DICTIONARY OF ISLĀM. (continued 32)

“The date of the beautiful wooden ceiling of the cloisters is not known, but it partly covers the Cufic inscription, and this dates 72 A.H. (688 A.D.), and it hides the wooden cornice, dating probably 913 A.D. The ceiling is therefore probably of the time of Soliman.

“In 1830 A.D. the Sultan Mahmud, and in 1873–75 A.D. the late ʿAbdu ʾl-ʿAzīz, repaired the Dome, and the latter period was one specially valuable for those who wished to study the history of the place.

“Such is a plain statement of the gradual growth of the building. The dates of the various inscriptions on the walls fully agree with the circumstantial accounts of the Arab writers who describe the Dome of the Rock.” [JERUSALEM.]

SAKĪNAH (سكينة‎). A word which occurs in the Qurʾān five times. (1) For that which was in the Ark of the Covenant, Sūrah ii. 249: “The sign of his (Saul’s) kingdom is that there shall come to you the Ark (Tābūt) with the sakīnah in it from your Lord, and the relics that the family of Moses and the family of Aaron left, and the angels bear it.” With reference to this verse, al-Baiẓāwī, the great Muslim commentator, says: “The ark here mentioned is the box containing the Books of Moses (Arabic Taurāt, namely, the Torah, or Law), which was made of box-wood and gilded over with gold, and was three cubits long and two wide, and in it was ‘the sakīnah from your Lord.’ The meaning of which is, that with the Ark there was tranquillity and peace, namely, the Taurāt (Books of Moses), because when Moses went forth to war he always took the Ark with him, which gave repose to the hearts of the children of Israel. But some say that within that Ark there was an idol made either of emerald or sapphire, with the head and tail of a cat, and with two wings; and that this creature made a noise when the Ark was carried forth to war. But others say that the Ark contained images of the prophets, from Adam to Moses. Others assert that the meaning of sakīnah is ‘knowledge and sincerity.’ Others, that the Ark contained the tables of the Law, the rod of Moses, and Aaron’s turban.” (Tafsīru ʾl-Baiẓāwī, Fleischer’s ed., vol. ii. p. 128.)

(2) It is also used in the Qurʾān for help and confidence or grace. Sūrah xlviii. 26: “When those who misbelieved put in their hearts pique—the pique of ignorance—and God sent down His Sakīnah upon His Apostle and upon the believers, and obliged them to keep to the word of piety.” Al-Baiẓāwī says that in this verse the word sakīnah means the tranquillity and repose of the soul, which is the meaning given in all Arabic dictionaries.

The word occurs in three other places in a similar sense:—

Sūrah ix. 26: “God sent down His Sakīnah upon His Apostle and upon the believers, and sent down armies which ye could not see, and punished those who did not believe.”

Sūrah ix. 40: “God sent down His Sakīnah upon him, and aided him with hosts.”

Sūrah xlviii. 2: “It is He who sent down the sakīnah into the hearts of believers, that they might have faith added to faith.”

None of the Muslim commentators seem to understand that the Arabic سكينة‎ Sakīnah is identical with the Hebrew ‏שְׁכִינָה‎ Shechinah, a term which, although not found in the Bible, has been used by the later Jews, and borrowed by the Christians from them, to express the visible Majesty of the Divine Presence, especially when resting or dwelling between the Cherubim on the Mercy Seat in the Tabernacle, and in the Temple of Solomon. Rabbinical writers identify the Shechinah with the Holy Spirit, and some Christian writers have thought that the three-fold expression for the Deity—the Lord, the Word of the Lord, and the Shechinah—indicates the knowledge of a trinity of persons in the God-head.

For the Talmudic views regarding the Shechinah, the English reader can refer to Dr. Hershon’s Talmudic Miscellany (Trübner & Co., London).

SALAF (سلف‎). (1) Ancestors; men of repute for piety and faith in past generations.

(2) Money lent without interest. [SALAM.]

SALAM (سلم‎). A contract involving an immediate payment of the price, and admitting a delay in the delivery of the articles purchased. The word used in the Ḥadīs̤ is generally salaf. In a sale of this kind, the seller is called musallam ilai-hi; the purchaser, rabbu ʾs-salam, and the goods purchased, musallam-fī-hi. (Kitābu ʾt-Taʿrīfāt.)

AS-SALĀM (الــســلام‎). “The Peace(ful) one.” (1) One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. It occurs once in the Qurʾān, Sūrah lix. 20: “He is God, than whom there is no other … the Peaceful.” Al-Baiẓāwī explains the word as “He who is free from all loss or harm” (ذو السلامة من كل نقص و آفة‎).

(2) As-Salāmu ʿalai-kum (السلام عليكم‎), “The peace be on you,” the common salutation amongst Muslims. [SALUTATION.]

AṢ-ṢALĀT (الصلوة‎, in construction frequently spelled صلاة‎), pl. ṣalawāt. The term used in the Qurʾān, as well as amongst all Muslims in every part of the world, for the liturgical form of prayer, which is recited five times a day, an account of which is given in the article on PRAYER. Its equivalent in Persian and Urdū is namāz, which has been corrupted into nmūz by the Afghāns. The word occurs with this meaning in the Qurʾān, Sūrah ii. 239: “Observe the prayers,” and in very many other places. It has also the meaning of prayer or supplication in its general sense, e.g. Sūrah ix. 104: “Pray for them, of a truth thy prayers shall assure their minds.” Also blessing, e.g. Sūrah xxxiii. 56: “Verily God and His Angels bless (not “pray for,” as rendered by Palmer) the Prophet.” (See Lane’s Dictionary, in loco.)

The word ṣalāt occurs with various combinations used to express different periods, and also special occasions of prayer.

The five stated liturgical prayers which are held to be of divine institution:—

(1) Ṣalātu ʾl-Z̤uhr, the meridian prayer.

(2) Ṣalātu ʾl-ʿAṣr, the afternoon prayer.

(3) Ṣalātu ʾl-Mag͟hrib, the sunset prayer.

(4) Ṣalātu ʾl-ʿIshāʾ, the night prayer.

(5) Ṣalātu ʾl-Fajr, the prayer at dawn.

(Obs. The midday prayer is reckoned the first in order.)

Also for the three voluntary daily liturgical prayers:—

(1) Ṣalātu ʾl-Ishrāq, when the sun has well risen.

(2) Ṣalātu ʾl-Ẓuḥā, about 11 A.M.

(3) Ṣalātu ʾl-Tahajjud, after midnight.

Liturgical prayers said on special occasions are given below. [PRAYER.]

ṢALĀTU ʾL-ḤĀJAH (صلاة الحاجة‎). “Prayer of necessity.” Four rakʿah prayers, or, according to some, twelve rakʿahs recited after the night prayer in times of necessity, or trouble. (Raddu ʾl-Muḥtār, vol. i. p. 719.)

ṢALĀTU ʾL-ʿĪDAIN (صلاة العيدين‎). “Prayers of the two festivals.” The two rakʿah prayers recited on the two Muḥammadan festivals, the ʿĪdu ʾl-Fit̤r and the ʿĪdu ʾl-Aẓḥā.

ṢALĀTU ʾL-ISTIK͟HĀRAH (صلاة الاستخارة‎). Lit. “Prayer for conciliating favour.” Two rakʿahs recited for success in an undertaking. Jābir relates that Muḥammad taught him Istik͟hārah, and that after reciting two rakʿahs he should thus supplicate God: “O God, I seek Thy good help in Thy great wisdom. I pray for ability to act through Thy power. I ask this thing of thy goodness. Thou knowest, but I know not. Thou art powerful, but I am not. Thou art knower of secrets. O God, if Thou knowest that the matter which I am about to undertake is good for my religion, for my life, for my future, then make it easy, and prosper me in it. But if it is bad for my religion, my life, and my future, then put it away from me, and show me what is good.” (Mishkāt, book iv. 40.)

ṢALĀTU ʾL-ISTISQĀʾ (صلاة الاستسقاء‎), from saqy, “Watering.” Two rakʿah prayers recited in the time of dearth.

ṢALĀTU ʾL-JINĀZAH (صلاة الجــنــازة‎). The funeral service. [BURIAL OF THE DEAD, JINAZAH.]

ṢALĀTU ʾL-JUMʿAH (صلاة الجمعة‎). Lit. “The prayer of assembly.” The Friday Prayer. It consists of two rakʿahs recited at the time of z̤uhr, or midday prayer on Friday. [FRIDAY, KHUTBAH.]

ṢALĀTU ʾL-K͟HAUF (صلاة الخوف‎). The “Prayers of Fear.” Two rakʿahs of prayers recited first by one regiment and then by another in time of war, when the usual prayers cannot be recited for fear of the enemy. These prayers are founded upon an injunction in the Qurʾān, Sūrah iv. 102: “And when ye go to war in the land, it shall be no sin for you to curtail your prayers, if ye fear that the enemy come upon you.” This was also the Talmudic law (Tr. Berachoth iv. 4): “He that goeth in a dangerous place may pray a short prayer.”

ṢALĀTU ʾL-K͟HUSŪF (صلاة الخسوف‎). Prayers said at an eclipse of the moon, consisting of two rakʿahs of prayer. (Mishkāt, book iv. ch. li.)

ṢALĀTU ʾL-KUSŪF (صلاة الكسوف‎). Prayers at an eclipse of the sun, consisting of two rakʿahs of prayer. (Mishkāt, book iv. ch. li.)

ṢALĀTU ʾL-MARĪẒ (صلاة المريض‎). “Prayer of the sick.” When a person is too sick to stand up in the usual prayers, he is allowed to recite them either in a reclining or sitting posture, provided he performs the usual ablutions. It is ruled that he shall in such a case make the prostrations, &c., mentally. (Raddu ʾl-Muḥtār, vol. i. p. 891.)

ṢALĀTU ʾL-WITR (صلاة الوتر‎). The Witr prayers. The word witr means either a unit, or an odd number, and is used for either a single or odd number of rakʿah prayers recited after the evening prayer (ʿishāʾ). (Mishkāt, book iv. ch. xxxvi.)

There is considerable controversy amongst the learned doctors as to whether it is farẓ, wājib, or sunnah, but it is generally held to be sunnah, i.e. founded on the example of the Prophet, but with no divine command. Amongst the Ḥanafī sect, it is also known as Qunūtu ʾl-Witr, but the Shāfiʿīs recite the Qunūt separately.

ṢALĀTU ʾR-RAG͟HĀʾIB (صلاة الرغائب‎). “A prayer for things desired.” Two rakʿah prayers recited by one who desires some object in this world. According to the orthodox, it is forbidden in Islām. (Raddu ʾl-Muḥtār, vol. i. p. 717.) It is recited by some persons in the first week of the month Rajab.

ṢALĀTU ʾS-SAFAR (صلاة السفر‎). “Prayers of travel.” A shortened recital of prayer allowed to travellers. It is founded on a tradition by Yaʿla ibn Umaiyah, who says, “I said to ʿUmar, ‘God hath said, “When ye go to war in the land, it shall be no sin for you to shorten your prayers if ye fear that the infidels may attack you”; but now verily we are safe in this journey, and yet we shorten our prayers.’ ʿUmar replied, ‘I also wondered at the thing that astonished you; but the Prophet said, God hath done you a kindness in curtailing your prayers, therefore accept it.’ Ibn ʿUmar says, ‘I travelled with the Prophet, and he did not say more than two rakʿahs of prayer, and Abū Bakr and ʿUmar and ʿUs̤mān did the same.’ Ibn ʿAbbās says, ‘The Prophet used to say on a journey the noon and afternoon prayer together, and the sunset and evening prayer together.’ ” (Mishkāt, book iv. ch. xlii.)

The established prayers for a traveller are, therefore, two rakʿahs instead of the four farẓ rakʿahs at the noon and afternoon and evening prayers, and the usual two farẓ at the morning and the usual three farẓ at the sunset prayers; all voluntary prayers being omitted. (Raddu ʾl-Muḥtār, vol. i. p. 821.)

ṢALĀTU ʾT-TARĀWĪḤ (صلاة التراويح‎). “Prayer of rest.” So called because of the pause or rest made for ejaculations between every four rakʿahs. (ʿAbdu ʾl-Ḥaqq.)

Twenty rakʿah prayers recited after the night prayer during the month of Ramaẓān. They are often followed with recitations known as ẕikrs [ZIKR], and form an exciting service of devotion. The Imām recites the Tarāwīḥ prayers with a loud voice.

Abū Hurairah says: “The Prophet used to encourage people to say night prayers in Ramaẓān without ordering them positively, and would say, ‘He who stands up in prayer at night, for the purpose of obtaining reward, will have all his sins pardoned’; then the Prophet died, leaving the prayers of Ramaẓān in this way. It is said ʿUmar instituted the present custom of reciting the twenty rakʿahs.” (Mishkāt, book iv. ch. xxxviii.) [RAMAZAN.]

ṢALĀTU ʾT-TASBĪḤ (صلاة التسبيح‎). “Prayer of praise.” A form of prayer founded on the following tradition related by Ibn ʿAbbās, who says:—

“Verily the Prophet said to my father, ‘O ʿAbbās! O my uncle! shall I not give to you, shall I not present unto you, shall I not inform you of a thing which covers acts of sin? When you perform it, God will forgive your sins, your former sins, and your latter sins, and those sins which you did unknowingly, and those which you did knowingly, your great sins, and your small sins, your disclosed sins and your concealed sins? It is this, namely, that you recite four rakʿahs of prayer, and in each rakʿah recite the Fātiḥatu ʾl-Kitāb (i.e. the Introductory chapter of the Qurʾān), and some other Sūrah of the Qurʾān; and when you have recited these portions of the Qurʾān in the position of Qiyām, then say, “Holiness to God!” (Subḥāna ʾllāhi), and “Praise be to God!” (Wa ʾl-Ḥamdu li-ʾllāhi), and “There is no deity but God!” (Wa lā Ilāha illā huwa), and “God is most great!” (Wa ʾllāhu Akbar), fifteen times. Then perform a rukūʿ and recite it ten times; then raise up your head and say it ten times, then make the sajdah and say it ten times; then raise your head and say it ten times; then make another sajdah, and say it ten times, then raise your head again and say it ten times; altogether seventy-five times in every rakʿah; and do this in each of the rakʿah. If you are able to say this form of prayer every day, then do so, but if not, do it once every Friday, and if not each week, then say it once a month, and if not once a month, then say it once a year, and if not once a year, then do it once in your lifetime.’ ” (Mishkāt, book iv. ch. xli.)

The foregoing is a striking illustration of the mechanical character of the Muslim religion as regards its system of devotion [ZIKR.]

SALE, The Law of. [BAIʿ.]

ṢALĪB (صليب‎). “A crucifix; a cross.” [CROSS.]

ṢĀLIḤ (صالح‎). A prophet mentioned in the Qurʾān (Sūrah vii. 71), who was sent to the tribes ʿĀd and S̤amūd. Al-Baiẓāwī says he was the son of ʿUbaid, the son of Asaf, the son of Māsih, the son of ʿUbaid, the son of Ḥāẕir, the son of S̤amūd. Bochart thinks he must be the Pileg of Genesis xi. 16. D’Herbelot makes him the Salah of Genesis xi. 13.

The following is the account of him in the Qurʾān, with the commentators’ remarks in italics (see Lane’s Selections, 2nd ed., by Mr. Stanley Lane Poole):—

“And We sent unto the tribe of Thamood their brother Ṣáliḥ. He said, O my people, worship God. Ye have no other deity than Him. A miraculous proof of my veracity hath come unto you from your Lord, this she-camel of God being a sign unto you. [He had caused her, at their demand, to come forth from the heart of a rock.] Therefore let her feed in God’s earth, and do her no harm, lest a painful punishment seize you. And remember how He hath appointed you vicegerents in the earth after [the tribe of] ʾA′d, and given you a habitation in the earth: ye make yourselves, on its plains, pavilions wherein ye dwell in summer, and cut the mountains into houses wherein ye dwell in winter. Remember then the benefits of God, and do not evil in the earth, acting corruptly.—The chiefs who were elated with pride, among his people, said unto those who were esteemed weak, namely, to those who had believed among them, Do ye know that Ṣáliḥ hath been sent unto this? And they hamstrung the she-camel (Ḳudár [the son of Sálif] doing so by their order and slaying her with the sword); and they impiously transgressed the command of their Lord, and said, O Ṣáliḥ, bring upon us that punishment with which thou threatenest us for killing her, if thou be [one] of the apostles. And the violent convulsion (a great earthquake, and a cry from heaven) assailed them, and in the morning they were in their dwellings prostrate and dead. So he turned away from them, and said, O my people, I have brought unto you the message of my Lord and given you faithful counsel; but ye loved not faithful counsellors.” (Sūrah vii. 71–77.)

SĀLIK (سالك‎). Lit. “A traveller.” A term used by the mystics for a devotee, or one who has started on the heavenly journey. [SUFI.]

SALSABĪL (سلسبيل‎). Lit. “The softly flowing.” A fountain in Paradise, mentioned in the Qurʾān in Sūrah lxxvi. 19, and from which the Muslims in heaven are said to drink. “A spring therein named Salsabīl, and there shall go round about them immortal boys.”

SALUTATIONS. Arabic as-salām (السلام‎), “peace.” Taslīm (تسليم‎), Heb. ‏שָׁלוֹם‎ shalom, the act of giving the prayer of peace; pl. taslīmāt. The duty of giving and returning a salutation is founded on express injunctions in the Qurʾān.

Sūrah xxiv. 61: “When ye enter houses, then greet each other with a salutation from God, the Blessed and the Good.”

Sūrah iv. 88: “When ye are saluted with a salutation, salute ye with a better than it, or return the same salutation.”

ʿAlī says that Muḥammad established it as an incumbent duty that one Muslim should salute another. [FITRAH.] The ordinary salutation of the Muslim is “as-Salāmu ʿalai-kum,” i.e. “The peace be on you.” And the usual reply is “Wa ʿalai-kum as-salām,” i.e. “And on you also be the peace.”

The supposed origin of this salutation is given in a tradition by Abū Hurairah, who relates that the Prophet said:—

“God created Adam in his own likeness, and his stature was sixty cubits; and God said to Adam, ‘Go and salute that party of angels who are sitting down, and listen to their answer; for verily it shall be the salutation and reply for you and your children.’ Adam then went and said to the angels, ‘as-Salāmu ʿalai-kum,’ i.e. ‘The peace be on you,’ and the angels replied, ‘as-Salāmu ʿalaika wa raḥmatu ʾllāhi,’ i.e. ‘The peace be on thee, and the mercy of God.’ ”

This form is now usually given in reply by devout persons. (Ṣaḥīḥu ʾl-Buk͟hārī, p. 919.)

Muḥammad instructed his people as follows regarding the use of the salutation:—

“The person riding must salute one on foot, and he who is walking must salute those who are sitting, and the small must salute the larger, and the person of higher degree the lower. It is therefore a religious duty for the person of high degree, when meeting one of a lower degree; the giving of the Salām being regarded as a benediction. For,” says Muḥammad, “the nearest people to God are those who salute first. When a party is passing, it is sufficient if one of them give the salutation, and, in like manner, it is sufficient if one of the party return it of those sitting down.”

The Jews in the time of Muḥammad seem to have made the salutation a subject of annoyance to Muḥammad; for it is related when they went to the Prophet they used to say, “As-sammu ʿalai-ka,” “On you be poison.” To which the Prophet always replied, “Wa ʿalai-ka,” “And on you.”

Usāmah ibn Zaid says: “The Prophet once passed a mixed assembly of Muslim polytheists, idolaters, and Jews, and he gave the salutation, but he meant it only for the Muslims.”

Jarīr relates that on one occasion the Prophet met a party of women, and gave them the salutation. But this is contrary to the usual practice of Muḥammadans; and ʿAbdu ʾl-Ḥaqq, in his commentary on this tradition, says: “This practice was peculiar to the Prophet, for the laws of Islām forbid a man saluting a woman unless she is old.”

In the East it is usual to raise the right hand (the raising of the left hand being disrespectful, as it is the hand used for legal ablutions) when giving the Salām, but this custom, common though it be, is not in accordance with the traditions. For ʿAmr ibn Shuʿaib relates, from his fore-fathers, that the Prophet said, “He is not of us who likens himself to another. Do not copy the Jews or the Christians in your salutation. For a Jew’s salutation is by raising his fingers, and the Christians salute with the palm of the hand. (Mishkāt, book xxii. ch. i.)

In Central Asia, the salutation is generally given without any motion of the body, in accordance with the above tradition.

SALVATION. The Arabic word najāt (نجاة‎), “salvation,” only occurs once in the Qurʾān, namely, Sūrah xl. 44: “O my people! how is it that I bid you to salvation, but that ye bid me to the fire?” Nor is the word generally used in Muslim works of divinity, although the orthodox sect of Muslims claims for itself the title of Nājiyah, or those who are being saved.

The word mag͟hfirah, “forgiveness,” is frequently used in the Qurʾān to express what Christians understand by “salvation”; also Islām, Īmān, and Dīn, words which express the idea of a state of salvation.

According to Islām, a man obtains salvation by a recital of the Kalimah, or creed; but if he be an evil doer, he will suffer the pains of a purgatorial fire until his sins are atoned for; whilst he who has not accepted the Muslim creed will endure the pains of everlasting punishment. [HELL.]

AṢ-ṢAMAD (الصمد‎). “The Eternal.” One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. It occurs once in the Qurʾān, Sūrah cxii.: “God the Eternal.”

In its original meaning, it implies a lord, because one repairs to him in exigencies; or when applied to God, because affairs are stayed or rested on Him. Hence, according to al-Muḥkam, in loco, and the Lisānu ʾl-ʿArab, it signifies the Being that continues for ever—the Eternal One.

SAMĀḤAH (سماحة‎). [BENEFICENCE.]

SAMARITAN. [AS-SAMIRI.]

AS-SAMĪʿ (السميع‎). “The Hearer.” One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. The word frequently occurs in the Qurʾān.

AS-SĀMIRĪ (السامرى‎). Mentioned in the Qurʾān (Sūrah xx. 87: “As-Sāmirī has led them astray”) as the person who made the golden calf for the Children of Israel. In Professor Palmer’s translation, it is rendered “the Samaritan,” which is according to al-Baiẓāwī, who says his name was Mūsā ibn Z̤afar, of the tribe of Samaritans. [MOSES.]

SAMUEL. Arabic Ishmawīl (اشمويل‎), or Shamwīl; Heb. ‏שְׁמוּאֵל‎, referred to in the Qurʾān (Sūrah ii. 247) as “the prophet” to whom the Children of Israel said, “Raise for us a King, and we will fight for him in God’s way.”

Ḥusain, the commentator, says it is not quite certain who he was. He was either Yūshaʿ ibn Nūn, or Shamʿūn ibn S̤afīyā, or Ishmawīl. (Tafsīr-i-Ḥusainī, p. 65.)

The Kamālān give his name as Shamwīl, but say it was originally Ismāʾīl, and that the meaning is the same.

ṢANʿĀʾ (صنعاء‎). A city in al-Yaman, the Viceroy of which, Abrahatu ʾl-Ashram, an Abyssinian Christian, marched with a large army and some elephants upon Makkah, with the intention of destroying the Temple (see Qurʾān, Sūrah cv.) in the year Muḥammad was born. Hence the year was known as that of the Elephant.

SANAD (سند‎). Lit. “That on which one rests, as a pillar or cushion.” An authority; a document; a warrant. A term used in Muslim law.

ṢANAM (صنم‎), pl. aṣnām. The word used in the Qurʾān for an idol, e.g. Sūrah xiv. 38: “Turn me and my sons away from serving idols.” [IDOLS.]

SANCTUARY. The Prophet forbade putting a murderer to death in a mosque, but he may be taken by force from the mosque and slain outside the building. The same rule applies to persons guilty of theft. (Mishkāt, book iv. ch. viii.)

The custom of sanctuary was derived from the Levitical law of refuge. The six cities being established as cities of refuge for the involuntary manslayer. The altar of burnt offerings was also a place of refuge for those who had undesignedly committed smaller offences. (Deut. xix. 11, 12; Joshua xx.) According to Lecky (European Morals, vol. ii. p. 42), the right of sanctuary was possessed by the Imperial statues and by the Pagan temples. Bingham (Antiquities, vol. ii. p. 554) says it seems to have been introduced into the Christian Church by Constantine.

SANDALS. [SHOES.]

SAQAR (سقر‎). “A scorching heat.” According to the commentator, al-Bag͟hawī it is the special division of hell set apart for the Magi. It is mentioned thus in the Qurʾān:—

Sūrah liv. 48: “Taste ye the touch of saqar.”

Sūrah lxxiv. 26: “I will broil him in saqar! And what shall make thee know what saqar is?” It leaveth nought and spareth nought, blackening the skin of man.

SARACEN. A term used by Christian writers for the followers of Muḥammad, and applied not only to the Arabs, but to the Turks and other Muslim nations.

There is much uncertainty as to the origin of this word. The word Σαρακηνός was used by Ptolemy and Pliny, and also by Ammianus and Procopius, for certain Oriental tribes, long before the death of Muḥammad (see Gibbon). Some etymologists derive it from the Arabic sharq, “the rising sun, the East” (see Wedgwood’s Dict.). Others from ṣaḥrāʾ, “a desert,”—the people of the desert (see Webster). Gibbon thinks it may be from the Arabic saraqah, “theft,” denoting the thievish character of the nation; whilst some have even thought it may be derived from Sarah the wife of the Patriarch Abraham.

SARAH. Arabic Sārah (سارة‎), Heb. ‏שָׂרָה‎, Greek Σάῤῥα. Abraham’s wife. Not mentioned by name in the Qurʾān, but referred to in Sūrah xi. 74: “And his wife was standing by laughing, and We gave her the glad tidings of Isaac, and of Jacob after Isaac.”

SARAQAH (سرقة‎). [THEFT.]

ṢARF (صرف‎). (1) A term used for a special kind of sale or exchange. According to the Hidāyah, baiʿu ʾṣ-ṣarf, or ṣarf sale, means a pure sale, of which the articles opposed to each other in exchange are both representatives of price, as gold for gold or silver for silver. (See Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. ii. p. 551.)

(2) That part of grammar which relates to the declining of nouns and the conjugating of verbs.

ṢARĪḤ (صريح‎). Explicit or clear. A term used in Muslim law for that which is express in contradistinction to that which is kināyah, or implied. For example, the T̤alāqu ʾṣ-ṣarīḥ, is an explicit form of divorce, whilst T̤alāqu ʾl-kināyah is an implied form of divorce, as when a man says to his wife, “Thou art free.”

ṢĀRIQ (صارق‎). A thief. [THEFT.]

SATAN. Arabic Shait̤ān (شيطن‎). [DEVIL.]

SATR (ستر‎). A curtain or veil. A term used for the seclusion of women, called also ḥijāb. In the Traditions it is used for necessary and decent attire, bābu ʾs-satr being a special chapter in the Mishkātu ʾl-Maṣābiḥ (book iv. ch. ix.). The satr for a man being from the waist to the knee, and for a free woman from the neck to the feet; but for a slave girl from the waist to the knee as in the case of a man. That part of the body which must be so covered is called ʿaurah or ʿaurat, “shame or modesty,” from which the Hindustani word, ʿaurat, “a woman,” is derived. [HARIM, WOMEN.]

SATTŪQAH (ستوقة‎). Base coin. The term is used for a coin which is current amongst merchants, but is not received at the public treasury. Coins in which the pure metal predominates are not considered base. (See Hamilton’s Hidāyah, vol. ii. p. 560.)

SAUDAH (سودة‎). One of the wives of Muḥammad. She was the widow of Sakrān, a Quraish, and one of the early companions of the Prophet. Muḥammad married her within two months of the death of K͟hadījah. (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 117.) She died A.H. 55.

SAUL. Arabic T̤ālūt (طالوت‎). Heb. ‏שָׁאוּל‎ Shaool. King of Israel. Mentioned in the Qurʾān as a king raised up of God to reign over Israel, to whom was given an excellent degree of knowledge and personal appearance.

The following is the account given of Saul in the Qurʾān, with Mr. Lane’s rendering of the commentator’s remarks in italics. (Mr. Stanley Lane Poole’s 2nd Ed.)

“Hast thou not considered the assembly of the children of Israel after the death of Moses, when they said unto a prophet of theirs, namely Samuel, Set up for us a king, under whom we will fight in the way of God? He said unto them, If fighting be prescribed as incumbent on you, will ye, peradventure, abstain from fighting? They replied, And wherefore should we not fight in the way of God, since we have been expelled from our habitations and our children by their having been taken prisoners and slain?—The people of Goliath [Jáloot] had done thus unto them.—But when fighting was commanded them, they turned back, excepting a few of them, who crossed the river with Saul. And God knoweth the offenders. And the prophet begged his Lord to send a king; whereupon he consented to send Saul. And their prophet said unto them, Verily God hath set up Saul as your king. They said, How shall he have the dominion over us, when we are more worthy of the dominion than he, (for he was not of the royal lineage, nor of the prophetic, and he was a tanner, or a tender of flocks or herds,) and he hath not been endowed with ample wealth? He replied, Verily God hath chosen him as king over you, and increased him in largeness of knowledge and of body, (for he was the wisest of the children of Israel at that time, and the most comely of them, and the most perfect of them in make,) and God giveth his kingdom unto whom He pleaseth; and God is ample in His beneficence, knowing with respect to him who is worthy of the kingdom.—And their prophet said unto them, when they demanded of him a sign in proof of his kingship, Verily the sign of his kingship shall be that the ark shall come unto you (in it were the images of the prophets: God sent it down unto Adam, and it passed into their possession; but the Amalekites took it from them by force: and they used to seek victory thereby over their enemy, and to advance it in the fight, and to trust in it, as He—whose name be exalted!—hath said); therein is tranquillity [SAKINAH] from your Lord, and relics of what the family of Moses and the family of Aaron have left: namely, the two shoes (or sandals) of Moses, and his rod, and the turban of Aaron, and a measure of the manna that used to descend upon them, and the fragments of the tables [of the Law]: the angels shall bear it. Verily in this shall be a sign unto you of his kingship, if ye be believers. Accordingly the angels bore it between heaven and earth, while they looked at it, until they placed it by Saul; whereupon they acknowledged his kingship, and hastened to the holy war; and he chose of their young men seventy thousand.

“And when Saul went forth with the troops from Jerusalem, and it was violently hot weather, and they demanded of him water, he said, Verily God will try you by a river, that the obedient among you, and the disobedient, may appear, (and it was between the Jordan and Palestine), and whoso drinketh thereof, he is not of my party (but he who tasteth not thereof, he is of my party), excepting him who takes forth a draught in his hand, and is satisfied therewith, not adding to it; for he is of my party;—then they drank thereof abundantly, excepting a few of them, who were content only with the handful of water. It is related that it sufficed them for their own drinking and for their beasts, and they were three hundred and somewhat more than ten. And when he had passed over it, he and those who believed with him, they said, We have no power to-day to contend against Goliath and his troops. And they were cowardly, and passed not over it. They who held it as certain that they should meet God at the resurrection (and they were those who had passed over it) said, How many a small body of men hath overcome a great body by the permission (or will) of God! And God is with the patient, to defend and aid.—And when they went forth to battle against Goliath and his troops, they said, O our Lord, pour upon us patience, and make firm our feet, by strengthening our hearts for the holy war, and help us against the unbelieving people!—And they routed them by the permission (or will) of God, and David, who was in the army of Saul, slew Goliath.” (Sūrah ii. 247–252.)

ṢAUM (صوم‎). “Fasting.” The usual Arabic term used for this religious act whether during the Ramaẓān or at any other time. Its equivalent in Persian is rozah. [FASTING, RAMAZAN.]

ṢAUMU ʾT-TAT̤AWWUʿ (صوم التطوع‎). A voluntary fast other than the month of Ramaẓān.

SAUT̤ (سوط‎). [DIRRAH.]

S̤AWĀB (ثواب‎). “Recompense; reward”; e.g. Qurʾān, Sūrah iii. 195: “A reward from God; for God, with Him are the best rewards.”

AS-SAWĀDU ʾL-AʿZ̤AM (السواد الاعظم‎). Lit. “The exalted multitude.” A term used in the Traditions and in Muslim theology for the Assembly of God, or the congregation of faithful men, or for a large majority.

SAWĀʾĪM (سوايم‎), pl. of Sāʾimah. Flocks and herds which are grazing and for which zakāt must be collected. [ZAKAT.]

SCHOOLS. Arabic maktab (مكتب‎), pl. makātib; madrasah (مدرسة‎), pl. madāris. According to Muslim law, all education should be carried on in connection with religious instruction, and consequently schools are generally attached to mosques. [EDUCATION.]

SCRIPTURE, HOLY. The expression, “Holy Scripture,” is rendered in Persian by Pāk Nawishtah (پاك نوشته‎), “the Holy Writing,” its equivalent in Arabic being al-Kitābu ʾl-Muqaddas (الكتاب المقدس‎), “the Holy Book,” or Kalāmu ʾllāh (كلام الله‎), “the Word of God.” These terms, whilst they are generally understood by Muslims to refer to the Qurʾān, more correctly include all books acknowledged by Muḥammadans to be the Word of God. They profess to receive all the Jewish Scripture and the New Testament as well as the Qurʾān as the revealed Word of God. [PROPHETS, INSPIRATION.]

SCULPTURE. Arabic anṣāb (انصاب‎). The making of carved, graven, or sculptured figures, is understood to be forbidden in the Qurʾān under the term ṣanam (صنم‎), “an idol” (see Sūrah xiv. 38); also in Sūrah v. 92: “Verily wine, and games of chance, and statues (anṣāb), and divining arrows, are an abomination of Satan’s device.”

Consequently sculpture is not allowed according to Muslim law, although ar-Rāg͟hib says a ṣanam is that which diverts the mind from God.

SEA. Arabic baḥr (بحر‎). “The sea,” al-baḥr, is a term applied in the Qurʾān to the Red Sea, known amongst Muḥammadans as the Baḥru ʾl-Qulzum. [RED SEA.] Sūrahs ii. 47; vii. 134. “The ships that sail like mountains in the sea,” are amongst the “signs” of God. (See Sūrah xlii. 31.) In Sūrah lii. 6, Muḥammad swears by “the swelling sea.” In Sūrah xvii. 68: “It is the Lord who drives the ships for you in the sea, that ye may seek after plenty from Him.” In Sūrah xviii. 109, it occurs as an illustration of the boundless character of the Word of God. “Were the sea ink for the words of my Lord, the sea would surely fail before the words of my Lord fail; aye, though we brought as much ink again.”

In Muḥammadan works, in the Traditions and commentaries, the Arabic baḥr is used for large rivers, as the Euphrates and the Nile, in the same sense as the Hebrew ‏יָם‎ yām (but the word nahr, Hebrew ‏נָהָר‎ nāhar, occurs in the Qurʾān for “rivers”).

It is related that Muḥammad said, “Let none but three classes of people cross the sea (for it has fire under it which causes its troubled motion), namely, (1) those who perform the Ḥajj, or ‘Pilgrimage’; (2) those who make the ʿumrah, or ‘visitation’; (3) those who go forth to war.” (Majmaʿu ʾl-Biḥār, vol. i. p. 76.)

The following are the names of the seas as current in Muḥammadan literature:—

Al-Baḥru ʾl-Ak͟hẓar, the Green or Indian Ocean.

Al-Baḥru ʾl-Abyaẓ, the White or Mediterranean Sea.

Al-Baḥru ʾl-Aswad, the Black, or Euxine Sea.

Al-Baḥru ʾl-Azraq, the Blue or Persian Sea.

Al-Baḥru ʾl-Qulzum, or al-Baḥru ʾl-Aḥmar, the Red Sea.

Al-Baḥru ʾl-Lūt̤, the Sea of Lot or Dead Sea.

Al-Baḥru ʾl-K͟hiẓr, the sea of Khizr, the Caspian Sea.

SEAL OF PROPHECY. K͟hātimu ʾn-Nubūwah (خاتم النبوة‎). A mole of an unusual size on the Prophet’s back, which is said to have been the divine seal which, according to the predictions of the Scriptures, marked Muḥammad as the “Seal of the Prophets,” K͟hātimu ʾn-Nabīyīn.

According to a tradition recorded in the Mishkātu ʾl-Maṣābiḥ, book iii. ch. 7, it was the size of the knob of a bridal canopy. Others say it was the size of a pigeon’s egg, or even the size of a closed fist.

Shaik͟h ʿAbdu ʾl-Ḥaqq says “it was a piece of flesh, very brilliant in appearance, and according to some traditions it had secretly inscribed within it, ‘God is one and has no Associate.’ ”

Abū Rams̤āʾ, whose family were skilled in surgery, offered to remove it, but Muḥammad refused, saying, “The Physician thereof is He who placed it where it is.”

According to another tradition, Muḥammad said to Abū Rams̤āʾ, “Come hither and touch my back”; which he did, drawing his fingers over the prophetical seal, and, behold! there was a collection of hairs upon the spot. (See Muir, new ed. p. 542.)

ʿAbdu ʾl-Ḥaqq also says it disappeared from the Prophet’s back shortly before his death.

It is not clear how far Muḥammad encouraged the belief in this supernatural sign of his prophetic mission, but from his reply to Abū Rams̤āʾ, it would not appear that he really attributed any special power to its existence. [MUHAMMAD.]

SECTS OF ISLĀM. Arabic firqah (فرقة‎), pl. firaq. Muḥammad is related to have prophesied that his followers would be divided into numerous religious sects.

ʿAbdu ʾllāh ibn ʿUmar relates that the Prophet said: “Verily it will happen to my people even as it did to the Children of Israel. The Children of Israel were divided into seventy-two sects, and my people will be divided into seventy-three. Every one of these sects will go to Hell except one sect.” The Companions said, “O Prophet, which is that?” He said, “The religion which is professed by me and my Companions.” (Mishkāt, book i. ch. vi. pt. 2.)

The number has, however, far exceeded the Prophet’s predictions, for the sects of Islām even exceed in number and variety those of the Christian religion.

The Sunnīs arrogate to themselves the title of the Nājiyah, or those who are “being saved” (as, indeed, do the other sects), but within the limits of the Sunnī section of Muḥammadans there are four which are esteemed “orthodox,” their differences consisting chiefly in minor differences of ritual, and in varied interpretations of Muslim law. These four orthodox sects or schools of interpretation amongst the Sunnīs, are the Ḥanafīyah, the Shāfiʿīyah, the Malakīyah, and the Ḥambalīyah.

1. The Ḥanafīyahs are found in Turkey, Central Asia, and North India. The founder of this sect was the Imām Abū Ḥanīfah, who was born at al-Kūfah, the capital of al-ʿIrāq, A.D. 702, or A.H. 80, at which time four of the Prophet’s companions were still alive. He is the great oracle of jurisprudence, and (with his two pupils, the Imāms Abū Yūsuf and Muḥammad) was the founder of the Ḥanafīyah Code of Law.

2. The Shāfiʿīyahs are found in South India and Egypt. The founder of this school of interpretation was Imām Muḥammad ibn Idrīs ash-Shāfiʿī, who was born at Asqalon, in Palestine, A.D. 767 (A.H. 150).

3. The Malakīyahs prevail in Morocco, Barbary, and other parts of Africa, and were founded by Imām Mālik, who was born at al-Madīnah, A.D. 714 (A.H. 95). He enjoyed the personal acquaintance of Abū Ḥanīfah, and he was considered the most learned man of his time.

4. The Ḥambalīyahs were founded by Imām Abū ʿAbdi ʾllāh Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Ḥambal, who was born at Bag͟hdād, A.D. 780 (A.H. 164). He attended the lectures delivered by ash-Shāfiʿī, by whom he was instructed in the Traditions. His followers are found in Eastern Arabia, and in some parts of Africa, but it is the least popular of the four schools of interpretation. They have no Muftī at Makkah, whilst the other three sects are represented there. The Wahhābīs rose from this sect. [WAHHABI.]

From the disciples of these four great Imāms have proceeded an immense number of commentaries and other works, all differing on a variety of points in their constructions, although coinciding in their general principles.

The G͟hiyās̤u ʾl-Lug͟hāt gives the following particulars of the seventy-three sects, spoken of in the Traditions, arranging them in six divisions of twelve sects each, and concluding with the Nājiyah, or “Orthodox” Sunnīs.

I.—The Rāfiẓīyah, “the Separatists,” who are divided into—

1. ʿAlawīyah, who esteem the K͟halīfah ʿAlī to have been a prophet.

2. Abadīyah, who hold that ʿAlī is divine.

3. Shuʿaibīyah, who say ʿAlī was the first and best of the K͟halīfahs.

4. Isḥāqīyah, who say the age of prophecy is not yet completed.

5. Ẕaidīyah, who hold that prayers can only be led by a descendant of ʿAlī.

6. ʿAbbāsīyah, who say al-ʿAbbās, the uncle of Muḥammad, was the only rightful Imām.

7. Imāmīyah, who state that the world is never left without an Imām of the Banū Hāshim to lead the prayers.

8. Nārisīyah, who say it is blasphemy for one person to say he is better than another.

9. Tanāsuk͟hīyah, who believe in the transmigration of souls.

10. Lāʿinīyah, those who curse the names of T̤alḥah, Zubair, and ʿĀyishah.

11. Rājiʿīyah, who believe that ʿAlī is hidden in the clouds and will return again to this earth.

12. Murtaẓīyah, who say it is lawful for a Muslim to fight against his Imām.

II.—The K͟hārijīyah, “the Aliens,” who are divided into—

1. Azraqīyah, who say there is no holy vision now to be obtained by the sons of men, as the days of inspiration are past.

2. Riyāẓīyah, who say a man is saved by good works, and not by faith.

3. S̤aʿlabīyah, who say God is indifferent to the actions of men, as though He were in a state of sleep.

4. Jāzimīyah, who hold true faith has not yet been made evident.

5. K͟halfīyah, who say to run away even from double the number of infidels is a mortal sin for Muslims.

6. Kūzīyah, who say that the human body is not made ready for prayer unless the ablutions be such as entirely cleanse the body.

7. Kanzīyah, who do not regard the giving of zakāt as necessary.

8. Muʿtazilah, who maintain that evil actions are not according to the decree of God, and that the prayers of a sinful man are not acceptable to God, and that faith is of man’s free will, and that the Qurʾān is created, and that almsgiving and prayer do not benefit the dead, and that there is no mīzān or kitāb, &c., at the Day of Judgment.

9. Maimūnīyah, who hold that belief in the unseen is absurd.

10. Muḥkamīyah, who say God has not revealed His will to mankind.

11. Sīrājīyah, who believe the example of the saints is of no importance.

12. Ak͟hnasīyah, who hold that there is no punishment for sin.

III.—The Jabarīyah, the “Deniers of Free Will,” who are divided into—

1. Muẓt̤ariyah, who hold that both good and evil are entirely from God, and man is not responsible for his actions.

2. Afʿālīyah, who say man is responsible for his actions although the power to do and to act is alone from God.

3. Maʿīyah, who believe that man possesses an entirely free will.

4. T̤arīqīyah, who say faith without works will save a man.

5. Bak͟htīyah, who believe that as every mortal receives according to God’s special gift, it is not therefore lawful for one to give to another.

6. Mutamannīyah, who hold that good works are those from which comfort and happiness are derived in this world.

7. Kāslānīyah, they who say punishment and reward is inflicted by God only according to the actions of man.

8. Ḥabībīyah, who hold that as one friend never injures another, so God, who is a God of love, does not punish his own creation.

9. K͟haufīyah, who say that just as a friend does not terrify his friend, so God does not terrify his people by judgments.

10. Fikrīyah, who say contemplation is better than worship, and more pleasing to God.

11. Ḥasabīyah, who hold that in the world there is no such a thing as fate or predestination.

12. Ḥujjatīyah, who say that inasmuch as God doeth everything and everything is of God, man cannot be made responsible for either good or evil.

IV.—The Qadarīyah, the “Asserters of Free Will,” who are divided into—

1. Aḥadīyah, who accept the injunctions of God, but not those of the Prophet.

2. S̤anawīyah, who say there are two eternal principles, good and evil; good being of Yazdān and evil being of Ahriman.

3. Kaisanīyah, who say our actions are either the creation of God or they are not.

4. Shait̤ānīyah, who deny the personality of Satan.

5. Sharīkīyah, who say faith is g͟hair mak͟hlūq, or “uncreated.”

6. Wahmīyah, who say the actions of man are of no consequence, whether they be good or evil.

7. Ruwaidīyah, who maintain that the world has an eternal existence.

8. Nākisīyah, who say it is lawful to fight against the Imām or K͟halīfah.

9. Mutabarrīyah, who say the repentance of sinners is not accepted by God.

10. Qāsit̤īyah, who hold that the acquirement of wealth and learning is a religious duty ordered by God.

11. Naz̤āmīyah, who maintain that it is lawful to speak of the Almighty as a thing (shaiʾ).

12. Mutawallifīyah, who say it is not evident whether evil is by God’s decree or not.

V.—The Jahimīyah, the followers of Jahim ibn Ṣafwān, who are divided into—

1. Muʿat̤t̤alīyah, who say the names and attributes of God are created.

2. Mutarābiṣīyah, who hold that the power, knowledge, and purpose of God are created.

3. Mutarāqibīyah, who say God has a place.

4. Wāridīyah, who state that those who enter hell will never escape from it, and that a muʾmin, or “believer,” will never enter hell.

5. Ḥarqīyah, who say the inhabitants of hell will so burn, that in time they will be annihilated.

6. Mak͟hlūqīyah, who believe that the Qurʾān, the Taurāt, the Injīl, and the Zubūr are created.

7. ʿIbarīyah, who say Muḥammad was a learned man, and a philosopher, but not a prophet.

8. Fānīyah, who say both Paradise and Hell will be annihilated.

9. Zanādiqīyah, who say the Miʿrāj, or “ascent of Muḥammad to heaven,” was only in the spirit, and that the world is eternal, and that there is no Day of Judgment.

10. Lafz̤īyah, who hold that the Qurʾān is not an inspired writing, but that its instructions are of God.

11. Qabrīyah, who say there is no punishment in the grave.

12. Wāqifīyah, who state that it is not certain whether the Qurʾān is create or uncreate.

VI.—The Murjīyah, or “Procrastinators,” who are divided into—

1. T̤ārīqīyah, who say nothing is necessary but faith.

2. Shāʾīyah, who maintain that when once a person has repeated the Muḥammadan creed he is saved.

3. Rājīyah, who believe that the worship of God is not necessary to piety, nor are good works necessary.

4. Shākkīyah, who say a man cannot be certain if he has faith or not, for faith is spirit.

5. Nāhīyah, who say faith is knowledge, and those who do not know the commandments of God have not faith.

6. ʿAmalīyah, who say faith is but good works.

7. Manqūṣīyah, who say faith is sometimes less and sometimes more.

8. Mustas̤nīyah, who deprecate assurance in religion, but say, “we are believers if God wills it.”

9. Ashʿarīyah, who say qiyās, or “analogical reasoning,” in matters of faith is unlawful.

10. Bidʿīyah, who hold that it is a duty to obey a ruler, even if he give orders which are evil.

11. Mushabbihīyah, who say God did literally make Adam in his own image.

12. Ḥashawīyah, who consider that in Muslim law there is no difference between wājib, sunnah, and mustaḥab.

VII.—The Nājiyah, or “Saved Ones,” make up the complete number of seventy-three.

Mr. Sale traces all the Muḥammadan sects to four sources:—

1. The Muʿtazilīyahs, the followers of Wāṣil ibn ʿAt̤ā, who may be said to have been the first inventor of scholastic divinity in Islām.

2. The Ṣifātīyahs, or Attributists, who hold the contrary opinions of the Muʿtazilīyahs.

3. The K͟hārijīyahs, or Aliens. Those who revolted from ʿAlī.

4. The Shīʿahs, or the followers of ʿAlī.

The author of the Sharḥu ʾ-Muwāqif says there are eight leading divisions of the sects of Islām:—

1. The Muʿtazilah.

2. The Shīʿahs.

3. The K͟hawārij.

4. The Murjīyah.

5. The Najjārīyah.

6. The Jabarīyah.

7. The Mushabbihīyah.

8. The Nājiyah.

For an account of these leading sects, the reader is referred to the articles under their respective titles.

Shaik͟h ʿAbdu ʾl-Qādir says there are not less than 150 sects in Islām.

SERMON. The oration delivered at the Friday midday prayer is called the k͟hut̤bah (خطبة‎); exhortations at any other time are termed waʿz̤ (وعظ‎). The former is an established custom in Islām, and the discourse is always delivered at the Masjidu ʾl-Jāmīʿ, or principal mosque, on Fridays, but sermons on other occasions although they are in accordance with the practice of Muḥammad, are not common. Very few Maulawīs preach except on Fridays. [KHUTBAH.]

SERPENT, Arabic ḥaiyah (حية‎), occurs in the Qurʾān once for the serpent made from Moses’ rod (Sūrah ii. 21). The word used in another place (Sūrah vii. 104) is s̤uʿbān (ثعبان‎). The Hebrew ‏תַּנִּין‎ tanneen is also used for a large serpent in Muslim books, but it does not occur in the Qurʾān.

In the Qurʾān, Sūrah ii. 34, it is said Satan made Adam and Eve to backslide and “drove them out from what they were in,” but no mention is made of the serpent.

The commentators say that when the devil attempted to get into Eden to tempt Adam, he was stopped by the angelic guard at the gates of Paradise, whereupon he begged of the animals to carry him in to speak to Adam and his wife, but they all refused except the serpent, who took him between his teeth and so introduced him to our first parents. (Tafsīru ʾl-ʿAzīzī, p. 124.)

SETH. Arabic Shīs̤ (شيث‎); Heb. ‏שֵׁת‎ Sheth. The third son of Adam. A prophet to whom it is said God revealed fifty small portions of scripture. [PROPHETS.] In the fourth century there existed in Egypt a sect of gnostics, calling themselves Sethians, who regarded Seth as a divine emanation (Neander’s Ch. Hist., vol. ii. p. 115), which will account for Muḥammad classing him as an inspired prophet with a revelation.

SEVEN DIALECTS. Arabic Sabʿatu Aḥruf (سبعة احرف‎). The Prophet is related to have said that the Qurʾān was revealed in seven dialects (Mishkāt, book ii. ch. ii.). The word aḥruf, translated “dialects,” may admit of two interpretations. Some understand it to mean that the Qurʾān contains seven kinds of revelation: Commandment (amr), prohibition (nahy), history (qiṣṣah), parable (mis̤āl), exhortation (waʿz̤), promises (waʿdah), and threatening (waʿīd). But the more common interpretation of aḥruf is “dialects,” by which is understood that by changing the inflections and accentuations of words, the text of the Qurʾān may be read in the then existing “seven dialects” of Arabia, namely, Quraish, T̤aiy, Hawāzin, Yaman, S̤aqīf, Huẕail, Tamīm. [QURʾAN.]

SEVEN SALĀMS. Seven verses of the Qurʾān, in which the word salām (سلام‎), “peace,” occurs:—

Sūrah xxxvi. 58: “Peace shall be the word spoken unto the righteous by a merciful God.”

Sūrah xxxvii. 77: “Peace be on Noah and on all creatures.”

Sūrah xxxvii. 109: “Peace be on Abraham.”

Sūrah xxxvii. 120: “Peace be on Moses and Aaron.”

Sūrah xxxvii. 130: “Peace be on Elias.”

Sūrah xxxvii. 181: “Peace be on His apostles.”

Sūrah xcvii. 5: “It is peace until the breaking of the morn.”

These verses are recited by the religious Muslim during sickness, or in seasons of danger or distress. In some parts of Islām it is customary to write these seven verses of the Qurʾān on paper and then to wash off the ink and drink it as a charm against evil.

SHAʿBĀN (شعبان‎). Lit. “The month of separation.” The eighth month of the Muḥammadan year. So-called because the Arabs used to separate themselves in search of water during this month.

SHAB-I-BARĀT (شب برات‎). The Persian title for the fifteenth day of the month Shaʿbān, which is called in Arabic Lailatu ʾn-niṣf min Shaʿbān, or “the night of the middle of Shaʿbān.”

On this night, Muḥammad said, God registers annually all the actions of mankind which they are to perform during the year; and that all the children of men, who are to be born and to die in the year, are recorded. Muḥammad, it is said, enjoined his followers to keep awake the whole night, to repeat one hundred rakʿah prayers, and to fast the next day; but there are generally great rejoicings instead of a fast, and large sums of money are spent in fireworks. It is the “Guy Fawkes Day” of India, being the night for display of fireworks.

The Shab-i-Barāt is said to be referred to in the XLIVth Sūrah of the Qurʾān, verse 2, as “the night on which all things are disposed in wisdom,” although the commentators are not agreed as to whether the verse alludes to this night or the Shab-i-Qadr, on the 27th of the month of Ramaẓān.

The Shab-i-Barāt is frequently confounded with the Lailatu ʾl-Qadr, or, as it is called in India, the Shab-i-Qadr.

SHAB-I-QADR (شب قدر‎). [LAILATU ʾL-QADR.]

SHĀDI (شادى‎). Persian. Lit. “Festivity.” The ordinary term used for weddings amongst Persian and Urdu-speaking peoples. In Arabic the term is ʿurs (عرس‎). [MARRIAGE.]

SHADĪDU ʾL-QUWĀ (شديد القوى‎). Lit. “One terrible in power.” A title given to the agent of inspiration in the Sūratu ʾn-Najm (liii.), verse 5: “Verily the Qurʾān is no other than a revelation revealed to him: one terrible in power (shadīdu ʾl-quwā) taught it him.”

Commentators are unanimous in assigning this title to the angel Gabriel.

SHAFʿ (شفع‎). A term used for rakʿahs of prayer when recited in pairs.

SHAFĀʿAH (شفاعة‎). [INTERCESSION.]

ASH-SHĀFIʿĪ (الشافعى‎). Imām Muḥammad ibn Idrīs ash-Shāfiʿī, the founder of one of the four orthodox sects of Sunnīs, was born at Askalon in Palestine A.H. 150. He was of the same tribe as the Prophet, and is distinguished by the appellation of al-Imāmu ʾl-Mut̤t̤alibī, or Quraish Mut̤t̤alibī, because of his descent from the Prophet’s grandfather, ʿAbdu ʾl-Mut̤t̤alib. He derived his patronymic ash-Shāfiʿī from his grandfather, Shāfiʿī Ibn as-Sāʾib. His family were at first among the most inveterate of Muḥammad’s enemies. His father, carrying the standard of the tribe of Hāshim at the battle of Badr, was taken prisoner by the Muslims, but released on ransom, and afterwards became a convert to Islām. Ash-Shāfiʿī is reported by Muslim writers to be the most accurate of all the traditionists, and, if their accounts be well founded, nature had indeed endowed him with extraordinary talents for excelling in that species of literature. It is said that at seven years of age he had got the whole Qurʾān by rote, at ten he had committed to memory the Muwat̤t̤aʾ of Mālik, and at fifteen he obtained the rank of Muftī. He passed the earlier part of his life at Gaza, in Palestine (which has occasioned many to think he was born in that place); there he completed his education and afterwards removed to Makkah. He came to Bag͟hdād A.H. 195, where he gave lectures on the traditions, and composed his first work, entitled al-Uṣūl. From Bag͟hdād he went on a pilgrimage to Makkah, and from thence afterwards passed into Egypt, where he met with Imām Mālik. It does not appear that he ever returned from that country, but spent the remainder of his life there, dividing his time between the exercises of religion, the instruction of the ignorant, and the composition of his later works. He died at Cairo A.H. 204. Although he was forty-seven years of age before he began to publish, and died at fifty-four, his works are more voluminous than those of any other Muslim doctor. He was a great enemy to the scholastic divines, and most of his productions (especially upon theology), were written with a view to controvert their absurdities. He is said to have been the first who reduced the science of Jurisprudence into a regular system, and to have made a systematic collection of traditions. Imām Ḥambal remarks that until the time of ash-Shāfiʿī men did not know how to distinguish between the traditions that were in force and those that were cancelled. His first work was, as before-mentioned, the Uṣūl, or “fundamentals,” containing all the principles of the Muslim civil and canon law. His next literary productions were the Sunan and Masnad, both works on the traditional law, which are held in high estimation among the Sunnīs. His works upon practical divinity are various, and those upon theology consist of fourteen volumes. His tomb is still to be seen at Cairo, where the famous Ṣalāḥu ʾd-dīn afterwards (A.H. 587) founded a college for the preservation of his works and the propagation of his doctrines. The mosque at Ḥīrah was built by Sultān G͟hiyās̤u ʾd-Dīn for the same purpose. Imām ash-Shāfiʿī is said to have been a person of acute discernment and agreeable conversation. His reverence for God was such that he never was heard to mention his name except in prayer. His manners were mild and ingratiating, and he reprobated all unnecessary moroseness or severity in a teacher, it being a saying of his that whoever advised his brother tenderly and in private did him a service, but that public reproof could only operate as a reproach. His principal pupils were Imām Aḥmad ibn Ḥambal and az-Zuhairī, the former of whom afterwards founded a sect. [HANBAL.]

The Shāfiʿī sect of Sunnīs is chiefly met with in Egypt and Arabia.

SHAG͟HĀR (شغار‎). A double treaty of marriage common amongst the pagan Arabs, viz. the man marrying the sister or daughter of another, and in return giving his sister or daughter in order to avoid paying the usual dower. It is strictly forbidden by the Muḥammadan religion (see Mishkāt, book xii. ch. 11), although it is even now practised by the people of Central Asia.

SHĀH (شاه‎). Persian. “A King.” A title usually given to members of the Ascetic order, and to Saiyids, as Faqīr Shāh, Akbar Shāh. It has, however, become a common addition to surnames, both in India and other countries, and no longer denotes a position of dignity.

SHAHĀDAH (شهادة‎). “Evidence.” [WITNESSES.] Martyrdom. [MARTYRS.]

SHAHĪD (شهيد‎). [MARTYRS, WITNESS.]

ASH-SHAHĪD (الشهيد‎). “The Witness.” One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. It frequently occurs in the Qurʾān for the Almighty (e.g. Sūrah iii. 93) as one who seeth all things.

SHĀHINSHĀH (شاهنشاه‎). A Persian title given to the King of Persia—“King of Kings.” It is a title strictly forbidden in Traditions, in which it is related that Muḥammad said “ ‘King of Kings’ is the vilest name you can call a man, for there is no other King of Kings but God.” (Mishkāt, book xxii. ch. viii.)

SHAIK͟H (شيخ‎), pl. shuyūk͟h, ashyāk͟h, or mashāyik͟h. A venerable old man. A man above fifty years of age. A man of authority. A superior of an order of Darweshes. Shayk͟hu ʾl-Islām, a title given to the chief Maulawī or Qāẓī of the cities of Constantinople, Cairo, Damascus, &c.

SHAIT̤ĀN (شيطان‎). [DEVIL.]

SHAJJAH (شجة‎), pl. shijāj. [WOUNDS.]

SHAKING HANDS. Arabic muṣāfaḥah (مصافحة‎). Is enjoined in the Traditions, and is founded upon the express example of Muḥammad himself.

Al-Barāʾ ibn ʿĀzib says the Prophet said, “There are no two Muslims who meet and shake hands but their sins will be forgiven them before they separate.” (Mishkāt, book xxii. ch. iii.)

ASH-SHAKŪR (الشكور‎). “The Acknowledger of Thanksgiving.” One of the ninety-nine special attributes of the Almighty. Qurʾān, Sūrah xxxv. 27: “Verily He (God) is forgiving, and an acknowledger of thanksgiving.” When used for anyone but God it means one who is grateful, e.g. Qurʾān, Sūrah xxxiv. 12: “Few of my servants are grateful.”

ASH-SHAʾM (الشام‎). Lit. “That which is on the left-hand (looking to the rising sun),” i.e. the northern country to Makkah. Syria.

ASH-SHAMS (الشمس‎). “The Sun.” The title of the XCIst Sūrah of the Qurʾān, which begins with the word.

SHAQQU ʾṢ-ṢADR (شق الصدر‎). Lit. “The splitting open of the heart.” Anas relates that “the Angel Gabriel came to the Prophet, when he was playing with boys, and took hold of him, and laid him on the ground, and split open his heart, and brought out a little bag of blood, and said to Muḥammad, ‘This is the devil’s part of you.’ After this, Gabriel washed the Prophet’s heart with zamzam water, then sewed it up and replaced it. Then the boys who were with the Prophet came running to his nurse, saying, ‘Verily Muḥammad is killed.’ ” Anas also says that he “had seen the marks of the sewing in the Prophet’s breast.” (Mishkāt, book xxiv. ch. vi.)

According to the commentators al-Baiẓāwī, al-Kamālān, and Ḥusain, the first verse of the XCIVth Sūrah of the Qurʾān refers to this event: “Have we not opened thy breast for thee, and taken off from thee thy burden, which galled thy back?” But it seems probable that this simple verse of one of the earliest chapters of the Qurʾān refers merely to the enlightenment of Muḥammad’s heart, and that his followers afterwards invented the miracle in order to give a supernatural turn to the passage. [MUHAMMAD.]

SHARʿ (شرع‎). [LAW.]

SHARĀB (شراب‎). In its original meaning, “that which is drunk.” A drink. Always applied to wine and intoxicating drinks. In mystic writings, sharāb, “wine,” signifies the dominion of Divine love over the heart of man.

SHARḤ (شرح‎). Lit. “Expounding.” A term used for a commentary written in explanation of any book or treatise, as distinguished from tafsīr, which is used only for a commentary of the Qurʾān. These expositions are written either in the text, or on the side of the book or treatise they attempt to expound. The term, however, generally used for marginal notes is ḥāshiyah. For example, the Tanwīru ʾl-Abṣār is the matn, or text, of a great work on Muḥammadan laws, written by Shamsu ʾd-Dīn Muḥammad, A.H. 995; the Durru ʾl-Muk͟htār is a sharḥ, or commentary written on that work by ʿAlā ʾd-Dīn Muḥammad, A.H. 1088; and the Ḥāshiyah, or marginal notes on these two works, is the Raddu ʾl-Muḥtār, by Muḥammad Amīn.

SHARĪʿAH (شريعة‎). The law, including both the teaching of the Qurʾān and of the traditional sayings of Muḥammad. [LAW.]

SHART̤ (شرط‎). The conditions of marriage, of contracts, &c.

SHAVING. The shaving of the beard is forbidden in the Traditions, for Ibn ʿUmar relates that the Prophet said: “Do the opposite of the polytheists; let your beards grow long and clip your mustachios.” The shaving of the head is allowed, provided the whole and not a part is shaven, for the Prophet said: “Shave off all the hair of the head or let it alone.” (Mishkāt, xx. ch. iv. pt. 3.)

In Afghanistan it is the custom to shave the head, but not in other parts of Islām.

SHAVING THE HEAD. Arabic taḥlīq (تحليق‎). Forbidden in the Ḥadīs̤ (Mishkāt, book xiv. ch. v.), although it is most common amongst the Muḥammadans of India and Central Asia.

SHAWWĀL (شوال‎). Lit. “The month of raising the tail.” The tenth month of the Muḥammadan year. (For a discussion of the meaning of the title of this month, see Lane’s Arabic Dict. in loco.)

SHAʿYĀʾ (شعياء‎). [ISAIAH.]

SHECHINA. [SAKINAH, TABUT.]

SHEM. Arabic Sām (سام‎). A son of Noah. Not mentioned in the Qurʾān, but his name is given in commentaries.

SHĪʿAH (شيعة‎). Lit. “Followers.” The followers of ʿAlī, first cousin of Muḥammad and the husband of his daughter Fāt̤imah. The Shīʿahs maintain that ʿAlī was the first legitimate Imām or K͟halīfah, or successor, to the Prophet, and therefore reject Abū Bakr, ʿUmar, and ʿUs̤mān, the first three K͟halīfahs of the Sunnī Muslims, as usurpers. They are also called the Imāmīyahs, because they believe the Muslim religion consists in the true knowledge of the Imām or rightful leaders of the faithful. Also the Is̤nā-ʿasharīyah, or the twelveans, as followers of the twelve Imāms. The Sunnī Muslims call them the Rāfiẓī, or the forsakers of the truth. The Shīʿahs strenuously maintain that they are the “orthodox” Muslims, and arrogate to themselves (as do also the Sunnīs) the title of al-Muʾminūn, or the “True Believers.”

The spirit of division, which appeared among the followers of Muḥammad, even before his death, broke out with greater violence after it; and the rapid strides of his successors to even imperial power, only afforded a wider sphere for ambition. The great and radical difference between the Shīʿahs and Sunnīs, as we have already remarked, arises from the former maintaining the divine and indefeasible right of ʿAlī to succeed to the K͟halifate on the death of the Prophet. ʿAlī’s claims, they assert, rested on his nearness of kindred to Muḥammad, of whom he was a cousin, and on his having married Fāt̤imah, the only offspring of the Prophet which survived him. They also assert that he was expressly declared his successor by the Prophet himself, under direct guidance from God.

The text quoted in defence of the divine institution of the K͟halifate in the Prophet’s own family, is the 118th verse of the Sūratu ʾl-Baqarah, or the Second Chapter of the Qurʾān, which reads:—

“And when his Lord tried Abraham with words and he fulfilled them, He said, ‘I am about to make of thee an IMĀM to mankind’; he said, ‘Of my offspring also?’ ‘My covenant,’ said God, ‘embraceth not evil doers.’ ”

According to the Shīʿahs, this passage shows that the Imāmate, or K͟halifate, is a divine institution, and the possessor thereof must be of the seed of Abraham. This the Sunnīs would also admit, as they hold that the true K͟halīfah can only be one of the Quraish tribe [KHALIFAH], but from the expression, “my covenant embraceth not evil doers,” the Shīʿah doctors establish the supernatural character of the K͟halifate, and hold that the divinely appointed leader must himself be without spot or blemish or capacity to sin. The primeval creation of ʿAlī is therefore a dogma of the Shīʿah faith.

The author of the Ḥayātu ʾl-Qulūb (Merrick’s ed., p. 4), says: “The Prophet declared that the Most High had created him, and ʿAlī and Fāt̤imah, and Ḥasan and Ḥusain, before the creation of Adam, and when as yet there was neither heaven, nor earth, nor darkness, nor light, nor sun, nor moon, nor paradise, nor hell.” [HAQIQATU ʾL-MUHAMMADIYAH.]

The Shīʿah traditions also give very lengthy accounts of the nomination of ʿAlī by the Prophet to be his successor. The following is the account given in the Ḥayātu ʾl-Qulūb (p. 334):—

“When the ceremonies of the pilgrimage were completed, the Prophet, attended by ʿAlī, and the Muslims, left Makkah for al-Madīnah. On reaching G͟hadīrk͟hum, the Prophet halted, although that place had never been known as a stopping-place for caravans because it had neither water nor pasturage. The reason for stopping at this place being a direct message from the Almighty. The Prophet had received divine messages on the subject before, but He had not before expressly appointed the time of ʿAlī’s inauguration.”

* * *

“As the day was very hot, the Prophet ordered them to take shelter under some thorn trees. Having ordered all the camel-saddles to be piled up for a pulpit, he commanded a herald to summon the people around him. Most of them had bound their cloaks on their feet as a protection from the excessive heat. When all the people were assembled, the Prophet ascended the pulpit made of camel-saddles, and, calling to him the Commander of the Faithful (ʿAlī), placed him on his right hand. Muḥammad then gave praise to God, and foretold his own death, saying that he had been called to the gate of God. He then said, ‘I leave among you the Book of God, to which, while you adhere, you will never go astray. I leave with you the members of my family who cannot be separated from the Book of God until both they and the Book join me at the fountain of al-Kaus̤ar.’ [KAUSAR.] He then, with a loud voice, said, ‘Am I not dearer to you than your own lives?’ And all the people said, ‘Yes.’ He then took the hands of ʿAlī and raised them up so high, that the white of his arm-pits appeared, and said, ‘Whosoever from his heart receives me as his master, then let him receive ʿAlī. O Lord, befriend ʿAlī. Be the enemy of all his enemies. Help all who help him, and forsake all who forsake him.’”

The writer also says:—

“Certain authorities, both Shīʿah and Sunnī, declare that when the Prophet died, the hypocritical Muhājirs and Anṣārs, such as Abū Bakr, ʿUmar, and ʿAbdu ʾr-Rahmān ibnu ʾl-ʿAuf, instead of visiting the family of the Prophet to comfort them at the time of his death, assembled at the abode of the Banū Saudah, and plotted to seize the K͟halīfate. Most of them did not perform the prayers at the Prophet’s burial, although ʿAlī sent to call them for the purpose. This plan was to make Abū Bakr K͟halīfah, and for this they had plotted in the Prophet’s lifetime. The hypocritical Anṣārs, however, wished to make Saʿd ibnu ʾl-Abādah K͟halīfah, but they were over-ruled by the Muhājirs. A certain man brought the information that Abū Bakr was constituted K͟halīfah, when ʿAlī was in the act of filling in the earth of the Prophet’s grave, and said that the hypocrites had feared that if they waited till the funeral ceremony was over, they would not succeed in their design of depriving ʿAlī of his rights. ʿAlī laid his spade on the ground and recited the first verses of the XXIXth Sūrah of the Qurʾān: ‘A. L. M. Do men reckon that they will be left alone who say, “We believe,” and not be tried? We did try those who were before them, and God will surely know those who are truthful, and he will surely know those who are liars.’ ”

The Shīʿahs believe that at this time God made special revelations to Fāt̤imah, the Prophet’s daughter, and ʿAlī’s wife. These revelations are said to have been possessed by the last of the Imāms, al-Mahdī, and to be still in his possession. [MAHDI.]

It need scarcely be added that the Sunnī writers deny every word of these traditions.

The strong hand of the Sunnī K͟halīfah ʿUmar kept the claims of ʿAlī in abeyance; but when ʿUmar died, the K͟halifate was offered to ʿAlī, on condition that he would govern according to the Qurʾān, and the traditions as received by the Sunnīs. The answer of ʿAlī not being deemed satisfactory, the election devolved upon ʿUs̤mān (Othman). ʿUs̤mān was assassinated A.H. 35, and ʿAlī was elected on his own terms, in spite of the opposition of ʿĀyishah, the favourite wife of the Prophet, who had become a great influence in Islām.

One of the first acts of ʿAlī was to recall Muʿāwiyah from Syria. Muʿāwiyah refused, and then claimed the K͟halīfate for himself. His claims were supported by ʿĀyishah. ʿAlī was eventually assassinated at Kūfah, A.H. 40, and upon his death his son Ḥasan was elected K͟halīfah, but he resigned it in favour of Muʿāwiyah, on the condition that he should resume it on the death of the latter. Muʿāwiyah consented to this arrangement, although secretly determining that his own son Yazīd should be his successor.

Upon the death of Muʿāwiyah, A.H. 60, his son Yazīd, “the Polluted,” obtained the position of Imām or K͟halīfah, without the form of election, and with this event commenced the great Shīʿah schism, which has divided the forces of Islām until this day.

The leading, or “orthodox” sect of the Shīʿahs, the Imāmīyahs, receive the following as the rightful K͟halīfahs:—

1. ʿAlī, the son-in-law of the Prophet.

2. Al-Ḥasan, the son of ʿAlī.

3. Al-Ḥusain, the second son of ʿAlī.

4. ʿAlī, surnamed Zainu ʾl-ʿAbidīn, the son of al-Ḥusain.

5. Muḥammad al-Bāqir, son of Zainu ʾl-ʿAbidīn.

6. Jaʿfar aṣ-Ṣādiq, son of Muḥammad al-Bāqir.

7. Mūsā al-Kāz̤im, son of Jāʿfar.

8. Ar-Raẓā, son of Mūsā.

9. Muḥammad at-Taqī, son of ar-Raẓā.

10. ʿAlī an-Naqī, son of Muḥammad at-Taqī.

11. Al-Ḥasan al-ʿAskarī, son of ʿAlī an-Naqī.

12. Muḥammad, son of al-Ḥasan al-ʿAskarī, or the Imām al-Mahdī, who is supposed by the Shīʿahs to be still alive, though he has withdrawn for a time, and they say he will again appear in the last days as the Mahdī, or “Director,” which the Prophet prophesied would appear before the Day of Judgment. [MAHDI.]

The Imāmites trace the descent of this Imām Muḥammad as direct from ʿAlī, thus making him the twelfth lawful Imām, on which account they are called the Is̤nā-ʿasharīyah, or the “Twelveans.” They assert that this last Imām, whilst still a boy, being persecuted by the Abbaside K͟halīfahs, disappeared down a well in the courtyard of a house at Hillah near Bag͟hdād, and Ibn K͟haldun says, so late as even in his day, devout Shīʿahs would assemble every evening after sunset at this well and entreat the absent Imām to appear again on earth.

In the present day, during the absence of the Imām, the Shīʿahs appeal to the Mujtahidūn, or “enlightened doctors of the law,” whose opinion is final on all matters, both temporal and spiritual.

There have been two great schisms in the succession of the Imāms, the first upon the death of ʿAlī Zainu ʾl-ʿAbidīn, when part of the sect adhered to his son Zaid, the founder of the Zaidīyah sect. And the second on the death of aṣ-Ṣādiq, when his father nominated his second son, Mūsā al-Kāz̤im, as his successor, instead of allowing the K͟halīfate to go in Ismāʿīl’s family; those who adhered to Ismāʿīl’s family being called Ismāʿīlīyah. The great body of the Shīʿahs acknowledge Mūsā al-Kāz̤im and his descendants as the true Imāms.

The Ismāʿīlīyah, like the Twelveans, make profession of a loyal attachment to the cause of ʿAlī. Their schism was occasioned by a dispute regarding the succession to the Imāmate on the death of Imām Jaʿfar Ṣādiq. Jaʿfar had four sons, the eldest of whom was Ismāʿīl. One day, however, Ismāʿīl was seen in a state of inebriety, and his father disinherited him, and appointed his son Mūsā. The greater number of the Shīʿahs accepted this decision, but a small number, who regarded the drunkenness of the Imām as an evidence that he accepted the hidden meaning and not the legal precepts of Islām (!), remained attached to Ismāʿīl. They say from the time of ʿAlī to the death of Muḥammad, the son of Ismāʿīl, the Imāms were visible, but from his death commenced the succession of concealed Imāms. The fourth of these “concealed” Imāms was a certain ʿAbdu ʾllāh, who lived about the third century of the Hijrah.

The contentions of the Shīʿahs regarding the succession have become endless, and of the proverbial seventy-three sects of Islām, not fewer than thirty-two are assigned to the Shīʿahs, and, according to the Sharḥu ʾl-Muwāqif, there are as many as seventy-three sects of the Shīʿahs alone.

According to the Sharḥu ʾl-Muwāqif, the three principal sects of the Shīʿahs are (1) G͟hulāt, or Zealots, the title generally given to those who, through their excessive zeal for the Imāms, have raised them above the degree of human beings. (2) Zaidīyah, those who separated after the appointment of Muḥammad Bāqir to the K͟halīfate, and followed Zaid. (3) Imāmīyah, or those who acknowledged Jaʿfar Ṣādiq as the rightful Imām, to the exclusion of Ismāʿīl, and which appears to be what may be called the orthodox sect of the Shīʿahs. Out of these three great divisions have grown innumerable sects, which it would be tedious to define. All Shīʿah religionists are more or less infected with mysticism.

Many of the Shīʿahs have carried their veneration for ʿAlī so far, as to raise him to the position of a divine person, and most of the sects make their Imāms partakers of the divine nature. These views have their foundation in the traditions already quoted, which assert the pre-existence of Muḥammad and ʿAlī, and they have undoubtedly been fostered by the gnostic tendencies of all forms of Persian belief, especially Ṣufīism. [SUFI.]

Since the accession of Ismāʿīl, the first of the Ṣūfī dynasty, A.D. 1499, the Shīʿah faith has been the national religion of Persia. Nādir Shah, when at the summit of his power, attempted to convert the Persians to the Sunnī form of Islām, in order to assist his ambitious designs, but the attempt failed, and the attachment of the Persians to the Shīʿah faith has remained as decided as ever.

Sir Lewis Pelly remarks:—

“Though the personal history of Ali and his sons was the exciting cause of the Shiah schism, its predisposing cause lies far deeper in the impassable ethnological gulf which separates the Aryan and Semitic races. Owing to their strongly centralised form of government, the empire of the Sassanides succumbed at once before the onslaught of the Saracens; still, Persia was never really converted to Islam, and when Mohammed, the son of Ali, the son of Abdullah, the son of Abbas, the uncle of the Prophet Mohammed, proclaimed the Imamate as inherent of divine right, in the descendants of the Caliph Ali, the vanquished Persians rose as one man against their Arab conquerors. The sons of Abbas had all espoused the cause of their cousin Ali against Moawiyah, and when Yezid succeeded to the Caliphate, Abdullah refused to acknowledge him, and retired to Mecca. It was he who tried to dissuade Husain from going to Cufa. His son was Ali, who, by order of the Caliph Walid, was flogged and paraded through the streets of Damascus, mounted on a camel, with his face to its tail, and it was to avenge this insult on his father that Mohammed resolved to overthrow the dynasty of the Ommiades.

“The Persians, in their hatred of the Arabs, had from the first accepted the rights of the sons of Ali and Fatimah to the Imamate; and Mohammed cunningly represented to them that the Imamate had been transmitted to him by Abou Hashim, the son of Mohammed, another son of the Caliph Ali, whose mother was a daughter of the tribe of Hanifah. This was a gross fraud on the descendants of Fatimah, but the Persians cared not so long as they threw off the Arab yoke.” (Miracle Play, Intro., p. xvi.; W. H. Allen & Co., 1879.)

The Muḥammadans of the province of Oudh in British India are for the most part Shīʿahs, and there are a few in the region of Tīrah, on the frontier of India. With the exception of the province of Oudh, the Muḥammadans of India are for the most part Sunnīs of the Ḥanafī sect, but practices peculiar to the Shīʿahs have long prevailed in certain localities. In most parts of India, where the parties are Shīʿahs, the law of this school of jurisprudence is always administered, especially with regard to marriage and inheritance.

It is not correct, as stated by Sale (Introduction to the Koran) and others, that the Shīʿahs reject the Sunnah, or Traditions; for although the Shīʿahs do not receive the “six correct books of the Sunnīs,” they acknowledge five collections of their own, namely: (1) Al-Kāfī, (2) Man-lā-yastaḥẓirahu ʾl-Faqīh, (3) Tahẕīb, (4) Istibṣār, (5) Nahju ʾl-Balāg͟hah. [TRADITIONS.] The works written on the traditions are very numerous.

The Rev. James L. Merrick (Boston, 1850) has translated into English portions of the Ḥayātu ʾl-Qulūb, the most popular book of traditions amongst the Shīʿahs. It was originally compiled by Muḥammad Bāqir, son of Muḥammad Tākī, whose last work was the well-known Ḥaqqu ʾl-Yaqīn, A.H. 1027 (A.D. 1627).

The Shīʿah school of jurisprudence is of earlier date than that of the Sunnīs, for Abū Ḥanīfah, the father of the Sunnī Code of Muslim law, received his first instructions in jurisprudence from Jaʿfar aṣ-Ṣādiq, the sixth Imām of the Shīʿahs; but this learned doctor afterwards separated from his teacher, and established a code of laws of his own.

The differences between the Shīʿahs and the Sunnīs are very numerous, but the following are the principal points:—

(1) The discussion as to the office of Imām, already alluded to.

(2) The Shīʿahs have a profound veneration for the K͟halīfah ʿAlī, and some of their sects regard him as an incarnation of divinity, whilst they all assert that next to the Prophet, ʿAlī is the most perfect and excellent of men.

(3) They still possess Mujtahids, or “enlightened doctors,” whose opinion is final in matters of Muslim law and doctrine. The Mujtahid is the highest degree amongst Muḥammadan doctors. The Sunnīs say, in the present divided condition of Islām it is impossible to appoint them, but the Shīʿahs still elect them in Persia, and the appointment is confirmed by the king. [MUJTAHID.]

(4) They observe the ceremonies of the Muḥarram in commemoration of al-Ḥasan and al-Ḥusain, whilst the Sunnīs only observe the tenth day of the Muḥarram, or the ʿĀshūrāʾ, being, they say, the day on which God created Adam. [MUHARRAM.]

(5) They include the Majūsī, or fire worshippers, amongst the Ahlu ʾl-Kitāb, or people who have received an inspired record from God, whilst the Sunnīs only acknowledge the Jews, Christians, and Muslims as such.

(6) They admit the principle of religious compromise called Taqīyah (lit. “Guarding oneself”). A pious fraud, whereby the Shīʿah Muḥammadan believes he is justified in either smoothing down, or denying, the peculiarities of his religious belief in order to save himself from persecution. [TAQIYAH.]

(7) There are also various minor differences in the liturgical ceremonies of the Shīʿahs, which will be found in the account of the liturgical prayers. [PRAYER.]

(8) The differences between the civil law of the Shīʿahs and Sunnī have been carefully noted in Mr. N. B. E. Baillie’s Introduction to his Digest of the Imameea Code (London, 1869):—

(a) “With regard to the sexes, any connection between them, which is not sanctioned by some relation founded upon contract or upon slavery, is denounced by both the sects as zināʾ, or fornication. But, according to the Ḥanafīyahs, the contract must be for the lives of the parties, or the woman be the slave of the man, and it is only to a relation founded on a contract for life that they give the name of nikāḥ, or marriage. According to the Shīʿahs, the contract may be either temporary, or for life, and it is not necessary that the slave should be the actual property of the man; for it is sufficient if the usufruct of her person be temporarily surrendered to him by her owner. To a relation established in any of these ways they give the name of nikāḥ, or marriage, which is thus, according to them, of three kinds, permanent, temporary, and servile. It is only their permanent marriage that admits of any comparison with the marriage of the Ḥanafīyahs. And here there is, in the first place, some difference in the words by which the contract is effected. According to the Ḥanafīyahs, the words may be ṣarīḥ (express) or kināyah (ambiguous). According to the Shīʿahs, they must always be express; and to the two express terms of the other sect (nikāḥ and tazwīj) they add a third mutʿah, which is rejected by the others as insufficient. [MUTʿAH.] Further, while the Ḥanafīyahs regard the presence of witnesses as essential to a valid contract of marriage, the Shīʿahs do not deem it to be in anywise necessary. The causes of prohibition correspond, to some extent, in both schools; but there is this difference between them, that the Ḥanafīyah includes a difference of dār, or nationality, among the causes of prohibition, and excludes liʿān, or imprecation, from among them; while the Shīʿah excludes the former and includes the latter. There is, also, some difference between them as to the conditions and restrictions under which fosterage becomes a ground of prohibition. And with regard to infidelity, though both schools entirely prohibit any sexual intercourse between a Muslimah or Musalman woman and a man who is not of her own religion, the Ḥanafī allows of such intercourse, under the sanction of marriage or of slavery, between a Muslim and any woman who is a kitābīyah, that is, who belongs to any sect that is supposed to have a revealed religion, while the Shīʿah restricts such connection to mutʿah, or temporary and servile marriages. Among Kitābīyah both schools include Christians and Jews, but the Ḥanafī rejects Majūsīs, or fire-worshippers, who are included among them by the Shīʿahs. The Shīʿahs do not appear to make any distinction between invalid and valid marriages, all that are forbidden being apparently void according to them. But the distinction is of little importance to the parties themselves, as under neither of the schools does an unlawful marriage confer any inheritable quality upon the parties; and the rights of the children born of such marriages are determined by another consideration, which will be adverted to in the proper place hereafter.

“(b) With regard to the servile marriage of the Shīʿahs, it is nothing more than the right of sexual intercourse which every master has with his slaves; but there is the same difference between the two sects, in this case, as in that of marriage by contract. According to the Ḥanafīyahs, the right must be permanent, by the woman’s being the actual property of the man. According to the Shīʿahs, the right may be temporary, as when it is conceded for a limited time by the owner of the slave. When a slave has borne a child to her own master, which he acknowledges, she becomes his umm-ul-walad, or mother of a child, and cannot be sold, while she is entitled to emancipation at her master’s death. According to the Ḥanafīyahs, these privileges are permanent, but, according to the Shīʿahs, the exemption from sale is restricted to the life of her child, and her title to emancipation is at the expense of her child’s share in the master’s estate. If that be insufficient, her enfranchisement is only pro tanto, or so far as the share will go. Where the child’s father has only an usufructuary right in the mother, the child is free, though the mother, being the property of another, does not acquire the rights of an umm-ul-walad.

“(c) With regard to the persons who may be legally slaves, there seems to be little, if any, difference between the two sects. According to the Shīʿahs, slavery is the proper condition of the ḥarabīs, or enemies, with the exception only of Christians, Jews, and Majūsīs, or fire-worshippers, so long as they continue in a state of ẕimmah, or subjection, to the Mussulman community. If they renounce their ẕimmah, they fall back into the condition of ordinary ḥarabīs, and if a person should buy from a ḥarabī his child, or wife, or any of his consanguineous relations, the person so purchased is to be adjudged a slave. There seems also to be but little difference in the manner in which slaves may be enfranchised, or their bondage qualified. But there is an important difference as to children; for, according to the Ḥanafīyahs, a child follows the conditions of its mother, being free or a slave, as she is the one or the other; while, according to the Shīʿahs, it is free, if either of its parents be so. Both the sects are agreed that marriage may be dissolved by the husband at any time at his pleasure, and to such dissolutions they both give the name of t̤alāq.

“(d) But there are some important differences between the repudiation of the two sects. Thus, while the Ḥanafīyahs recognize two forms, the Sunnī and Bidaʿī, or regular and irregular, as being equally efficacious, and subdivide the regular into two other forms, one of which they designate as aḥsan, or best, and the other as ḥasan, or good, the Shīʿahs reject these distinctions altogether, recognizing only one form of the Sunnī, or regular. So also as to the expressions by which repudiation may be constituted; while the Ḥanafīyahs distinguish between what they call ṣarīḥ, or express words, which are inflections of the word t̤alāq, and various expressions which they term kināyah, or ambiguous, the Shīʿahs admit the former only. Further, the Ḥanafīyahs do not require intention when express words are used; so that, though a man is actually compelled to use them, the repudiation is valid according to them. Nor do they require the presence of witnesses as necessary in any case to the validity of a repudiation; while, according to the Shīʿahs, both intention and the presence of two witnesses in all cases are essential. Both sects agree that repudiation may be either bāʾin (absolute) or rajaʿī (revocable), and that a repudiation given three times cannot be revoked, nor a woman so repudiated be again married by her husband until she has been intermediately married to another man, and the marriage with him has been consummated. But, according to the Ḥanafīyahs, repudiation may be made irrevocable by an aggravation of the terms, or the addition of a description, and three repudiations may be given in immediate succession, or even unico contextu, in one expression; while, according to the Shīʿahs, on the other hand, the irrevocability of a repudiation is dependent on the state in which the woman may be at the time that it is given, and three repudiations, to have their full effect, must have two intervening revocations. To the bāʾin and rajaʿī repudiations of both sects, the Shīʿahs add one peculiar to themselves, to which they give the name of the t̤alāq-uʾl-ʿiddah, or repudiation of the ʿiddah, and which has the effect of rendering the repudiated woman for ever unlawful to her husband, so that it is impossible for them ever to marry with each other again. The power of revocation continues until the expiration of the ʿiddah, or probationary period for ascertaining whether a woman is pregnant or not. After it has expired, the repudiation becomes absolute, according to both schools. So long as it is revocable, the parties are still in a manner husband and wife; and if either of them should happen to die, the other has a right of inheritance in the deceased’s estate.

“(e) With regard to parentage, maternity is established, according to the Ḥanafīyahs, by birth alone, without any regard to the connection of the parents being lawful or not. According to the Shīʿahs, it must in all cases be lawful; for a waladu ʾz-zināʾ, or illegitimate child, has no descent, even from its mother, nor are there any mutual rights of inheritance between them. For the establishment of paternity there must have been, at the time of the child’s conception, according to both sects, a legal connection between its parents by marriage or slavery, or a semblance of either. According to the Ḥanafīyahs, an invalid marriage is sufficient for that purpose, or even, according to the head of the school, one that is positively unlawful; but, according to the Shīʿahs, the marriage must in all cases be lawful, except when there is error on the part of both or either of the parents. Again, as to the children by slaves, express acknowledgment by the father is required by both the sects, except when the slave is his ummu ʾl-walad, or has already borne a child to him; for though, according to the Shīʿahs, there are two reports on the subject, yet, by the most generally received of these, a slave does not become the wife of her master by mere coition, and her child is not affiliated to him without his acknowledgment. With regard to children begotten under a semblance of right, the Ḥanafīyahs require some basis for the semblance in the relation of the parties to each other; while, according to the Shīʿahs, bonâ fide belief on the part of the man that the woman is his wife or his slave seems to be all that is required; while no relation short of a legal marriage or slavery, without such belief either on the part of the man or the woman, would apparently be sufficient.

“(f) On the subject of testimony, both schools require that it shall be direct to the point in issue; and they also seem to be agreed that when two or more witnesses concur in asserting a fact in the same terms, the judge is bound by their testimony, and must give his judgment in conformity with it. They agree in requiring that a witness should in general have full knowledge, by the cognizance of his own senses, of the fact to which he is bearing testimony; but both allow him, in certain exceptional cases, to testify on information received from others, or when he is convinced of the fact by inference from circumstances with which it is connected.

“(g) Nasab, or descent, is included by both sects among the exceptional facts to which a witness is allowed to testify when they are generally notorious, or when he is credibly informed of them by others. But according to the Ḥanafīyahs, it is enough if the information be received from two just men, or one just man and two just women; while the Shīʿahs require that it should have been received from a considerable number of persons in succession, without any suspicion of their having got up the story in concert. The Ḥanafīyahs class marriage among the exceptional facts, together with Nasab; but, according to the Shīʿahs, it more properly follows the general rule, which requires that the witness should have the direct evidence of his own senses to the fact to which he is giving his testimony. They seem, however, to admit an exception in its favour; for they reason that as we adjudge K͟hadījah to have been the mother of Fāt̤imah, the daughter of the Prophet, though we know it only by general notoriety and tradition, which is but continued hearsay, so also we may equally decide her to have been the Prophet’s wife, for which we have the same evidence, though we were not present at the contract of marriage, nor even heard the Prophet acknowledge it. Both sects are agreed that a witness may lawfully infer and testify that a thing is the property of a particular person when he has seen it in his possession; and so, according to the Ḥanafīyahs, ‘When a person has seen a man and woman dwelling in the same house, and behaving familiarly with each other in the manner of married persons, it is lawful for him to testify that she is his wife, in the same way as when he has seen a specific thing in the hands of another.’ The Shīʿahs do not apply this principle of inference to the case of marriage, and there is no ground for saying that, according to them, marriage will be presumed in a case of proved continual cohabitation.