Contents

1. INTRODUCTION The Armed forces Before 1940 Civil Rights and the Law in 1940 To Segregate Is To Discriminate 2. WORLD WAR II: THE ARMY A War Policy: Reaffirming Segregation Segregation and Efficiency The Need for Change Internal Reform: Amending Racial Practices Two Exceptions 3. WORLD WAR II: THE NAVY Development of a Wartime Policy A Segregated Navy Progressive Experiments Forrestal Takes the Helm 4. WORLD WAR II: THE MARINE CORPS AND THE COAST GUARD The First Black Marines New Roles for Black Coast Guardsmen 5. A POSTWAR SEARCH Black Demands The Army's Grand Review The Navy's Informal Inspection 6. NEW DIRECTIONS The Gillem Board Report Integration of the General Service The Marine Corps 7. A PROBLEM OF QUOTAS The Quota in Practice Broader Opportunities Assignments A New Approach The Quota System: An Assessment 8. SEGREGATION'S CONSEQUENCES Discipline and Morale Among Black Troops Improving the Status of the Segregated Soldier Discrimination and the Postwar Army Segregation in Theory and Practice Segregation: An Assessment 9. THE POSTWAR NAVY The Steward's Branch Black Officers Public Image and the Problem of Numbers 10. THE POSTWAR MARINE CORPS Racial Quotas and Assignments Recruitment Segregation and Efficiency Toward Integration 11. THE POSTWAR AIR FORCE Segregation and Efficiency Impulse for Change 12. THE PRESIDENT INTERVENES The Truman Administration and Civil Rights Civil Rights and the Department of Defense Executive Order 9981 13. SERVICE INTERESTS VERSUS PRESIDENTIAL INTENT Public Reaction to Executive Order 9981 The Army: Segregation on the Defensive A Different Approach The Navy: Business as Usual Adjustments in the Marine Corps The Air Force Plans for Limited Integration 14. THE FAHY COMMITTEE VERSUS THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE The Committee's Recommendations A Summer of Discontent Assignments Quotas An Assessment 15. THE ROLE OF THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE, 1949-1951 Overseas Restrictions Congressional Concerns 16. INTEGRATION IN THE AIR FORCE AND THE NAVY The Air Force, 1949-1951 The Navy and Executive Order 9981 17. THE ARMY INTEGRATES Race and Efficiency: 1950 Training Performance of Segregated Units Final Arguments Integration of the Eighth Army Integration of the European and Continental Commands 18. INTEGRATION OF THE MARINE CORPS Impetus for Change Assignments 19. A NEW ERA BEGINS The Civil Rights Revolution Limitations on Executive Order 9981 Integration of Navy Shipyards Dependent Children and Integrated Schools 20. LIMITED RESPONSE TO DISCRIMINATION The Kennedy Administration and Civil Rights The Department of Defense, 1961-1963 Discrimination Off the Military Reservation Reserves and Regulars: A Comparison 21. EQUAL TREATMENT AND OPPORTUNITY REDEFINED The Secretary Makes a Decision The Gesell Committee Reaction to a New Commitment The Gesell Committee: Final Report 22. EQUAL OPPORTUNITY IN THE MILITARY COMMUNITY Creating a Civil Rights Apparatus Fighting Discrimination Within the Services 23. FROM VOLUNTARY COMPLIANCE TO SANCTIONS Development of Voluntary Action Programs Civil Rights, 1964-1966 The Civil Rights Act and Voluntary Compliance The Limits of Voluntary Compliance 24. CONCLUSION Why the Services Integrated How the Services Integrated, 1946-1954 Equal Treatment and Opportunity NOTE ON SOURCES INDEX

Crewmen of the USS Miami During the Civil War Buffalo Soldiers Integration in the Army of 1888 Gunner's Gang on the USS Maine General John J. (Black Jack) Pershing Inspects Troops Heroes of the 369th Infantry, February 1919 Judge William H. Hastie General George C. Marshall and Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson Engineer Construction Troops in Liberia, July 1942 Labor Battalion Troops in the Aleutian Islands, May 1943 Sergeant Addressing the Line Pilots of the 332d Fighter Group Service Club, Fort Huachuca 93d Division Troops in Bougainville, April 1944 Gun Crew of Battery B, 598th Field Artillery, September 1944 Tankers of the 761st Medium Tank Battalion Prepare for Action WAAC Replacements Volunteers for Combat in Training Road Repairmen Mess Attendant, First Class, Dorie Miller Addressing Recruits at Camp Smalls Admiral Ernest J. King and Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox Crew Members of USS Argonaut, Pearl Harbor, 1942 Messmen Volunteer as Gunners, July 1942 Electrician Mates String Power Lines Laborers at Naval Ammunition Depot Seabees in the South Pacific Lt. Comdr. Christopher S. Sargent USS Mason First Black Officers in the Navy Lt. (jg.) Harriet Ida Pickens and Ens. Frances Wills Sailors in the General Service Security Watch in the Marianas Specialists Repair Aircraft The 22d Special Construction Battalion Celebrates V-J Day Marines of the 51st Defense Battalion, Montford Point, 1942 Shore Party in Training, Camp Lejeune, 1942 D-day on Peleliu Medical Attendants at Rest, Peleliu, October 1944 Gun Crew of the 52d Defense Battalion Crewmen of USCG Lifeboat Station, Pea Island, North Carolina Coast Guard Recruits at Manhattan Beach Training Station, New York Stewards at Battle Station on the Cutter Campbell Shore Leave in Scotland Lt. Comdr. Carlton Skinner and Crew of the USS Sea Cloud Ens. Joseph J. Jenkins and Lt. (jg.) Clarence Samuels President Harry S. Truman Addressing the NAACP Convention Assistant Secretary of War John J. McCloy Civilian Aide to the Secretary of War Truman K. Gibson Company I, 370th Infantry, 92d Division, Advances Through Cascina, Italy 92d Division Engineers Prepare a Ford for Arno River Traffic Lester Granger Interviewing Sailors Granger With Crewmen of a Naval Yard Craft Lt. Gen. Alvan C. Gillem, U.S. Army Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson Admiral Louis E. Denfeld, U.S. Navy General Gerald C. Thomas, U.S. Marine Corps Lt. Gen. Willard S. Paul Adviser to the Secretary of War Marcus Ray Lt. Gen. Robert L. Eichelberger Inspects 24th Infantry Troops Army Specialists Report for Airborne Training Bridge Players, Seaview Service Club, Tokyo, Japan, 1948 24th Infantry Band, Gifu, Japan, 1947 Lt. Gen. Clarence R. Huebner Inspects the 529th Military Police Company Reporting to Kitzingen Inspection by the Chief of Staff Brig. Gen. Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. Shore Leave in Korea Mess Attendants, USS Bushnell, 1918 Mess Attendants, USS Wisconsin, 1953 Lt. Comdr. Dennis D. Nelson II Naval Unit Passes in Review, Naval Advanced Base, Bremerhaven, Germany Submariner Marine Artillery Team 2d Lt. and Mrs. Frederick C. Branch Training Exercises Damage Inspection Col. Noel F. Parrish Officers' Softball Team Checking Ammunition Squadron F, 318th AAF Battalion, in Review Col. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., Commander, 477th Composite Group, 1945 Lt. Gen. Idwal H. Edwards Col. Jack F. Marr Walter F. White Truman's Civil Rights Campaign A. Philip Randolph National Defense Conference on Negro Affairs, 26 April 1948 MP's Hitch a Ride Secretary of the Army Kenneth C. Royall Reviews Military Police Battalion Spring Formal Dance, Fort George G. Meade, Maryland, 1952 Secretary of Defense James V. Forrestal General Clifton B. Cates 1st Marine Division Drill Team on Exhibition Secretary of the Air Force W. Stuart Symington Secretary of Defense Louis C. Johnson Fahy Committee With President Truman and Armed Services Secretaries E. W. Kenworthy Charles Fahy Roy K. Davenport Press Notice Secretary of the Army Gordon Gray Chief of Staff of the Army J. Lawton Collins "No Longer a Dream" Navy Corpsman in Korea 25th Division Troops in Japan Assistant Secretary of Defense Anna M. Rosenberg Assistant Secretary of the Air Force Eugene M. Zuckert Music Makers Maintenance Crew, 462d Strategic Fighter Squadron Jet Mechanics Christmas in Korea, 1950 Rearming at Sea Broadening Skills Integrated Stewards Class Graduates, Great Lakes, 1953 WAVE Recruits, Naval Training Center, Bainbridge, Maryland, 1953 Rear Adm. Samuel L. Gravely, Jr. Moving Up Men of Battery A, 159th Field Artillery Battalion Survivors of an Intelligence and Reconnaissance Platoon, 24th Infantry General Matthew B. Ridgway, Far East Commander Machine Gunners of Company L, 14th Infantry, Hill 931, Korea Color Guard, 160th Infantry, Korea, 1952 Visit With the Commander Brothers Under the Skin Marines on the Kansas Line, Korea Marine Reinforcements Training Exercises on Iwo Jima, March 1954 Marines From Camp Lejeune Lt. Col. Frank E. Petersen, Jr. Sergeant Major Edgar R. Huff Clarence Mitchell Congressman Adam Clayton Powell Secretary of the Navy Robert B. Anderson Reading Class in the Military Dependents School, Yokohama Civil Rights Leaders at the White House President John F. Kennedy and President Jorge Allessandri Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara Adam Yarmolinsky James C. Evans The Gesell Committee Meets With the President Alfred B. Fitt Arriving in Vietnam Digging In Listening to the Squad Leader Supplying the Seventh Fleet USAF Ground Crew, Tan Son Nhut Air Base, Vietnam Fighter Pilots on the Line Medical Examination Auto Pilot Shop Submarine Tender Duty First Aid Vietnam Patrol Marine Engineers in Vietnam Loading a Rocket Launcher American Sailors Help Evacuate a Vietnamese Child Booby Trap Victim from Company B, 47th Infantry Camaraderie

1. Classification of All Men Tested From March 1941 Through December 1942 2. AGCT Percentages in Selected World War II Divisions 3. Percentage of Black Enlisted Men and Women 4. Disposition of Black Personnel at Eight Air Force Bases, 1949 5. Racial Composition of Air Force Units 6. Black Strength in the Air Force 7. Racial Composition of the Training Command, December 1949 8. Black Manpower, U.S. Navy 9. Worldwide Distribution of Enlisted Personnel by Race, October 1952 10. Distribution of Black Enlisted Personnel by Branch and Rank, 31 October 1952 11. Black Marines, 1949-1955 12. Defense Installations With Segregated Public Schools 13. Black Strength in the Armed Forces for Selected Years 14. Estimated Percentage Distribution of Draft-Age Males in U.S. Population by AFQT Groups 15. Rate of Men Disqualified for Service in 1962 16. Rejection Rates for Failure To Pass Armed Forces Mental Test, 1962 17. Nonwhite Inductions and First Enlistments, Fiscal Years 1953-1962 18. Distribution of Enlisted Personnel in Each Major Occupation, 1956 19. Occupational Group Distribution by Race, All DOD, 1962 20. Occupational Group Distribution of Enlisted Personnel by Length of Service, and Race 21. Percentage Distribution of Navy Enlisted Personnel by Race, AFQT Groups and Occupational Areas, and Length of Service, 1962 22. Percentage Distribution of Blacks and Whites by Pay Grade, All DOD, 1962 23. Percentage Distribution of Navy Enlisted Personnel by Race, AFQT Groups, Pay Grade, and Length of Service, 1962 24. Black Percentages, 1962-1968 25. Rates for First Reenlistments, 1964-1967 26. Black Attendance at the Military Academies, July 1968 27. Army and Air Force Commissions Granted at Predominately Black Schools 28. Percentage of Negroes in Certain Military Ranks, 1964-1966 29. Distribution of Servicemen in Occupational Groups by Race, 1967