr, CO, MB, McAlester, 2385; Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and PolicNote 743 · Footnote 10-37: Memo, CMC for CNO, 3 Dec 46, sub: Assignment of Negro Marines to MB, Naval Magazine, Port Chicago, Calif., and MB, NAD, EarlNote 744 · Footnote 10-38: Speed Ltr, CMC to Cmdt, Twelfth Naval District, 12 Jun 47; Memo, CMC for CO, MB, Naval Shipyard, Brooklyn, N.Y., 13 Jun 47, Note 745 · Footnote 10-39: Memo, CO, MB, NAD, Hingham, Mass., for CMC, 26 Jun 47, sub: Comments on Assignment of Negro Marines, AB-1; Memo, CO, NAD, HiNote 746 · Footnote 10-40: Ltr, Cmdt, First Naval District, to CMC, 30 Jun 47, sub: Assignment of Negro Marines, 2d Ind to AB-1, 26 Jun 47.(Back)Note 747 · Footnote 10-41: Ltr, CO, Naval Base, New York, to CMC, 10 July 47, sub: Assignment of Negro Marines to Second Guard Company, Marine BarracksNote 748 · Footnote 10-42: Ltr, Chief, Bur of Ord, to CNO, 11 Aug 47, sub: Naval Ammunition Depot, Earle, N.J.—Assignment of Negro Marine Complement, NNote 749 · Footnote 10-43: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 19 Nov 47, sub: First Enlistments of Negro Personnel, A0-1; Memo, Chief, Bur Note 750 · Footnote 10-44: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, 29 Jul 47, sub: Negro Requirements and Assignments, A0-1, MC files.(Back)Note 751 · Footnote 10-45: Memo, Chief, Bur of Supplies and Accounts, for CNO, 14 Oct 47, sub: Assignment of Negro Marines, P-16-1; Memo, CNO to CMC, 2Note 752 · Footnote 10-46: Memo, Gen Vandegrift to SecNav, 25 Aug 47, sub: Assignment of Negro Marines, 54-1-29, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 753 · Footnote 10-47: See, for example, the analysis that appeared in the Chicago Defender, August 14, 1948.(Back)Note 754 · Footnote 10-48: Shaw and Donnelly, Blacks and the Marine Corps, pp. 47-48; see also Selective Service System, Special Groups (Monograph 10),Note 755 · Footnote 10-49: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 11 May 48, sub: Appointment to Commissioned Rank in the Regular Marine Corps,Note 756 · Footnote 10-50: Memo, Dir of Public Information for CMC, 11 Feb 49, sub: Publicity on Second Lieutenant John Rudder, USMC, AG 1364; see alsoNote 757 · Footnote 10-51: Memo, Oliver Smith for CMC, 11 Feb 49, with attached CMC note.(Back)Note 758 · Footnote 10-52: Ltr, A. Philip Randolph to Gen C. B. Cates, 8 Mar 49; Ltr, CMC to Randolph, 10 Mar 49, AW 828.(Back)Note 759 · Footnote 10-53: Memo, Dir, Div of Reserve, for CMC, 6 May 47, sub: General Policy Governing Negro Reservists, AF 1271; Ltr, William Griffin Note 760 · Footnote 10-54: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 7 May 47, sub: General Policy Governing Negro Reservists, A0-1.(Back)Note 761 · Footnote 10-55: Memo, Dir of Reserve for CMC, 15 May 47, sub: General Policy Concerning Negro Reservists, AF 394.(Back)Note 762 · Footnote 10-56: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 1 Mar 48, sub: Enlistment of Negro Ex-Marines in Organized Reserve, A0-1.(BacNote 763 · Footnote 10-57: USMC Muster Rolls, 1947.(Back)Note 764 · Footnote 10-58: Interv, Martin Blumenson with 1st Sgt Jerome Pressley, 21 Feb 66, CMH files.(Back)Note 765 · Footnote 11-1: For a comprehensive and authoritative account of the Negro in the Army Air Forces during World War II, sec Osur's Blacks in tNote 766 · Footnote 11-2: See Memo, CS/AC for G-3, 31 May 40, sub: Employment of Negro Personnel in the Air Corps Units, G-3/6541-Gen 527.(Back)Note 767 · Footnote 11-3: For the effect on unit morale, see Charles E. Francis, The Tuskegee Airmen: The Story of the Negro in the U.S. Air Force (BosNote 768 · Footnote 11-4: Lee, Employment of Negro Troops, pp. 462-64; see also Interv, author with Lt Gen Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., 12 Jun 70, CMH filesNote 769 · Footnote 11-5: A nonrated officer is one not having or requiring a currently effective aeronautical rating; that is, an officer who is not aNote 770 · Footnote 11-6: Interv, author with Davis; see also Osur's Blacks in the Army Air Forces During World War II, ch. V.(Back)Note 771 · Footnote 11-7: "Summary of AAF Post-War Surveys," prepared by Noel Parrish, copy in NAACP Collection, Library of Congress.(Back)Note 772 · Footnote 11-8: Noel F. Parrish, "The Segregation of the Negro in the Army Air Forces," thesis submitted to the USAF Air Command and Staff ScNote 773 · Footnote 11-9: Ltr, Hq AAF, to CG, Tactical Training Cmd, 21 Aug 42, sub: Professional Qualities of Officers Assigned to Negro Units, 220.76Note 774 · Footnote 11-10: Parrish, "Segregation of the Negro in the Army Air Forces," pp. 50-55. The many difficulties involved in the assignment of wNote 775 · Footnote 11-11: AAF Transport Cmd, "History of the Command, 1 July 1946-31 December 1946" pp. 120-26.(Back)Note 776 · Footnote 11-12: Parrish, "Segregation of the Negro in the Army Air Forces."(Back)Note 777 · Footnote 11-13: AAF Ltr 35-268, 11 Aug 45.(Back)Note 778 · Footnote 11-14: Rpt, ACS/AS-1 to WDSS, 17 Sep 45, sub: Participation of Negro Troops in the Post-War Military Establishment, WDSS 291.2.(BacNote 779 · Footnote 11-15: Ibid. For an analysis of these recommendations, see Gropman's The Air Force Integrates, ch. II.(Back)Note 780 · Footnote 11-16: WD Bureau of Public Relations, Memo for the Press, 20 Sep 45; Office of Public Relations, Godman Field, Ky., "Col. Davis IssNote 781 · Footnote 11-17: "History of the 2143d AAF Base Unit, Pilot School, Basic, Advanced, and Tuskegee Army Air Field, 1 Sep 1945-31 Oct 1945," AFNote 782 · Footnote 11-18: For an example of black reaction see Ebony Magazine V (September 1949).(Back)Note 783 · Footnote 11-19: Memo, James C. Evans, Adviser to the SecDef, for Capt Robert W. Berry, 10 Feb 48, SecDef 291.2 files.(Back)Note 784 · Footnote 11-20: "History of the 477th Composite Group," 15 Sep 45-15 Feb 46, Feb-Mar 46, and 1 Mar-15 Jul 46, AFSHRC.(Back)Note 785 · Footnote 11-21: All figures from STM-30, 1 Sep 45 and 1 Apr 46.(Back)Note 786 · Footnote 11-22: Memo, TAG for CG's et al., 4 Feb 46, sub: Utilization of Negro Personnel, AG 291.2 (31 Jan 46).(Back)Note 787 · Footnote 11-23: Under the terms of the National Security Act of 1947 the U.S. Air Force was created as a separate service in a Department ofNote 788 · Footnote 11-24: "Tactical Air Command (TAC) History, 1 Jan-30 Dec 48," pp. 94-96, AFSHRC; see also Lawrence J. Paszek, "Negroes and the Air Note 789 · Footnote 11-25: Memo, DCofS/Personnel, TAC, for CG, TAC, 18 Mar 48, AFSHRC.(Back)Note 790 · Footnote 11-26: Memo, DCofS/P&A, USAF, for Asst SecAF, 5 Dec 47, sub: Air Force Negro Troops in the Zone of Interior, Negro Affairs, SecAF fNote 791 · Footnote 11-27: "History of MacDill Army Airfield, Oct 46," pp. 10-11, AFSHRC. For a detailed analysis of the MacDill riot and its aftermathNote 792 · Footnote 11-28: Memo, unsigned (probably DCofS/P&A), for Asst SecAF Zuckert, 22 Apr 48, SecAF files.(Back)Note 793 · Footnote 11-29: See Air Force Testimony Before the National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs (afternoon session), pp. 29-32, CMH files.(BNote 794 · Footnote 11-30: Memo, DCofS/P&A, TAC, for CG, TAC, 18 Mar 48, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower, AFSHRC.(Back)Note 795 · Footnote 11-31: Parrish, "Segregation of the Negro in the Army Air Forces," pp. 72-73.(Back)Note 796 · Footnote 11-32: Memo, Ray for ASW, 25 Jul 46, ASW 291.2.(Back)Note 797 · Footnote 11-33: Memo, Petersen for CG, AAF, 29 Jul 46, ASW 291.2.(Back)Note 798 · Footnote 11-34: Memo, Brig Gen Reuben C. Hood, Jr., Office of CG, AAF, for ASW, 13 Sep 46, ASW 291.2.(Back)Note 799 · Footnote 11-35: Memo, unsigned, for Asst SecAF Zuckert, 22 Apr 48, SecAF files. The figures cited in this memorandum were slightly at varianNote 800 · Footnote 11-36: Memo, DCofS/P&A, TAC, for CG, TAC, 18 Mar 48, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower, AFSHRC.(Back)Note 801 · Footnote 11-37: Memo, Adj, 20th Fighter Wing, for CG, Ninth AF, undated, sub: Transfer of Structural Firefighters; 2d Ind, Hq 332d Fighter WNote 802 · Footnote 11-38: Memo, DCofS/P&A, TAC, for CG, TAC, 18 Mar 48, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower, AFSHRC.(Back)Note 803 · Footnote 11-39: Memo, Maj Gen Old for CG, TAC, 26 Jan 48, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower, 9AF 200.3, Hist of Ninth AF, AFSHRC.(Back)Note 804 · Footnote 11-40: Ltr, Lt Gen Quesada to Maj Gen Old, Ninth AF, 9 Apr 48, Hist of Ninth AF, AFSHRC.(Back)Note 805 · Footnote 11-41: Ltrs, CG, TAC, to CS/USAF, 1 Sep 48, sub: Reception of Submarginal Enlisted Personnel; VCS/USAF to CG, TAC, 11 Sep 48, sub: Note 806 · Footnote 11-42: Ltr, DCofS/P&A, TAC, to CG, Ninth AF, 19 May 48, sub: Submarginal Enlisted Personnel; Record of Dir of Per Staff, TAC, Mtg, Note 807 · Footnote 11-43: Ltr, CG, TAC, to CG, Ninth AF, 9 Apr 48, TAC 314 (9 Apr 48), AFSHRC.(Back)Note 808 · Footnote 11-44: Hq TAC, Record and Routing Sheet, 16 Apr 48, sub: Supervisory Visit 332d Ftr Gp, Lockbourne AFB, AFSHRC.(Back)Note 809 · Footnote 11-45: Ltr, CG, Ninth AF, to CG, TAC, 10 Feb 48, sub: Assignment of Negro Personnel, Hist of Ninth AF, AFSHRC.(Back)Note 810 · Footnote 11-46: Hq TAC, Record and Routing Sheet, 16 Apr 48, sub: Supervisory Visit 332d Ftr Gp, Lockbourne AFB, AFSHRC.(Back)Note 811 · Footnote 11-47: Ltrs, CG, TAC, to CG, Ninth AF, 9 Apr 48, and DCG, TAC, to CG, Ninth AF, 7 May 48, TAC 210.3; both in Hist of Ninth AF, AFSHNote 812 · Footnote 11-48: Memo, A-1, Ninth AF, for C/S, Ninth AF, 18 May 48, sub: Manning of 332d Fighter Wing, Hist of Ninth AF; Record of the TAC StNote 813 · Footnote 11-49: Ltr, Brig Gen J. V. Crabb to Maj Gen Robert M. Lee, Hq TAC, 19 May 48, Hist of Ninth AF, AFSHRC.(Back)Note 814 · Footnote 11-50: Ltr, CG, Ninth AF, to Maj Gen R. M. Lee, TAC, 18 May 48, Hist of Ninth AF, AFSHRC.(Back)Note 815 · Footnote 11-51: For discussion of these views and their influence on officers, see USAF Oral History Program, Interviews with Brig Gen Noel Note 816 · Footnote 11-52: Ltr, Brig Gen J. V. Crabb to Maj Gen Robert M. Lee, Hq TAC, 19 May 48, Hist of Ninth AF, AFSHRC.(Back)Note 817 · Footnote 11-53: Interv, author with Davis.(Back)Note 818 · Footnote 11-54: See history of various aviation air units in "History of the Strategic Air Command, 1948," vols VI and VIII, AFSHRC.(Back)Note 819 · Footnote 11-55: For discussion of the strength of this outside pressure, see USAF Oral History Program. Interviews with Davis and Brig Gen LNote 820 · Footnote 11-56: Ltr, Lemuel Graves to Gen Carl Spaatz, 26 Mar 48; Ltr, Spaatz to Graves, 19 Apr 48. A copy of the correspondence was also seNote 821 · Footnote 11-57: Department of National Defense, "National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs," 26 Apr 48 (morning session) p. 62. The confeNote 822 · Footnote 11-58: Department of National Defense, "National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs," 28 Apr 48, (morning session), p. 67.(Back)Note 823 · Footnote 11-59: Ibid., p. 69.(Back)Note 824 · Footnote 11-60: Memo, Edwards for SecAF, 29 Apr 48, sub: Conference With Group of Prominent Negroes, Negro Affairs 1948, SecAF files.(Back)Note 825 · Footnote 11-61: Interv, author with Evans, 7 Apr 70; Note, Evans to Col Marr, 8 Jun 50, SD 291.2.(Back)Note 826 · Footnote 11-62: Memo, Evans for SecAF, 7 Jun 48, sub: Negro Air Units, D54-1-12. SecDef files.(Back)Note 827 · Footnote 11-63: DCofS/P Summary Sheet for CofS, 15 Jul 48, sub: Negro Air Units, Negro Affairs 1948, SecAF files.(Back)Note 828 · Footnote 11-64: During World War II, Edwards served as the Army's Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3. For a discussion of his opposition at that Note 829 · Footnote 11-65: Ltr, Marr to author, 19 Jun 70, CMH files.(Back)Note 830 · Footnote 11-66: A group created to review policy and make recommendations to the Chief of Staff when called upon, the Air Board consisted atNote 831 · Footnote 11-67: Memo, Maj Leon Bell for Zuckert, 27 Oct 48, SecAF files. Nugent later succeeded Edwards as the chief Air Force personnel offNote 832 · Footnote 11-68: This attitude is strongly displayed in the USAF Oral History Program, Interviews with Lt Gen Richard E. Nugent, 8 Jun 73, anNote 833 · Footnote 11-69: USAF Oral Hist Interv with Zuckert.(Back)Note 834 · Footnote 11-70: Colonel Marr recalled a different chronology for the Air Force integration plan. According to Marr, his proposals were forwaNote 835 · Footnote 11-71: The Air Force integration plan underwent considerable revision and modification before its submission to the Secretary of DeNote 836 · Footnote 11-72: Memo, Edwards for SecAF, 29 Apr 48, sub: Conference With Group of Prominent Negroes, Negro Affairs 1948, SecAF files.(Back)Note 837 · Footnote 11-73: Memo, Zuckert to Evans, 22 Jul 48, sub: Negro Air Units, SecAF files.(Back)Note 838 · Footnote 12-1: On the development of cold war roles and missions for the services, see Timothy W. Stanley, American Defense and National SecNote 839 · Footnote 12-3: Quoted in James Peck, Freedom Ride (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1962), pp. 154-55.(Back)Note 840 · Footnote 12-4: Quoted in Daniels, Man of Independence, pp. 339-40.(Back)Note 841 · Footnote 12-5: Msg, HST to NAACP Convention, 29 Jun 47, Public Papers of the President, 1947 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1963),Note 842 · Footnote 12-6: Harry S. Truman, Memoirs (New York: Doubleday, 1958), II:180-81; White, A Man Called White, pp. 330-31. Truman's concept of cNote 843 · Footnote 12-7: White, A Man Called White, pp. 330-31.(Back)Note 844 · Footnote 12-8: Intervs, Nichols with Oscar Ewing, former federal security administrator and senior presidential adviser, and Jonathan DanielNote 845 · Footnote 12-9: White, A Man Called White, pp. 330-31.(Back)Note 846 · Footnote 12-10: Executive Order 9808, 5 Dec 46.(Back)Note 847 · Footnote 12-11: In addition to Chairman Wilson, the following people served on the committee: Sadie T. M. Alexander, James B. Carey, John S.Note 848 · Footnote 12-12: Parts of the survey of attitudes of participants in the World War II integration of platoons were included in remarks by ConNote 849 · Footnote 12-13: To Secure These Rights, p. 162.(Back)Note 850 · Footnote 12-14: Ibid., pp. 162-63.(Back)Note 851 · Footnote 12-15: Ibid., p. 47.(Back)Note 852 · Footnote 12-16: Truman, Special Message to the Congress on Civil Rights, 2 Feb 48, Public Papers of the President, 1948, pp. 121-26.(Back)Note 853 · Footnote 12-17: Quoted in Walter Millis, ed., The Forrestal Diaries (New York: Viking Press, 1951), p. 88.(Back)Note 854 · Footnote 12-18: Quoted by Granger in the interview he gave Nichols in 1954.(Back)Note 855 · Footnote 12-19: Quoted in Millis, Forrestal Diaries, p. 301.(Back)Note 856 · Footnote 12-20: Ibid., pp. 117, 147. Timothy Stanley describes the Eberstadt report as the Navy's "constructive alternative" to unification.Note 857 · Footnote 12-21: Millis, Forrestal Diaries, pp. 301, 497.(Back)Note 858 · Footnote 12-22: Ltr, Forrestal to White, 21 Oct 47, Day file, Forrestal Papers, Princeton University Library.(Back)Note 859 · Footnote 12-23: Remarks by James Forrestal at Dinner Meeting of the National Urban League, 12 Feb 48, copy in Misc file, Forrestal Papers; sNote 860 · Footnote 12-24: In addition to his duties as Civilian Aide to the Secretary of the Army, Evans was made aide to the Secretary of Defense on Note 861 · Footnote 12-25: Ltr, Gibson to Ohly, 25 Nov 47, D54-1-3, Sec Def files.(Back)Note 862 · Footnote 12-26: New York Times, November 23, 1947; Herald Tribune, November 23, 1947. See also L. D. Reddick, "The Negro Policy of the AmeriNote 863 · Footnote 12-27: Ltr, White to Forrestal, 17 Feb 48, D54-1-3, SecDef files.(Back)Note 864 · Footnote 12-28: Ltr, Forrestal to Rear Adm W. B. Young, 23 Oct 47, quoted in Millis, Forrestal Diaries, p. 334.(Back)Note 865 · Footnote 12-29: Interv, Blumenson with Marx Leva, Special Assistant to the Secretary of Defense (1947-49) and later Assistant Secretary of DNote 866 · Footnote 12-30: Handwritten Memo, Leva for Forrestal, attached to Ltr, White to Forrestal, 17 Feb 48; Ltr, Leva to Granger, 19 Feb 48; Ltr, Note 867 · Footnote 12-31: Memo, Marx Leva for SA et al., 13 Apr 48; idem for Forrestal, 24 Apr 48; ltr, SecDef to All Invited, 10 Apr 48. All in D54-1Note 868 · Footnote 12-32: Representing eight papers, a cross section of the influential black press, the journalists included Ira F. Lewis and WilliamNote 869 · Footnote 12-33: Sentiments of the meeting were summarized in Ltr, Ira F. Lewis to Forrestal, 24 Mar 48; see also Ltr, Granger to Forrestal, Note 870 · Footnote 12-34: WD Ltr, AGAO-S 353 (28 May 47), WDGOT-M, 11 Jun 47.(Back)Note 871 · Footnote 12-35: A Program for National Security: Report of the President's Advisory Commission on Universal Training, 29 May 1947 (WashingtoNote 872 · Footnote 12-36: Senate, Hearings Before the Committee on Armed Services, Universal Military Training, 80th Cong., 2d sess., 1948, p. 688.(BaNote 873 · Footnote 12-37: Ibid., p. 689.(Back)Note 874 · Footnote 12-38: Ibid., pp. 691-94. The quotation is from page 694.(Back)Note 875 · Footnote 12-39: Ibid., p. 645.(Back)Note 876 · Footnote 12-40: The Philadelphia Inquirer, April 11, 1948; PM, April 11, 1948. See also McCloy and Ruetten, Quest and Response, pp. 107-08; Note 877 · Footnote 12-41: New York Times, April 1, 1948.(Back)Note 878 · Footnote 12-42: Washington Post, April 2, 1948.(Back)Note 879 · Footnote 12-43: McCoy and Ruetten, Quest and Response, p. 107.(Back)Note 880 · Footnote 12-44: Department of National Defense, "National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs," 26 Apr 48. This document includes the testimNote 881 · Footnote 12-45: NME Press Releases, 26 Apr and 8 Sep 48.(Back)Note 882 · Footnote 12-46: Memo, Forrestal for Marx Leva, 30 Apr 48; Ltr, Nelson to Leva, 24 May 48; Memo, Leva for SA, 25 May 48. All in D54-1-3, SecDNote 883 · Footnote 12-47: Ltr, Grant Reynolds and Randolph to Evans, 3 May 48; Memo, Evans for SecDef, 13 May 48, sub: Commission of Inquiry; both in Note 884 · Footnote 12-48: New York Times, February 16, 1948.(Back)Note 885 · Footnote 12-49: Ltr, Sen. Henry C. Lodge, Jr. (Mass.), to SecDef, 19 Apr 48, D54-1-3, SecDef files.(Back)Note 886 · Footnote 12-50: McCoy and Ruetten, Quest and Response, pp. 98-99.(Back)Note 887 · Footnote 12-51: Ltr, Granger to Leva, 14 May 48, D54-1-3, SecDef files.(Back)Note 888 · Footnote 12-52: Memo, Leva to Forrestal, 18 May 48, D54-1-3, SecDef files. Forrestal's response, suggesting that Lodge meet with Lester GranNote 889 · Footnote 12-53: Memo, James Forrestal for President, 28 May 48, Secretary's File (PSF), Harry S. Truman Library.(Back)Note 890 · Footnote 12-54: Memo, President for SecDef, 1 Jun 48, Secretary's File (PSF), Truman Library.(Back)Note 891 · Footnote 12-55: Note, SecDef for President, 31 May 48, sub: Conversation With Senator Taft, Secretary's File (PSF), Truman Library.(Back)Note 892 · Footnote 12-56: Interv, Nichols with Ewing; Interv, Blumenson with Leva.(Back)Note 893 · Footnote 12-57: Memo, Clark Clifford for President, 19 Nov 47; ibid., 17 Aug 48, sub: The 1948 Campaign; both in Truman Library. See also CaNote 894 · Footnote 12-58: Interv, Nichols with Ewing.(Back)Note 895 · Footnote 12-59: Quoted in Memo, Leva for SecDef, 15 Jul 48, D54-1-3, SecDef files.(Back)Note 896 · Footnote 12-60: Quoted in Truman, Memoirs, II:183; see also Interv, Nichols with Truman, and Millis, Forrestal Diaries, p. 458.(Back)Note 897 · Footnote 12-61: Interv, Nichols with Ewing.(Back)Note 898 · Footnote 12-62: Memo, Niles for Clifford, 12 May 48; Memo, Clifford for SecDef, 13 May 48, Nash Collection, Truman Library.(Back)Note 899 · Footnote 12-63: Interv, Nichols with Ewing.(Back)Note 900 · Footnote 12-64: Nichols, Breakthrough on the Color Front, p. 86.(Back)Note 901 · Footnote 12-65: Ltr, Donald S. Dawson, Admin Asst to the President, to SecDef, 26 Jul 48. The executive order on equal opportunity for federNote 902 · Footnote 12-66: Columbia University Oral Hist Interv with Wilkins.(Back)Note 903 · Footnote 12-67: Memo, Leva for Forrestal, 26 Jul 48, SecDef files.(Back)Note 904 · Footnote 12-68: Interv, Nichols with Ewing: Ltr, Atty Gen to President, 26 Jul 48, 1285-0, copy in Eisenhower Library.(Back)Note 905 · Footnote 12-69: Presidential News Conference, 29 Jul 48, Public Papers of the President, 1948, p. 422.(Back)Note 906 · Footnote 12-70: Ltr, Dawson to Forrestal, 30 Jul 48, SecDef files.(Back)Note 907 · Footnote 12-71: Memos, Leva for Forrestal, 3 and 12 Aug 48; Ltr, Forrestal to President, 3 Aug 48, D54-1-3, SecDef files.(Back)Note 908 · Footnote 12-72: Ltr, Royall to President, 17 Sep 48, OSA 291.2 (17 Sep 48).(Back)Note 909 · Footnote 12-73: Ibid.(Back)Note 910 · Footnote 12-74: Memo, Royall for Forrestal, 10 Sep 48, OSA 291.2 (10 Sep 48).(Back)Note 911 · Footnote 12-75: Memo, Leva for Forrestal, 1 Sep 48, and Handwritten Note by Forrestal, D54-1-3, SecDef files.(Back)Note 912 · Footnote 12-76: Memo, Leva for Forrestal, 18 Sep 48, D54-1-3, SecDef files.(Back)Note 913 · Footnote 12-77: Interv, Nichols with Ewing; Interv, Blumenson with Leva. Donahue resigned for health reasons shortly after the committee begNote 914 · Footnote 13-1: Columbia University Oral Hist Interv with Wilkins.(Back)Note 915 · Footnote 13-2: Chicago Defender, August 7 and August 14, 1948.(Back)Note 916 · Footnote 13-3: Pittsburgh Courier, August 7, August 28, and September 25, 1948.(Back)Note 917 · Footnote 13-4: Chicago Defender, August 21, 1948.(Back)Note 918 · Footnote 13-5: New York Times, September 12, 1948.(Back)Note 919 · Footnote 13-6: Memo, Donald Dawson for President, 9 Sep 48, Nash Collection, Truman Library; Memo, SecDef for [Clark] Clifford, 2 Aug 48, anNote 920 · Footnote 13-7: Bradley succeeded Eisenhower as Chief of Staff on 7 February 1948.(Back)Note 921 · Footnote 13-8: Washington Post, July 28, 1948; Atlanta Constitution, July 28, 1948.(Back)Note 922 · Footnote 13-9: News Conference, 29 Jul 48, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1948, p. 165; New York Times, July 30, 1948; ChNote 923 · Footnote 13-10: Interv, Nichols with Bradley.(Back)Note 924 · Footnote 13-11: Hanson Baldwin, "Segregation in the Army," New York Times, August 8, 1948.(Back)Note 925 · Footnote 13-12: Ltr, A. A. Heist, Dir, American Civil Liberties Union, South California Branch, to Forrestal, 7 Sep 48, D54-1-4, SecDef fileNote 926 · Footnote 13-13: Ltrs, Bradley to President Truman, 30 Jul 48, and Truman to Bradley, 4 Aug 48, CSUSA 291.2 (4 Aug 48). See also Ltr, SA to PNote 927 · Footnote 13-14: As provided in various laws since 1920, most notably in Section V of the amendments to the National Defense Act, members of Note 928 · Footnote 13-15: Memo, Chief, Classification and Personnel Actions Br, P&A, for Brig Gen Ira Swift, Chief, Liaison, Planning and Policy CoordNote 929 · Footnote 13-16: DF, WDGS Cmte on National Guard Policy, to Chief, NGB, 20 May 47, sub: Integration of Negro Troops; idem to Dir, P&A, and DiNote 930 · Footnote 13-17: Memo, Dir, O&T, for WDGS Cmte on National Guard Policy, 23 Jun 47, sub: Integration of Negro Troops, WDGOT 291.2.(Back)Note 931 · Footnote 13-18: Memo, Exec for Reserve and ROTC Affairs, O&T, for Dir, O&T, 22 Jul 46; O&T Memo for Rcd, 12 Aug 46; both in WDGOT 291.2.(BacNote 932 · Footnote 13-19: Memo, Ray for Petersen, 2 Apr 47, sub: Integration of Negro Personnel in the Reserve Components, ASW 291.2.(Back)Note 933 · Footnote 13-20: Memo, D/O&T for ASW, 17 Apr 47, sub: Integration of Negro Personnel in the Reserve Components, WDGOT 291.2; Memo, D/P&A thruNote 934 · Footnote 13-21: Ltr, Kenneth Royall to Alfred Driscoll, 7 Feb 48; Ltr, W. Stuart Symington to Driscoll, 17 Mar 48; copies of both in CMH.(BaNote 935 · Footnote 13-22: Ltrs, SA to Luther Youngdahl and James C. Shannon, 20 May 48, both in OSA 291.2 Negroes (5-28-48); Memos, CofSA for Dir, O&TNote 936 · Footnote 13-23: Remarks by Kenneth Royall in the Committee of Four, 9 Mar 48, OSD Historical Office files.(Back)Note 937 · Footnote 13-24: P&A Summary Sheet, 7 Jul 48, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in the National Guard, WDGPA 291.2; O&T Summary Sheet, 8 AprNote 938 · Footnote 13-25: Memo, CofSA for SA, 7 Jul 48, CSUSA 291.2 Negroes (1 Jul 48).(Back)Note 939 · Footnote 13-26: See Ltrs, James Forrestal to A. A. Heist, Dir, American Civil Liberties Union, 13 Sep 48, and Augustus F. Hawkins, 22 Sep 48Note 940 · Footnote 13-27: Ltr, J. Steward McClendon, Secy, Minneapolis Chapter, Am Vets Cmte, to SecDef [sic] Royall, 28 May 48, CSUSA 291.2 Negroes (Note 941 · Footnote 13-28: Ltr, Maj Gen Jim Dan Hill, Wisconsin National Guard, to Secy, WD Advisory Cmte, 24 Jun 48; see also Ltr, Brig Gen Harry EvanNote 942 · Footnote 13-29: Ltr, Brig Gen A. G. Paxton, Mississippi National Guard, to Col William Abendroth, 13 May 1948, Office file, Army Reserve ForNote 943 · Footnote 13-30: Ltr, Marx Leva to author, 24 May 70, CMH files; see also Testimony of Royall at National Defense Conference on Negro AffairsNote 944 · Footnote 13-31: General Paul's Remarks at Army Commanders Conference, 30 Mar-2 Apr 48, p. 30, CSUSA 337.(Back)Note 945 · Footnote 13-32: See Testimony of Royall at National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs, 26 Apr 48, pp. 24-26.(Back)Note 946 · Footnote 13-33: Memo, SA for SecDef, 22 Sep 48, copy in CD30-1-2, SecDef files.(Back)Note 947 · Footnote 13-34: Ltr, Granger and Conferees to Forrestal, 26 Aug 48, D54-1-3, SecDef files.(Back)Note 948 · Footnote 13-35: NME Press Release, 8 Sep 48; New York Times, September 9, 1948; Memo, Leva for Forrestal, 30 Aug 48; Ltr, Forrestal to GrangNote 949 · Footnote 13-36: Memo, SA for SecDef, 22 Sep 48, copy in CD30-1-2, SecDef files.(Back)Note 950 · Footnote 13-37: Memo (unsigned), Forrestal for Royall, 22 Sep 48. The answer was prepared by Leva and used by Forrestal as the basis for hisNote 951 · Footnote 13-38: Memo, SecNav for SecDef, 27 May 48, sub: Liaison With the Selective Service System and Determination of Parity Standards, P1Note 952 · Footnote 13-39: CofSA, Rpt of War Council Min, 3 Aug 48, copy in OSD Historical Office files.(Back)Note 953 · Footnote 13-40: For a detailed analysis of the various service arguments and positions, see Office of the Secretary of Defense, "Proposed FiNote 954 · Footnote 13-41: Memo, SecDef for SA et al., 12 Oct 48, with attached Summary of Supplement, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 955 · Footnote 13-42: DF, Dir, P&A, to CofS, 24 Jan 49, sub: Experimental Unit, GSPGA 291.2 (24 Jan 49).(Back)Note 956 · Footnote 13-43: Memo, SecDef for President, 29 Feb 48, Secretary's File (PSF), Truman Library.(Back)Note 957 · Footnote 13-44: Memo, CofS for Dir, O&T, 11 Oct 48, CSUSA 291.2 Negroes (11 Oct 48).(Back)Note 958 · Footnote 13-45: Lt Col D. M. Oden, Asst Secy, CS, Memo for Rcd, 4 Nov 48, sub: Organization of an Experimental Unit, CSUSA 291.2 (Negroes) (Note 959 · Footnote 13-46: Memo, Marx Leva for SA, 22 Nov 48; see also idem for Ohly, 16 Nov 48; both in CD 30-1-2, SecDef files.(Back)Note 960 · Footnote 13-47: Interv, author with James C. Evans, 1 Jul 70; Ltr, E. W. Kenworthy, Exec Secy, Presidential Committee, to Lee Nichols, 28 JuNote 961 · Footnote 13-48: Memo, SA for SecDef, 2 Dec 48, CD 30-1-2, SecDef files.(Back)Note 962 · Footnote 13-49: Memo, SecAF for SecDef, 22 Dec 48, CD 30-1-2, SecDef files.(Back)Note 963 · Footnote 13-50: Memo, Actg SecNav for SecDef, 28 Dec 48, CD 30-1-2, SecDef files.(Back)Note 964 · Footnote 13-51: Memo, Capt H. D. Riley, USN, OSD, for SecDef, 6 Dec 48, sub: Comment on the Secretary of the Army's Proposal Concerning ExpeNote 965 · Footnote 13-52: Millis, Forrestal Diaries, p. 528.(Back)Note 966 · Footnote 13-53: DF, Dir, O&T, to DCofS, 14 Jul 48, sub: Report of Visit by Negro Publishers and Editors to the European Theater, CSGOT 291.2Note 967 · Footnote 13-54: Interv, author with Huebner.(Back)Note 968 · Footnote 13-55: Ltr, Dir, O&T, to CG, EUCOM, 13 Dec 48, sub: Integration of Negro Units on the Platoon Level Within the Constabulary EUCOM, Note 969 · Footnote 13-56: Interv, author with Huebner.(Back)Note 970 · Footnote 13-57: Geis Monograph, p. 90. For the reaction of a constabulary brigade commander to the attachment of black infantrymen, see BrucNote 971 · Footnote 13-58: Ltr, TAG to Distribution, 23 Mar 49, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower, AGAO 291.2.(Back)Note 972 · Footnote 13-59: Memo, Actg SecNav for SecDef et al., 28 Dec 48, sub: The Secretary of the Army's Confidential Memorandum of 2 December..., cNote 973 · Footnote 13-60: Testimony of Stickney Before the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, 25 ApNote 974 · Footnote 13-61: Lt Cmdr G. E. Minor, BuPers, Memo for File, 10 Mar 49, sub: Information for Lt. Nelson-Press Section, Pers 251, BuPersRecs. Note 975 · Footnote 13-62: This dubious assertion on the seagoing interests of races had been most recently expressed by the Chief of Naval Personnel bNote 976 · Footnote 13-63: Testimony of Capt J. H. Schultz, Asst Chief of Naval Personnel for Naval Reserve, Before President's Committee on Equality oNote 977 · Footnote 13-64: Memo, Head, Pers Accounting and Statistical Control Sec, BuPers, for Dir, Fiscal Div (Pers 83), 14 Dec 48, sub: Statistics oNote 978 · Footnote 13-65: Memo, CMC for CG, MB, Cp Lejeune, N.C., 23 Aug 48, sub: Recruit Training Load at Montford Point Camp, MC 1035238; idem for CNote 979 · Footnote 13-66: Memo, CG, MCRD, Parris Island, for CMC, 15 Sep 49, sub: Negro Recruits, ser. 08355.(Back)Note 980 · Footnote 13-67: This limited integration program was announced by the Secretary of the Navy on 22 December 1949; see Memo, Under SecNav for Note 981 · Footnote 13-68: USMC Oral History Interview with Noble, 20-23 May 68.(Back)Note 982 · Footnote 13-69: Testimony of the Secretary of the Navy Before President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed SeNote 983 · Footnote 13-70: On the closing of Montford Point, see Interv, Blumenson with Sgt Max Rousseau, Admin Chief, G-1 Div, USMC (former member of Note 984 · Footnote 13-71: Memo, CMC for CG, FMF, Pacific, 11 Feb 49, with attached Handwritten Note, Div of Plans and Policies to Asst CMC, 11 Feb 49.Note 985 · Footnote 13-72: Memo, Under SecNav for Chmn, PPB, 2 May 49, PPB 291.2.(Back)Note 986 · Footnote 13-73: Memo, CMC for Asst SecNav for Air, 17 Mar 49, sub: Proposed Directive for the Armed Forces for the Period 1 July 1949 to 1 JNote 987 · Footnote 13-74: Idem for CO, Second Depot Co, Service Cmd, FMF, 2 May 49, sub: Employment of Negroes in the Marine Corps, MC1008783, MC fileNote 988 · Footnote 13-75: On 30 June 1949 the Marine Corps had 1,504 Negroes on active duty, 1.9 percent of the total if the one-year enlistees were iNote 989 · Footnote 13-76: Memo, Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, for CMC, 28 Jul 49, sub: Re-assignment of Negro Marines to Existing units (DP&P Study Note 990 · Footnote 13-77: Notes on Telecon, author with Zuckert, 28 Apr 70, CMH files.(Back)Note 991 · Footnote 13-78: Memo, DCofS/P&A, USAF, for SecAF, 29 Apr 48, sub: Conference With Group of Prominent Negroes, Negro Affairs, 1948, SecAF filNote 992 · Footnote 13-79: Telecon, author with Zuckert.(Back)Note 993 · Footnote 13-80: Ltr, Symington to David K. Niles, 28 Jan 50, SecAF files.(Back)Note 994 · Footnote 13-81: Memo, SecAF for Zuckert, 5 Jan 48; Penciled Note, signed "Stu," attached to Memo, ASecAF for Symington, 20 Jan 48. All in SeNote 995 · Footnote 13-82: Ltr, W. Stuart Symington to author, 6 May 70, CMH files.(Back)Note 996 · Footnote 13-83: Telecon, author with Zuckert.(Back)Note 997 · Footnote 13-84: Ibid.; see also USAF Oral Hist Interv with Zuckert.(Back)Note 998 · Footnote 13-85: For discussion of the close-held nature of the USAF integration plan, see USAF Oral Hist Intervs with Davis and Marr; see alNote 999 · Footnote 13-86: Memo, Dir, Personnel Planning USAF, for the Fahy Cmte, 15 Jan 49, sub: Air Force Policies Regarding Negro Personnel, SecAF fNote 1000 · Footnote 13-87: Summary Sheet DCS/P, USAF, for CS, USAF, and SecAF, 29 Dec 48, sub: Air Force Policies on Negro Personnel, SecAF files.(BackNote 1001 · Footnote 13-88: Memo, ASecAF for Symington, 5 Jan 49, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1002 · Footnote 13-89: Memo, Maj Gen William F. McKee for Symington, 22 Dec 48, sub: Mr. Royall's Negro Experiment, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1003 · Footnote 13-90: Memo, SecAF for Forrestal, 6 Jan 49, Negro Affairs, 1949, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1004 · Footnote 13-91: Testimony of Lt Col Jack F. Marr Before President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed ServicesNote 1005 · Footnote 14-1: Memo, SecDef for SA et al., 21 Oct 48, copy in Fahy Committee file, CMH [hereafter cited as FC file]. The Center of Military Note 1006 · Footnote 14-2: Ltrs, James Forrestal to Fahy, 26 Mar 49, and Louis Johnson to Fahy, 18 Apr 49; both in FC file. See also Ltr, Thomas R. ReidNote 1007 · Footnote 14-3: Min, Cmte of Four Secretaries Mtg, 26 Oct 48, Office of OSD Historian. The Committee of the Four Secretaries was an informal Note 1008 · Footnote 14-4: Min, War Council Mtg, 12 Jan 49, Office of OSD Historian; Memo, Secy of War Council for SA et al., 13 Jan 49, sub: SignificanNote 1009 · Footnote 14-5: Memo, Thomas R. Reid, Chmn, PPB, for Worthington Thompson, OSD, 15 Feb 49, sub: Meeting of Committee of Four, 10 A.M. TuesdayNote 1010 · Footnote 14-6: Forrestal signed an interim directive appointing members of the board on 22 February 1949. Composed of a civilian chairman anNote 1011 · Footnote 14-7: Min PPB Mtg, 26 Feb 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1012 · Footnote 14-8: Memo, Col J. F. Cassidy, PPB, for Dir, PPB Staff, 25 Feb 49, sub: Policies of the Three Departments With Reference to Negro PNote 1013 · Footnote 14-9: PPB, Draft (Reid and Lanham), Proposed Directive for the Armed Forces for the Period 1 July 1949 to 1 July 1950, 28 Feb 49, FNote 1014 · Footnote 14-10: Note, Leva thru Ohly to Buck Lanham, attached to Draft of Proposed Directive cited in n. 9.(Back)Note 1015 · Footnote 14-11: Memo, Chmn, PPB, for John Ohly, Assistant to SecDef, 15 Mar 49; Revised Min, PPB Mtg, 18 Mar 49; both in FC file.(Back)Note 1016 · Footnote 14-12: Interv, author with Roy K. Davenport, 7 Oct 71, CMH.(Back)Note 1017 · Footnote 14-13: Memo for Files, Clarence H. Osthagen, Assistant to SecAF, 31 Mar 49, sub: Conference With Thomas Reid, FC file.(Back)Note 1018 · Footnote 14-14: Memo, Thomas Reid for Asst SecNav, 1 Apr 49, sub: Statement on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity, FC file.(Back)Note 1019 · Footnote 14-15: PPB, Draft Memo, SecDef for Svc Secys (prepared by Col J. F. Cassidy for Reid), 31 Mar 49; PPB, Proposed Policy for the NatiNote 1020 · Footnote 14-16: Memo, SecDef for SA et al., 6 Apr 49, sub: Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services; Min, PPB Mtg, 5 Apr Note 1021 · Footnote 14-17: Min, PPB Mtg, 8 Apr 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1022 · Footnote 14-18: Memo, Reid for SecDef, 14 Apr 49, sub: The President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed ServiNote 1023 · Footnote 14-19: Min, PPB Mtg, 5 May 49; NME Press Release 3-49A, 20 Apr 49; both in FC file.(Back)Note 1024 · Footnote 14-20: This conclusion is based on Interviews, author with Charles Fahy, 8 Feb 68, James C. Evans, 6 Apr 69, and Brig Gen Charles TNote 1025 · Footnote 14-21: Memo, Kenworthy for Chief of Military History, 13 Oct 76. CMH.(Back)Note 1026 · Footnote 14-22: Memo, Actg SecNav for Chmn, PPB, 2 May 49, sub: Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Navy and Marine Corps; Memo, SANote 1027 · Footnote 14-23: Min, PPB Mtg, 5 May 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1028 · Footnote 14-24: Ibid.; see also Ltr, Thomas Reid to Richard Dalfiume, 1 Apr 65, Incl to Ltr, Reid to author, 15 Jan 71. All in CMH.(Back)Note 1029 · Footnote 14-25: Min, War Council Mtg, 11 Jan 49, FC file; see also Interv, author with W. Stuart Symington, 1974, CMH.(Back)Note 1030 · Footnote 14-26: Memo, SecAF for Chmn, PPB, OSD, 30 Apr 49; Memo, Asst SecAF for SecAF, 20 Apr 49, sub: Department of Air Force ImplementatioNote 1031 · Footnote 14-27: Min, PPB Mtg, 5 May 49; Memo, Reid for SecDef, 10 May 49, sub: Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Forces, FCNote 1032 · Footnote 14-28: Ibid.(Back)Note 1033 · Footnote 14-29: Memo, SA for SecDef, 22 Apr 49, OSA 291.2.(Back)Note 1034 · Footnote 14-30: Memo, SecDef for SA, 13 May 49, sub: Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Forces; idem for SecAF and SecNav, 1Note 1035 · Footnote 14-31: Interv, author with Fahy.(Back)Note 1036 · Footnote 14-32: Ibid.; see also Fahy Cmte, "A Progress Report for the President," 7 Jun 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1037 · Footnote 14-33: Memo, Fahy for Brig Gen James L. Collins, Jr. 16 Aug 76, CMH.(Back)Note 1038 · Footnote 14-34: Interv, author with Fahy.(Back)Note 1039 · Footnote 14-35: Interv, Blumenson with Fahy, 7 Apr 66; Interv, author with Davenport, 31 Oct 71; both in CMH.(Back)Note 1040 · Footnote 14-36: Testimony of General Omar N. Bradley, Fahy Cmte Hearings, 28 Mar 49, afternoon session, p. 71.(Back)Note 1041 · Footnote 14-37: Memo, Asst SecAF for Symington, 11 Apr 49, sub: Statement of the Secretary of the Army Before the President's Committee on ENote 1042 · Footnote 14-38: Testimony of Bradley, Fahy Cmte Hearings, 28 Mar 49, afternoon session, pp. 71-72.(Back)Note 1043 · Footnote 14-39: Ibid., p. 83.(Back)Note 1044 · Footnote 14-40: Testimony of the Secretary of the Army, Fahy Cmte Hearings, 28 Mar 49, morning session, p. 28.(Back)Note 1045 · Footnote 14-41: Ltr, Kenworthy to SA, 20 Jul 50, FC file; see also Memo, Kenworthy for Chief of Military History, 13 Oct 76, CMH.(Back)Note 1046 · Footnote 14-42: Ltr, Kenworthy to Fahy, 10 Mar 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1047 · Footnote 14-43: Testimony of the Secretary of the Air Force, Fahy Cmte Hearings, 28 Mar 49, afternoon session, p. 27.(Back)Note 1048 · Footnote 14-44: Fahy Cmte Hearings, 28 Mar 49, afternoon session, pp. 28-29.(Back)Note 1049 · Footnote 14-45: Ibid., p. 29.(Back)Note 1050 · Footnote 14-46: Intervs, Blumenson with Fahy, and author with Fahy.(Back)Note 1051 · Footnote 14-47: This incident is described in detail in Interviews, author with Fahy; Davenport, 17 Oct 71; and E. W. Kenworthy (by telephonNote 1052 · Footnote 14-48: Fahy Cmte Hearings, 28 Apr 49, morning session.(Back)Note 1053 · Footnote 14-49: Interv, Nichols with Fahy, in Nichols Collection, CMH.(Back)Note 1054 · Footnote 14-50: Fahy Cmte, "Second Interim Report to the President," 27 Jul 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1055 · Footnote 14-51: Interv, author with Davenport, 31 Oct 71.(Back)Note 1056 · Footnote 14-52: Fahy Cmte, "Initial Recommendations by the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed ServiNote 1057 · Footnote 14-53: Ltr, Kenworthy to Fahy, 5 May 49, Fahy Papers, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1058 · Footnote 14-54: Fahy Cmte, "A Progress Report for the President," 7 Jun 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1059 · Footnote 14-55: Min, War Council Mtg, 24 May 49; Fahy Cmte, "Initial Recommendations by the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment aNote 1060 · Footnote 14-56: Memo, Kenworthy for Chief of Military History, 13 Oct 76, CMH.(Back)Note 1061 · Footnote 14-57: Col J. F. Cassidy, Comments on Initial Recommendations of Fahy Committee (ca. 26 May 49) FC file.(Back)Note 1062 · Footnote 14-58: Min, PPB Mtg, 26 May 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1063 · Footnote 14-59: Memo, Reid for Under SecDef, 23 May 49, sub: Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services; idem for SecDef, 1Note 1064 · Footnote 14-60: Ltr, Kenworthy to Fahy, 24 May 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1065 · Footnote 14-61: Memo, Actg SecNav for SecDef, 23 May 49, sub: Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Forces, FC file.(Back)Note 1066 · Footnote 14-62: Draft Memo, Reid for SecNav, 3 Jun 49, and Memo, Reid for SecDef, 1 Jun 49, both in PPB files; Memo, Kenworthy for Fahy, 30 Note 1067 · Footnote 14-63: NME, Off of Pub Info, Release 78-49A, 7 Jun 49. See Washington Post, June 7, 1949, and New York Times, June 8, 1949.(Back)Note 1068 · Footnote 14-64: Following the resignation of Secretary Royall, President Truman nominated Gordon Gray as Secretary of the Army. His appointmNote 1069 · Footnote 14-65: Memo, Actg SA for SecDef, 26 May 49, sub: Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services; see also P&A Summary Note 1070 · Footnote 14-66: Memo, Kenworthy for Fahy, 30 May 49, sub: Replies of Army and Navy to Mr. Johnson's May 11 Memo, FC file.(Back)Note 1071 · Footnote 14-67: Memo, Reid for SecDef, 1 Jun 49, sub: Army and Navy Replies to Your Memorandum of 6 April on Equality of Treatment and OpporNote 1072 · Footnote 14-68: Min, PPB Mtg, 2 Jun 49; Ltr, Fahy to Johnson, 25 Jul 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1073 · Footnote 14-69: Draft Memo, Lanham for SecDef, 2 Jun 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1074 · Footnote 14-70: Memo, SecDef for SA, 7 Jun 49, sub: Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services; NME, Off of Pub Info, PressNote 1075 · Footnote 14-71: Interv, author with Kenworthy.(Back)Note 1076 · Footnote 14-72: Ltr, Kenworthy to Fahy, 20 May 49, Fahy Papers, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1077 · Footnote 14-73: Fahy Cmte, "A Progress Report for the President," 7 Jun 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1078 · Footnote 14-74: Ltr, Fahy to Johnson, 15 Jun 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1079 · Footnote 14-75: Idem to SA, 25 Jul 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1080 · Footnote 14-76: Idem to SecDef, 25 Jul 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1081 · Footnote 14-77: P&A Summary Sheet to DC/S (Adm), 24 Jun 49, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower, CSUSA 291.2 Negroes. For comments of Army coNote 1082 · Footnote 14-78: An Outline Plan for Utilization of Negro Manpower Submitted by the Army to the President's Committee, 5 Jul 49, Incl to Ltr,Note 1083 · Footnote 14-79: Ltrs, Fahy to SecDef and SA, 25 Jul 49; idem to President, 27 Jul 49. All in FC file.(Back)Note 1084 · Footnote 14-80: Memo, Col J. F. Cassidy for Reid, 23 Aug 49, sub: Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Department of the Army, FC fiNote 1085 · Footnote 14-81: New York Times, July 16 and 18, 1949.(Back)Note 1086 · Footnote 14-82: Interv, NBC's "Meet the Press" with Gordon Gray, 18 Jul 49; Ltr, SecDef to Charles Fahy, 3 Aug 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1087 · Footnote 14-83: Memo, VCofS for Gray, 29 Aug 49, sub: Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, CSUSA 291.2 Negroes.(BackNote 1088 · Footnote 14-84: Interv, Nichols with Gordon Gray, 1953, in Nichols Collection, CMH; Memo, Kenworthy for Cmte, 19 Sep 49, sub: Meeting With GNote 1089 · Footnote 14-85: Ltrs, Fahy to President, 21 Sep and 26 Sep 49, both in FC file.(Back)Note 1090 · Footnote 14-86: Memo, SA for SecDef, 30 Sep 49, sub: Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, CSGPA 291.2; DOD, Off of PNote 1091 · Footnote 14-87: Memo, Kenworthy for Cmte, 27 Sep 49, sub: Army's Reply to Secretary Johnson, Fahy Papers, Truman Library; Note, handwritten Note 1092 · Footnote 14-88: Ltr, SecDef to Congressman Vinson, 7 Jul 49; Memo, Lanham for Reid, 29 Mar 49; both in PPB files.(Back)Note 1093 · Footnote 14-89: Ltr, Kenworthy to Nichols, 28 Jul 53, in Nichols Collection, CMH.(Back)Note 1094 · Footnote 14-90: Memo, Kenworthy to Cmte, 27 Sep 49, sub: Army's Reply to Secretary Johnson, and Ltr, Kenworthy to Joseph Evans, 30 Sep 49, bNote 1095 · Footnote 14-91: Memo for Rcd, probably written by Philleo Nash, 3 Oct 49, Nash Collection, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1096 · Footnote 14-92: See Los Angeles Star Review, October 6, 1949; Afro-American, October 8, 1949; Washington Post, October 6, 1949; Pittsburgh CNote 1097 · Footnote 14-93: Ltr, Niles to President, 5 Oct 49, Nash Collection, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1098 · Footnote 14-94: News Conference, 6 Oct 49, as quoted in Public Papers of the President: Harry S. Truman, 1949, p. 501.(Back)Note 1099 · Footnote 14-95: Memo, Fahy for President, 11 Oct 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1100 · Footnote 14-96: Penciled Note, signed HST, on Memo, Niles for President, Secretary's File (PSF), Truman Library.(Back)Note 1101 · Footnote 14-97: Memo, Maj Gen Levin C. Allen, Exec Secy, SecDef, for SA, 14 Oct 49; Memo, Vice Adm John McCrea, Dir of Staff, PPB, for AllenNote 1102 · Footnote 14-98: Memo for Rcd, Karl Bendetsen, Spec Consultant to SA, 28 Nov 49, SA files; Ltr, Kenworthy to Fahy, 22 Nov 49, and Memo, KenwoNote 1103 · Footnote 14-99: Ltr, Fahy to Cmte, 17 Nov 49, Fahy Papers, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1104 · Footnote 14-100: Memo, Kenworthy for Cmte, 29 Oct 49, sub: Background to Proposed Letter to Gray, Fahy Papers, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1105 · Footnote 14-101: Msg, TAG to Chief, AFF, et al., WCL 45586, 011900Z Oct 49, copy in AG 220.3.(Back)Note 1106 · Footnote 14-102: Memo, D/PA for TAG, 25 Oct 49, sub: Assignment of Negro Enlisted Personnel, with attached Memo for Rcd, Col John H. Riepe, Note 1107 · Footnote 14-103: Memo, Kenworthy for Chief of Military History, 13 Oct 76, CMH.(Back)Note 1108 · Footnote 14-104: Idem for Cmte, 29 Oct 49, sub: Instructions to Commanding Generals on New Army Policy, Fahy Papers, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1109 · Footnote 14-105: Lem Graves, Jr. (Washington correspondent of the Pittsburgh Courier), "A Colonel Takes the Rap," Pittsburgh Courier, OctobeNote 1110 · Footnote 14-106: DOD, Off of Pub Info, Release 400-49, 3 Nov 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1111 · Footnote 14-107: Ltr, SA to Fahy, 17 Nov 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1112 · Footnote 14-108: Ltr, Bendetsen to Fahy, 25 Nov 49; Memo for Rcd, Kenworthy, 28 Nov 49; both in Fahy Papers, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1113 · Footnote 14-109: Army Draft No. 1 of Revised Circular 124, 16 Nov 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1114 · Footnote 14-110: Ltr, Fahy to Maj Gen C. E. Byers, 30 Nov 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1115 · Footnote 14-111: Memo, Kenworthy for President's Cmte, 18 Nov 49, sub: Successor Policy to WD Cir 124; idem for Fahy, 28 Nov 49, sub: ReviseNote 1116 · Footnote 14-112: Memo for Rcd, Kenworthy, 9 Dec 49, sub: Telephone Conversation With Nash, Fahy Papers, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1117 · Footnote 14-113: Interv, Nichols with Fahy. J. Lawton Collins became Chief of Staff of the Army on 1 August 1949, succeeding Omar Bradley whNote 1118 · Footnote 14-114: Intervs, Nichols with Gray and Fahy, and author with Collins.(Back)Note 1119 · Footnote 14-115: Ltr, Kenworthy to Gray, 20 Jul 50, FC file; Intervs, Nichols with Gray, Davenport, and Fahy.(Back)Note 1120 · Footnote 14-116: Interv, author with Davenport, 31 Oct 71.(Back)Note 1121 · Footnote 14-117: Memo, Kenworthy for Chief of Military History, 13 Oct 76, CMH.(Back)Note 1122 · Footnote 14-118: Memo for Rcd, Karl R. Bendetsen, Spec Asst to SA, 27 Dec 49, sub: Conference With Judge Charles Fahy, SA files. Intervs, NiNote 1123 · Footnote 14-119: Memo for Rcd, Bendetsen, 27 Dec 49, SA files; Ltr, Fahy to Cmte, 27 Dec 49, Fahy papers, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1124 · Footnote 14-120: Interv, Nichols with Davenport.(Back)Note 1125 · Footnote 14-121: Ltr, Kenworthy to Nichols, 29 Jul 53, in Nichols Collection, CMH; Interv, Nichols with Davenport.(Back)Note 1126 · Footnote 14-122: Memo, Fahy for President, 16 Jan 50, FC file; SR 600-629-1, 16 Jan 50; DOD, Off of Pub Info, Release 64-50, 16 Jan 50. The Note 1127 · Footnote 14-123: D/PA Summary Sheet for SA, 28 Feb 50, sub: Fahy Committee Proposal re: Numerical Enlistment Quota, CSGPA 291.2 (2 Nov 49); Note 1128 · Footnote 14-124: Memo, Actg D/PA for Karl R. Bendetsen, Spec Asst to SA, 13 Dec 49, sub: Ten Percent Racial Quota; D/PA Summary Sheet, with Note 1129 · Footnote 14-125: Memo, Kenworthy for Karl Bendetsen, 19 Oct 49, sub: Manpower Policy, Fahy Papers, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1130 · Footnote 14-126: Memo for Rcd, Kenworthy, 14 Dec 49, sub: Conference With Maj Lieblich and Col Smith, 14 Dec 49, FC file.(Back)Note 1131 · Footnote 14-127: Memo, Fahy for President's Cmte, 1 Feb 50, Fahy Papers, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1132 · Footnote 14-128: Ltr, Niles to President, 7 Feb 50, Secretary's File (PSF), Truman Library.(Back)Note 1133 · Footnote 14-129: D/PA Summary Sheet for SA, 28 Feb 50, sub: Fahy Committee Proposal re: Numerical Enlistment Quota, CSGPA 291.2 (2 Nov 49).(Note 1134 · Footnote 14-130: Interv, Nichols with Gray.(Back)Note 1135 · Footnote 14-131: Ltr, SA to President, 1 Mar 50, Fahy Papers, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1136 · Footnote 14-132: Memo, President for SA, 27 Mar 50, FC file; Memo, SA for President, 24 Mar 50, sub: Discontinuance of Racial Enlistment QuoNote 1137 · Footnote 14-133: Msg, TAG to Chief, AFF, et al., Fort Monroe, Va., WCL 44600, 27 Mar 50, copy in FC file.(Back)Note 1138 · Footnote 14-134: Memo, Clark Clifford for President (ca. Mar 50), Nash Collection, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1139 · Footnote 14-135: Interv, author with Kenworthy.(Back)Note 1140 · Footnote 14-136: Memo, Kenworthy for Fahy, 28 Apr 50, Fahy Papers, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1141 · Footnote 14-137: Ltr, Niles to President, 22 May 50, Nash Collection, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1142 · Footnote 14-138: Memo, Clifford for President, Nash Collection, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1143 · Footnote 14-139: Freedom to Serve: Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services; A Report by the President's Committee (WashiNote 1144 · Footnote 14-140: Ltr, President to Fahy, 6 Jul 50, Fahy Papers, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1145 · Footnote 14-141: Freedom to Serve, p. 27.(Back)Note 1146 · Footnote 14-142: Ltr, SA to President, 1 Mar 50, Fahy Papers, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1147 · Footnote 14-143: Memo, Fahy for SA, 11 May 50, Fahy Papers, Truman Library. Frank Pace, an Arkansas lawyer and former Assistant Director of Note 1148 · Footnote 14-144: President Truman appointed Charles Fahy to the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia on 15 October 194Note 1149 · Footnote 14-145: Memo, Kenworthy for Fahy, 25 Jul 50, Fahy Papers, Truman Library. In the memorandum the number of additional specialties isNote 1150 · Footnote 14-146: Ltr, Davenport to OSD Historian, 31 Aug 76, copy in CMH. For a discussion of these war-related factors, see Chapters 14 andNote 1151 · Footnote 14-147: Freedom to Serve, pp. 66-67.(Back)Note 1152 · Footnote 14-148: Ibid., p. 67.(Back)Note 1153 · Footnote 15-1: Ltr, Truman to Fahy, 6 Jul 50, FC file.(Back)Note 1154 · Footnote 15-2: Interv, Nichols with Gen Wade H. Haislip, 1953, in Nichols Collection; Telephone Interv, author with Haislip, 18 Mar 71; InteNote 1155 · Footnote 15-3: SR 615-105-1 (AFR 39-9), 15 Apr 49.(Back)Note 1156 · Footnote 15-4: Ltr, Holifield to SecDef, 10 Aug 49, SD 291.2 Negroes.(Back)Note 1157 · Footnote 15-5: Memo, Dep Dir, Personnel Policy Bd Staff, for Chmn, PPB, 13 Sep 49, sub: Project Summary—Change of Nomenclature on EnlistmentNote 1158 · Footnote 15-6: Memo, Evans for Chmn, PPB, 25 Nov 49, sub: Racial Designation and Terminology, SD 291.2; Interv, author with Evans, 22 Jul 71Note 1159 · Footnote 15-7: Memo, Head, Strength and Statistics Br, BuPers, for Head, Policy Control Br, BuPers, 27 Oct 49, sub: Policy Regarding Race EnNote 1160 · Footnote 15-8: Admiral McCrea succeeded General Lanham as director of the board's staff in 1949.(Back)Note 1161 · Footnote 15-9: Memo, Dir, PPB Staff, for Under SecNav, 7 Dec 49, sub: Policy Regarding "Race" Entries on Enlistment Contracts and Shipping ANote 1162 · Footnote 15-10: Idem for Administrative Asst to SA, 8 Dec 49, sub: Policy Regarding "Race" Entries on Enlistment Contracts and Shipping ArtiNote 1163 · Footnote 15-11: Schneider succeeded Thomas Reid as chairman on 2 February 1950.(Back)Note 1164 · Footnote 15-12: Memo, Chmn, PPB, for SA et al., 5 Apr 50, sub: Policy Regarding "Race" on Enlistment Contracts and Shipping Articles, PPB 29Note 1165 · Footnote 15-13: SR 615-105-1 (AFR 39-9), 6 Sep 50.(Back)Note 1166 · Footnote 15-14: BuPers Cir Ltr 84-50, 1 Jun 50.(Back)Note 1167 · Footnote 15-15: Memo, Dep Asst CS/G-1 for Dep Dir of Staff, Mil Pers, PPB, 7 Aug 50, sub: "Race" Entries on Induction Records, PPB 291.2. ThNote 1168 · Footnote 15-16: Memo, Dir, PPB Staff, for Dep ACS, G-1, 29 Aug 50, sub: "Race" Entries on Induction Records, PPB 291.2 (27 Aug 50); Memo, ChNote 1169 · Footnote 15-17: Ltr, Clarence Mitchell to SecAF Thomas K. Finletter, 13 Dec 50, SecAF files. Finletter had become secretary on 24 April 1950Note 1170 · Footnote 15-18: Ltr, SecAF to Mitchell, Dir, Washington Bureau, NAACP, 3 Jan 51, and Ltr, Mitchell to Asst SecAF, 8 Jan 51, both in SecAF fiNote 1171 · Footnote 15-19: Memo, Dep Asst SecAF (Program Management) for SecAF, 18 Jan 51, SecAF files; Memo, Col Robin B. Pape, Asst to Dir, PPB StaffNote 1172 · Footnote 15-20: Memo, Secy, Cmte on Negro Policies, for ASW, 26 Sep 42, sub: Digest of War Department Policy Pertaining to Negro Military PeNote 1173 · Footnote 15-21: Msg, CG, China Theater, to War Department, 16 Mar 46, G-1 291.2 (1 Jan-31 Mar 46); Memo Vice CNO for Chief of NavPers, 1 JulNote 1174 · Footnote 15-22: Memo, Thomas R. Reid for Najeeb Halaby, Dir, Office of Foreign Military Affairs, OSD, 7 Jul 49, sub: Foreign Assignments of Note 1175 · Footnote 15-23: Ltr, SecDef to Secy of State, 14 Sep 49, CD 30-1-4, SecDef files.(Back)Note 1176 · Footnote 15-24: Memo, Asst SecAF for Chmn, PPB, 16 Sep 49, sub: Assignment of Negroes to Overseas Areas; Memo, Dir of Staff, PPB, for Asst SNote 1177 · Footnote 15-25: Ltr, James E. Webb to Louis Johnson, 17 Oct 49; Memo, SecDef for SA et al., 27 Oct 49; both in CD 30-1-4, SecDef files.(BackNote 1178 · Footnote 15-26: DF, D/PA to D/OT, 1 Mar 50, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower; Ltr, D/PA for Maj Gen Ray E. Porter, CG, USACARIB, 9 Feb 50;Note 1179 · Footnote 15-27: G-1 Summary Sheet, 12 Apr 50, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower, CSGPA 291.2.(Back)Note 1180 · Footnote 15-28: Memo, Dir of Personnel, USMC, for Dir, Div of Plans and Policies, 22 Dec 49, Hist Div, HQMC.(Back)Note 1181 · Footnote 15-29: Memo, Dep CS/Pers for SecAF, 28 Dec 49; Memo, Clarence H. Osthagen, Asst to SecAF, for Asst SecAF, 6 Jan 50; Rcd of Telecon,Note 1182 · Footnote 15-30: Memo, SecNav for SecDef, 3 Jan 50, sub: Foreign Assignment of Negro Personnel, CD 30-1-4, SecDef files.(Back)Note 1183 · Footnote 15-31: Memo, NEH (Halaby) for Maj Gen J. H. Burns, 10 Feb 50, attached to Ltr, Burns to Rusk, 13 Feb 50, CD 30-1-4, SecDef files.(BNote 1184 · Footnote 15-32: Memo, SecDef for SA et al., 5 Apr 50, sub: Foreign Assignment of Negro Personnel; Ltr, Dean Rusk to Maj Gen Burns, 1 Mar 50;Note 1185 · Footnote 15-33: DF, ACS, G-1, for CSA, 3 Dec 52, sub: Restricted Distribution of Negro Personnel; ibid., 30 Mar 53, sub: Assignment of NegroNote 1186 · Footnote 15-34: G-3 Summary Sheet, 15 Nov 49, sub: Assignment of Negro Personnel, G-3 291.2.(Back)Note 1187 · Footnote 15-35: Msg, Chief, JAMMAT, Ankara, Turkey, to DA, personal for the G-1, 14 Apr 51; Ltr, Brig Gen W. E. Dunkelberg to Maj Gen WilliaNote 1188 · Footnote 15-36: Jack Greenberg, Race Relations and American Law (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), pp. 359-60.(Back)Note 1189 · Footnote 15-37: Memo, Dep ASA for ASD/ISA, 6 Feb 57, sub: Racial Assignment Restrictions, OSA 291.2 Ethiopia.(Back)Note 1190 · Footnote 15-38: Ltr, Dep Asst Secy of State for Personnel to Dep ASD (MP&R), 24 May 57, OASD (MP&R) 291.2.(Back)Note 1191 · Footnote 15-39: Memo, Dep ASD for ASA (MP&R) et al., 24 Jun 57, ASD (MP&R) 291.2.(Back)Note 1192 · Footnote 15-40: Memo, James C. Evans for Paul Hopper, ISA, 29 Oct 58; Memo for Rcd, Exec to Civilian Asst, OSD, 21 Jan 60, sub: MAAG's and MNote 1193 · Footnote 15-41: See AFM 35-11L, Appendix M, 14 Dec 60, sub: Assignment Restrictions; Memo, USMC IG for Dir of Pers, MC, 31 Aug 62, sub: ProbNote 1194 · Footnote 15-42: Congressional Record, 81st Cong., 2d sess., vol. 96, p. 8412.(Back)Note 1195 · Footnote 15-43: Ibid., pp. 8973, 9073.(Back)Note 1196 · Footnote 15-44: Ibid., p. 9074; see also Memo, Rear Adm H. A. Houser, OSD Legis Liaison, for ASD Rosenberg, 17 Mar 51, sub: Winstead Anti-noNote 1197 · Footnote 15-45: See Ltrs, Rep. Kenneth B. Keating to Johnson, 19 Dec 49; SecDef to Keating, 20 Jan 50; idem to Hubert H. Humphrey, 24 Mar 50Note 1198 · Footnote 15-46: Ltrs, Johnson to Reynolds, 23 Dec 49; Reynolds to Johnson, 13 Jan 50; Reynolds and Randolph to Johnson, 15 Jan 50; Johnson tNote 1199 · Footnote 15-47: Ltr, Javits to Johnson, 22 Dec 49; Press Release, Jacob K. Javits, 12 Jan 50; Ltr, Javits to Johnson, 24 Jan 50. Other legisNote 1200 · Footnote 15-48: Ltr, SecDef to Chmn, Cmte on Rules, 21 Mar 50, SD 291.2 (21 Mar 50).(Back)Note 1201 · Footnote 15-49: Congressional Record, 81st Cong., 2d sess., pp. A3267-68; Memo, Leva for Johnson, 9 May 50; Ltr, Johnson to Javits, 18 May 5Note 1202 · Footnote 15-50: Carl W. Borklund, Men of the Pentagon (New York: Praeger, 1966), pp. 121-24; Ltr, Anna Rosenberg Hoffman to author, 23 Sep 7Note 1203 · Footnote 15-51: Immediately before her appointment as the manpower assistant, Rosenberg was a public member of the Committee on MobilizationNote 1204 · Footnote 15-52: Interv, author with Davenport, 17 Oct 71.(Back)Note 1205 · Footnote 15-53: Ltr, Humphrey to Rosenberg, 7 Mar 51, SD 291.2.(Back)Note 1206 · Footnote 15-54: See Memo for Rcd, Maj M. O. Becker, G-1, 13 Mar 51, G-1 291.2; Ltrs, Granger to Leva, 25 Jan 51, Leva to Granger, 13 Feb 51,Note 1207 · Footnote 15-55: See Ltrs, Humphrey to Rosenberg, 10 Mar 51; Rosenberg to Humphrey, 26 Mar 51; Javits to SecDef, 10 Mar 51; Marshall to JavitNote 1208 · Footnote 15-56: Ltr, Mitchell to Rosenberg, 26 Mar 51, SD 291.2.(Back)Note 1209 · Footnote 15-57: Telgs, White to Marshall and SA, 9 Jan 51, copy in SD 291.2.(Back)Note 1210 · Footnote 15-58: Congressional Record, 81st Cong., 2d sess., vol. 96, p. A888.(Back)Note 1211 · Footnote 15-59: Ibid., p. 904. For the Army's opposition to these proposals, see Memo ACofS, G-1, for CofS, 12 Apr 50, sub: Department of thNote 1212 · Footnote 15-60: Memo for Rcd, Maj M. O. Becker, G-1, 13 Mar 51, G-1 291.2.(Back)Note 1213 · Footnote 15-61: Ltr, SecDef to Havenner, 27 Mar 51, SecDef files.(Back)Note 1214 · Footnote 15-62: Ltr, Mitchell to Rosenberg, 16 Apr 51; Ltr, Rosenberg to Mitchell, 9 May 51; both in SD 291.2.(Back)Note 1215 · Footnote 15-63: Memo, ASD (MP&R) for ASD (Legal and Legis Affairs), 14 Jun 51, SD 291.1; PL 51, 82d Congress.(Back)Note 1216 · Footnote 15-64: Ltr, Mitchell, Dir, Washington Br, NAACP, to Dir of Industrial Relations, DOD, 25 May 51; Ltr, ASD (Legal and Legis Affairs)Note 1217 · Footnote 15-65: Ltr, Anna Rosenberg Hoffman to author, 23 Sep 71.(Back)Note 1218 · Footnote 15-66: BuPers Study, Pers A 1224 (probably Jan 59), GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1219 · Footnote 15-67: Interv, author with Davenport, 17 Oct 71; and Ltr, Anna Rosenberg Hoffman to author, 23 Sep 71.(Back)Note 1220 · Footnote 15-68: G-1 Summary Sheet with incl, 13 Mar 51, sub: Negro Strength in the Army; Memo, ASA for CofS, 13 Apr 51, same sub; both in CSNote 1221 · Footnote 15-69: Memo, Actg CofS for SA, 31 May 51, sub: Present Overstrength in Segregated Units; G-1 Summary Sheet for CofS, 26 May 51, samNote 1222 · Footnote 16-1: Memo, ASecAF for Symington, 25 Mar 49, sub: Salient Factors of Air Force Policy Regarding Negro Personnel, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1223 · Footnote 16-2: Negro strength figures as of 5 April 1949. Ltr, ASecAF to Robert Harper, Chief Clerk, House Armed Services Cmte, 5 Apr 49, SeNote 1224 · Footnote 16-3: Memo, Symington for Forrestal, 6 Jan 49, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1225 · Footnote 16-4: Memo, Hoyt S. Vandenberg, CofS, USAF, for SecAF, 12 Jan 49, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1226 · Footnote 16-5: Memo, SecAF for Forrestal, 17 Feb 49; Memo, ASecAF for Symington, 24 Mar 49, sub: Lockbourne AFB; both in SecAF files.(Back)Note 1227 · Footnote 16-6: Memo for Files, Osthagen, Asst to ASecAF, 13 Apr 49, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1228 · Footnote 16-7: Ltr, Joseph H. Evans, Assoc Exec Secy, Fahy Cmte, to Fahy Cmte, 23 Jun 49, FC file. See also "U.S. Armed Forces: 1950," Our WNote 1229 · Footnote 16-8: Draft Memo, Zuckert for Symington, 15 Feb 49, sub: Air Force Policies on Negro Personnel (not sent), SecAF files.(Back)Note 1230 · Footnote 16-9: Washington Post, April 4, 1949; USAF Oral History Program, Interview with Lt Col Spann Watson (USAF, Ret.), 3 Apr 73.(Back)Note 1231 · Footnote 16-10: Pittsburgh Courier, January 22, 1949.(Back)Note 1232 · Footnote 16-11: Memo, Vandenberg, CofS, USAF, for SecAF, 12 Jan 49, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1233 · Footnote 16-12: Lt Gen I. H. Edwards, "Remarks on Major Personnel Problems Presented to USAF Commanders' Conference Headquarters, USAF," 12 Note 1234 · Footnote 16-13: USAF Oral History Program, Interview with Lt Gen Daniel James, Jr., 2 Oct 73. James was to become the first four-star black Note 1235 · Footnote 16-14: Ltr, Marr to author, 19 Jun 70.(Back)Note 1236 · Footnote 16-15: MATS Hq Ltr No. 9, 1 May 49, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1237 · Footnote 16-16: AF Ltr 35-3, 11 May 49. Effective until 11 May 1950, the order was superseded by a new but similar letter, AF Ltr 35-78, on Note 1238 · Footnote 16-17: Memo, ASecAF for Symington, 12 Jan 49, AF Negro Affairs 49, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1239 · Footnote 16-18: USAF Oral Hist Interv with Zuckert.(Back)Note 1240 · Footnote 16-19: Testimony of Zuckert and Edwards, USAF, Before the Fahy Committee, 28 Mar 49, afternoon session, pp. 7-8.(Back)Note 1241 · Footnote 16-20: Memo, ASecAF for Symington, 29 Apr 49, sub: Department of the Air Force Implementation of the Department of Defense Policy oNote 1242 · Footnote 16-21: Freedom to Serve, pp. 37-38.(Back)Note 1243 · Footnote 16-22: Memo, SecAF for Chmn, PPB, 30 Apr 49, copy in FC file. McCoy and Ruetten, Quest and Response, p. 223, call the deletion a viNote 1244 · Footnote 16-23: USAF Oral Hist Interv with Davis.(Back)Note 1245 · Footnote 16-24: USAF Oral Hist Interv with Zuckert.(Back)Note 1246 · Footnote 16-25: NME Fact Sheet No. 105-49, 27 Jul 49.(Back)Note 1247 · Footnote 16-26: "Report on the First Year of Implementation of Current Policies Regarding Negro Personnel," Incl to Memo, Maj Gen Richard E.Note 1248 · Footnote 16-27: USAF Oral Hist Interv with Davis.(Back)Note 1249 · Footnote 16-28: President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Forces, "A First Report on the Racial IntegratioNote 1250 · Footnote 16-29: ATC, "History of ATC, July-December 1949," I:29-31; New York Times, September 18, 1949.(Back)Note 1251 · Footnote 16-30: Memo, Actg DCSPER for Zuckert, 14 Jul 50, USAF file No. 3370, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1252 · Footnote 16-31: Memo, ASecAF for Symington, 25 Mar 49, sub: Salient Factors of Air Force Policy Regarding Negro Personnel, SecAF files.(BackNote 1253 · Footnote 16-32: Air Force Times, 10 February 1951. These figures do not take into account the SCARWAF (Army personnel) who continued to servNote 1254 · Footnote 16-33: Memo, DepSecAF for Manpower and Organizations for ASD/M, 5 Sep 52, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1255 · Footnote 16-34: Transcript of the Meeting of the President and the Four Service Secretaries With the President's Committee on Equality of TrNote 1256 · Footnote 16-35: Testimony of the Secretary of the Air Force Before the Fahy Committee, 28 Mar 49, afternoon session, p. 33.(Back)Note 1257 · Footnote 16-36: Kenworthy Report, as quoted and commented on in Memo, Worthington Thompson (Personnel Policy Board staff) for Leva, 9 Mar 50Note 1258 · Footnote 16-37: Ltr, Kenworthy to Zuckert, 5 Jan 50, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1259 · Footnote 16-38: See, for example, the Washington Post, March 27, 1950.(Back)Note 1260 · Footnote 16-39: Press reaction summarized in Memo, James C. Evans for PPB, 19 Jan 50, PPB 291.2. See also, Ltr, Dowdal Davis, Gen Manager ofNote 1261 · Footnote 16-40: Memo, IG, USAF, for ASecAF, 25 Jul 49, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1262 · Footnote 16-41: Idem for DCSPER, 7 Sep 49, copy in SecAF files; see also ACofS, G-2, Fourth Army, Ft. Sam Houston, Summary of Information, 7Note 1263 · Footnote 16-42: See, for example, Memo, SecAF for SecDef, 17 Feb 49; Ltr, SecAF to Sen. Burnet R. Maybank, 21 Jul 49; both in SecAF files.(BNote 1264 · Footnote 16-43: Memo, Evans, OSD, for Worthington Thompson, 18 May 53, sub: Summary of Topics Reviewed in Thompson's office 15 May 53, SD 29Note 1265 · Footnote 16-44: History Officer, 3202d Installations Groups, "History of the 3202d Installations Group, 1 July-31 October 1950," Eglin AFB, Note 1266 · Footnote 16-45: This off-the-record comment occurred during the committee hearings in the Pentagon and was related to the author by E. W. KeNote 1267 · Footnote 16-46: Marr Report.(Back)Note 1268 · Footnote 16-47: Freedom to Serve, p. 41.(Back)Note 1269 · Footnote 16-48: Ltr, Col Paul H. Prentiss, Cmdr, 1701st AT Wing, to SecAF, 27 Dec 49, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1270 · Footnote 16-49: Air Force Times, 10 February 1951.(Back)Note 1271 · Footnote 16-50: Memo for Rcd, ADS(M), 12 Sep 56, sub: Integration Percentages, ADS(M) 291.2. For further discussion of the qualitative distrNote 1272 · Footnote 16-51: "Integration in the Air Force Abroad," Ebony 15 (March 1960):27.(Back)Note 1273 · Footnote 16-52: Unless otherwise noted all statistics are from information supplied by the Bureau of Naval Personnel. The exact percentage oNote 1274 · Footnote 16-53: Memo, Chief, NavPers, for Under SecNav, 5 Dec 49, sub: Proposed Report to Chairman Personnel Policy Board Regarding the ImplNote 1275 · Footnote 16-54: Memo, SecNav for SecDef, 23 May 49, sub: Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Forces, copy in FC file.(Back)Note 1276 · Footnote 16-55: ALNAV 447-49, which remained in force until 23 March 1953 when SecNav Instruction 1000.2 superseded it without substantial cNote 1277 · Footnote 16-56: Memo, Under SecNav for Chmn, PPB, 22 Dec 49, sub: Implementation of Executive Order 9981, PPB 291.2.(Back)Note 1278 · Footnote 16-57: SecNav, Annual Report to SecDef, FY 1949, p. 230; Memo, Under SecNav Chmn, PPB, 22 Dec 49, sub: Implementation of Executive Note 1279 · Footnote 16-58: Memo, Dir, Recruiting Div, BuPers, for Admin Aide to SecNav, 22 Dec 50, sub: Negro Officer in Recruiting on the West Coast; Note 1280 · Footnote 16-59: Ltr, Charles W. Washington, Exec Secy, Dayton, Ohio, Urban League, to SecNav, 19 Oct 50, copy in Pers 1376, GenRecsNav.(BackNote 1281 · Footnote 16-60: Memo, Nelson for Charles Durham, Fahy Committee, sub: Implementation of Proposed Navy Racial Policy, 17 Jun 49, FC file.(BacNote 1282 · Footnote 16-61: Memo, Under SecNav for Chmn, PPB, 22 Dec 49, sub: Implementation of Executive Order 9981, PPB 291.2.(Back)Note 1283 · Footnote 16-62: Memo, Off in Charge, NROTC Tng, for Chief, Plans & Policy Div, BuPers, 14 Jul 49, sub: NROTC Personnel Problems, Pers 424, BNote 1284 · Footnote 16-63: Ltr, Granger to Chief, NavPers, 3 Aug 49, Pers 42, BuPersRecs.(Back)Note 1285 · Footnote 16-64: Memo, Dir of Tng, BuPers, for Chief, NavPers, 1 Jul 49; Ltr, Granger to Cmdr Luther Heinz, 3 Aug 49; Ltr, Heinz to Granger, Note 1286 · Footnote 16-65: Ltr, Chief, NavPers, to Cmdt, All Continental Naval Dists, 17 Mar 50, Pers 42, BuPersRecs; Memo, Under SecNav for Chmn, PPB,Note 1287 · Footnote 16-66: Memo, Under SecNav for Chmn, PPB, 22 Dec 49, PPB 291.2.(Back)Note 1288 · Footnote 16-67: For a public expression of these sentiments see, for example, Ltr, Capt R. B. Ellis, Policy Control Br, BuPers, to PresidentNote 1289 · Footnote 16-68: BuPers, "Memo on Discrimination of the Negro," 24 January 1959, Pers A1224, BuPers Tech Library.(Back)Note 1290 · Footnote 16-69: Ltr, Exec Secy, Birmingham, Ala., Branch, NAACP, to Chief, NavPers, 14 Mar 50, Pers A, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1291 · Footnote 16-70: Interv, Nichols with Nelson, 1953, in Nichols Collection; Ltr, Nelson to author, 10 Feb 70; both in CMH files.(Back)Note 1292 · Footnote 16-71: Quoted in Memo, Dir of Tng, BuPers, for Chief, NavPers, 1 Jul 49, Pers 42, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1293 · Footnote 16-72: Memo for Rcd, Evans, 23 Jun 65, sub: NROTC Boards, ASD/M 291.2.(Back)Note 1294 · Footnote 16-73: Ltr, Exec Dir, ACLU, to SecNav, 26 Nov 57, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1295 · Footnote 16-74: Memo, Under SecNav for Chmn, PPB, 22 Dec 49, sub: Implementation of Executive Order 9981, PPB 291.2.(Back)Note 1296 · Footnote 16-75: Memo, Chief, NavPers, for Pers B, 23 Sep 61, copy in Harris Wofford Collection, J. F. Kennedy Library.(Back)Note 1297 · Footnote 16-76: Testimony of Vice Adm William M. Fechteler Before the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Note 1298 · Footnote 16-77: BuPers Cir Ltr 115-49, 25 Jul 49.(Back)Note 1299 · Footnote 16-78: Memo, Evans for Fahy Cmte, 23 Aug 49, sub: Progress in Navy, Fahy Papers, Truman Library.(Back)Note 1300 · Footnote 16-79: Memo, Under SecNav for Chief, NavPers, 10 Aug 49, MM (1) GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1301 · Footnote 16-80: BuPers Cir Ltr 141-49, 30 Aug 49. See also Memo, Under SecNav for Chmn, PPB, 22 Dec 49, sub: Implementation of Executive OrdNote 1302 · Footnote 16-81: Memo, Dir, Plans and Policy, BuPers, for Capt Brooke Schumm, USN, PPB, 17 Jul 50, sub: Secretary of Defense Semi-Annual RepoNote 1303 · Footnote 16-82: Kimball was sworn in as Secretary of the Navy on 31 July 1951. Ltr, SecNav to Granger, 19 Nov 52, SecNav files, GenRecsNav.(Note 1304 · Footnote 16-83: BuPers, Plans and Policy Div, "Review of Suggestions and Recommendations to Improve Standards, Morale, and Attitudes Toward Note 1305 · Footnote 16-84: Ltr, SecNav for Granger, 19 Nov 52, SecNav files, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1306 · Footnote 16-85: Ltrs, Chief, NavPers, to James C. Evans, OSD, 19 Jun 53, and Granger, 28 Jul 53, both in P 8 (4), BuPersRecs.(Back)Note 1307 · Footnote 16-86: Memo, Chief, NavPers, for Pers B, 23 Sep 61, Harris Wofford Collection, J. F. Kennedy Library. See also Memo, Chief, NavPersNote 1308 · Footnote 16-87: Ltr, Granger to SecNav, 24 Oct 52, SecNav files, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1309 · Footnote 16-88: Secretary Anderson, appointed by President Eisenhower, became Secretary of the Navy on 4 February 1953.(Back)Note 1310 · Footnote 16-89: Ltr, Granger to SecNav, 24 Apr 53, SecNav files, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1311 · Footnote 16-90: Detroit Free Press, May 16, 1953.(Back)Note 1312 · Footnote 16-91: UP News Release, September 21, 1953, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1313 · Footnote 16-92: Ltr, Cmdr Durwood W. Gilmore, USNR et al., to Chief, NavPers, Vice Adm J. L. Holloway, Jr., 31 Aug 53, P 8 (4), BuPersRecs.(Note 1314 · Footnote 16-93: Memo, Chief, NavPers, for SecNav, 1 Sep 53, sub: Mr. Granger's Visit and Related Matters, Pers, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1315 · Footnote 16-94: Ltr, SecNav to Congressman Adam C. Powell, 19 Mar 54, SecNav files, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1316 · Footnote 16-95: See, for example, ASD/M, Thursday Reports, 7 Jan 54 and 12 Apr 56, copies in Dep ASD (Civil Rights) files; see also Memo, ChNote 1317 · Footnote 16-96: Memo, Adam Yarmolinsky for Fred Dutton, 31 Oct 61, sub: Yarmolinsky Memo of October 26, Harris Wofford Collection, J. F. KenNote 1318 · Footnote 16-97: Greenberg, Race Relations and American Law, p. 359.(Back)Note 1319 · Footnote 16-98: Memo, Chief, NavPers, for Special Asst to SecDef, 29 Mar 61, sub: Stewards in U.S. Navy, Pers 8 (4), GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1320 · Footnote 16-99: The Navy commissioned its first black pilot, Ens. Jesse L. Brown, in 1950. He was killed in action in Korea.(Back)Note 1321 · Footnote 16-100: Ltr, Powell to John Floberg, Asst SecNav for Air, 29 Jun 53, SecNav files, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1322 · Footnote 16-101: Ltr, Granger to SecNav, 7 Jan 54, SecNav files, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1323 · Footnote 16-102: Memo, ASD/M for SA et al., 21 Nov 51, sub: Manuscript on the Negro in the Armed Forces, SecDef 291.2.(Back)Note 1324 · Footnote 16-103: See New York Herald Tribune, December 2, 1957, and New York Post, March 14, 1957.(Back)Note 1325 · Footnote 16-104: Gravely would eventually become the first black admiral in the U.S. Navy.(Back)Note 1326 · Footnote 16-105: See, for example, Ltr, Exec Secy, President's Cmte on Equal Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, to CNO, 21 JunNote 1327 · Footnote 16-106: Nichols's sampling, presented in the form of approximately a hundred interviews with men and women from all the services, wNote 1328 · Footnote 17-1: Interv, author with Collins.(Back)Note 1329 · Footnote 17-2: Memo, SA for Lt Gen Stephen J. Chamberlin, 30 Nov 49, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Army, CSGPA 291.2. See also DNote 1330 · Footnote 17-3: Memo, Gen Chamberlin et al. for SA, 9 Feb 50, sub: Report of Board of Officers on Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Army, Note 1331 · Footnote 17-4: Kenworthy, "The Case Against Army Segregation," p. 32.(Back)Note 1332 · Footnote 17-5: Memo, G-1 for VCofS, sub: Negro Statistics, 16 Jun 50-6 Oct 50, CS 291.2 Negro; idem for G-3, 18 Apr 51, sub: Training SpacesNote 1333 · Footnote 17-6: STM-30, Strength of the Army, Sep 50, Mar 51, and Jul 51.(Back)Note 1334 · Footnote 17-7: IG Summary Sheet for CofS, 7 Dec 50, sub: Policy Regarding Negro Segregation, CS 291.2 (7 Dec 50).(Back)Note 1335 · Footnote 17-8: G-1 Summary Sheet for CofS, 18 Dec 50, sub: Policy Regarding Negro Segregation, G-1 291.2.(Back)Note 1336 · Footnote 17-9: Memo, ASA for SA, 3 Apr 51, sub: Present Overstrength in Segregated Units, G-1 291.2.(Back)Note 1337 · Footnote 17-10: Memo, G-1 for CofS, 26 May 51, sub: Present Overstrength in Segregated Units; DF, G-1 for G-3, 16 Apr 51, sub: Training SpacNote 1338 · Footnote 17-11: Memo, CG, AFF, for G-1, 8 May 51, sub: Negro Strength in the Army, G-1 291.2.(Back)Note 1339 · Footnote 17-12: Memo, ASA for SA, 1 Jul 51, and Draft Memo, SA for President (not sent), both in SA 291.2.(Back)Note 1340 · Footnote 17-13: CMT 2 (Brig Gen D. A. Ogden, Chief, Orgn & Tng Div, G-3), 3 May 51, CMT 3 (Brig Gen W. E. Dunkelberg, Chief, Manpower ControNote 1341 · Footnote 17-14: The Korean Augmentation to the United States Army, known as KATUSA, a program for integrating Korean soldiers in American unNote 1342 · Footnote 17-15: Memo, CO, 9th Inf, for TIG, 29 Oct 50, attached to IG Summary Sheet for CofS, 7 Dec 50, sub: Policy Regarding Negro SegregatNote 1343 · Footnote 17-16: S. L. A. Marshall, "Integration," Detroit News, May 13, 1956.(Back)Note 1344 · Footnote 17-17: ORO Technical Memorandum T-99, A Preliminary Report on the Utilization of Negro Manpower, 30 Jun 51, p. 34, copy in CMH.(BacNote 1345 · Footnote 17-18: Ibid., p. 35. For a popular report on the success of this partial integration, see Harold H. Martin, "How Do Our Negro TroopNote 1346 · Footnote 17-19: Ltr, Lewis B. Hershey to SA, 21 Sep 50, SA 291.2; Memo, Col W. Preston Corderman, Exec, Office of ASA, for CofS, 8 Sep 50, sNote 1347 · Footnote 17-20: Memo, Evans for Leva, ASD, 5 Oct 50, sub: Racial Complaint From the Mobile Area, SD 291.2 Neg (18 Sep 50).(Back)Note 1348 · Footnote 17-21: Ltrs, Javits to SecDef, 6 Sep and 2 Oct 50; Ltrs, SecDef to Javits, 19 Sep and 10 Oct 50. All in SD 291.2 Neg.(Back)Note 1349 · Footnote 17-22: G-1 Summary Sheet for VCofS, 22 Apr 52, sub: Information for the G-1 Information Book, G-1 291.2; Memo, ASA (M&PR) for ASD (Note 1350 · Footnote 17-23: Ltr, Maj Gen W. K. Harrison, CG, 9th Inf Div, Ft. Dix, N.J., to CG, First Army, 19 Jan 51, sub: Request for an Additional TrNote 1351 · Footnote 17-24: Memo, DA, G-1 for CGIA, for 9th Inf Div, 28 Feb 51, G-1 291.2; AGAO-I, 3 Mar 51, AG 322.(Back)Note 1352 · Footnote 17-25: Memo, ASA for ASD (M&P), 5 Jun 51; Memo, SA for ASD (M&P), 3 Sep 52; both in SD 291.2.(Back)Note 1353 · Footnote 17-26: Roy E. Appleman, South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1961), pp. 485-86. For a dNote 1354 · Footnote 17-27: Ltr, Maj Gen W. B. Kean to CG, Eighth Army, 9 Sep 50, sub: Combat Effectiveness of the 24th Infantry Regiment, AG 330.1 (A).Note 1355 · Footnote 17-28: Observer Report, Lt Col J. D. Stevens, Plans Div, G-3, 25 Oct 50, G-3 333 PAC (Sec I-D), Case 18, Tab G.(Back)Note 1356 · Footnote 17-29: FECOM Check Sheet, IG to G-1, FEC, 27 May 51, sub: Report of Investigation; Memo, FEC G-1 for CofS, FEC, 30 Apr 51, sub: G-1Note 1357 · Footnote 17-30: Ltr, EUSAK IG to CG, EUSAK, 15 Mar 51, sub: Report of Investigation Concerning 24th Infantry Regiment and Negro Soldiers in Note 1358 · Footnote 17-31: Thurgood Marshall, Report on Korea: The Shameful Story of the Courts Martial of Negro GIs (New York: NAACP, 1951).(Back)Note 1359 · Footnote 17-32: Ltr, Lt Gen Edward Almond, CofS, FECOM, to TIG, 15 Mar 51, IG 333.9.(Back)Note 1360 · Footnote 17-33: FECOM Check Sheet, IG to G-1, FEC, 27 May 51, sub: Report of Investigation; Memo, FEC G-1 for CofS FEC, 30 Apr 51, sub: G-1 Note 1361 · Footnote 17-34: Matthew B. Ridgway, The Korean War (New York: Doubleday, 1967), pp. 192-93.(Back)Note 1362 · Footnote 17-35: Memorandum for File, FECOM IG, 2 May 51, copy in AG 330.1.(Back)Note 1363 · Footnote 17-36: Report of Board of Officers on Utilization of Negro Manpower (2d Chamberlin Report), 3 Apr 51, G-1 334 (8 Nov 51).(Back)Note 1364 · Footnote 17-37: Memo, Actg CofS for SA, 31 May 51, sub: Negro Strength in the Army, CS 291.2 Negroes (11 Apr 51); see also Interv, author wiNote 1365 · Footnote 17-38: Incl to Ltr, Almond to CMH, 1 Apr 72, CMH files.(Back)Note 1366 · Footnote 17-39: Memo, ACofS, G-3, for ACofS, G-1, 22 Feb 51, WDGPA 291.2.(Back)Note 1367 · Footnote 17-40: Memo, Chief, Pers Mgmt Div, G-1, for CofS, G-3, 6 Mar 51, WDGPA 291.2.(Back)Note 1368 · Footnote 17-41: Ltr, Maj Gen Ward Maris, G-4, for Dir, ORO, 29 Mar 51, G-4 291.2. The Operations Research Office, a subsidiary of the Johns Note 1369 · Footnote 17-42: DA Personnel Research Team, "A Preliminary Report on Personnel Research Data" (ca. 28 Jul 51), AG 333.3.(Back)Note 1370 · Footnote 17-43: ORO-T-99, "A Preliminary Report on the Utilization of Negro Manpower," 30 Jun 51, S4-S6, copy in CMH. A draft version of a mNote 1371 · Footnote 17-44: ORO, "Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Army: A 1951 Study" (advance draft), pp. viii-ix, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1372 · Footnote 17-45: Ltr, Dir, ORO, to G-3, 20 Nov 52, G-3 291.2; see also Interv, Nichols with Davis.(Back)Note 1373 · Footnote 17-46: Msg, CINCFE to DA, DA IN 12483, 14 May 51, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower in the FEC; ibid., DA IN 13036, 15 May 51, samNote 1374 · Footnote 17-47: Ridgway, The Korean War, p. 192.(Back)Note 1375 · Footnote 17-48: Section 401, Army Organization Act of 1950 (PL 581, 81st Cong.), published in DA Bull 9, 6 Jul 50. See also Msg, DA to CINCFNote 1376 · Footnote 17-49: G-1 Summary Sheets for CofS, 18 and 23 May 51, sub: Utilization of Negro Troops in FECOM, G-1 291.2. See also Elva StillwaugNote 1377 · Footnote 17-50: See, for example, Msg, DA to CINCFE, DA 92561, 28 May 51; Msg, CINCFE to DA, C6444, 8 Jun 51.(Back)Note 1378 · Footnote 17-51: Memo, Actg CofS for SA, 28 May 51, sub: Utilization of Negro Manpower, CS 291.2.(Back)Note 1379 · Footnote 17-52: Interv, author with Collins.(Back)Note 1380 · Footnote 17-53: Memo for Rcd, Col James F. Collins, Asst to ASD (M&P), 9 Jun 51, SD 291.2.(Back)Note 1381 · Footnote 17-54: Msg, DA to CINCFE, DA 95359, 1 Jul 51.(Back)Note 1382 · Footnote 17-55: Memo, Chief, Public Info Div, CINFO, for Dir, Office of Public Info, DOD, 26 Jul 51; DOD Press Release, 26 Jul 51. For last-Note 1383 · Footnote 17-56: Per Ltr, TAG to CINCFE, 9 Aug 51, AGAO-I 322 (26 Jul 51), implemented by Eighth Army GO 717, 22 Sep 51.(Back)Note 1384 · Footnote 17-57: Msg, DA 81846, 19 Sep 51; Eighth Army GO 774, 16 Oct 51.(Back)Note 1385 · Footnote 17-58: FECOM Mil Hist Section, "History of the Korean War," III (pt. 2):153-57.(Back)Note 1386 · Footnote 17-59: Memo, ASA (M&RF) for ASD (M&P), 22 Aug 52, sub: Integration of Negro Manpower, SD 291.2.(Back)Note 1387 · Footnote 17-60: Ibid.; Stillwaugh, "Personnel Problems in the Korean Conflict," pp. 33-35.(Back)Note 1388 · Footnote 17-61: Msg, CSA to CINCFE, DA 96489, 18 Jul 51.(Back)Note 1389 · Footnote 17-62: Journal Files, G-1, FEC, Oct 51, Annex 2.(Back)Note 1390 · Footnote 17-63: Rad, CINCFE for DA, DA IN 182547, 11 Sep 52, sub: Negro Personnel; Msg, DA to CINCFE, 23 Sep 52, G-1 291.2.(Back)Note 1391 · Footnote 17-64: See, for example, Press Release by Senator Herbert H. Lehman, 27 July 1951, which expressed the praise of nine U.S. senatorsNote 1392 · Footnote 17-65: Semiannual Report of the Secretary of Defense, July 1-December 31, 1951 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1952), p. 1Note 1393 · Footnote 17-66: See, for example, Interv, Nichols with Bradley; Ltr, Ridgway to author, 3 Dec 73; Mark S. Watson, "Most Combat GI's are UnseNote 1394 · Footnote 17-67: Extracted from a series of interviews conducted by Lee Nichols with a group of wounded soldiers at Walter Reed Army Medical Note 1395 · Footnote 17-68: In 1951 the European Command was the major Army headquarters in the European theater. It was, at the same time, a combined cNote 1396 · Footnote 17-69: Memo, G-1 for DCofS, Admin, 18 Jul 51, G-1 291.2.(Back)Note 1397 · Footnote 17-70: Ltr, Eli Ginzberg to Lt Col Edward J. Barta, Hist Div, USAREUR, attached to Ltr, Ginzberg to Carter Burgess, ASD (M&P), 11 NNote 1398 · Footnote 17-71: Ltr, Ginzberg to Burgess, 11 Nov 55.(Back)Note 1399 · Footnote 17-72: ORO-R-11, Rpt, Utilization of Negro Manpower in the Army, Project Clear, vol. 1; G-1 Summary Sheet for CofSA, 5 Jan 52, sub:Note 1400 · Footnote 17-73: G-1 Summary Sheet for CofSA, 5 Jan 52.(Back)Note 1401 · Footnote 17-74: Ibid., 29 Dec 51, sub: Integration of Negro Enlisted Personnel, G-1 291.2 Negroes.(Back)Note 1402 · Footnote 17-75: Ltr, EUCOM to Sub Cmds, 16 Mar 51, sub: Utilization of Negro Personnel, USAREUR SGS 291.2. See also EUCOM Hist Div, "IntegraNote 1403 · Footnote 17-76: Ltr, Ginzberg to Burgess, 11 Nov 55, CMH files.(Back)Note 1404 · Footnote 17-77: See, for example, Pathfinder Magazine 58 (May 7, 1952):11. See also Ltr, Philleo Nash to Donald Dawson, 27 May 52, Nash CollNote 1405 · Footnote 17-78: Msg, CofSA to CINCEUR, 4 Dec 51, DA 88688.(Back)Note 1406 · Footnote 17-79: Ltr, AG, EUCOM, to CofSA, 14 Dec 51, sub: Racial Integration in Combat Units; G-1 Summary Sheet, 24 Jan 52, same sub; Ltr, CNote 1407 · Footnote 17-80: Memo, CINCEUCOM for Commanding Generals et al., 1 Apr 52, sub: Racial Integration of EUCOM Army Units, copy in CS 291.2.(BacNote 1408 · Footnote 17-81: Sher Monograph, p. 27.(Back)Note 1409 · Footnote 17-82: As of 1 August 1952 the major joint American command in Europe was designated U.S. European Command (USEUCOM). The U.S. ArmyNote 1410 · Footnote 17-83: Memo, USCINCEUR for TAG, 30 Sep 53, sub: Racial Integration of USAREUR Units, AG 291.2 (30 Sep 53); see also Sher Monograph,Note 1411 · Footnote 17-84: Memos, G-1 for TAG, 30 Oct 53, sub: Negro Overstrength in USAREUR, and TAG for USCINCEUR, 2 Nov 53, same sub; both in AG 291Note 1412 · Footnote 17-85: Ltr, USCINCEUR to CG, Seventh Army, 8 Jul 53, sub: Racial Integration of USAREUR Units, USAREUR AG 291.2 (1953).(Back)Note 1413 · Footnote 17-86: Ltr, CINCUSAREUR to SACEUR, 10 Apr 53, USAREUR SGS 291.2 (1953), quoted in Sher Monograph, p. 28.(Back)Note 1414 · Footnote 17-87: Hq USAREUR, "Annual Historical Report, 1 January 1953-30 June 1954," p. 60, in CMH.(Back)Note 1415 · Footnote 17-88: Memo, ASA (M&RF) for J. C. Evans, OASD (M), 26 Nov 52, sub: Negro Integration in Europe, SD 291.2.(Back)Note 1416 · Footnote 17-89: Ltr, Ginzberg to Burgess, 15 Nov 55, CMH files; Ernest Leiser, "For Negroes, It's a New Army Now," Saturday Evening Post 225Note 1417 · Footnote 17-90: On the integration of these commands, see, for example, G-1 Summary Sheet, 4 Sep 52, sub: Utilization of Negro Personnel; LtNote 1418 · Footnote 17-91: Memo, Chief, Manpower Control Div, G-1, for Gen Taylor, 6 Sep 51, sub: Negro Integration, G-1 291.2.(Back)Note 1419 · Footnote 17-92: Ltr, CG, Sixth Army, to ACofS, G-1, 10 Sep 51, G-1 291.2 Negroes.(Back)Note 1420 · Footnote 17-93: Ltr, G-1 to CG, Sixth Army, 17 Sep 51, G-1 291.2.(Back)Note 1421 · Footnote 17-94: G-1 Summary Sheet for CofS, 21 Sep 51, sub: G-1 Attitude Toward Integration of Negroes Into CONUS Units, CS 291.2 Negroes (2Note 1422 · Footnote 17-95: U.S. News and World Report 35 (October 16, 1953):99-100.(Back)Note 1423 · Footnote 17-96: Hq USAREUR, "Annual Historical Report, 1 July 1954-30 June 1955," p. 83.(Back)Note 1424 · Footnote 17-97: See, for example, Semiannual Report of the Secretary of Defense, January 1-June 30, 1933, p. 24; ibid., January 1-June 30, 1Note 1425 · Footnote 17-98: Ltr, Hannah, ASD (M), to Sen. Lyndon B. Johnson, 27 Feb 53, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1426 · Footnote 17-99: One exception was the strong objection in some states to racially mixed marriages contracted by soldiers. Twenty-seven stateNote 1427 · Footnote 17-100: HUMRRO, Integration of Social Activities on Nine Army Posts, Aug 53. See also Interv, Nichols with Davis. A DCSPER action oNote 1428 · Footnote 17-101: Interv, author with Evans, 4 Dec 73, CMH files.(Back)Note 1429 · Footnote 17-102: Ibid.(Back)Note 1430 · Footnote 17-103: Quoted in John B. Spore and Robert F. Cocklin, "Our Negro Soldiers," Reporter 6 (January 22, 1952):6-9.(Back)Note 1431 · Footnote 17-104: Ltr, Dir, ORO, to ACofS, G-3, 20 Nov 52, G-3 291.2.(Back)Note 1432 · Footnote 17-105: Memo for Rcd, G-1, 6 Nov 52, ref: ACofS, G-1, Memo for CofS, sub: Distribution of Negro Personnel, 14 Oct 52, G-1 291.2.(BaNote 1433 · Footnote 17-106: Hq USAREUR, "Annual Historical Report, 1 July 1954-30 June 1955," pp. 76-80, 92; ibid., 1 July 1955-30 June 1956, pp. 65-67Note 1434 · Footnote 18-1: All statistics from official Marine Corps sources, Hist Div, HQMC.(Back)Note 1435 · Footnote 18-2: Memo, CMC for Asst SecNav for Air, 17 Mar 49, MC files.(Back)Note 1436 · Footnote 18-3: MC Memo 119-14, 18 Nov 49, sub: Policy Regarding Negro Marines, Hist Div, HQMC, files. Unless otherwise noted, all documents Note 1437 · Footnote 18-4: Msg, CMC (signed C. B. Cates) to CG, Dept of Pacific, 18 Nov 49. Aware of the delicate public relations aspects of this subjeNote 1438 · Footnote 18-5: DP&P Study 119-49, 14 Nov 49, sub: Designation of Units for Assignment of Negro Marines, approved by CMC, 2 Dec 49.(Back)Note 1439 · Footnote 18-6: Memo, CG, 2d Marine Div, for CMC, 18 Feb 50, sub: Assignment of Negro Enlisted Personnel; Memo, CMC to CG, 2d Marine Div, 28 Note 1440 · Footnote 18-7: Ltr, Smith to Franklin S. Williams, Asst Special Counsel, NAACP, 4 Jan 50, AO-1, MC files.(Back)Note 1441 · Footnote 18-8: Ltr, Roy Wilkins to SecDef, 27 Feb 50; Memo, SecNav for SecDef, 17 Apr 50, sub: Activation of Negro Reserve Units in the U.S.Note 1442 · Footnote 18-9: Ltr, CMC to Walter White, 2 Jul 51.(Back)Note 1443 · Footnote 18-10: Memo, Div of Plans and Policies for Asst Dir of Public Info, 4 Jun 51, sub: Article in Pittsburgh Courier of 26 May 51.(BackNote 1444 · Footnote 18-11: Location of Black Marines, 31 March 1951 Posts and stations inside the United States 938 Posts and stations outside the UnitNote 1445 · Footnote 18-12: Washington Post, February 27, 1951.(Back)Note 1446 · Footnote 18-13: USMC Oral History Interview, Lt Gen Oliver P. Smith, Jun 69.(Back)Note 1447 · Footnote 18-14: MC Policy Memo 109-51, 13 Dec 51, sub: Policy Regarding Negro Marines.(Back)Note 1448 · Footnote 18-15: Memo, CMC for CG, FMF, Pacific, et al., 18 Dec 51, sub: Assignment of Negro Enlisted Personnel.(Back)Note 1449 · Footnote 18-16: Idem for Chief, NavPers (ca. Jun 51), MC files.(Back)Note 1450 · Footnote 18-17: Extract from Thomas L. Faix, "Marines on Tour (An Account of Mediterranean Goodwill Cruise and Naval Occupation Duty), ThirdNote 1451 · Footnote 18-18: The Chief of Staff was quoted in "Integration of the Armed Forces," Ebony 13 (July 1958):22.(Back)Note 1452 · Footnote 18-19: Memo, Head of Detail Br, Pers Dept, for Dir of Pers, 10 Jun 52, sub: Policy Regarding Negro Marines, MC files. This method oNote 1453 · Footnote 18-20: Ibid., 4 Aug 52.(Back)Note 1454 · Footnote 18-21: Ibid., 10 Jun 52.(Back)Note 1455 · Footnote 18-22: Ltr, Maj Gen R. O. Bare to CO, 1st Mar Div, 14 Jul 55; Ltr, Dir of Pers to CG, 1st Mar Div (ca. 10 Dec 56). The quotation isNote 1456 · Footnote 18-23: Ltr, Powell to SecDef, 23 Jan 58. See also unsigned Draft Ltr for the commandant's signature to Powell, 12 Feb 58.(Back)Note 1457 · Footnote 18-24: See Ltrs, A. W. Gentleman, Hq MC Cold Weather Tng Cen, Bridgeport, Calif., to Col Hartley, 12 Nov 57; CO, MB, NAS, JacksonviNote 1458 · Footnote 18-25: Draft Memo, Head of Assignment and Classification Br for Dir, Pers (ca. 1961), sub: Restricted Assignments; Memo, IG for DirNote 1459 · Footnote 18-26: Shaw and Donnelly, Blacks in the Marine Corps, pp. 64-65.(Back)Note 1460 · Footnote 18-27: Speed Ltr, CMC to Distribution List, 22 Jun 50; Routing Sheet, Pers Dept, 21 Jun 50, sub: Enlistment of Stewards.(Back)Note 1461 · Footnote 18-28: Ltrs, CMC to Distribution List, 16 Apr 55 and 18 Nov 55.(Back)Note 1462 · Footnote 18-29: Memo, Head, Enlisted Monitoring Unit, Detail Br, for Lt Col Gordon T. West, 29 Oct 54, Pers A. See also Shaw and Donnelly, BNote 1463 · Footnote 18-30: Memo, J. J. Holicky, Detail Br, for Dir of Pers, USMC, 3 Aug 59, sub: Inspection of Occupational Field 36 (Stewards), Pers 1Note 1464 · Footnote 18-31: Memo, Asst Chief for Plans, BuPers (Rear Adm B. J. Semmes, Jr.), for Chief of NavPers, 22 Jun 61.(Back)Note 1465 · Footnote 18-32: USMC Oral History Interview, CWO James E. Johnson, 27 Mar 73.(Back)Note 1466 · Footnote 18-33: Ltr, CMC to Walter White, 2 Jul 51, AO-1, MC files. See also Memo, Div of Plans and Policies (T. J. Colley) for Asst Dir of Note 1467 · Footnote 18-34: Memo, Exec Off, ACofS, G-1, for William L. Taylor, Asst Staff Dir, U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 27 Feb 63, sub: PersonneNote 1468 · Footnote 18-35: Shaw and Donnelly, Blacks in the Marine Corps, pp. 62-63. 66.(Back)Note 1469 · Footnote 19-1: New York Times, October 31, 1954; ibid., Editorial, November 1, 1954.(Back)Note 1470 · Footnote 19-2: C. Vann Woodward, Strange Career of Jim Crow, p. 170. This account of the civil rights movement largely follows Woodward's faNote 1471 · Footnote 19-3: Interv, Nichols with Mitchell.(Back)Note 1472 · Footnote 19-4: Woodward, Strange Career of Jim Crow, p. 170.(Back)Note 1473 · Footnote 19-5: 328 U.S. 373 (1946).(Back)Note 1474 · Footnote 19-6: 347 U.S. 483 (1954); see also 349 U.S. 294 (1955).(Back)Note 1475 · Footnote 19-7: Woodward, Strange Career of Jim Crow, p. 147.(Back)Note 1476 · Footnote 19-8: 349 U.S. 294 (1955).(Back)Note 1477 · Footnote 19-9: For an outline of the federal and National Guard intervention in these areas, see Robert W. Coakley, Paul J. Scheips, VincentNote 1478 · Footnote 19-10: 346 U.S. 100 (1953).(Back)Note 1479 · Footnote 19-11: For an authoritative account of Little Rock, see Robert W. Coakley's "Operation Arkansas," Center of Military History Study Note 1480 · Footnote 19-12: Ltr, Eisenhower to Powell, 6 Jun 53, G 124-A-1, Eisenhower Library. For a later and more comprehensive expression of these sNote 1481 · Footnote 19-13: For an account of the first major sit-in demonstrations, which occurred at Greensboro, North Carolina, and their influence oNote 1482 · Footnote 19-14: Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, p. 109.(Back)Note 1483 · Footnote 19-15: Memo, Lt Col Leon Bell, Asst Exec, Off, Asst SecAF, for Col Barnes, Office, SecAF, 9 Jan 51, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1484 · Footnote 19-16: Ltr, CofSA to Ferguson, 7 May 51; see also Ltr, Under SA Earl D. Johnson to Sen. Robert Taft, 19 Jul 51; both in CS 291.2 (2Note 1485 · Footnote 19-17: Memo, Dep Chief, NavPers for ASD (M&P), 19 Feb 53, sub: Alleged Race Segregation at U.S. Naval Base, Key West, Florida, P 8 Note 1486 · Footnote 19-18: Ltr, ASD (MP&R) Charles C. Finucane to James Roosevelt, 3 Jun 59, ASD (MP&R) files.(Back)Note 1487 · Footnote 19-19: Evans and Lane, "Integration in the Armed Services," p. 83.(Back)Note 1488 · Footnote 19-20: Wilson, former president of General Motors Corporation, became President Eisenhower's first Secretary of Defense on 28 JanuaNote 1489 · Footnote 19-21: Memo, CofS, G-1, for ASA, 6 Jan 54, sub: Mass Jailing and Fining of Negro Soldiers in Columbia, S.C.; Memo, ASA for ASD (M&PNote 1490 · Footnote 19-22: SecAF statement, 1 May 56, quoted in Address by James P. Goode, Employment Policy Officer for the Air Force, at a meeting caNote 1491 · Footnote 19-23: Memo, CG, 3380th Tactical Training Wing, Keesler AFB, Miss., for (name withheld), Jul 53, sub: Administrative Reprimand; NAANote 1492 · Footnote 19-24: Memo, Cmdr, 3615th Pilot Tng Wing, Craig AFB, Ala., for Cmdr, Flying Dir, Air Tng Cmd, Waco, Tex., 4 Aug 53, sub: DisciplinaNote 1493 · Footnote 19-25: Ltr, Maxwell M. Rabb, President's Assistant for Minority Affairs, to Dr. W. Montague Cobb, as reproduced in Cobb, "The StraiNote 1494 · Footnote 19-26: Memo, ACofS, G-1, for TIG, 30 Nov 53, sub: Complaint of Cpl Israel Joshua, G-1 291.2 (3 Nov 53). For an earlier expression oNote 1495 · Footnote 19-27: Memo, Maj Gen Joe Kelly, Dir, Legis Liaison, USAF, for Lt Col William G. Draper, AF Aide to President, 1 Sep 54, with attachNote 1496 · Footnote 19-28: Career Management Div, TAGO, "Policy Paper," Jul 54, AGAM 291.2 For other pronouncements of this policy, see ibid.; DF, ACS/Note 1497 · Footnote 19-29: Ltr, TAG to Powell, 9 Aug 56, GF 124-A-1, Eisenhower Library.(Back)Note 1498 · Footnote 19-30: Ltrs, C. B. Nichols to President, 28 Mar 55, and Rabb to Nichols, 20 Apr 55; both in G-124-1, Eisenhower Library.(Back)Note 1499 · Footnote 19-31: Ltr, E. Frederic Morrow to Pfc John Washington, 9 Apr 57, in reply to Ltr, Washington to President, 5 Mar 57; both in G-124-Note 1500 · Footnote 19-32: UPI News Release, 20 Aug 53, copy in CMH files.(Back)Note 1501 · Footnote 19-33: Executive Order 9980, announcing regulations governing fair employment practices within the federal government, was signed bNote 1502 · Footnote 19-34: OIR Notice CP75, Chief, Office of Industrial Relations, to Chiefs, Bureaus, et al., 23 Jan 52, sub: Segregation of FacilitieNote 1503 · Footnote 19-35: Ltr, Actg SecNav Francis Whitehair to Jerry O. Gilliam, Norfolk Branch, NAACP, 19 Mar 52, P 8(4), SecNav files, GenRecsNav.(Note 1504 · Footnote 19-36: Draft Memo, Evans for Rosenberg, SecDef 291.2. Evans delivered the draft memo to Mrs. Rosenberg and discussed the situation Note 1505 · Footnote 19-37: Memo, Nelson for Aide to Asst SecNav, 20 May 53, P 8(4), GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1506 · Footnote 19-38: Kimball succeeded Sullivan as Secretary of the Navy on 31 July 1951.(Back)Note 1507 · Footnote 19-39: Ltrs, White to SecNav, 26 May 52; Mitchell to same, 8 Feb 52; Jerry Gilliam to same, 10 Feb 52; Granger to same, 22 May and Note 1508 · Footnote 19-40: Memo, Actg SecNav for ASD (M&P), 22 Jan 53; Memo, ASD (M&P) for Under SecNav, 23 Dec 52; both in P 8(4), GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1509 · Footnote 19-41: Ltr, SecNav to Mitchell (ca., Apr 53), OIR 161, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1510 · Footnote 19-42: Ltr, Powell to Eisenhower, 17 Apr 53, copy in SecNav files, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1511 · Footnote 19-43: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change 1953-1956 (New York: New American Library, 1963), p. 293.(Back)Note 1512 · Footnote 19-44: Interv, Nichols with Anderson, 18 Sep 53, and Nichols UPI Release, 21 Sep 53; both in Nichols Collection, CMH.(Back)Note 1513 · Footnote 19-45: Ltrs, SecNav to W. Persons, 28 May 53; SecNav to Granger, 28 May and 29 Jul 53; Granger to Anderson, 24 Apr and 2 Jul 53. SeNote 1514 · Footnote 19-46: White, Address Delivered at 44th NAACP Annual Convention, 28 Jun 53, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1515 · Footnote 19-47: Memo, Under SecNav for President, 23 Jun 53, sub: Segregation in Naval Activities, attached to Ltr, Under SecNav to Sherman Note 1516 · Footnote 19-48: ALL NAV, 20 Aug 53; Ltr, Chief, Industrial Relations, to Commandant, 6th Naval District, 21 Aug 53, OIR 200, GenRecsNav. ForNote 1517 · Footnote 19-49: Interv, Nichols with Anderson; Nichols News Release, 23 Sep 53, in Nichols Collection, CMH.(Back)Note 1518 · Footnote 19-50: Evans, Weekly Thursday Report to ASD (M&P), 29 Oct 53, SD 291.2. Begun by Evans as a means of informing Rosenberg of activitNote 1519 · Footnote 19-51: Memo, Chief, Industrial Relations, for SecNav, 5 Nov 53, sub: Segregation of Facilities for Civil Service Employees; see alsNote 1520 · Footnote 19-52: Memo, Chief, Industrial Relations, for SecNav, 5 Nov 53, sub: Segregation of Facilities for Civil Service Employees, P 8(4),Note 1521 · Footnote 19-53: PL 815, 23 Sep 50, 64 U.S. 967; PL 874, 30 Sep 50, 64 U.S. 1100.(Back)Note 1522 · Footnote 19-54: Sec. 7a, PL 874, 64 U.S. 1100.(Back)Note 1523 · Footnote 19-55: DA Office of Legislative Liaison Summary Sheet for ASA, 27 Sep 51, sub: Alleged Segregation Practiced at Fort Bliss, Texas, Note 1524 · Footnote 19-56: Draft Ltr, ASA (M&P) to Mitchell. Although he never dispatched it, Korth used this letter as a basis for a discussion of theNote 1525 · Footnote 19-57: Ltr, Humphrey to ASD (M&P), 16 Oct 52, OASD (M&P) 291.2.(Back)Note 1526 · Footnote 19-58: Ltr, ASD (M&P) to U.S. Commissioner of Educ, 10 Jan 53, SecDef 291.2.(Back)Note 1527 · Footnote 19-59: Ltr, U.S. Commissioner of Educ to ASD (M&P), 15 Jan 53; Ltr, ASD (M&P) to Humphrey, 10 Jan 53; both in OASD 291.2.(Back)Note 1528 · Footnote 19-60: G-1 Summary Sheet for CofS, 13 Feb 53, sub: Segregation of School Children on Military Installations, G-1 291.2 (15 Jan 53).Note 1529 · Footnote 19-61: Memo, Exec Off, SA, for ASD (M&P), 20 Feb 53, sub: Proposed Reply to U.S. Commissioner of Education Regarding Segregation inNote 1530 · Footnote 19-62: President's News Conference, 19 Mar 53, Public Papers of the Presidents: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1953, p. 108.(Back)Note 1531 · Footnote 19-63: Memo for Rcd, Human Relations and Research Br, G-1 (ca. Mar 53), copy in CMH. See also Memo, Under SecNav for ASD (M&P), 11 Note 1532 · Footnote 19-64: Memo, SA for James Hagerty, White House Press Secretary, 20 Mar 53, sub: Segregation in Army Schools, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1533 · Footnote 19-65: Ibid.(Back)Note 1534 · Footnote 19-66: Memo, Eisenhower for SecDef, 25 Mar 53, sub: Segregation in Schools on Army Posts; Memo, Bernard Shanley (Special Counsel toNote 1535 · Footnote 19-67: Ltr, Secy of HEW, to SecDef, 13 Apr 53, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1536 · Footnote 19-68: Ltr, SecDef to President, 29 May 53, copy in CMH. On the Army's investigation of the schools, see also G-1 Summary Sheet forNote 1537 · Footnote 19-69: DOD OPI Release, 1 Feb 54; UPI News Release, 31 Jan 54; Telg, Powell to President, ca. 1 Jun 53; Ltr, President to Powell, 6Note 1538 · Footnote 19-70: Eisenhower, Mandate for Change, p. 293.(Back)Note 1539 · Footnote 19-71: Memo, SecDef for SA et al., 12 Jan 54, sub: Schools on Military Installations for Dependents of Military and Civilian PersonNote 1540 · Footnote 19-72: Telg, Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith to Wilson, 1 Feb 54, SecDef 291.2.(Back)Note 1541 · Footnote 19-73: Telg, Walter White to SecDef, 1 Feb 54; and as an example of a letter from an individual citizen, see Ltr, Mrs. Louis SheareNote 1542 · Footnote 19-74: Ltr, Winstead to SecDef, 18 Feb 54, SecDef 291.2.(Back)Note 1543 · Footnote 19-75: SecNav Instruction 5700.1, 18 Feb 54, which was renewed by SecNav Instruction 17755.1A, 31 Jul 58. For other services, see MNote 1544 · Footnote 19-76: Ltr, SecNav to Clarence Mitchell, 30 Apr 54; Ltr, Jack Cochrane, BuPers Realty Legal Section, to B. Alden Lillywhite, Dept oNote 1545 · Footnote 19-77: Ltr, SecAF to Superintendent of Montgomery Public Schools, 12 Jan 55, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1546 · Footnote 19-78: Memo for Rcd, Chief, Morale and Welfare Br, ASD (M&P), 17 Dec 54, sub: Integration of Certain Schools Located on Military InNote 1547 · Footnote 19-79: UPI News Release, Incl to Memo, Dir, DOD Office of Public Information, for ASD (M&P), 10 Nov 55, OASD (M&P) 291.2.(Back)Note 1548 · Footnote 19-80: Ltr, Col Staunton Brown, USA, District Engineer, Little Rock District, to Division Engineer, Southwestern Div, 8 Jun 56, subNote 1549 · Footnote 19-81: Memo, AF General Counsel for Dir of Mil Pers, 29 Mar 55, sub: Lease on Property Occupied by Briggs Air Force Base Dependent'Note 1550 · Footnote 19-82: Memo, ASA for ASD (M&P), 3 May 55, sub: Elimination of Segregation in On-Post Public Schools, OASD (M&P) 291.2.(Back)Note 1551 · Footnote 19-83: Memo, ASD (M&P) for SA et al., 1 Jun 55, sub: Operation of Dependent Schools on Military Installations on an Integrated BasiNote 1552 · Footnote 19-84: Memo, ASA for ASD (M&P), 16 Jul 56, sub: Status of Racial Integration in Schools at Fort George G. Meade, Maryland, and PineNote 1553 · Footnote 19-85: Memo, Cmdr Charles B. Reinhardt, OASD (M&P), for Brig Gen John H. Ives, Mil Policy Div, OASD (M&P), 26 Oct 55, sub: School aNote 1554 · Footnote 19-86: See the following Memos: ASD (M&P) for SecNav, 18 Nov 55, sub: Integration in Schools on Military Installations for DepartmeNote 1555 · Footnote 19-87: Ltr, Sen. Herbert Lehman to SecDef, 10 Oct 56; Ltr, SecDef to Lehman, 15 Oct 56, both in SD 291.2.(Back)Note 1556 · Footnote 19-88: Memo, Asst Secy of HEW for Secy of HEW, 4 Oct 58, sub: Payments of Segregated Schools Under P.L. 815 and P.L. 874, Incl to LNote 1557 · Footnote 19-89: Memo, Dir of Pers Policy, OSD, for Stephen Jackson, 29 Aug 58, sub: Air Force Segregated School Situation in Pulaski County,Note 1558 · Footnote 19-90: See, for example, Ltrs, Dir of Pers Policy, OSD, to Sen. Richard L. Neuberger, 10 Sep 58, and ASD/M to Congressman Charles CNote 1559 · Footnote 19-91: Memo, Lt Col Winston P. Anderson, Exec Off, Asst SecAF (M&P), for Asst SecAF (M&P), 24 Nov 58, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1560 · Footnote 19-92: Memo, ASD (MP&R) for SA et al., 10 Oct 58, OASD (MP&R) 291.2; Memo for Rcd, Spec Asst to Asst SecAF, 17 Oct 58, sub: MeetingNote 1561 · Footnote 19-93: Memo for Rcd, Dep ASD (MR&P), 8 Oct 58, sub: Integration of Little Rock Air Force Base School, Jacksonville, Ark.; attached Note 1562 · Footnote 19-94: Memo for Rcd, Dep Asst SecAF, 24 Nov 58, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1563 · Footnote 19-95: Ibid.; Memo, Lt Col Winston P. Anderson, Exec Off, Asst SecAF (M&P) for Asst SecAF (M&P), 24 Nov 58, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1564 · Footnote 19-96: Memo, Asst SecAF (M&P) for Under SecAF, 26 Nov 58, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1565 · Footnote 19-97: Memo, Dep Asst SecAF (MP&R) for Asst SecAF (MP&R), 26 Nov 58, sub: Little Rock Air Force Base Elementary School, SecAF filesNote 1566 · Footnote 19-98: Memo, ASD (M) for Chmn, Subcommittee on Education, Cmte on Labor and Pub Welfare, of the U.S. Senate, 25 Apr 61, OASD (M) 29Note 1567 · Footnote 19-99: Ltr, Rear Adm C. K. Duncan, Asst Chief for Plans, BuPers, to Mrs. Rosetta McCullough, 16 May 63, P 8, GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1568 · Footnote 19-100: Morton Puner, "What the Armed Forces Taught Us About Integration," Coronet (June 1960), reprinted in the Congressional RecoNote 1569 · Footnote 19-101: Press Conference, 21 Jan 59, Public Papers of the Presidents: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1959, p. 122; see also Washington Post Note 1570 · Footnote 19-102: See Fred Richard Bahr, "The Expanding Role of the Department of Defense as an Instrument of Social Change" (Ph.D. dissertatNote 1571 · Footnote 19-103: As quoted, ibid., p. 87.(Back)Note 1572 · Footnote 19-104: Morton Puner, "Integration in the Army," The New Leader 42 (January 12, 1959).(Back)Note 1573 · Footnote 19-105: Extracted from an interview given by Hannah and published in U.S. News and World Report 35 (October 16, 1953):99. See also Note 1574 · Footnote 19-106: Semiannual Report of the Secretary of Defense, January 1-June 30, 1954 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1955), pp. Note 1575 · Footnote 19-107: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, Manpower, "Advances in the Utilization of Negro Manpower: Extracts From OfficNote 1576 · Footnote 19-108: Bahr, "The Expanding Role of the Department of Defense," pp. 86-87.(Back)Note 1577 · Footnote 19-109: Ginzberg, The Negro Potential, p. 90.(Back)Note 1578 · Footnote 20-1: For discussion of charges of discrimination within the services, see Ltrs, ASD (M) to Congressman Charles C. Diggs, Jr., 15 MNote 1579 · Footnote 20-2: Robert S. McNamara, The Essence of Security (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), p. 124.(Back)Note 1580 · Footnote 20-3: James C. Evans, OASD (M), "Suggested List of Military Installations," 9 Jun 61, copy in CMH. Evans's list was based on incompNote 1581 · Footnote 20-4: Memo, Lee Nichols (UPI reporter) for SecDef, Attn: Adam Yarmolinsky, 13 May 63, sub: Racial Integration in the U.S. Armed ForNote 1582 · Footnote 20-5: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Civil Rights '63 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1963), p. 206.(Back)Note 1583 · Footnote 20-6: Memo, ASD (M) for Asst Legal Counsel to President, 7 Nov 61, sub: Racial Discrimination in the Armed Services, ASD (M) 291.2.Note 1584 · Footnote 20-7: See transcribed taped interviews conducted by Nichols of the UPI with military and civilian personnel in the Charleston, S.C.Note 1585 · Footnote 20-8: Ltr, Diggs to President, 27 Jun 62, copy in Gesell Collection, John F. Kennedy Library.(Back)Note 1586 · Footnote 20-9: American Veterans Committee, "Audit of Negro Veterans and Servicemen," 1960, p. 16, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1587 · Footnote 20-10: Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, "Proposals for Executive Action to End Federally Supported Segregation and Other FormNote 1588 · Footnote 20-11: Baltimore Sun, August 8, 1962. On the particular problem in the Aberdeen area see Telg, President Kennedy to John Field, PreNote 1589 · Footnote 20-12: Memo, SecDef for ASD (MP&R) Designate, 27 Jan 61, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1590 · Footnote 20-13: This discussion of Kennedy's civil rights position is based on Arthur M. Schlesinger, A Thousand Days (Boston: Houghton MiffNote 1591 · Footnote 20-14: Quoted from O'Connor's oral history interview with Hesburgh, 27 Mar 66.(Back)Note 1592 · Footnote 20-15: For a critical interpretation of the Kennedy approach to enforcing the Court's decisions, see Navasky's Kennedy Justice, pp.Note 1593 · Footnote 20-16: Press Conference, 1 Mar 61, Public Papers of the Presidents: John F. Kennedy, 1961, p. 137.(Back)Note 1594 · Footnote 20-17: 26 Federal Register 1977.(Back)Note 1595 · Footnote 20-18: Presidential statement, 7 Mar 61, Public Papers of the Presidents: Kennedy, 1961, p. 150. See also "President's Remarks on MNote 1596 · Footnote 20-19: Executive Order 11063, 20 Nov 62, 27 Federal Register 11527.(Back)Note 1597 · Footnote 20-20: Memo, Frederick G. Dutton, Spec Asst to President, for Secy of State et al., 31 Mar 61, and Memo, ASD (M) for Dutton (ca. 10Note 1598 · Footnote 20-21: See Memo, ASD (M) for Under SA et al., 7 Nov 61, sub: Minority Representation in Officer Procurement and Training, ASD (M) 2Note 1599 · Footnote 20-22: Memo for Rcd, James C. Evans, 21 Jul 61, sub: Meeting, Subcabinet Group on Civil Rights, Friday, July 21, 1961 (Judge JacksoNote 1600 · Footnote 20-23: Civil Rights Subcabinet Group, Notes on Meeting of 16 Jun 61; Ltr, Spec Asst to Postmaster Gen to James C. Evans, 26 Jan 62;Note 1601 · Footnote 20-24: Memo for Rcd, James C. Evans, 21 Jul 61, sub: Meeting, Subcabinet Group on Civil Rights, Friday, July 21, 1961 (Judge JacksoNote 1602 · Footnote 20-25: See, for example, Ltr, Chmn, Commission on Civil Rights, to SecDef, 26 Mar 62; Memo, ASD (M) for Under SA et al., 7 May 62, Note 1603 · Footnote 20-26: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, "The Services and Their Relations With the Community," 17 Jun 63.(Back)Note 1604 · Footnote 20-27: For examples of DOD reports submitted to the White House on this subject, see Memo, ASD (M) for Harris Wofford, 15 Nov 61, aNote 1605 · Footnote 20-28: Memo, Yarmolinsky for Runge, 13 May 61; Memo, ASD (M) for SA et al., 16 Mar 61, sub: Personnel Screening Boards; both in ASDNote 1606 · Footnote 20-29: Memo, Frank D. Reeves, Spec Asst to President, for SecDef, Attn: Adam Yarmolinsky, 19 Apr 61, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1607 · Footnote 20-30: Ltr, Harris Wofford to ASD (M), 18 Sep 61; Memo for Rcd, James C. Evans, 25 Sep 61, sub: Negro Naval Personnel; Informal MemNote 1608 · Footnote 20-31: Composed of representatives of some fifty civil rights groups under the chairmanship of Roy Wilkins of the NAACP, the LeaderNote 1609 · Footnote 20-32: Memo, Dutton for Yarmolinsky, 26 Oct 61, copy in ASD (M) 291.2 (22 May 61).(Back)Note 1610 · Footnote 20-33: Memo, SecDef for ASD (M), 13 Mar 61, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1611 · Footnote 20-34: Memo, ASD (M) for SecDef, 14 Mac 61, sub: Ceremonial Units and Honor Guard Details, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1612 · Footnote 20-35: Informal Memo, Evans for Judge Jackson, 14 Mar 61, sub: Ceremonial Units and Honor Guard Details. Remark repeated by ASD (M)Note 1613 · Footnote 20-36: The Coast Guard incident in particular seems to have impressed Washington. It was cited by Mitchell, Wilkins, and Hesburgh dNote 1614 · Footnote 20-37: Interv, Dennis O'Brien with Roswell L. Gilpatric, 5 May 70, in J. F. Kennedy Library; see also Interv, Bernhard with WoffordNote 1615 · Footnote 20-38: Memo, Spec Asst to SecDef for Paul Southwick, White House, 22 Oct 63; James C. Evans, "Equality of Opportunity in the Armed Note 1616 · Footnote 20-39: Although it did not directly affect black servicemen, the contract compliance program deserves mention as a field in which tNote 1617 · Footnote 20-40: The Office of the Secretary of Defense also issued several other statements implementing sections of Executive Order 10925; Note 1618 · Footnote 20-41: Memo, SecDef for Secys of Military Departments et al., 28 Apr 61, sub: Military and Civilian Employee Recreational OrganizatNote 1619 · Footnote 20-42: Ltr, Runge to Hill, 14 Jun 61; Memo, Runge for Under SecAF, 28 Jan 61, sub: Military and Civilian Employee Recreational OrgaNote 1620 · Footnote 20-43: Ltr, Bernhard to Runge, 6 Jul 61, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1621 · Footnote 20-44: Ltr, Runge to Bernhard, 17 Jul 61, with attached Handwritten Note, signed SSJ [Stephen Jackson], 13 Jul 61, ASD (M) 291.2.(BNote 1622 · Footnote 20-45: Ltr, Hill to Runge, 26 Jul 61; Memo, ASD (M) for SecAF, 25 Sep 61, sub: Purchase and Sale of Baseball Tickets at Brookley AFNote 1623 · Footnote 20-46: Memo, R.C. Gilliat for Bartimo, 31 Jul 61, attached to Draft Ltr, Runge to Hill, ASD (M) 353.8.(Back)Note 1624 · Footnote 20-47: Memo, RTA [Robert T. Andrews] for FAB [Frank A. Bartimo], 1 Aug 61, ASD (M) 353.8.(Back)Note 1625 · Footnote 20-48: Memo, Yarmolinsky for Dutton, 4 Aug 61, sub: President's Memorandum of 18 April 1961, ASD (M) 291.2 (22 May 61).(Back)Note 1626 · Footnote 20-49: Note, signed, "MB," 16 Aug 61, sub: Call From Virginia McGuire, attached to Draft Ltr, ASD (M) to Sen. Hill; Memo, ASD (M) fNote 1627 · Footnote 20-50: Memo, ASD (M) for SecDef, 22 May 61, sub: Availability of Facilities to Military Personnel, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1628 · Footnote 20-51: Memo, Dep SecDef for Service Secys, 19 Jun 61, sub: Availability of Facilities to Military Personnel, SD 291.2. For various Note 1629 · Footnote 20-52: Interv, author with James C. Evans, 15 Nov 72, CMH files.(Back)Note 1630 · Footnote 20-53: Memo, Maj Gen Albert M. Kuhfeld, USAFJAG (for CofSAF), for ALMAJCOM (SJA), 2 Feb 62, sub: Air Force Policy Statement ConcernNote 1631 · Footnote 20-54: Memo for Rcd, ASD (P), 23 Mar 60; Memo, Dep Chief, NavPers, for Asst SecNav (Pers and Reserve Forces), 23 Mar 60, sub: ConsiNote 1632 · Footnote 20-55: Memo, ASD (M) for SecDef, 18 Jul 61, sub: Use of Military Police to Halt Sit-ins as Reported by Drew Pearson's Column of JulNote 1633 · Footnote 20-56: Memo, ASD (M) for SecDef, 18 Jul 61, sub: Use of Military Police..., ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1634 · Footnote 20-57: Memo, Dep Under SA for Counselor, OASD (M), 12 Jan 62, sub: Off-Base Racial Discrimination in the Fort Hood Area, ASD (M) 29Note 1635 · Footnote 20-58: Memo, Vance and Runge for SecDef, 5 Jun 61, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1636 · Footnote 20-59: Ltr, ASD (M) to John de J. Pemberton, Jr., Exec Dir, American Civil Liberties Union, 31 Jul 63; Memos for Rcd, OSD CounselorNote 1637 · Footnote 20-60: Memo, General Counsel for ASD (M), 15 Jun 62, sub: Picketing by Members of the Armed Forces, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1638 · Footnote 20-61: See Memo, James P. Goode, Office of SecAF, for Stephen Jackson and Carlisle Runge, attached to Memo, AF Dep CofS (P) for AllNote 1639 · Footnote 20-62: Memo, SecDef for Secys of Mil Depts et al., 16 Jul 63, SD files; see also New York Times, July 16, 17, 20, 22, 28, and 30, 1Note 1640 · Footnote 20-63: Msg, USCINCEUR to JCS, 201256Z Aug 63; Msg, JCS 2190 to CINSCO et al. (info copies to Service Chiefs of Staff, CINCAL, ASD [Note 1641 · Footnote 20-64: Omaha World Herald, August 17, 1962; see also Memo, Adam [Yarmolinsky] for L. White, 7 Sep 62, Lee White Collection, J. F. KNote 1642 · Footnote 20-65: Memo, ASD (M) for Asst Legal Counsel to President, 7 Nov 61, sub: Racial Discrimination in the Armed Services, ASD (M) 291.2Note 1643 · Footnote 20-66: Memo, Jackson for Dep ASD, Family Housing-OASD (I&L), 8 Feb 63, sub: Implementation of EX 11063, Equal Opportunity in HousinNote 1644 · Footnote 20-67: Memo, SecDef for SA et al., 8 Mar 63, sub: Non-Discrimination in Family Housing; Memo, ASD (I&L) for Dep ASD (Family HousingNote 1645 · Footnote 20-68: See petitions signed by thousands of Negroes to the President demanding redress of grievances against the discriminatory praNote 1646 · Footnote 20-69: Memo for Rcd, James C. Evans, OASD (M), 17 Jul 61, sub: Mr. Runge Receives NAACP Delegation, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1647 · Footnote 20-70: Washington Post, July 28, 1961.(Back)Note 1648 · Footnote 20-71: Ltr, Murray Gross, Chmn of the AVC, to SecDef, 22 Jun 61, SD 291.2. The report on the integration of the National Guard was Note 1649 · Footnote 20-72: Ltrs, Runge to Murray Gross, 19 Jul and 29 Nov 61, ASD (M) 291.2, and n.d. (ca. Nov 61), copy in Wofford Collection, J. F. KNote 1650 · Footnote 20-73: Ltr, SecDef to Rep. Carl Vinson of Georgia, Chmn, House Armed Services Cmte, 5 Aug 61, reprinted in Appendix to CongressionaNote 1651 · Footnote 20-74: ACofS (Reserve Components) Summary Sheet, 11 Feb 57, sub: Race Issue in Armory Debate, copy in DCSPER 291.2.(Back)Note 1652 · Footnote 20-75: DCSPER Summary Sheet, 6 Apr 56, sub: Policy for Reserve Training Assignments of Obligated Non-Caucasian Personnel of the ReaNote 1653 · Footnote 20-76: Memo, Dep SecDef for Under Secys, 3 Apr 62, sub: Compliance With E.O. 9981 in the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps ReNote 1654 · Footnote 20-77: Office of the ASD (M), Review of Compliance With E.O. 9981 in the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps Reserves, 7 Nov 62Note 1655 · Footnote 20-78: Ltr, Diggs to SecAF, 7 Jul 60; see also Memo, Dir, AF Legis Liaison, for Spec Asst for Manpower, Personnel, and Reserve ForcNote 1656 · Footnote 20-79: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Civil Rights '63, pp. 173-85. The quotation is from page 185.(Back)Note 1657 · Footnote 20-80: See, for example, Morton Puner, "The Armed Forces: An Integration Success Story," Anti-Defamation League Bulletin, Nov 62, pNote 1658 · Footnote 20-81: Memo, DepASD (Special Studies and Requirements) for ASD (M), 16 Jul 63, with attachment, Utilization of Negroes in the ArmedNote 1659 · Footnote 20-82: See, for example, the following Memos: Dep Under SA (Manpower) for ASD (M), 30 Mar 62, sub: Servicemen's Complaints of DiscrNote 1660 · Footnote 20-83: Ginzberg, The Negro Potential, p. 90.(Back)Note 1661 · Footnote 20-84: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Civil Rights '63, pp. 210-11.(Back)Note 1662 · Footnote 20-85: Memo, Wofford for Evans, 2 Feb 62, Wofford Collection, J. F. Kennedy Library.(Back)Note 1663 · Footnote 21-1: Interv, author with McNamara, telecon of 11 May 72, CMH files.(Back)Note 1664 · Footnote 21-2: Ltr, Alfred B. Fitt to author, 22 May 72, CMH files.(Back)Note 1665 · Footnote 21-3: The following summary of opinions is based upon (1) Intervs: author with McNamara, 11 May 72, Gerhard A. Gesell, 13 May 72, RNote 1666 · Footnote 21-4: Interv, author with Evans, 4 Mar 72.(Back)Note 1667 · Footnote 21-5: USAF Oral Hist Interv with Zuckert, Apr 73; Interv, O'Brien with Gilpatric, 5 May 70.(Back)Note 1668 · Footnote 21-6: Ltr, Yarmolinsky to author, 30 May 72, CMH files.(Back)Note 1669 · Footnote 21-7: Not everyone supporting the idea of an investigatory committee was necessarily an advocate of Yarmolinsky's theories. Roy K. Note 1670 · Footnote 21-8: Ltr, Diggs to McNamara, 24 Aug 61; Ltr, ASD (M) to Diggs, 5 Sep 61; Memo, ASD (M) for Asst Legal Counsel to President, 7 Nov Note 1671 · Footnote 21-9: Interv, author with McNamara, 11 May 72.(Back)Note 1672 · Footnote 21-10: Ltr, Kennedy to Gesell, 22 Jun 62, as reproduced in White House Press Release, 24 Jun 62, copy in CMH. For an example of theNote 1673 · Footnote 21-11: Memo, Yarmolinsky for Lee C. White, 26 Jul 62, sub: Revocation of Executive Order 9981, SD 291.2.(Back)Note 1674 · Footnote 21-12: Interv, author with McNamara, 11 May 72; see also Ltr, Yarmolinsky to author, 30 May 72. Yarmolinsky called the presidentialNote 1675 · Footnote 21-13: Memo, ASD (M) for Asst Legal Counsel to President, 7 Nov 61, sub: Racial Discrimination in the Armed Services, ASD (M) 291.2Note 1676 · Footnote 21-14: Interv, author with Gesell, 3 Nov 74, CMH files. The Secretary of Defense met with the committee but once for an informal chNote 1677 · Footnote 21-15: Interv, author with Gesell, 13 May 72.(Back)Note 1678 · Footnote 21-16: Memo, Yarmolinsky for Vice President, 13 Mar 62, SD 291.2.(Back)Note 1679 · Footnote 21-17: Memo, ASD (M) for Lee C. White, Asst Spec Counsel to President, 7 Jun 62, sub: Establishment of Committee on Equality of OppNote 1680 · Footnote 21-18: In discussing the Yale connection in the Gesell Committee, it is interesting to note that at least three other officials intNote 1681 · Footnote 21-19: Interv, author with Gesell, 13 May 72.(Back)Note 1682 · Footnote 21-20: Ltr, Young to Gesell, 27 Aug 62, Gesell Collection, J. F. Kennedy Library.(Back)Note 1683 · Footnote 21-21: Ltr, Muse to Gesell, 26 Jan 63, Gesell Collection, J. F. Kennedy Library.(Back)Note 1684 · Footnote 21-22: Quoted by Gesell during interview with author, 13 May 72.(Back)Note 1685 · Footnote 21-23: Memo, White for Dep Atty Gen, 23 Jan 63, copy in Lee C. White Collection, J. F. Kennedy Library. (Deputy Attorney General KaNote 1686 · Footnote 21-24: Ltr, Gesell to SecAF, 25 Oct 62, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1687 · Footnote 21-25: Interv, author with Gesell, 3 Nov 74.(Back)Note 1688 · Footnote 21-26: Memo, Gesell for Cmte Members, 20 Nov 64, Gesell Collection, J. F. Kennedy Library.(Back)Note 1689 · Footnote 21-27: The committee's considerable probings were reflected in the Defense Department's files. See for example, Memo, SecDef for SeNote 1690 · Footnote 21-28: The President's Committee on Equal Opportunity in the Armed Forces, "Initial Report: Equality of Treatment and Opportunity fNote 1691 · Footnote 21-29: Ltr, Gesell to Under SecNav, 6 Feb 63, SecNav file 5420 (1179), GenRecsNav.(Back)Note 1692 · Footnote 21-30: Intervs, author with Gesell, 13 May 72 and 3 Nov 74.(Back)Note 1693 · Footnote 21-31: Memo, Dep for Manpower, Personnel, & Organization, USAF, for SecAF, 25 Jan 63, sub: Meeting With President's Committee on EqNote 1694 · Footnote 21-32: Ltr, Chief of NavPers to CONUS District Cmdrs et al., 22 Apr 63, attached to Memo, Chief of NavPers for Distribution List, 2Note 1695 · Footnote 21-33: Ltr, Under SecNav to Gesell, 8 Feb 63, SecNav file 5420 (1179), GenRecsNav. For examples of this exchange between the commitNote 1696 · Footnote 21-34: Interv, author with Gesell, 3 Nov 74.(Back)Note 1697 · Footnote 21-35: For an example of how an individual service was handling the USO and other on-base social problems, see Memo, Maj Gen John KNote 1698 · Footnote 21-36: "Initial Rpt," p. 10.(Back)Note 1699 · Footnote 21-37: Interv, author with Gesell, 3 Nov 74.(Back)Note 1700 · Footnote 21-38: "Initial Rpt," pp. 10-11, 30, 51.(Back)Note 1701 · Footnote 21-39: Memo for Rcd, USAF Dep for Manpower, Personnel, & Organization, 14 Nov 62, sub: Meeting of the President's Committee on EquaNote 1702 · Footnote 21-40: Memo, Dep for Manpower, Personnel, & Organization, USAF, for SecAF, 25 Jan 63, sub: Meeting With President's Committee on EqNote 1703 · Footnote 21-41: "Initial Rpt," p. 61.(Back)Note 1704 · Footnote 21-42: Interv, author with Gesell, 13 May 72.(Back)Note 1705 · Footnote 21-43: Idem with Benjamin Muse, 2 Mar 73, CMH files.(Back)Note 1706 · Footnote 21-44: Memo, Under SecNav for SecNav, 9 Apr 63, sub: Meeting With the President's Cmte on Equal Opportunity in the Armed Forces, SeNote 1707 · Footnote 21-45: Ltr, DASD (Family Housing) to Chmn Gesell, 4 Jun 63, Gesell Collection, J. F. Kennedy Library.(Back)Note 1708 · Footnote 21-46: Ltr, Under SecNav to Chmn Gesell, 5 Jun 63, copy in Gesell Collection, J. F. Kennedy Library; see also Memo, Under SecNav foNote 1709 · Footnote 21-47: "Initial Rpt," p. 52.(Back)Note 1710 · Footnote 21-48: Interv, author with Gesell, 3 Nov 74.(Back)Note 1711 · Footnote 21-49: "Initial Rpt," pp. 68-71.(Back)Note 1712 · Footnote 21-50: Interv, author with Gesell, 13 May 72.(Back)Note 1713 · Footnote 21-51: Memo for Rcd, Dep for Manpower, Personnel, & Organization, USAF, 14 Nov 62, sub: Meeting of President's Committee on Equal ONote 1714 · Footnote 21-52: "Initial Rpt," p. 70.(Back)Note 1715 · Footnote 21-53: Ltr, Gesell to President Kennedy, 13 Jun 63, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1716 · Footnote 21-54: Interv, author with Gesell, 13 May 72.(Back)Note 1717 · Footnote 21-55: "Initial Rpt," p. 11.(Back)Note 1718 · Footnote 21-56: Ibid., pp. 92-93.(Back)Note 1719 · Footnote 21-57: Ltr, President to SecDef, 21 Jun 63, copy in CMH. The President also sent the committee's report to the Vice President for cNote 1720 · Footnote 21-58: Memo, SecDef for SA et al., 27 Jun 63, sub: Report of the President's Committee on Equal Opportunity in the Armed Forces; seNote 1721 · Footnote 21-59: Memo, Dep Under SA (M) for SecDef (ca. 10 Jul 63), with service comments attached, copy in ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1722 · Footnote 21-60: Memo, SecNav for ASD (M), 10 Jul 63, sub; Report of the President's Committee on Equal Opportunity in the Armed Forces, SecNNote 1723 · Footnote 21-61: Memo, SecAF for ASD (M), 10 Jul 63, sub: Air Force Response to the Gesell Committee Report, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1724 · Footnote 21-62: Interv, author with Gesell, 13 May 72.(Back)Note 1725 · Footnote 21-63: Ibid., and with McNamara, 11 May 72.(Back)Note 1726 · Footnote 21-64: Memo, McNamara for Burke Marshall (ca. 20 Jul 63), Marshall Papers, J. F. Kennedy Library.(Back)Note 1727 · Footnote 21-65: Idem for President, 24 Jul 63, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1728 · Footnote 21-66: DOD Dir 5120.36, 26 Jul 63.(Back)Note 1729 · Footnote 21-67: Alfred B. Fitt thus characterized the opposition in his Remarks Before Civilian Aides Conference of the Secretary of Army, 6Note 1730 · Footnote 21-68: Ltr to SecDef, 29 Jul 63. This letter and the two following are typical of hundreds received by the secretary and filed in tNote 1731 · Footnote 21-69: Ltr, DASD (CR) to James Wilson, Director, National Security Commission, American Legion, 24 Sep 63, written when the legion Note 1732 · Footnote 21-70: Ltr, Fitt to author, 22 May 72.(Back)Note 1733 · Footnote 21-71: Congressional Record, 88th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 109, p. 14350.(Back)Note 1734 · Footnote 21-72: Ibid., pp. 13778-87, 14349-56.(Back)Note 1735 · Footnote 21-73: Quotes are from ibid., pp. 13778, 13780, 14345-46, 14349, 14351, 14352.(Back)Note 1736 · Footnote 21-74: Ibid., Senate, 31 Jul 63, pp. 13779, 13783.(Back)Note 1737 · Footnote 21-75: Congressional letters critical of the directive can be found in DASD (CR) and SD files, 1963. See, for example, Ltrs, FulbriNote 1738 · Footnote 21-76: Letters in support of the DOD Directive can be found in ASD (CR) (68A1006) files, 1963.(Back)Note 1739 · Footnote 21-77: A late victim of the anticivil rights forces in Congress was Adam Yarmolinsky. His appointment as deputy director of the OffNote 1740 · Footnote 21-78: The quote is from author's interview with Gesell on 13 May 1972. See also Ltr, White to Gesell, 8 Jan 64, and Memo, Gesell fNote 1741 · Footnote 21-79: Memo, Gesell for Members of the Committee, 26 Feb 64.(Back)Note 1742 · Footnote 21-80: The President's Committee on Equal Opportunity in the Armed Forces, "Final Report: Military Personnel Stationed Overseas andNote 1743 · Footnote 21-81: Ltr, Muse to Gesell, 23 Apr 64, Gesell Collection, J. F. Kennedy Library.(Back)Note 1744 · Footnote 21-82: "Final Report," p. 12.(Back)Note 1745 · Footnote 21-83: Interv, author with Gesell, 3 Nov 74.(Back)Note 1746 · Footnote 21-84: The Kennedy quote is from the author's interview with Gesell on 13 May 1972. The Justice Department quote is from Memo, GordNote 1747 · Footnote 21-85: "Final Report," pp. 19-20.(Back)Note 1748 · Footnote 21-86: The National Guard Bureau is a joint agency of the Departments of the Army and Air Force which acts as adviser to the servicNote 1749 · Footnote 21-87: The draft was also sent for comment to the National Guard Bureau; see Ltr, Chief, NGB, to Gesell, 13 Nov 64, Gesell CollectiNote 1750 · Footnote 21-88: Memo, Gesell for Members of the President's Committee on Equal Opportunity in the Armed Forces, 20 Nov 64. The quotation is Note 1751 · Footnote 21-89: Ltr, Gen Wilson, NGB, to Gesell, 13 Nov 64, Gesell Collection, J. F. Kennedy Library.(Back)Note 1752 · Footnote 21-90: Ltr, President to SecDef, 26 Dec 64, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1753 · Footnote 21-91: Interv, author with Muse, 2 Mar 73.(Back)Note 1754 · Footnote 22-1: Quoted in Ltr, Fitt to author, 22 May 72; see also Interv, author with Jordan, 7 Jun 72.(Back)Note 1755 · Footnote 22-2: See Ltr, J. Francis Pohlhous, Counsel, Washington Bureau, NAACP, to SecDef, 5 Aug 63, ASD (M) 291.2; Telg, NAACP Commanders tNote 1756 · Footnote 22-3: See Ltrs, DASD (CR) to J. Francis Pohlhous, 15 Aug and 6 Sep 63; Albert Fritz, Utah Branch, NAACP, 29 Aug 63; and Juanita MitNote 1757 · Footnote 22-4: Charles Moskos, "Findings on American Military Establishment" (Northeastern University, 1967), quoted in Yarmolinsky, The MilNote 1758 · Footnote 22-5: For many examples of these racial complaints and their disposition, see DASD (CR) files, 1963-64, especially Access Nos. 68-ANote 1759 · Footnote 22-6: The Assistant Secretary of Defense (Manpower) prepared a monthly compilation of all discrimination cases in the Department ofNote 1760 · Footnote 22-7: Norman S. Paul succeeded Carlisle Runge as Assistant Secretary of Defense (Manpower) on 8 August 1962.(Back)Note 1761 · Footnote 22-8: DOD Dir 5120.36, 26 Jul 63. For an extended discussion of the functions of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Manpower) and Note 1762 · Footnote 22-9: DOD News Release 1057-63, 29 Jul 63.(Back)Note 1763 · Footnote 22-10: Memo, ASD (M) for DASD (Education) et al., 23 Jan 63, sub: Coordination of All Matters Related to Racial Problems, ASD (M) 2Note 1764 · Footnote 22-11: Evans' predecessors included Emmett J. Scott, Special Assistant to the Secretary of War, 1917-19; William H. Hastie, CiviliaNote 1765 · Footnote 22-12: Before assuming the manpower position, Norman Paul was the chief of legislative liaison for the Department of Defense. For aNote 1766 · Footnote 22-13: For a discussion of the effect of the proliferation of assistants in the manpower office, see USAF oral history interview wiNote 1767 · Footnote 22-14: The incumbents were Alfred B. Fitt, Stephen N. Shulman, Jack Moskowitz, L. Howard Bennett (acting), Frank W. Render II, DonaNote 1768 · Footnote 22-15: This solution was still being recommended a decade later; see Department of Defense, "Report of the Task Force on the AdminiNote 1769 · Footnote 22-16: Interv, author with Col George R. H. Johnson, Deputy, Plans and Policy, DASD (Equal Opportunity), 9 Aug 73, CMH files.(Back)Note 1770 · Footnote 22-17: Ltr, DASD (CR) to Gesell, 28 Jul 64, Gesell Collection, J. F. Kennedy Library.(Back)Note 1771 · Footnote 22-18: Interv, author with Jordan, 7 Jun 72.(Back)Note 1772 · Footnote 22-19: Memos: Dep to SecAF for Manpower, Personnel, and Organization for ASD (M), 15 Aug 63, sub: Implementation of DOD Directive 5Note 1773 · Footnote 22-20: Interv, author with Davenport, 2 Aug 73, CMH files.(Back)Note 1774 · Footnote 22-21: Interv, author with Gesell, 13 May 72.(Back)Note 1775 · Footnote 22-22: Memo, Under SecNav for SecNav, 7 Feb 63, sub: Equal Opportunity in the Navy and Marine Corps, SecNav file 5420, GenRecsNav.(Note 1776 · Footnote 22-23: Memo, David M. Clinard, Spec Asst, for SecNav, 11 Oct 63, sub: Interviews With Negro Personnel at Andrews Air Force Base, coNote 1777 · Footnote 22-24: SecNav Instruction 5350.2A, 6 Mar 63; Personal Ltr, SecNav to All Flag and General Officers et al., 26 Mar 63, copy in CMH; Note 1778 · Footnote 22-25: Ltr, Chief, NavPers, to CONUS District Cmdrs et al., 22 Apr 63, attached to Memo, Chief, NavPers, for Distribution List, 24 Note 1779 · Footnote 22-26: Memo, Actg SecAF CofSAF, 8 Dec 62, sub: Anti-Discrimination Policy in the Military Service, SecAF files.(Back)Note 1780 · Footnote 22-27: Memo, SecDef for SA and Navy, 4 Mar 63, sub: Anti-Discrimination Policy in the Military Service, copy in CMH. McNamara receiNote 1781 · Footnote 22-28: Memo, SecAF for ASD (M), 10 Jul 63, sub: Air Force Response to the Gesell Committee Report, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1782 · Footnote 22-29: Memo, ASD (M) for Under SA et al., 13 Sep 63, sub: DOD Directive 5120.36, 26 Jul 63, Equal Opportunity, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1783 · Footnote 22-30: Alfred B. Fitt, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense (Civil Rights), "Remarks Before Civilian Aides Conference of the SecreNote 1784 · Footnote 22-31: Ltr, DASD (Civil Rights) to Gesell, 30 Apr 64, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1785 · Footnote 22-32: AR 600-21, 2 Jul 64 (superseded by AR 600-21, 18 Mar 65); AFR 35-78, 19 Aug 64 (superseded in May 71); SecNav Instructions 5Note 1786 · Footnote 22-33: Memo, DASD (CR) for Paul, 10 Feb 64, sub: Official Attendance at Segregated Meetings, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1787 · Footnote 22-34: Memo, Assoc Spec Counsel to President for Heads of Departments and Agencies, 12 Jun 64, sub: Further Participation at SegregNote 1788 · Footnote 22-35: Memo, Dep SecDef for Secys of Military Departments et al., 7 Jul 64, sub: Federal Participation at Segregated Meetings, SD 2Note 1789 · Footnote 22-36: Memo, James P. Goode for Dep SecDef, 29 Sep 64, sub: Federal Participation at Segregated Meetings, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1790 · Footnote 22-37: Draft Memo, DASD (Civ Pers, Indus Rels, and CR) for Dep for Manpower, Personnel, and Organization, USAF, 7 Oct 64, sub: FedeNote 1791 · Footnote 22-38: Fitt, "Remarks Before Civilian Aides Conference of the Secretary of the Army," 6 Mar 64.(Back)Note 1792 · Footnote 22-39: Interv, author with Evans, 23 Jul 73, CMH files.(Back)Note 1793 · Footnote 22-40: Paul Memo.(Back)Note 1794 · Footnote 22-41: For accounts of Navy and Marine Corps attempts to attract more Negroes, see Memos: Smedberg for Under SecNav, 20 May 63, subNote 1795 · Footnote 22-42: Memo, SecDef for Educators, 6 Oct 65, sub: Equal Opportunity at the Service Academies of the United States Army, Navy, and ANote 1796 · Footnote 22-43: DOD News Release, 13 Aug 64. See the President's Task Force on Manpower Conservation, One-Third of a Nation: A Report on YouNote 1797 · Footnote 22-44: McNamara, The Essence of Security, pp. 131-38. See also Bahr, "The Expanding Role of the Department of Defense," ch. V.(BackNote 1798 · Footnote 22-45: Ltr, Fitt to author, 21 Oct 76, CMH files.(Back)Note 1799 · Footnote 22-46: Fitt left the civil rights office in August 1964 to become the General Counsel of the Army. At his departure the position ofNote 1800 · Footnote 22-47: Paul Memo.(Back)Note 1801 · Footnote 22-48: Ibid.(Back)Note 1802 · Footnote 22-49: Shulman, "The Civil Rights Policies of the Department of Defense," 4 May 65.(Back)Note 1803 · Footnote 22-50: Department of Defense, "Report of the Task Force on the Administration of Military Justice in the Armed Forces," 30 Nov 72, Note 1804 · Footnote 22-51: Memo, Asst Spec Counsel to President for SecDef, 27 Jun 63, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1805 · Footnote 22-52: ACSFOR, "Annual Historical Summary, Fiscal Years 1963-64," copy in CMH; Memo, DASD (CR) for Paul, 25 Sep 63, sub: Training PNote 1806 · Footnote 22-53: Memo, Under SA for ASD (M), 14 Sep 63, sub: Training Program Keyed Primarily to the Special Problems of Negro Servicemen; MeNote 1807 · Footnote 22-54: For a discussion of this argument, see [BuPers] Memo for Rcd, Capt K. J. B. Sanger, USN, 9 Oct 63, Pers 1, BuPersRecs.(Back)Note 1808 · Footnote 22-55: Interv, author with Davenport, ASA, Manpower (Ret.), 2 Aug 73, CMH files.(Back)Note 1809 · Footnote 22-56: See, for example, the following Memos: Evans for Judge Jackson, 1 Apr 63, and Mr. Jordan, 3 Sep 64, sub: Racial DesignationsNote 1810 · Footnote 22-57: Bureau of the Budget, Circular No. A-46, Transmittal Memorandum No. 8, 8 Aug 69.(Back)Note 1811 · Footnote 22-58: See Ltr, Clarence Mitchell, NAACP, to ASD (M), 8 Jul 53; Ltr, Congressman Henry S. Reuss of Wisconsin to SecDef, 27 Sep 56; Note 1812 · Footnote 22-59: See Memo, TAG for Distribution, 21 Sep 62, sub: Racial Identification in Army Documents, AGAM (M) 291.2; Memo for Rcd, EvansNote 1813 · Footnote 22-60: See, for example, Ltr, Dir of Personnel Policy (OSD) to J. Francis Pohlhous, Counsel, NAACP, 6 Jul 55, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1814 · Footnote 22-61: Ltr, Director, Civil Service Commission, to Rear Adm Robert L. Moore, Chief of Industrial Relations, USN, 9 Jul 63, copy in Note 1815 · Footnote 22-62: Memo, Spec Asst to ASD (M) for Under SA, 15 Apr 63, sub: Racial Identification on Military Records (similar memorandums wereNote 1816 · Footnote 22-63: Memo, DASD (CR) for DASD (Management), 3 Mar 64, sub: Elimination of Racial Designations on DD Forms (the Army adopted this Note 1817 · Footnote 22-64: Memo, Philip M. Timpane for DASD (CR), 10 Aug 64, sub: Race on Records, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1818 · Footnote 22-65: Memo, Dep Under SA for DASD (CR), 3 Jun 64, sub: Proposed DOD Instruction Re: Use of Racial Designations in Forms and RecordNote 1819 · Footnote 22-66: L. Howard Bennett, Untitled Minutes of Equal Opportunity Council Meetings on the Subject of Racial Indicators, 30 Sep 66; MeNote 1820 · Footnote 22-67: Memo, Bennett for ASD (M) and DASD (Civ Pers, Indus Rels, and CR), 8 Dec 66, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1821 · Footnote 22-68: Interv, author with Johnson, 9 Aug 73.(Back)Note 1822 · Footnote 22-69: Memo, Exec to DASD (CR) for DASD (CR), 20 Mar 64; see also OASD (CR), Summary of Military Personnel Assignments in Overseas Note 1823 · Footnote 22-70: DOD directive cited in Gesell Committee's "Final Report," p. 7; see also New York Times, September 12, 1963.(Back)Note 1824 · Footnote 22-71: New York Times and Washington Post, December 29, 1964.(Back)Note 1825 · Footnote 22-72: See, for example, New York Herald Tribune, January 3, 1965; New York Times, March 29, 1964.(Back)Note 1826 · Footnote 22-73: Memo for Rcd, Timpane, 25 Nov 64, ODASD (CR) files.(Back)Note 1827 · Footnote 22-74: Paul Memo.(Back)Note 1828 · Footnote 22-75: For an example of McNamara's extremely self-critical judgments on the subject of equal opportunity, see Brock Brower, "McNamNote 1829 · Footnote 22-76: Interv, author with McNamara, 11 May 72.(Back)Note 1830 · Footnote 22-77: Memo, William C. Baldes, ODASD (CR), for DASD (CR), 8 Jul 63, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1831 · Footnote 22-78: Memo, DASD (CR) for ASD (M), 2 Jul 64, copy in CMH. Emphasis not in original.(Back)Note 1832 · Footnote 22-79: The administration of military justice was not considered by the Civil Rights Commission nor by the Gesell Committee, althouNote 1833 · Footnote 23-1: Interv, author with McNamara, 11 May 72.(Back)Note 1834 · Footnote 23-2: See Memo, DASD (CR) for ASD (M), 2 Jul 64; Fitt, "Remarks Before the Civilian Aides Conference of the Secretary of the Army,"Note 1835 · Footnote 23-3: Robert S. McNamara, Testimony Before Senate Armed Services Committee, 3 Oct 63, quoted in New York Times, October 4, 1963.(BaNote 1836 · Footnote 23-4: Memo, William C. Valdes, OASD (M), for Alfred B. Fitt, 8 Jul 63, sub: Case Studies of Minority Group Problems at Keesler AFB,Note 1837 · Footnote 23-5: See Shulman, "The Civil Rights Policies of the Department of Defense," 4 May 65.(Back)Note 1838 · Footnote 23-6: Memos: DASD (CR) for White, Assoc Spec Council to President, 9 Jul 64; Philip M. Timpane. Staff Asst, ODASD (CP, IR, & CR), fNote 1839 · Footnote 23-7: See especially UPI Press Release, October 4, 1963; New York Times, October 3, 1963; Memo, Robert E. Jordan III, Staff Asst, ONote 1840 · Footnote 23-8: Memo, ASD (M) for Under SA et al., 24 Sep 63, sub: Off-Base Equal Opportunity Inventory, ASD (M) 291.2 (14 Jul 63); DASD (CR)Note 1841 · Footnote 23-9: See, for example, the following Memos: USAF Dep for Manpower, Personnel, and Organization for ASD (M), 6 Feb 64, sub: Off-BasNote 1842 · Footnote 23-10: OASD (CR), Summary of Follow-Up Off-Base Equal Opportunity Inventory (ca. Jun 64), DASD (CR) files.(Back)Note 1843 · Footnote 23-11: Memo, DASD (CP, IR, & CR) for Stewart, 23 Dec 64, sub: Civil Rights Responsibilities of the Department of Defense, copy in CNote 1844 · Footnote 23-12: Ltr, Fitt to author, 22 May 72.(Back)Note 1845 · Footnote 23-13: Ltr, DASD (CR) to Congressman Charles Diggs, 3 Feb 64, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1846 · Footnote 23-14: Memo, DASD (CR) for ASD (M), 24 Apr 64, sub: Base Closings; Memo, ASD (M) for ASD (I&L), 29 Apr 64, sub: Base Closing DecisiNote 1847 · Footnote 23-15: Memo, ASD (I&L) for ASD (M), 23 May 64, sub: Base Closing Decisions, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1848 · Footnote 23-16: Ltr, Principal Asst for CR, DASD (CP, IR, & CR) to Stanley T. Gutman, 18 Dec 64, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1849 · Footnote 23-17: Ltr, DASD (CR) to Gesell, 28 Jul 64, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1850 · Footnote 23-18: Benjamin Muse, The American Negro Revolution: From Nonviolence to Black Power, 1963-1967 (Bloomington: University of IndianaNote 1851 · Footnote 23-19: Lyndon B. Johnson, "Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress," 27 Nov 63, Public Papers of the Presidents: Lyndon B. JNote 1852 · Footnote 23-20: Lyndon B. Johnson, The Vantage Point (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), p. 157.(Back)Note 1853 · Footnote 23-21: Interv, Bernhard with Wofford, 29 Nov 65. Special Assistant to Presidents Kennedy and Johnson, Wofford was later appointed tNote 1854 · Footnote 23-22: Johnson, Vantage Point, p. 160.(Back)Note 1855 · Footnote 23-23: PL 88-352, 78 U.S. Stat. 241.(Back)Note 1856 · Footnote 23-24: Muse, The American Negro Revolution, p. 183. For a detailed discussion of the provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, seNote 1857 · Footnote 23-25: Woodward, Strange Career of Jim Crow, p. 180.(Back)Note 1858 · Footnote 23-26: Johnson, "Remarks at the National Urban League's Community Action Assembly," 10 Dec 64, as reproduced in Public Papers of thNote 1859 · Footnote 23-27: Lyndon B. Johnson, "Annual Message to Congress on the State of the Union," 4 Jan 65, Public Papers of the Presidents: LyndonNote 1860 · Footnote 23-28: Lyndon B. Johnson, "Speech Before Joint Session of Congress," 15 Mar 65, Public Papers of the Presidents: Johnson, 1965, I:2Note 1861 · Footnote 23-29: 383 U.S. 663 (1966).(Back)Note 1862 · Footnote 23-30: For an account of the Watts riot and its aftermath, see Robert Conot, Rivers of Blood, Years of Darkness (New York: Bantam BNote 1863 · Footnote 23-31: Both the Harris and Wilkins remarks are quoted in Sundquist, "Building the Great Society," pp. 205-06.(Back)Note 1864 · Footnote 23-32: Memo, SecDef for SA et al., 10 Jul 64, copy in CMH; see also SecDef News Conference, 15 Jul 64, p. 13, OASD (PA).(Back)Note 1865 · Footnote 23-33: Memo, ASD (M) for Under SA et al., 6 Jul 64, ASD (M) 291.2; see also SecDef News Conference, 15 Jul 64, p. 13.(Back)Note 1866 · Footnote 23-34: Memo, DASD (CR) for Roy Davenport, et al., 5 May 64, sub: Requests for Suit by Military Personnel Under the Civil Rights BilNote 1867 · Footnote 23-35: DOD Instr 5525.2, 24 Jul 64, Processing of Requests by Military Personnel for Action by the Attorney General Under the CivilNote 1868 · Footnote 23-36: DOD Directive 5500.11, 28 Dec 64.(Back)Note 1869 · Footnote 23-37: Memo, ASD (M) for Dir, BOB, 15 Jul 64, sub: Defense Department Regulations to Implement Title VI of the Civil Rights Act; seNote 1870 · Footnote 23-38: DASD (CP, IR, & CR), The Civil Rights Policies of the Department of Defense, 4 May 65, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1871 · Footnote 23-39: Ltr, Jordan to William A. Smith, 21 Aug 64, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1872 · Footnote 23-40: Memo, DASD (CR) for ASD (M), 10 Jul 64, sub: DOD Instruction on Processing of Requests by Military Personnel for the BringinNote 1873 · Footnote 23-41: Memo, Timpane (Staff Asst) for Shulman, DASD (CP, IR, & CR), 11 Feb 65, sub: Service Reports on Equal Rights Activities, ASDNote 1874 · Footnote 23-42: For discussion of command initiatives and black morale, see Memo, DASD (CR) for Under SA et al., 25 May 64, sub: Off-Base EqNote 1875 · Footnote 23-43: For the discussion of McNamara's initial dealings with the National Guard on the subject of race, see Chapter 20.(Back)Note 1876 · Footnote 23-44: "Opinion of the Legal Adviser of the National Guard Bureau, April 1949," reproduced in Special Board to Study Negro ParticipNote 1877 · Footnote 23-45: Memo, Asst Gen Counsel (Manpower) for ASD (M), 17 Jul 61, sub: Integration of National Guard, ASD (M) 291.2.(Back)Note 1878 · Footnote 23-46: For a discussion of earlier efforts to integrate the New Jersey National Guard and the attitude of individual states toward Note 1879 · Footnote 23-47: Memo, Legal Adviser, NGB, for Bruce Docherty, Office of the General Counsel, DA, 19 Jul 63, sub: Authority to Require IntegrNote 1880 · Footnote 23-48: Ltrs, Chief, NGB, to AG's of Alabama et al., 3 Mar 62, 3 Jul 63, and 9 Dec 63; see also Williams Board Rpt, II: 36.(Back)Note 1881 · Footnote 23-49: Ltr, Maj Gen Raymond H. Fleming, Adjutant General, Louisiana National Guard, to Chief, NGB, 16 Jul 63, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1882 · Footnote 23-50: See Memos: Chief, NGB, for Gen Counsel, DA, 22 Oct 63, sub: Current Status of Integration of National Guard in Ten Southern Note 1883 · Footnote 23-51: "Statement by Maj. Gen. Winston C. Wilson, Chief, National Guard Bureau Concerning Integration of the National Guard," 28 DeNote 1884 · Footnote 23-52: Memo, Dep SecDef for SA and SecAF, 15 Feb 65, sub: Equality of Opportunity in the National Guard, SD 291.2; see also Memo, CNote 1885 · Footnote 23-53: Congressman Multer first introduced such a bill on 13 January 1949 and pressed, unsuccessfully, for similar measures in eachNote 1886 · Footnote 23-54: Memo, DASD (CR) for Burke Marshall, 20 Mar 64, sub: The Civil Rights of Negro Servicemen, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1887 · Footnote 23-55: Ltr, Actg U.S. Comm of Ed to Superintendent of Public Instruction, Fla., et al., 6 Nov 62, with incls; see also Memo for RcdNote 1888 · Footnote 23-56: AFNS, Release No. 2851, 17 Aug 62.(Back)Note 1889 · Footnote 23-57: Four similar suits were filed in January 1963 regarding segregation in Huntsville and Mobile, Alabama; Gulfport and Biloxi, Note 1890 · Footnote 23-58: Washington Post, January 17, 1963.(Back)Note 1891 · Footnote 23-59: Both the Marine Corps and the Navy operated installations in the vicinity of Albany, Georgia.(Back)Note 1892 · Footnote 23-60: Memo, ASD (M) for SA et al., 15 Jul 63, sub: Assignment of Dependents of Military Personnel to Public Schools, ASD(M) 291.2.Note 1893 · Footnote 23-61: Memo, DASD (CR) for Under SecNav, 4 Dec 63, sub: Dependent Schooling in Closed School Districts; Memo, Asst SecNav for DASD Note 1894 · Footnote 23-62: Memo, DASD (CR) for Under SA et al., 17 Apr 64, sub: Assignment of Dependents of Military Personnel to Public Schools; see aNote 1895 · Footnote 23-63: Memo, DASD (CR) for Under SA et al., 25 May 64, sub: Off-Base Equal Opportunity Inventories, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1896 · Footnote 23-64: For an example of how these contracts for the education of dependents were tied to federal aid, see the case concerning ColuNote 1897 · Footnote 23-65: Memo, DASD (CR) for Spec Asst to SecAF for Manpower, Personnel, and Reserve Forces, 23 Jun 64, SecAF files. Similar memos weNote 1898 · Footnote 23-66: Memo, ASD (M) for Under SA et al., 9 Aug 65, sub: Assignment of Dependents of Military Personnel to Public Schools, ASD (M) Note 1899 · Footnote 23-67: Memo, ASD (M) for SA et al., 25 Mar 64, sub: Non-Discrimination in Civil Schooling of Military Personnel; Ltr, DASD (CR) to Note 1900 · Footnote 23-68: Memo, Timpane for DASD (CP, IR, & CR), 11 Feb 65, sub: Service Reports on Equal Rights Activities. In a related action the dNote 1901 · Footnote 23-69: Memo, ASD (CR) for SecDef, 29 Oct 63, sub: Family Housing and the Negro Serviceman, Civil Rights Commission Staff Report; MeNote 1902 · Footnote 23-70: Interv, Bernhard with Wofford, 29 Nov 65, p. 60.(Back)Note 1903 · Footnote 23-71: Memo, ASD (M) for SecDef, 2 Nov 63, sub: Family Housing for Negro Servicemen, ASD (M) 291-2.(Back)Note 1904 · Footnote 23-72: Ltr, DASD (CR) to Chmn, President's Cmte on Equal Opportunity in Housing, 19 Sep 63, copy in CMH; see also Paul Memo.(Back)Note 1905 · Footnote 23-73: Ltr, Fitt to author, 22 May 72.(Back)Note 1906 · Footnote 23-74: Ltr, Dep SecDef to J. Charles Jones, Chairman, ACCESS, 21 Feb 67, copy in CMH; see also the detailed account of the DepartmeNote 1907 · Footnote 23-75: ACCESS was one of the several local, biracial open-housing groups that sprang up to fight discrimination in housing during tNote 1908 · Footnote 23-76: Ltr, Dep SecDef to Jones, 21 Feb 67, copy in CMH.(Back)Note 1909 · Footnote 23-77: Ltr, Fitt to author, 22 May 72; see also New York Times and Washington Post, February 2, 1967.(Back)Note 1910 · Footnote 23-78: Robert E. Jordan, former DASD (CR) assistant, described the secretary's eagerness to support civil rights initiatives: "He wNote 1911 · Footnote 23-79: Quoted by Brower, "McNamara Seen Now, Full Length," p. 78. The TFX mentioned by McNamara was an allusion to the heated and lNote 1912 · Footnote 23-80: A weakened version of this bill eventually emerged as the Civil Rights Act of 1968.(Back)Note 1913 · Footnote 23-81: McNamara, The Essence of Security, p. 124.(Back)Note 1914 · Footnote 23-82: Quoted by Brower, "McNamara Seen Now, Full Length," p. 89.(Back)Note 1915 · Footnote 23-83: Memo, Dep SecDef for Secys of Military Departments, 11 Apr 67, sub: Equal Opportunity for Military Personnel in Rental of OfNote 1916 · Footnote 23-84: Memos, ASD (M) for Dep Under Secys of Military Departments, 22 Apr and 17 Jul 67, sub: Equal Opportunity for Military PersonNote 1917 · Footnote 23-85: Intervs, author with McNamara, 11 May 72, and Jordan, 7 Jan 72.(Back)Note 1918 · Footnote 23-86: McNamara, The Essence of Security, p. 126.(Back)Note 1919 · Footnote 23-87: Interv, author with McNamara, 11 May 72.(Back)Note 1920 · Footnote 23-88: Joint Resolution 47 of the Maryland General Assembly as cited in Memo, SecDef for Secretaries of Military Departments, 22 JuNote 1921 · Footnote 23-89: Interv, author with Gesell, 3 Nov 74.(Back)Note 1922 · Footnote 23-90: Memo, SecDef for Secretaries of Military Departments, 22 Jun 67, sub: Unsatisfactory Housing of Negro Military Families LiviNote 1923 · Footnote 23-91: New York Times, June 23, 1967. Rivers did criticize later applications of the housing sanctions; see Washington Post, DecembNote 1924 · Footnote 23-92: Actually, McNamara imposed the sanctions in the first two instances, the Secretary of the Army in the other two.(Back)Note 1925 · Footnote 23-93: DOD News Release No. 1209-67, 26 Dec 67.(Back)Note 1926 · Footnote 23-94: Memo, SecDef for Service Secys et al., 17 Jul 67, sub: Off-Base Housing Referral Services, SD files.(Back)Note 1927 · Footnote 23-95: In Jones v. Mayer (392 U.S. 409, 421 [1968]) the Supreme Court held that the Civil Rights Act of 1968 "bars all racial discrNote 1928 · Footnote 23-96: SecDef News Conference, 29 Jun 68, transcript in CMH.(Back)Note 1929 · Footnote 23-97: McNamara, The Essence of Security, p. 127.(Back)Note 1930 · Footnote 23-98: Bahr, "The Expanding Role of the Department of Defense," p. 123.(Back)Note 1931 · Footnote 23-99: McNamara, The Essence of Security, p. 127.(Back)Note 1932 · Footnote 23-100: This analysis owes much to the author's correspondence with Alfred Fitt and the interviews with McNamara, Gesell, and JordaNote 1933 · Footnote 23-101: Interv, author with Bennett, 13 Dec 73.(Back)Note 1934 · Footnote 24-1: Speaking at a later date on this subject, former Army Chief of Staff J. Lawton Collins observed that "when we look about us aNote 1935 · Footnote 24-2: For an extended discussion of the moral basis of racial reform, see O'Connor's interview with Hesburgh, 27 Mar 66.(Back)Note 1936 · Footnote 24-3: For an extended discussion of the law and racial change, see Greenberg, Race Relations and American Law; Charles C. Moskos, JNote 1937 · Footnote 24-4: Interv, author with Muse, 2 Mar 73.(Back)Note 1938 · Footnote 24-5: Portions of the following discussion have been published in somewhat different form under the title "Armed Forces IntegrationNote 1939 · Footnote 24-6: Quoted in Senate, Hearings Before the U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services, Universal Military Training, 80th Cong., 2d seNote 1940 · Footnote 24-7: For a discussion of this point, see Yarmolinsky's The Military Establishment, pp. 346-51.(Back)Note 1941 · Footnote 24-8: Quoted in Ltr, Muse to Chief of Military History, 2 Aug 76, in CMH.(Back)Note 1942 · Footnote 24-9: Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, p. 1.(Back)
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