Volume 1 — CHAPTER III.

NORTH-EASTERN SUDAN.

(Country bounded on the north by the Sudan-Egyptian frontier, on the west by the Nile from that frontier to the mouth of the Atbara, on the south by the Atbara and Abyssinian and Eritrean frontiers, and on the east by the Red Sea.)

Section 1.—Country between Halfa and the Atbara Mouth along the Nile Banks.

General.Along the Nile from Faras to Halfa the east bank is fairly well cultivated. From Halfa to near Kosha, with the exception of Sarras, there is little cultivation and practically no inhabitants. Most of this stretch is rocky and desert-like, and is known as “Batn El Hagar.” South of Kosha cultivation and villages become more general, and continue almost uninterruptedly to Abu Hamed (see Chap. II, Sections 1 and 2. For the left bank, Dongola town, etc., see Chap. IX.)

Between Abu Hamed and the Atbara junction there is little cultivation on the east bank, except south of Genenetti. From here to the Atbara there are about 500 sagias. The cultivated land, as a rule, extends about 500 yards back from the river, and in a few places as much as 3 miles.

The country enclosed by the river and the mainline Sudan Government Railways between Halfa and Abu Hamed is waterless, sandy, or gravelly desert, broken here and there by rocky hills and ridges. It is practically uninhabited, but is believed to contain minerals and workings of old mines near Kuror, etc. These are now being explored.

The soil on the banks of the river in the Dongola Province is rich and alluvial almost throughout, and well adapted for cotton cultivation. This province is in fact the richest and most prosperous in the Sudan.

Climate.Health is excellent all the year round. Very little fever, only simple cases. Little rain; showers may be expected in September. The wind is almost constantly from the north. Ophthalmia, common in Egypt, is rare in Dongola Province. During months June to end of September, the weather is very hot and enervating, but air dry.

Communications. Roads.Good roads, 5 metres in width, have been made on both banks of the Nile throughout the Province; bends can be cut off frequently, notably between Kosha and Abu Sari, a distance of 35 miles across the desert with no water (see Chap. II). There is a desert track on the right bank from Dongola (Naui) to Merowe, a distance of about 100 miles without water, and there are other desert tracks which have never been traversed by a white man; of these latter little or nothing is known.

Boats.Heavy goods, such as merchandise, grain, dates, etc., are mostly carried by boat, and there is no lack of transport for the needs of the natives in this respect; boats are constantly being built, and every encouragement is given them to do so.

A fortnightly post boat runs between Kerma and Merowe. From February to June, however, the low state of the river renders navigation for steamers dangerous through the rapids between Kerma and Dongola; during these months, therefore, the mail is carried by camels over this reach of 40 miles, transport requirements being conveyed by Government gayasas, of which there are 9 in the Province. There are two steamers (1903).

Population, riverain, and desert.From Halfa to Debba the inhabitants are Berabra.[41] The Mahasi dialect is spoken from Halfa to Kerma. Here the Gararish[42] and then the Danagla (Berabra), commence and continue to Debba; from there on to Berti are the Shaigia. From Berti to Khulla the Monasir are found, and then come the Robatab, who extend as far as Kerraba. From here on to the Atbara junction are the Angariab, Hagab, Merifab, and Fadlab. The few inhabitants of the desert are mostly wandering Bisharin.

The total riverain population of Dongola Province numbered (December, 1902) 105,026, and is rapidly increasing.

This is exclusive of nomad Arabs, whose numbers may be put down at 2,000 Gararish (along the river), besides Bisharin, and other Nomads (vide Appendix F.) on the left bank.

The occupation of the people is that of cultivating the ground, which they do very imperfectly except in Dar Shaigia; it could be made to produce double the amount.

The natives of Mahas and Sukkot lag behind, the fault being entirely their own; they are of an extremely indolent nature, perpetually quarrelling amongst themselves over questions as to ownership of land and date trees, and do little or nothing towards bettering themselves.

There is naturally a certain proportion of poor in the province, but agricultural labour being in demand, employment is always to be obtained by persons not too lazy to work.

Cultivation.The cereals mostly cultivated on the river bank are dura, barley and wheat. Cotton has hitherto been grown to a limited extent for local use only. On the completion of the Nile-Red Sea Railway a great increase in cotton culture is expected. A large amount of land, admirably suited to the cultivation of this valuable commodity, is available, and very large issues of Egyptian cotton seed have this year (1904) been made by the Government.

In the Berber Province the wheat and barley grown are of good quality, but both are expensive to cultivate.

Average yield per feddan (Berber), barley 5 ardebs, average price per ardeb, PT.45 to PT.55.

„ „ wheat, 3 „ „ „ PT.75.

„ „ dura, 5 „ „ „ PT.35 to PT.80.

In the Dongola Province the crops are as follows:

Crop. Months when planted. Months when cut. No. of crops yearly. Average yield per crop per feddan of PT. 40 land.

Dura June and September August and December 2 ⎱ ⎰ 3 to 4 ardebs.

Dura Shami June August 1

Wheat December March 1 ⎱ ⎰ 2½ to 3 ardebs.

Barley December February, end of 1

Simsim September October, end of, or November, beginning of 1

N.B.—The majority of the land will give three crops yearly, viz., twice dura and once wheat or barley.

The number of sagias in the Dongola Province in December, 1902, was 3,462, besides 77 shadufs and two pumps. There are now (1904), nearly 4,000.

Iron sagias, though tried, have been pronounced unsuitable as they are difficult to repair. Iron fittings for the old wooden sagias have, however, proved a decided success. European ploughs are not popular on account of their weight.

The chief requirement of all the riverain Provinces is agricultural labour, men of the fellahin type, who would teach the inhabitants how to till and tend the soil, and thus produce crops in proportion to the value of the land.

The local breed of cattle is fair, and moderately numerous, but might be improved in both respects.

Dates.The date tax (PT.2 per tree) is one of the principal items of revenue in Dongola. There are also a considerable number of trees in the Berber Province. It is hoped that the new railway will enable dates to be much more largely exported,[43] and thus materially increase the revenue of these Provinces. At present the freights are almost prohibitive. Date harvest, October and November. Quality in Dongola excellent, and ripen before those from Egypt, Tunis or Tripoli. In Berber the dates are not so good.

Dom palms.The dom palm furnishes a means of livelihood to many of the riverain inhabitants in the Berber Province. The leaf is made into mats, sandals, and baskets. Coir (lif) is largely exported to Omdurman, where it is made into rope.

Other trees.Besides the above, there are sunt trees mostly used for sagia building, and selem, talh, samr, and heglig mostly on the back lands, with haraz and the dwarf tarfa on the river bank. Tamarind trees are being introduced and are doing well.

Senna.A certain amount of senna grows wild in the Berber and Dongola Provinces. It is gathered by the Arabs, who transport it to Kordofan, and Aswan, where it fetches about £E.2½ per camel load.

Fruit.Melons and lemons are plentiful in the spring and autumn. People are commencing to cultivate the vine.

Trade.The import trade of the Dongola Province consists chiefly of cotton goods and such luxuries as sugar, tea, coffee, perfumery, etc., and of the export of cereals and dates. Business, however, is not brisk. The chief obstacle to the development of the import trade is the want of enterprise on the part of traders. There are excellent openings for merchants. The people are well off and willing to buy, especially such goods as cutlery, crockery, soap, agricultural implements, hardware, and such sundry merchandise, but at present (1904) there is not a single well-to-do trader in the Province.

Native cotton cloth, called “damur,” is worked throughout the Province, and forms the chief clothing of the men, who dress in shirt and drawers, with ferda (or toga) of this material.

Administrative.Crime is small in proportion to number of population. Inhabitants most peaceably inclined, and all (men, women, and children) work at their crops.

Housing.Villages are mostly composed of well-built houses straggling along the borders of cultivation. The houses are built of galus (mud and stones), with good court yards, whitewashed and clean. Very superior to those of fellahin in Egypt.

Miscellaneous insects.The “Nimetta” fly, a small midge, appears in countless myriads from November to April, both months inclusive, between Dalgo and Korti. The bite causes slight fever through irritation. At times they are absolutely unbearable, and cause temporary migrations of both white men and natives. Natives wear bunches of smouldering grass twisted round the head to keep off the fly.

White ants also are both numerous and most destructive between Dalgo and Korti.

Chief towns. Halfa.Halfa (Wadi Halfa), comprising “The Camp” and “Halfa town” is the capital of the Province of Halfa,[44] which extends along the Nile from Faras Island (N. lat. 22° 10′ approximately) to Abu Fatma. It is also the present headquarters and terminus of the main line (Sudan Government Railways) to Khartoum, as well as of the branch to Kerma. There are extensive railway workshops at the Camp. The latter includes barracks, prison, officers’ mess, native quarter, and the old fortifications. Also post and telegraph office. Population about 400, of which one-quarter are white. No garrison at present. Halfa was for years (1885-96) the headquarters of the Frontier Field Force which defended the southern frontier of Egypt against the Dervish invasion.

The civil quarter of Halfa lies 1½ miles to the north of the Camp. Here there is an excellent hotel, also railway station, post and telegraph offices, some good stores, and native bazaar. The population, which is composed chiefly of Egyptians and Sudanese, with a large sprinkling of Greeks, is about 2,900.

Berber.Berber is a long straggling mud-built town containing about 5,000 inhabitants. It was captured by the Mahdists after a certain resistance on the 26th May, 1884, and was re-occupied by the Anglo-Egyptian forces under Lord Kitchener on 6th September, 1897. It is now the capital of the Berber Province, but this will be moved to El Damer in 1905 (vide Chapter IV). There are at present two railway stations, Berber Camp and Town. Post and telegraph office. There are no good stores in the town, and there is little trade here at present. The present town lies 2 miles to the north of old Berber, and is the headquarters of an Egyptian battalion.

The desert road to Suakin starts from here (242 miles). Behind the town an immense flat plain stretches to the horizon. This is fertile soil, and only awaits proper irrigation to be reproductive. Berber is 1,140 feet above the Mediterranean or 95 feet below the level of Khartoum.

Section 2.—Country between Halfa, Berber, Suakin and the Intersection of the 22nd Parallel with the Red Sea.

(a) Between the Railway and the Nile.

General.For purposes of description this area is conveniently divided into two portions by the Halfa-Abu Hamed Railway. The portion west of the railway comprises some of the most arid country in the Sudan. The general formation is that of a plain covered with sand or gravel, dotted here and there with steep and even precipitous hills of from 100 to 800 feet elevation above the plain, which falls gently and uniformly to within a few miles of the Nile. In places these detached hills are so numerous and so close together as to resemble connected ranges. As a rule the sand is coarse and heavy enough to afford excellent going for camels; but strips of soft deep sand are occasionally met with, especially where the wind has banked it up against or between the hills.

The crest of this gently sloping spur projecting into the bend of the Nile, is some 2,000 feet above sea level, where the railway crosses it, that is some 1,550 feet above Halfa and 1,080 feet above Abu Hamed.

The country midway between the river and the railway has been little visited, and the only known place of any importance is J. Kuror, the highest hill west of the railway and some 4,070 feet above the sea. After heavy rains its “Makhzans,” or rocky reservoirs, hold water for many months, and are occasionally visited by nomad Arabs.

Immediately south of Halfa the plain terminates in a belt of low hummocky hills, some 8 to 10 miles wide. After Sarras, the belt becomes wider and the hills bolder, till they culminate in J. Ago, east of Akasha, at the southern end of the Batn El Hagar.

Between Akasha and the latitude of Kosha the country becomes less confined, but contains several high and precipitous hills. South of Kosha it becomes more and more open, and the hills lower and more scattered until they appear to die away south of Kerma.

From Kerma, as far as Old Dongola, practically no hills are visible from the river, and the sand hills are piled up on the very edge of the water. At Old Dongola the ground rises, and from there, as far as J. Barkal, near Merowe, rocky elevations approach the river here and there, or are seen in the distance, without, however, always encroaching on the fertile belt on the right bank.

From J. Barkal to Abu Hamed there is a rough and rocky belt of hills a few miles from the river, though the elevations are inconsiderable.

Drainage.Rain falls at long intervals in very heavy and local showers. From the upper part of the country it is carried off by a number of wide shallow wadis, whose beds are hardly distinguishable when crossed, though the slight remains of grass they sometimes contain show them up clearly when looked down on from the top of a hill.

As these wadis reach the rocky belt along the river, their beds contract so much that after heavy rain regular torrents descend them, sweeping away anything they find in their path. Much damage occurred in this way to the camp at Akasha in 1896, though no rain fell in the vicinity.

South of the crest of the spur the chief drainage lines are the two Wadis Keheli, one of which rises near J. Kuror and joins the Nile, about 40 miles below Abu Hamed; the other rises near No. 5 Station and is followed by the railway under the name of Wadi Gaud, and eventually reaches the Nile a little west of Mograt Island.

Vegetation.Some of the wadis contain a little grass and a few stunted selem bushes, but there is no grazing for flocks except within a few miles of the Nile. Firewood also is very rarely met with.

Inhabitants.The riverain inhabitants graze their flocks a few miles into the desert. Besides these shepherds there are no inhabitants.

Cultivation.There is none.

Roads.Except in the hilly belt along the river, camels can go anywhere.

The only track at all well-known is that from Dongola (Naui) to Merowe, cutting off the great bend of the Nile to the south.

(b) Country East of Halfa-Abu Hamed Railway, or “The Atbai.”

Limits.The Atbai is roughly the name applied to the country bounded on the north by the Kena-Kosseir road, on the south by the Berber-Suakin road, on the east by the Red Sea, and on the west by the Nile from Kena to Halfa, and thence by the Sudan Government Railway to Berber. It lies, therefore, approximately, between N. lat. 26° and 20°.

The northern half, which is inhabited by the Ababda, belongs to Egypt; the southern portion, inhabited by the Bisharin and the Amarar, etc., near Suakin, belongs to the Sudan. Although on many maps this country is generally labelled “Nubian Desert,” much of it is by no means desert in the true sense of the word. Comparatively little is known even now of the more southern districts[45] of the Atbai, and the following descriptive notes must be taken to apply chiefly to the country between north lat. 21° and 22° 30′.

Bisharin country.The country of the Bisharin, which is bounded on the north by an irregular line rather north of lat. 22°, and to the south extends as far as Mitateb on the Atbara, contains wide stretches of gravelly, sandy, or stony desert, intersected by frequent bare sandstone and granite ranges, but, at the same time, on the eastern side especially, it contains many more or less fertile and quite luxuriantly wooded wadis, in which water is sometimes found within 2 or 3 feet of the surface.

Drainage.East of the railway the hills become more frequent and larger, and the drainage lines more conspicuous.

Generally speaking, the watershed between the Nile and the Red Sea, which lies between 35° and 35° 30′ E. long., consists of a mass of hills from 30 to 40 miles in width. These hills, which consist of agglomerations of rather small features, out of which a bolder peak, such as J. Eigat, occasionally rises, are intersected by very numerous rocky khors, which feed a few large and well-wooded wadis. West of the watershed, from as far south as 20° 30′, all the drainage escapes north by the wadis Alagi and Gabgaba, which unite to the east of Korosko and join the Nile near Sayala.

Of these the Gabgaba has the longest course, as its head waters rise much further south than those of the Alagi. Much of its basin is still unexplored, in fact, the only well known portion is the plain south-east of Murrat wells, which is painfully arid and deficient in vegetation.

Many of the wadis, however, that descend to it on the east are well wooded as long as they are in the hills, and even for a few miles after they have emerged from them.

The scheme of drainage here is exactly the reverse of that west of the railway.

Instead of water-courses beginning broad and ending narrow and deep, here they commence with narrow defined rocky channels, gradually becoming broader, sandier, of more gentle slope, and in many places with fine trees and much “tabas” grass. When the hills are left, however, the trees die away, the grass disappears, and the bed becomes ill-defined or completely lost. South of the parallel of Murrat the country appears to become more open, and probably very wide plains exist with little to offer to even a desert Arab.

South of the Gabgaba Basin, the drainage from the watershed descends nearly due west by several large wadis, which have at various times given trouble to the railway. Owing to the outcrop of rocks near the river between Abu Hamed and Berber, the beds of these wadis become restricted as they approach the river, with the usual result as regards spates and floods.

Drainage east of watershed.On the east of the watershed the wadis, after leaving the hills on which they rise, traverse a range of granite hills, and thence flow, generally in a north-east direction, to the maritime plain of the Red Sea.

The principal wadis, from north to south, are Hasium, Di-ib, and Haieit.

The Wadi Hasium, after emerging from the hills of Abu Hodeid, skirts the Kajoj and Musa ranges, which it leaves some distance to the south, and flows through open country to the sea. It contains the wells of Kajoj and Shalatein.

The Wadi Di-ib, perhaps the most important wadi of the Eastern Atbai, rises in the Amarar country, probably as far south as the 20th parallel, and flows generally northwards. About 20 miles before it turns eastwards to traverse the open maritime plain, it opens out into a wide basin, a mile in breadth and 8 to 10 miles in length, containing a bed of rich alluvial soil. This basin forms the principal cultivable land in the Um Ali Bisharin country. It is the property of the Shantirab, but portions are allotted both to the Amrab and Belgab in good years. An important tributary on the left bank of the Di-ib is the Wadi Hufra, which, rising in the Amrab country in the hills to the north-east of Onib, joins it at the north end of the J. Elba range. It receives all the drainage from the hills of the southern Belgab country by the Wadis Is and Legia. At several places in its bed, the Arabs cultivate and obtain good crops of dura.

Wadi Haieit, in the southern Atbai, is also said to be cultivated.

The ranges of Elba and Asotriba are composed of red granite, whilst at the foot of the latter are small hills of very beautiful hornblende porphyrite.

Climate.The climate of the Atbai is probably the best in the Sudan. The air is of absolute purity, and the elevation, 1,500 to 3,000 feet above sea level, very considerably mitigates the shade temperature. The heat of the sun, however, is intensely fierce in warm weather, owing to the glare from the sand and rocks. During the summer, waves of superheated air are occasionally known, such as that which destroyed a convoy on the march from Korosko to Abu Hamed in 1897.

In winter, the cold is quite severe, and anyone proposing to travel there in December or January should make sure he has plenty of bedding and warm clothes.

Though it is essentially a very dry climate, dew falls at Deraheib on the west of the watershed in December, and a misty haze, which seems to be connected with moisture in the air, frequently covers the whole country. The climate of the littoral is, as may be supposed, much warmer than that of the interior.

Rainfall.The rain falls in violent local showers during the months of July and August, called the “Shuti” rains. In exceptional years, showers occur in May and June.

Many places go without rain for several years in succession, but during the above-mentioned months it is always risky to camp in the bed of a wadi, as a spate may come down, though no rain nor clouds have been visible to the traveller.

The dew is very heavy on the littoral, and suffices to keep the bush grazing in good condition, though it is insufficient to raise the short grass, which sprouts after rain, and which forms the principal pasture for sheep.

Towns or Villages.There are nowadays no towns or villages in the Atbai. The Arabs live by families in groups of tents made of dom-palm matting. These, of course, move according as it suits them.

Deraheib.There are, however, throughout this district, the remains of quite large stone-built villages, formerly inhabited by the miners of the ancients. Those at Deraheib are particularly striking. Deraheib (Der — castle, aheib — beautiful) was evidently at one time the seat of a colony of miners. On the right bank of the wadi are the broken walls of 500 or more houses, arranged in streets. The castle, a large square building, stands under the hills on the left bank. The pointed arches of the castle and portions of some of the houses are set in lime. The majority of buildings, however, are constructed of stone and mud.

Vegetation.The vegetation, generally, is rare and scanty, though in some of the large wadis, even west of the watershed, it is surprisingly luxuriant. Perhaps the Wadi Alagi, with its fine sayal and heglig and abundant marakh, arak and other green trees, is the most striking instance. West of the Gabgaba, and immediately east of it, selem is chiefly met with, but as one ascends the wadis one comes on sayal and the rare palm, “Medemia argun.”

The latter is especially numerous in the Wadis Abaraga and Terfaui, and is found in many other khors in the neighbourhood, especially in those descending from J. Rafit to the Gabgaba.

No adult specimens were noticed east of the Wadi Abaraga, though there are many young plants trying to sprout at Abu Tabag.

This palm is largely used for mat-making, and the Arabs are fully alive to the advantage of preserving it, as well as other trees.

The grazing is not confined to the actual beds of the wadis. There are many flat or depressed places where, for some months after good rain, excellent grazing is found for camels, sheep, and goats.

The rainfall, however, is so uncertain that it is impossible to rely on finding grazing at any particular place even if it has been found there in previous years.

Vegetation east of watershed.The vegetation along the wadis flowing towards the sea varies considerably from that found along those emptying into the Nile. Large trees, such as sayal, selem, heglig and tundub are found along the former, as well as a bush called “adlib,” which camels are extremely fond of, “arad,” an acacia, growing on the tops of the granite hills that border the littoral, is used by the Arabs to produce the red dye for the leather of sword scabbards, etc. The medicinal qualities of the small undergrowth and grasses of the eastern Atbai are considered by the Arabs far more efficacious than those of the west. A species of gum tree, similar to the “Ficus elastica,” but with a smaller leaf, exists on the hills of the eastern Atbai; it is known by the Arabs as “gemmeiza.”

Water supply.Water is scarce throughout the whole district and, where found, is in many places more or less brackish.

The only wells that have been sunk by the present Government are at Nos. 4 and 6 stations, at both of which a plentiful supply is obtained at less than 100 feet depth.

The ordinary water supply consists of regular wells, stone lined for part or all of their depth, rough excavations in the beds of wadis, and accumulations of rain water in cracks or hollows in the rocks. These latter, which are called “makhzans,” if large, and “gammam,” if small, contain the best water. Those on J. Rafit are particularly well known, and were drawn on for the supply of the garrison of Murrat before the re-conquest of the Sudan.

The largest supply of water is perhaps found in the Wadi Murrat close under the old fort. This, in the pre-Dervish days, was the midway halting place of caravans proceeding from Korosko to Abu Hamed, and very large numbers of camels used to be supplied from the wells at this place. The water is brackish and disagreeable, but drinkable.

Like the Murrat Wells, most of the wells in the Atbai are situated in the beds of wadis and khors, and are consequently filled in every time a flood descends, entailing great labour on the inhabitants, who have to clear them out. This is especially the case with those which are not stone lined. (A list of wells is given on page 92.)

Cultivation.As may be supposed, the Atbai is not a great agricultural district. In years of good rainfall, however, there is a considerable amount of dura cultivated in the Wadis Alagi, Gabgaba, and Di-ib, etc., but the Arabs rely chiefly on Aswan, and to a lesser extent on Halaib and Suakin for their grain supply. At the former town they find a ready sale for their sheep, which command good prices. The price of a sheep at Aswan is about PT.75, at Suakin PT.25, whilst dura at Aswan only costs from PT.40 to PT.70 per ardeb, whereas at Suakin it is oftener nearer PT.150. Aswan is, therefore, the most popular market with the Arabs of the Atbai.

Roads.The one main road through this country, that from Korosko to Abu Hamed viâ Murrat, which used to be the artery through which the commerce of the Sudan flowed to Egypt, has fallen into disuse since the construction of the railway, and there are now no other tracks except those made by the Nomad Arabs.

The nature of the country, consisting as it does of masses of very small features intersected by numerous khors, and often separated by plains of considerable extent, lends itself to great freedom of movement in almost all directions. The absence of regular trade, too, has militated against the formation of stereotyped routes, and the result is, that between any two places you can find at least one and very often several more or less different routes, none of which, unless lately passed over by a large party, would appear to the traveller more frequented than the others.

The hilly mass forming the watershed is so far an exception that camel transport from one side to the other is restricted to a few passes.

The tracks, as a rule, are bad and stony; camels, even those bred in the country, soon suffer from sore feet. The tracks usually follow the wadis.

Minerals.That this country was once, to a certain extent at any rate, rich in gold, is evident from the numerous shafts and traces of former workings that are seen.

Game.The following species of game are found in the Atbai:—

Ariel: scarce on Wadi Di-ib, but south of Darur, plentiful.

Gazelle (Isabella and Dorcas).

Ibex: on hills adjoining littoral.

Cony (native Halidob): hills Red Sea to Murrat.

Wild ass: Onib to Di-ib.

Wild sheep: rare, in hills from Aswan to Abu Hamed, and along the Nile from Murrat to Akasha. Well known to exist at J. Rafit and East of Gabgaba.

Klipspringer and Dig-Dig: hills adjoining littoral south of Bowarti.

Cheetah and leopard: rare in hills near littoral.

Hyena and wild dog „ „ „

Also bluerock pigeon and sand, rock, and night-grouse on all hills.

Atbai—South of Latitude 20° 0′.

Drainage.From the northern portion of the Atbai the general line of the watershed between the Nile and the Red Sea is south-eastward as far as the hills enclosing the upper part of the Wadi Amur.

The hills lying to the north of the Wadi Amur in its upper part form a portion of the watershed.

North of these hills are a series of large khors which drain first north and north-east. Lower down these khors are practically unknown, but are said to curve eastward and reach the sea north of Cape Elba. The largest of these khors are Mahaleit, Dirab, and Haieit. In their upper portions they are broad level valleys covered with a considerable amount of coarse grass. The scrub in them is low and scattered.

South of Wadi Amur the watershed lies north and south in about E. long. 37° 20′, until the great Khor Arab basin is reached.

Of the wadis draining westward, south of lat. 20°, Khor Arab has by far the largest drainage area. It includes in its lower portion not only Khor Arab proper, but also Khors Erheib and Thamiam and Barameyu. It may be said to drain the whole triangle of country, whose angular points are Kokreb, Erkowit, and Oi.

Between Khor Arab and Wadi Amur the drainage is taken by Khors Habob and Laiameb, while Khors Misrar and Aderot drain the country between Khor Arab and the Tobrar range.

On the east side of the hills the valleys are narrower and have a steeper fall, and possess well-defined and clean-swept watercourses, which, in the narrower valleys, cover the whole bed of the valley.

The most important of the khors draining west are Khors Garar, Arbat, Okwat, and Adit.

The general course of Khors Garar and Okwat is at right angles to the watershed, and the upper parts of these khors are therefore steep and stony. Khors Arbat and Adit lie parallel to the watershed for a considerable part of their length.

Khor Arbat is the largest of these khors, and, from its watershed, opens out almost immediately into the broad Odrus plain, which the Berber-Suakin caravan road crosses.

Entering the Akareirirba hills, it narrows in, and in the lower part of its course it becomes a defile shut in by steep hills, which rise directly from the sandy and stony bed of the watercourse.

Khor Adit also has its maximum width in its upper part between Sinkat and Jebel Erba, and, narrowing as it descends, joins Khor Okwat through Khor Totali, a winding defile shut in by steep hills, and in places only 200 yards wide.

The minor khors which drain eastward from the hills bounding Khors Adit and Arbat, are steep stony valleys, ending in agabas, strewn with boulders and difficult of passage by loaded camels.

Such are Khors Adaia and Bengar, leading from Khors Arbat and Khors Teiutelri and Abent from Khor Adit.

The khors become ill-defined on leaving the hills, and what vegetation they possess gives place to the low scrub and coarse grass of the maritime plain.

Climate.The higher parts of the watershed on the eastern side have a perfect winter climate, and the extreme ranges of the temperature are less than those of the higher plains of the northern Atbai.

On clear nights in the late autumn and winter a very heavy dew falls, quite sufficient to saturate any bedding or kit left exposed to it.

On the west side of the watershed little or no dew falls.

To the west of the hills the rainy season coincides with that in the Nile Valley, while in the east rain may be expected between November and March, although local thunderstorms may occur at other times of the year.

The winter rain in the western hills is sometimes heavy thunder rain, and at other times a heavy downpour or thick mist, unaccompanied by electrical disturbances.

Vegetation.In the lower parts of the khors, where they merge into open desert, the vegetation is very scanty. It is confined to a thin line of scattered scrub which marks the lowest part of the valley.

As the valleys become narrower and more marked the trees are larger.

Selem, samr, and tundub, form the chief part of the vegetation, with gamob in Wadi Amur and a thick belt of “eitil” in Khor Arab, near its junction with Khor Oi.

In the valleys east of the watershed the trees are larger and more numerous. Khor Adit is especially noticeable in this respect, with its large gemmeiza trees near Sinkat well, its thick covering of arak bush along the bed of the valley, and sunt and other trees of considerable size near the watercourse. The steep and stony khors, however, such as Khor Garar and the upper part of Khor Okwat, are in most places swept too bare of earth to allow of the growth of trees of any size.

The grazing on both sides of the watershed is confined to the actual valleys.

The watersheds dividing the westward-flowing khors are low rough ridges of black rock and gravel, and are practically destitute of vegetation.

After rain, there is frequently grazing in the depressions in the atmurs, such as El Gura, near Tendera.

In the khors on the east of the watersheds there is little or no grass until the lower levels are reached, except in the Odrus plain and in the upper part of Khor Adit, near Sinkat.

Water supply.Throughout the whole stretch of desert, between the hills and the railway, water is scarce.

Besides those at the well-known halting places on the Berber-Suakin caravan road—Obak and Ariab—the following wells may be noted:—

Garafab.—50 miles N.N.E. of Abidia, has several shallow wells among sand dunes.

Sararat Well.—In Wadi Amur, is 96 miles from Garafab. The well is 50 feet deep, and is lined with stone, but only gives a small supply. This well is probably the same as that marked on the older maps as the “Oasis of Amur.” South of the Suakin-Berber road the chief wells are as follows:—

Tendera, Mib, and Oi.—There are several good wells at each of these places.

The Mib wells are specially good, and lie in a hollow of the hills, reached by a narrow defile about ¾ of a mile long. The water supply at Thamiam is very good, but the wells are dug in the bed of the khor and are liable to fill up. There is sometimes water in the rocks at Rauai, but it was stated not to be sufficient to water a hamla of 80 camels in November, 1902.

Talgwarab is only a water hole 18 feet deep, and cannot be counted on as a supply at present. The natives state that attempts to dig down deeper are prevented by the light soil falling in.

Near the watershed the wells are more numerous. There are four wells in the upper part of Khor Haieit, and several others in the deep valleys through which the larger khors drain into the Haieit, Amur, and Arab basins. In the upper part of Wadi Amur, above Sararat, wells are reported to be about 11 miles apart. On the eastern side, besides the existing wells, water could probably be found at a depth of a few feet anywhere in Khor Arbat. The wells in the lower parts of the khors are frequently brackish. Hoshiri at the foot of Khor Okwat is an example of this.

Cultivation.In years when the rainfall is good there is a considerable area under dura cultivation in Khor Arab near Talgwarab and between there and Thamiam wells. The natives build numbers of horse-shoe shaped dams to retain the water and keep it standing on the ground. There are also signs of the main khor channel having been dammed to divert the water over the flat earthy soil of the valley.

The upper stretches of Khors Barameyu and Erheib and Hareitri are also used for dura growing.

There is also cultivation near Abu Goloda, on the eastern side in the head of Khor Haieit, in Khor Adit above Sinkat, and especially in the Odrus Plain, dura is grown.

Near the Atbara River there is a considerable area under cultivation in Khor Abadar.

Roads.Besides the main Berber-Suakin caravan road there are well-marked roads leading to Rauai well.

The Tendera-Mib-Oi road is also a good track and the surface is fairly smooth, except at the approaches to Mib and Oi wells.

The going on the main Suakin-Berber road is distinctly bad in several places, notably at the head of the Kokreb valley, in Wadi Hareitri and in Khor Hadasana.

Near the hills, communications parallel to the watershed are difficult, as for instance between Haieit and Kokreb. Such a line is very hard on camels, as there is a continued succession of deep-cut khors of varying size divided by hills or ridges of loose shale and black rock, steep and difficult to surmount.

The road leading from Khor Haieit to Khor Garar is a fairly easy one for camels, but Khor Garar itself is very rough.

The chief routes across the watershed are:—

From Khor Barameyu to Sinkat—here the gradients are very easy and the surface smooth.

A route westward from Sinkat towards Abu Goloda and Rauai has steep stony “agabas.”

From Abu Goloda into the Odrus plain—easy slopes but rough underfoot in the upper part of the Abu Goloda khor.

Wadi Hareitri on the Berber-Suakin road—very rough underfoot.

From Wadi Amur into Khor Yudib—many low rough watersheds have to be crossed, and there is no beaten track.

From Khor Arbat the maritime plain can be reached either:—

(1) By the Tamabaf watershed into Khor Okwat.

(2) By Khor Dimm.

(3) By Khor Adaia or Khor Bengar.

Of these the Tamabaf and Khor Dimm routes are easy for camels, but Khors Adaia and Bengar have steep and rough “agabas.”

(c) The Bisharin.

Boundaries of Bisharin.The Bisharin inhabit the desert bounded on the north, roughly, by the Alagi and its tributaries, on the south by the Atbara, on the east by the Red Sea from Shalatein to J. Asotriba, and thence by a line joining Mitateb or Umbeiba on the Atbara, and on the west by the Nile from the mouth of the Atbara to Abu Hamed, and thence by the old trade route from Abu Hamed to Korosko.

The Ababda and Bisharin formerly lived a good deal further south in the districts now occupied by the Hadendoas; both tribes moved northwards probably about 100 years ago.

The Ababda by their move north, came into a more civilised country. Their Sheikhs, through the transport needed on the Korosko—Abu Hamed road, came into touch with the Government and acquired at this time great wealth, and with wealth, their numbers increased, whilst the Bisharin of the hills, left far behind as regards progressiveness, soon came to be despised by them.

The Bisharin claim descent from Bishar, the son of Kahl, who was also the father of Abad and Amar, from whom the Ababda and Amarar are said to have sprung.

Origin.Kahl is said to have been descended from Zubeir Ibn El Awam,[46] whose wife was a sister of Abbas, uncle of the Prophet. They maintain, therefore, that they are descended from the noble Koreish Tribe. In the genealogy of the tribe, the three principal ancestors are Kahl, Bishar, and Ali Jalan; on this all accounts seem to agree. The present generation of Sheikhs is generally said to be the ninth or tenth from Ali Jalan.

The descendants of Kahl most likely originally inhabited part of the district now occupied by the Hadendoas, the Bisharin, and Ababda, as stated above, having latterly moved northwards.

Sub-division.The Bisharin are divided into two great families, the Um Ali and Um Naji. The former live in the north, the latter in the south, of their country. Both sections are named after the wives of Ali Jalan, the great grandson of Bishar, who had the following sons:—

By Um Ali. Tribe. By Um Naji. Tribe.

Ali Aliab. Hanr Hanr.

Shanatir Shantirab. Eira Eireiab.

Amer Amrab. Nafi Nafab.

Hamedor Hamedorab. Mansur Mansurab.

Aliab.—The Aliab, who are far more numerous and wealthy than any of the Um Ali or Um Naji tribes, are divided into the following sub-tribes: Koatil, Mallak, Hamedomerab, Kurbeilab, and Balgab.

The first three named are sometimes classed together and known as the Sararab, on account of their near common ancestry.

The Sheikh of the Koatil has for two generations been the representative Sheikh of these three families; before this the Sheikhship was with the Hamedomerab.

Sub-tribes of the Aliab.

Koatil.—The Koatil, under Sheikh Isa Abdalla, are a small tribe, and poor. They live at Meshushenai and Terfaui.

Hamedomerab.—Sheikh Mohammed Wad Kurab. This, again, is a small tribe, owning few camels, but good flocks of sheep and goats.

Wadi Meisa, at the head of which is Bir Meisa, is where most of the tribe are to be found during the summer. Their two wells are Meisa and Didaut, close together in the small hills north of the Elba red granite range.

Mallak.—Sheikh Isa Shingeirab. The Mallak, the third Sararab tribe, is by far the richest, and own many camels, and of a breed which is famous among all the neighbouring tribes. The Mallak own many wells.[47]

Balgab.—The next of the Aliab tribes is the Balgab (Isa Abdalla), who live in the hills about Is. They have never, since the time of Abdalla, the father of Isa, had a representative Sheikh, but have always been represented by the Sheikh of the Sararab.

They have good herds of camels, sheep, and goats. They do not frequent the Aswan market as much as the other Aliab sub-tribes, but they sell a great deal to merchants who come from there, and buy much of their corn in good years from the Di-ib. They are a wilder people than the other tribes and very rarely leave their hills. They are shy and difficult of approach. Their wells are Is and Legia.

Kurbeilab.—Sheikh Mohammed Katul. This is a large tribe. They have many wells, generally in the small tributaries of the upper Alagi.

Katul, Sheikh of the tribe, is by far the ablest man of the Aliab Sheikhs, or, in fact, of any other of the Bisharin Sheikhs.

Compensation for murder or wounds.The traditional “diia” or compensation for loss of life among these Arabs is: for a man, 50 male and 50 female camels; for women or children, or loss of legs, arms, eyes, 25 male and 25 female camels.

Wounds are assessed according to their gravity. The cause in which murders are committed, or a wound is received, is always taken into consideration.

The above amounts are the limit of compensation.

Wells.

The following is a list of Bisharin wells in the northern Atbai, showing the sub-tribe to which they belong:—

Sub-tribe. Name of Well. Remarks.

(i) Um Ali.

Koatil Terfaui Water good—shared by Eireiab.

J. Mashushanai Water in open basin, 12 feet deep—sweet but scarce (December, 1902).

Umrasin Not much water, and then only after rain.

Hamedomerab Meisa Not open 1903.

Didaut —

Mallak Eigat Water never more than a few feet below surface—sometimes flowing.

Heilaigabeir Well 10 feet deep—not much water, rather salt.

Butna Good water and plentiful.

El Eifein Good water, but supply does not last.

Abu Dom Slightly brackish—10 to 15 feet down, according to season.

Um Gabrit Good water—not visited.

Abu Tabag Stone lined well, 24 feet deep—water plentiful, but slightly brackish.

Balgab Legia Good water and plentiful.

Is Good water, 4 feet down.

Kurbeilab Neshd Water good—camels cannot approach owing to rocks.

Kamotit Water good.

Homeitra Water in tanks in mountain; also obtainable by digging at base.

J. Abu Hodeid Water plentiful—in spring and tanks.

Um Beshtit Not always water.

Jugub Rarely open, and not much water.

Derbieib Hole in side of hill—much water on surface.

Nasari 1 well, belongs to Amrab—good water, not visited.

Feireida Very small supply of good water.

Miaus Small supply of good water.

Shinai Much water, about 10 feet down.

El Faui Good water, and plentiful supply.

Kajoj Much water, near surface—salt.

Gidimib ?

Madi ?

Adoloiab Murrat Best well is used by the Mining Co.—water very brackish and very aperient. If long stay to be made, water should be obtained from J. Rafit (10 miles).

Telat Abda 2 wells of 15 feet deep—one brackish. In westerly well, water sweet but scarce.

Abu Tabag Stone lined well, 24 feet deep—water plentiful but slightly brackish.

Naba Also belongs to Eireiab—much water, 4 to 5 feet down, very salt. 3 wells about 8 miles apart in bed of wadi.

Abaraga Much water—slightly brackish, 10 feet down.

Maietib Much water, 15 feet down—brackish.

Gogaieb Not much water—very brackish, 8 feet down.

Girid Brackish water—rarely open.

Shantirab Selala Well, 35 feet deep—stone lined, 9 feet of water, brackish (December, 1902).

Gunnub Well, 25 feet deep—water sweet, but much polluted by animals (December, 1902).

Murio ?

Hora Well, 12 feet deep—good water and plentiful.

Amrab Labasoi Bad water—only fit for camels and goats.

Sania Bad water, but plentiful.

Sohanit Bad water, but drinkable. Better water from the tanks in neighbouring hills.

Oni Water plentiful and good from well, if open. Also from natural tank in rock.

Beshbesh Not always open—water good, 10 feet below the surface.

Eiweb Good water, and plentiful—8 feet down.

Dilko Rain water only—little.

Nufrium Good water, and plentiful—6 to 8 feet down.

Nasari Good water?

Hamedorab Oyia Water near the surface, but not always in the same place (1903).

Meheiriga Spring—water rather salt.

J. Elba Water plentiful, in springs or wells round its base.

Halaib Well, 15 feet deep, near Government Post—water brackish.

Shellal Well, 14 ft. deep—very brackish, better from natural tanks 300 feet? deep.

(ii) Um Nagi.

Eireiab Naba Much water, 4 to 5 feet down—very salt. 3 wells about 8 miles apart in bottom of the wadi.

Nafab El Dueim Good water and plentiful—about 10 feet down.

Kamotit Much water—brackish, 10 to 12 feet down.

Kamoreib Good water—plentiful, about 10 feet down.

(d) Ababda.

The following brief account of the Ababda Arabs, whose country adjoins the Bisharin, is given here, as, although with the exception of the Meleikab section, they are under the Egyptian Administration, they are generally said to have sprung from the common ancestor Kahl (vide origin of Bisharin). Feuds, too, between these tribes, though now less frequent, were, until recently, of constant occurrence.

Limits. Three main-sub-tribes.The Ababda, who inhabit the Atbai from roughly north lat. 22° 30′, where they adjoin the Bisharin, to as far north as the Kena-Kosseir road, are divided into three main sections or sub-tribes, viz., Eshabab, Fogara, and Shanatir.

(1) Eshabab.—The Eshabab, which is by far the largest and most powerful section of the Ababda, range practically the whole way from Kena to Ongwat, and share the Kosseir route with the Shanatir. The Sheikhship of this sub-tribe rests with the Gubran family, of which Beshir Bey is the representative. Beshir Bey’s residence is at Aswan; he claims to be Nazir of the Ababda, and does not admit any common ancestry with the Bisharin. This sub-tribe is divided into many minor sub-tribes.

(2) Fogara.—The most important sub-tribe of the Fogara is the Meleikab, part of which sub-tribe belongs to Egypt and part to the Sudan. The Meleikab in the Sudan, who are practically a colony of those in Egypt, range from Korosko to Abu Hamed, but considerable movement goes on between the two sections. The head Sheikh of the Fogara is Abdul Azim Bey of the Khalifa family; his headquarters are at Derau, in Egypt, on the Nile, north of Aswan.

(3) Shanatir.—The Shanatir share the Kosseir route with the Eshabab, and also live on the river between Aswan and Korosko. Their headquarters are at Sayala. Their hereditary Sheikh is Bashari Bey, who belongs to the Shanatir family. Their largest sub-tribe is the Abudiin.

Feuds with Bisharin.The feuds before-mentioned are, as a rule, in connection with the wells. The Ababda having gradually moved north, base their claims to wells, now occupied by Bisharin, on the fact that they originally belonged to them, despite the fact that they themselves left them perhaps half a century ago.

Section 3.—Suakin and District.

Suakin.The town of Suakin is built partly on an island and partly on the mainland, connected by a causeway, called after the famous General himself: “Gordon’s Gate and Causeway.” The portion of the town on the mainland is called El Kaf.

The Government offices, official, and most of the larger civilian residences are situated on the island. Many of them are imposing-looking buildings of coral, several stories high.

Harbour.The khor or inlet of Suakin is bordered by a reef of rocks on either side, its length being 2 miles, and its breadth at the narrowest part, 180 yards. At the entrance of the khor there is a depth of 25 fathoms, which gradually decreases towards Quarantine Island to a depth of from 6 to 8 fathoms. The bottom throughout the channel is mud.

The harbour will accommodate about 20 vessels without blocking the channel, though as many as 34 vessels, men-of-war and transports, were berthed at one time during the expedition in 1884.

Owing to the numerous coral reefs Suakin is a most difficult harbour to enter and to beacon adequately, and would probably never be safe to navigate at night.[48] For further details, vide “The Red Sea Pilot.”

Population.The population at the present time may roughly be estimated at about 10,500 inhabitants.

Water Supply.The water supply is from two sources, firstly, from Shaata Wells, distant about ¾ mile from the walls of the town, and, secondly, from the pulsometer, which pumps water at the rate of 12½ tons per hour, from wells ½ mile beyond those of Shaata.

This latter water is brackish and is only used as a rule for cooking and washing: it is sold in the town at 1 millieme per can of about 3½ gallons.

Shaata water, on the other hand, is fairly good: it is brought into the town in skins and is sold at 1 PT. per skin in the summer months and rather cheaper during the winter.

New condensers to take the place of the old sets which have not been used since 1900 are now (1904) on their way to Suakin.

Rains.In the neighbourhood of Suakin heavy rains occur at intervals from October to February, with occasional rare storms up to the end of March. In the desert, between Suakin and Berber, torrential rains sometimes fall about July to September. No year passes without rain unless in the extreme north of the Province, where very occasionally there is a wholly dry season. In July, 1896, and in 1903, exceptionally heavy rains took place, filling all the wells, including Obak, almost to overflowing. The total rainfall for the 12 months March (1903)—February (1904) was 114·5 m.m.,[49] of which 12·4 m.m. fell in May.

Defences.The part of the town built on the mainland, is entirely surrounded by a high coral wall, built in the old days to resist the attacks of the Dervishes. There is also a line of outer forts about a mile beyond, but since the suppression of Mahdism these have not been garrisoned, and there is now only half a battalion stationed at Suakin.

Time.Time at Suakin is Cairo time, not local time.

Telegraph cables.Suakin is connected by Eastern telegraph cable with Aden, Suez, Perim and Obokh, and by Ottoman cable with Jedda. Communication by land is by land lines to Berber and Kassala.

Climate.The heat at Suakin is very great during June, July, August and September, and the climate is much damper than is usually the case in most parts of the Sudan. The difference between the wet and dry bulb thermometer is often 21°. Sand storms are experienced during summer, when sand fills the air for 40 or 50 miles seaward, rendering objects invisible at a distance of more than ½ mile.

In January the average daily temperature is about 77° and at night about 73°.

Erkowit.Erkowit, the summer headquarters of the Suakin district, is an undulating plateau with low granite hills and easy khors, about 3,000 feet above sea level, and 35 miles from Suakin. The headquarters have now (1904) moved to Erkowit for the third year in succession. The station consists at present of seven houses, built of stone and mud-brick, white washed, which are used as offices and quarters for certain of the employés. A mess-house has been built on the slope of a hill not far from these offices, also quarters or rest-houses, four in number, for the Governor or inspectors or other officers. These are all built of wood with corrugated iron roofing over felt and raised about 1 foot from the ground on iron piping as a protection against the white ant. This precaution has proved to be wholly successful. There is Water supply.an abundant supply of excellent water from two wells situated in a khor in close proximity to the Government offices.

Erkowit is in telegraphic communication with Suakin during the summer months.

Climate.The climate of Erkowit in the summer is dry and healthy, a striking contrast to Suakin. In the winter, the hills are wrapped in clouds, and a drizzling mist nearly always hangs over them. In March, the plateau and the eastern hill slopes are still clothed with green, the hill sides are covered with bush, ferns, flowers of various kinds, and grass, and the plateau affords excellent grazing.

Communications with Suakin.With regard to the road communications, there are four tracks in use from Suakin:—

(1) Viâ the Sinkat Agaba and Khor Gebet; three days for loaded camels.

(2) Tamaneb and Khor Arab route, at present easier for lightly loaded camels than the following, but longer, and crossing two agabas, 39 miles.

(3) The Masilli route, on which the very bad portion is fairly short, but the route involves an unnecessary detour and is only practicable for very lightly-loaded camels. Length, 36 miles.

(4) Kolkilai Route: A new road or track has been made this year (1904) up this hillside, which rises over 2,000 feet above the plain below, and it is now possible for hill camels carrying average loads to reach Erkowit without difficulty by this route—length 33 miles. A heavy hamla would still require to come by routes (1) or (2).

Tokar.Tokar, the next town of importance in the district, 56 miles by road south of Suakin, consists of a fort (built after the defeat of the Dervishes and capture of Tokar in 1891) in which are the Government offices, Mamur’s house, post and telegraph offices, etc. There is also a small market place, with a few merchants’ houses. It is situated at the mouth of the Khor Baraka, between Jebel Shabba and Jebel Heina, two prominent landmarks. Population. Cultivation.The population is about 3,000. The soil of Tokar is rich, and there are very extensive fields for cultivation—cotton,[50] dura, dukhn, etc.—but owing to the uncertainty of the Baraka flood, and also to the fact that the country yearly runs a great risk of being devastated by locusts, it is impossible to foretell events or to form an estimate of what the produce of the district will be. One year the harvest may be an extraordinary rich one, the next may prove to be a blank. The Baraka is in flood from the middle of July to the end of September, reaching its maximum about the middle of August.

Dust storms.During the months of June and July, i.e., prior to the Baraka flood, blinding dust storms prevail daily from 9 in the morning till 4 or 5 in the afternoon, and it is impossible to see more than a few yards in front of one. Travellers constantly lose their way and occasionally die on the road between Tokar and Suakin. Formerly convoys and troops moving at that time of year often suffered severe privations.

In the summer of 1891, a party of cavalry were caught in one of these storms and had terrible experiences, losing many men and horses.

Climate.In the winter the climate of Tokar is dry and healthy.

Water supply.There are many wells, but the water is not of very good quality.

Trinkitat.Ras Magdam forms the northern entrance point of the inlet forming the harbour of Trinkitat, about 10 miles inland from which is the town of Tokar. The entrance to Trinkitat is not easily distinguishable, as the coast is low and sandy. Off the entrance lie extensive reefs and shoals. There is good anchorage outside the harbour in about 6 fathoms, under shelter of the reef named Katat Kennasha. The harbour opens to the north-east, is about ½ mile wide, extends ¾ mile to the southward, has a depth of 4 fathoms, and is capable of accommodating 20 vessels drawing from 18 to 21 feet; the holding ground is good. The shores of the harbour are sandy, with low bushes.

Sheikh Barghut (Barud).About 14 miles south and ¾ miles west from Mersa Durur, and 36 miles north of Suakin, is the entrance to Mersa Barghut, useful as a temporary anchorage, and which is to supersede Suakin as a harbour, and the outlet for the trade of the Sudan. This Mersa is named after a chief,[51] the ruins of whose tomb on the northern point of the entrance is a good sea-mark. The khor is formed by a gap in the coast reef, by which it is also bordered; its north-western arm extends inland 2½ miles, with depths of from 14 to 18 fathoms, mud for 1½ miles, and then irregular soundings. A small vessel can go up in mid-channel, but could not turn without using warps.

The western arm extends about ½ mile, and shoals gradually; there is a donga at its head trending more than a mile in a south-westerly direction, in which, during the wet season, there is fresh water, but, in the summer, only a shallow tidal drain.

Directions.The tomb on the northern entrance point is more in the shape of a cottage than of the ordinary Arab tombs, and its summit, being about 25 feet above the sea, can be seen from the masthead of a vessel from a considerable distance.

There is good anchorage in 14 fathoms near the entrance of the north-western arm with the tomb, bearing about south-east by east. Here there is room for three vessels of moderate size at single anchor.

Supplies.No supplies of any kind can be procured, but there are some springs of good water on the southern side of the khor, about a mile from the beach. Fish may be obtained by the score in the western arm. Game is plentiful, but somewhat wild.

Police posts, &c.The remaining stations of importance in the district are merely police posts, consisting of a fort, garrisoned by police, with a small Arab community living in grass tukls close by. These are: Halaib, Mohammed Gul, and Agik, all on the Red Sea, and Karora, inland. Halaib is the most northern, and is near the frontier of Egypt. Karora is the post on the Sudan-Eritrean frontier, about 28 miles from the Red Sea. There are about 1,000 feddans of cultivable land between Karora and the sea on the northern side of the Sudan boundary of which the natives take advantage, though not to any great extent.

Game.In different parts of the Suakin district the following species may be found: Kudu, oryx (beisa), ibex, wild sheep, klipspringer, ariel, gazelle (Dorcas and Isabella), dig-dig, hare, bustard. Lion, leopard and cheetah are rare. There is good sea fishing at Suakin, which is famous for its so-called lobsters, which are really large crayfish.

Nomad Arabs and Tribes.

It is quite impossible to arrive at anything like an accurate number of the population of the Arabs in this district, but 50,000 is a fair estimate. Vide Appendix F.

The majority of them live right in the interior of the hills and are constantly on the move, here, there, and anywhere, wherever rain happens to have fallen or grazing is plentiful.

A journey, no matter how far, is nothing to them; their houses, consisting simply of straw mats stretched over curved sticks, can be put up or pulled down in a very short time. Their families, wives, children, and belongings, are put on what camels and donkeys they possess; cattle, sheep, goats, etc., are driven on ahead, and so the caravan proceeds, sometimes for a whole month and more, sometimes for only a few days.

The chief tribes are the Amarar and the Hadendoa, both of which have many sub-tribes. There are also the Beni Amer, Bisharin, Ashraf, Shaiab, Habab, Komilab, Arteiga, and Rasheida, who came originally from Arabia and now live partly on the Atbara in Berber Province and partly near Agik. They were until recently much addicted to slave running.

For detailed list of Nomads, vide Appendix F.

Red Sea Littoral-Suakin District.

The coast of the Suakin Province extends from Suakin to N. Parallel 22° on the north, and from Suakin to Ras Kasar on the south, i.e., roughly about 500 miles in all. The coast from Sheikh Barghut to Suakin is quite low, being composed entirely of raised coral reef, furrowed by khors which contain water only in the rainy season.

There are several small inlets and creeks where dhows can anchor all along the coast, but the chief harbours, in addition to those already described, are as follows:—

On the North. On the South.

Halaib. Heidob.

Rowaya. Ras Magdam.

Mohammed Gul. Agik.

Darur. Adobana.

Gezira Abdalla. Ras Kasar.

At all of the above harbours, except Gezira, Abdalla, Heidob, and Ras Magdam, fresh water can be found a short way inland.

Most of the entrances to the harbours are narrow, and require careful navigation; moreover, they are in every case guarded by coral reefs, and as they are not at present (1904) lighted, they cannot be entered at night.

Section 4.—Country between the Berber-Suakin Road, the Atbara, and the Abyssinian and Eritrean Frontiers.

(a) Country between Berber-Suakin Road and latitude of Kassala.

General description.Kassala and Adarama are, with the exception of a few small outlying hamlets near the former and the one diminutive Hamran village on the Setit, the only permanent towns or villages in Sudan territory east of the Atbara. Nearly the whole of this country, except that near Kassala and south of it, belongs to the Hadendoas, who range from the Atbara to Suakin.

Country north of Kassala.Adarama, on the Atbara, about 78 miles above its junction with the Nile, once the headquarters of the redoubtable Osman Digna, but now almost deserted, consists of little more than a few tukls, and the walls of the mud houses of the Dervish town.

The following general description of the country between Adarama and Kassala is taken from a report by Captain A. C. Parker, who traversed this country in April and May, 1901.

“Lying to the north of Kassala, and bounded on the east by the range of hills along which the frontier is delimited, and on the west by the river Atbara, stretches a vast plain of almost unbroken continuity.

“From Goz Regeb to a point on the river west of Kassala the country inland consists of, first, a broad strip of cotton soil, sparsely sprinkled with small trees and bushes. To the east of this there occurs a stretch of more or less sandy soil, supporting a coarse grass and a few stunted isolated trees until the fertile soil adjoining the Khor El Gash is reached.

“This khor, after passing the town of Kassala and receiving numerous small khors from the east, conveys its flood water in a more or less defined channel, or in some places channels, as far as Filik. Along its banks, north of Kassala, dom palms are replaced by thick tamarisk or tarfa trees, which continue most of the way to Filik, on nearing which they in turn are replaced by talh and other thick thorn scrub.

“A short distance north of Filik, owing to the extreme flatness of the country, the eastern channel disappears, and the water dissipates itself through the soil to a distance varying according to the volume of the flood water, its direction being roughly N.N.W.

“The opinion, still held by some, that the Gash water flows towards the Langeb seems untenable.

“The Odi plain which receives numerous small khors from the eastern hills is probably about the same level as the Gash plain, but there certainly appears to be sufficiently rising ground between, though hardly noticeable, to preclude the Gash reaching Odi.

“From Filik, following the direction of the Gash, the bushes which define its course gradually decrease until they become as scattered as in the rest of the plain, and all trace of its direction is lost.

“The plain still extends northwards, until at a point, said to be not far from Jebel Safra, it receives the waters from the Angwatiri and Godamaieb khors, which join here, and probably that of other khors flowing in a south-westerly direction from the rocky hills to the north-east. From these hills also many khors start in an easterly and south-easterly direction, which finally reach the Odi or the Langeb.

“From J. Sanai northwards, for some distance the country consists of large ranges of hills, separated by wide valleys, containing very often stretches of cotton soil in the wider parts, but close to the hills the ground becomes rocky and stony.

“From these valleys, the khors, some of which are lined with dom palms, trend in a south-westerly direction, but in nearly every case are hemmed in by sand hills, and are thus prevented from reaching the Atbara. The valleys, or rather basins, where the final exit is stopped, being usually selected by the Arabs to cultivate.

“Of these valleys the principal are Hegerib, Todabanob, and Hambokeb.

“Wells, the locality of which depend largely on the rainy season or local thunderstorms, are fairly plentiful throughout the whole of the country traversed by these khors, and supply water for numerous sheep and goats, and in some places a few cattle, grazed by Hadendoas of the Gemilab, Haikolab, Amerab, Shebodinab, and other tribes.

“A small party mounted on camels may travel through this country at any time of the year without fear of inconvenience from lack of water. After the rains, pools of standing water will be met with in many places.

“The Gash itself, according to native tradition, has an exit to the Atbara near Adarama, and it is very possible that the waters of the northern Gash plain, called by the Arabs Gash Dai, may have a channel meandering through the hills formed by the rush of water in exceptional years.”

(b) Kassala.

Kassala is situated on the right bank of the Khor Gash, 1,735 feet above the sea, and lies 15 miles west of the nearest point on the Italian frontier, which is near Sabderat. The twin Jebels, Mokram and Kassala, rise abruptly from the plain 3 miles to the east and south-east. The highest of the peculiar dome-shaped protuberances of the latter is 2,600 feet above the town, and is usually visible at a distance of 60 or 70 miles. There are several perennial springs in the mountain.

Town.Beyond the fort built by the Italians, the barracks, and the various other Government buildings, etc., there are few brick buildings in Kassala, as the native part of the town is constructed chiefly of grass tukls. There are two or three fair stores kept by Greeks, where most tinned provisions and other small requirements are obtainable, and at least one of these is licensed to sell liquor.

Garrison.The normal garrison consists of one regular battalion, six (late Italian) 9 cm. Krupp guns, four Nordenfeldt, and four Gardner machine guns. In addition, there is a battalion of Arab irregulars, recruited locally, chiefly from Beni Amers, Hadendoas, and Abyssinians. In consists of 200 men, all of whom are mounted on either camels or mules. This battalion rendered good service during the late campaign, and, in peace time at any rate, are by far the most suitable troops for this part of the country. They are natural scouts and exceedingly mobile. A considerable number of irregulars could be raised here at any time.

Sheikh El Morghani.Said Ali El Morghani, the youthful head of the Morghani sect whose home is the Khatmia under the north-west end of J. Kassala, has now taken up his abode at Omdurman, where, however, he is by no means so generally revered as in the Eastern Sudan. Said Ahmed, an elder brother, who was a prisoner during the Mahdia, now acts as his representative at Kassala. Said Ali’s ancestors were Ashraf at Mecca, and settled at Kassala at the beginning of the last century.

Population.The population of Kassala town in 1900 was 12,000; and the whole of the Nomad Arabs in the district were then estimated to number 6,000. In 1904, the total population of the town and the Nomads was computed to be 46,000. The townspeople are chiefly Halenga Arabs, who are excellent cultivators, also a mixture of Beni Amer, Shukria, Takruris, etc.

Water supply. Cultivation.The water supply, which is from wells varying from 15 to 30 feet deep, is good and plentiful.

The principal cultivation is the dura crop, raised on the land flooded[52] by the Gash. This dura is a large white species called “Taulib,” and is harvested about January; it ranks in quality with the best “Mugad” dura of the Nile. At present the system of irrigation on the Gash is very primitive and wasteful. An improved scheme in accordance with modern ideas is under consideration.[53] A subsidiary rain crop (Naggad), harvested at the end of October, is also raised, but is not of much account. Crops are very liable to the attacks of extraordinary flights of very voracious small birds and also locusts. A very destructive species of “blight” occasionally devastates the crops. It is known as “El Asal” (Aphis Sorghi, vide “Report of Wellcome Research Laboratories—Gordon College—1904”). The rains are often barely sufficient to raise those crops dependent on them. Gardens irrigated by sagias and wells are numerous.

Rains.The rainfall of an average year is very meagre.[54] During the Kharif, the period from June to October, rain of any kind rarely falls on more than 20 to 30 days. On perhaps half a dozen of these there may be very heavy thunderstorms. Rain, which almost invariably comes from the east, generally falls between 6 and 8 p.m., and is preceded by a wind of hurricane force, which usually brings with it a phenomenal wall of dust several thousand feet high and many miles in extent, which often takes an hour or more to blow past, during which time the obscurity and colour of the atmosphere reminds one strangely of the thickest of London fogs.

Climate.The climate for eight months of the year, though hot in March, April, and May, when the thermometer not infrequently registers over 112° Fahr., is healthy. From July to October there is a good deal of malaria, especially during a favourable rainy season. This has been reduced a good deal recently by draining, and precautions against mosquitoes.

Trade.The trade at present is not to be compared with that before the Mahdia, but is increasing; what export trade there is, comes from Gedaref. The imports viâ Suakin and Massawa are not of much importance at present; they are sugar and Manchester goods principally. By far the largest proportion of imports now comes viâ Suakin.

Transport animals.The camel is the best animal for this district, both for riding and transport purposes. A good camel costs from £E.7 to £E.10. They are nearly always available for sale or hire, though in the rains they are not to be found in the immediate vicinity of Kassala.

Horses or mules, which are imported in small numbers from Eritrea or Abyssinia, cannot usually be hired or purchased. Horses are liable to be attacked by a species of horse sickness, which often ends fatally. The Abyssinian and Dongolawi breeds do best. A good riding mule costs from £E.6 to £E.8.

Posts and telegraphs.There is a weekly camel post for both letters and parcels to and from Berber, also a weekly mail to and from Keren and Massawa, also a fortnightly mail to and from Suakin, and a weekly mail to Gedaref and Gallabat. Telegraph lines connect with Suakin, Gedaref, Gallabat, Massaua, and Addis Ababa. Communication is liable to occasional interruptions during the rains.

Serut fly.During the “Kharif” the whole country south of the line Kassala-Asubri swarms with a wasp-like “Serut” fly, which bursts into life as soon as the young grass has sprouted and dies as the vegetation dries up at the end of the rains. This fly is most vehement in its attacks on all animals, including game, but camels suffer the most, and if exposed for any length of time to their bites, they rapidly lose condition, and will probably die from the effects.

Game.In various parts of the districts, described in Section 4, the following varieties are found:—Elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, giraffe, roan-antelope, kudu, waterbuck, tora hartebeeste, ibex, wild sheep (?), bushbuck (two (?) varieties), reedbuck (scarce); Abyssinian duiker, oribi, dig-dig, and the following gazelles:—Sommering’s, Dorcas, Heuglin’s, Isabella, and possibly Rufifrons; also hippopotamus, crocodile, turtle, warthog, pig, wild ass, lion, leopard, hyena (two varieties), cheetah, serval; also various civet and wild cats, hares, wild dogs, baboons, and monkeys; ostrich, bustard, guinea fowl, francolin, sand grouse, geese, snipe, wild fowl, and quail.

Both rhinoceros and buffalo are rare.

(c) The Khor Gash.[55]

For at least 70 miles above Kassala the Gash has a sandy bed, which averages 100 to 300 yards in width, with strips of higher ground, covered with grass, and liable to be flooded in a good year, bordering it at intervals, especially at the bends. Outside these again, on what may be called the real banks, is an almost continuous fringe of dom palms and high grass, varying from 100 to 500 yards, and occasionally nearly a mile, in width. There is no definite track parallel to the khor on either bank, but the going on both banks outside the belt of dom palms is good. If desired, the bed of the Gash may be followed, though rather heavy-going, and corners may be cut off occasionally.

Year after year, in the dry season, water is found in certain well-known localities, usually 2 or 3 miles apart. The depth of the wells, which are revetted with brushwood, varies, according to the season and the flood, from 5 to 20 feet. The cattle and sheep are watered usually every alternate day from large mud basins (duruk), two or three of which are constructed near each well. There are nowadays no places between Kassala and Todluk where water stands in pools for any considerable time after the flood has subsided, as it is said to have done formerly at Saneit,[56] where, however, water is still found very close to the surface.

The Gash flood usually reaches Kassala during the first week in July, and brings down with it numerous fish, which are eagerly caught by the natives. It ceases to flow about the end of September or beginning of October. During the period when it is in flood it is occasionally unfordable for several days together. The Gash, like the Atbara, brings down a large amount of fertilising matter from Abyssinia. The discharge of the Gash in flood is estimated at about 100 metres cube per sec.

There are no permanent inhabitants living on the Gash, but in the dry season, thousands of Beni Amer cattle and sheep, and nearer Todluk, those of the Baria, are brought to it south of Kassala for pasture and water.

Many of the Beni Amer, Baria, and Baza in Italian territory, all of whom are bitter enemies of the Abyssinians, may be met openly carrying Remington rifles.

North of Kassala the people, watering from the Gash, are principally Hadendoas. For description of Gash, north of Kassala, vide p. 97.

(d) Country South of Kassala to the Setit.

South of Kassala a flat and, except for the Gash, waterless plain, bounded on the east and south-east by the Eritrean hills from Sabderat to Sogada, extends to the river Setit. The whole of this plain is more or less covered with kittr and other thorn bush, which becomes particularly dense towards its southern and western extremities. With the exception of the Nomads living during the dry season on the banks of the Gash and Atbara and the few Hamrans on the Setit, the entire country is uninhabited.

Though a good deal of the country south of Abu Gamal is drained by several khors, chief of which are Gersat and Gullui which, having their origin in the Sogada hills, or even further east, join the Atbara at Khashm El Girba, nevertheless, the ground, being cotton soil, becomes at intervals in the rainy season boggy, and practically impassable, and water stands in ponds at several places, notably Umsiteiba and Mellawiya, on the roads from Kassala to Asubri and Fasher. At this season, too, most of the country is covered with tall rank grass, and travelling even along the roads is a thing to be avoided.

There is a perennial spring on Jebel Abu Gamal, 18 miles south of Kassala, from where there used to be a road, now overgrown with bush, viâ this Jebel to Um Hagar on the Setit.[57] A scanty water supply is sometimes obtainable from holes in the rock of Koraitib, 47 miles south of Abu Gamal.

(e) Country South of R. Setit.

Inhabitants.Sudan territory, south of the Setit, bounded on the west by the Atbara, and on the east and south by the Abyssinian frontier, running from the mouth of the Khor Royan (a tributary of the Setit) to a point opposite the Khor Abnakheir (a tributary of the Atbara), near Gallabat, is uninhabited, save for the one village of Gadabi, about 25 miles north of Gallabat. The people living at this village are Takruris. The village of Nogara, which lies 10 miles S.S.E. from J. Lukdi, belongs to Abyssinia, and is under Dejaj Gasessa (1904). Many of its inhabitants were formerly under Mek Nimr, and are a mixture Jaalin, Takruris, and Sudanese, the majority of whom are said to be robbers and runaway slaves.

The country bordering the Setit to as far south as J. Lukdi belongs to the Hamrans, south of them the country, including the Bahr El Salam, belongs to the Debania, and further south again the country, including Gadabi, belongs to the Takruris, of Gallabat.

Description of country.Between the Setit and the Bahr El Salam rivers the country is flat and waterless, and its surface is badly cracked, cotton soil, overgrown with high grass, and generally wooded, but with here and there wide open spaces. South of the Bahr El Salam, though the trees, grass, and soil continue much the same, the Abyssinian foot hills approach nearer to the Atbara and the ground becomes more undulating and intersected by khors, in some of which, though chiefly in the extreme south, water stands throughout the year.

Roads.As the inhabitants are few, roads are proportionately little used, and consequently bad and overgrown. Off the track, the going is execrable, and grass, bush, and cotton soil make the following of game paths a necessity.

All roads lead to Nogara, the asylum for illegitimate hunters and renegade blacks from the Sudan. They are: (1) Gedaref to Nogara (70 miles, approximate), viâ Sofi, Geif El Hamam (on Setit), and J. Lukdi. About 25 miles without water between the two latter places. At Lukdi, a large well, filled with sand, requires cleaning out; now (1904) only contains rain water for a few months.

(2) Um Hagar (on Setit) to Nogara (38 miles). Water comparatively plentiful up to December, after that only obtainable by digging in bed of Khor Royan and Khor Bowal (17 miles interval). The Italians hope this road will be a trade route from Abyssinia into Eritrea. With this object in view a road has been cut by them from the Khor Gash to Um Hagar.

(3) Abu Gulud to Nogara, viâ Abu Siteib (50 miles). Water at Tabarakalla (17 miles), also Atbara, Abu Siteib, Bahr El Salam.

(4) Nogara to Gallabat (83 miles), viâ Abu Siteib, Khor El Dom, Gadabi, and Um Sai. Water plentiful in December, probably scarce between Abu Siteib and Gadabi (37 miles) later. Very little used and much overgrown.

Natural products.Honey and gum are practically the only products of this country. A good deal of game still exists, but it has suffered both from the depredations of cattle plague, as well as from professional game dealers with their parties of armed natives who have hunted this district for years: these are now rigidly excluded by the Sudan Government. The inhabitants of Nogara are also mostly armed with modern breechloading rifles.

Abyssinian outlaws.Two Abyssinian outlaws have haunted this region both during and since the Mahdia. One, whose name is Hakos,[58] reputed to have some 150 rifles, has lately (1902) been actively raiding villages along our frontier. Kidana Miriam, the other brigand chief, has remained comparatively inactive, and is now (March, 1903), reported to be on the Upper Bahr El Salam or Angareb with 50 to 200 rifles.

(f) The Atbara[59] and Tributaries.

The Atbara.—The Atbara rises near Chelga in Abyssinia, where it is known as the R. Goang. Coal is found in the valley of the Goang near its source. Both the Atbara and Setit in their course through the Sudan flow for the most part through a flat alluvial plain, and have cut for themselves a deep channel, which is, in the upper reaches of the Atbara at any rate, over 150 feet below the level of the plain. The banks, too, have been washed away by the drainage from either side and are cut up into numerous ravines and khors for several miles on either side of the actual bed.

Thus it is that the banks of the Atbara from Gallabat, to a point 15 miles north of Goz Regeb, are so intersected with ravines and watercourses, that it is seldom possible to march within 2 or 3 miles of the river, which is only approached at intervals. At Gallabat the width of the bed, which is generally shingle, and in which during the dry season the water stands in pools as it does throughout its course from here to the Nile, varies from a minimum of twenty yards at a spot where the river passes through perpendicular cliffs of rock to an average width of 100 to 150 yards.

At Asubri the width between the banks, which are some 15 to 30 feet high, is about 350 yards.

At Gallabat (1899) the spate commenced to come down on 17th May, and the river was still just fordable at Fasher in the same year on the 15th June; after about that date it does not again become fordable until the beginning or middle of November. The flood water reaches the Nile about the end of June.

There are usually ferries at Sofi, Fasher, Suweihil (near Asubri), and Goz Regeb during the flood season.

South of Sofi a road leads up the left bank to Gallabat.

North of Sofi, which is on the left bank near the junction of the Setit, roads run parallel with the river on both banks, that most generally used being from Sofi to Asubri by the left bank, thence to the Nile by the right bank. The country from the Setit to Fasher (right bank) belonged formerly to the Hamrans; it is now practically uninhabited except by Nomads during the dry season. Fasher to Mitateb (right bank) belongs to the Hadendoas, who go there in large numbers for grazing during the dry season. Their country practically extends from the Atbara to Suakin. From Mitateb (right bank) and Goz Regeb (left bank) to the Nile the country belongs to the Bisharin. From a point about 50 miles south of Adarama northwards to the Nile the banks are fringed with dom palms. Few people live along the river during the rains, and though the alluvial soil brought down by this river is one of the chief fertilizing agents of Egypt, there is at no season any system of irrigation in use along it. Here and there where nature causes the river to overflow its banks a certain amount of cultivation may be met.

Tributaries of the Atbara.—These nearly all emanate from the hilly country of Abyssinia or Eritrea. There are none of importance on the left bank in the Sudan.

(1) The Bahr El Salam and Angareb.—The Bahr El Salam is a flowing stream during most of the year. Its bed is very rocky, and in places the bends are extremely sharp as it cuts its way through high cliffs of rock. It has many deep pools with hippopotamus and crocodiles, and appears to often overflow its banks in flood time in places where it passes through these narrow gorges. It has generally a north-westerly direction. The River Angareb appears to be only another name for the upper Bahr El Salam. The Bahr El Salam joins the Atbara on the R.B. about 28 miles south of Sofi.

(2) The Setit[60] and Royan.—The lower Setit, i.e., that portion of it which flows through Sudan territory, much resembles the upper Atbara in general character. Its banks are similarly intersected by ravines and small khors which carry the drainage from the plateau along which on either bank there is a track at some distance from the river, and which only descends to it occasionally. The river is generally about 300 yards wide, and during the dry season it is fordable at frequent intervals, and here and there almost ceases to flow.[61]

The only inhabitants of the Setit, west of the junction of K. Royan are the survivors of the once famous Hamran sword-hunters, who live in a small village on the right bank about 15 miles from its junction with the Atbara. Although now very poor and with their hunting to a certain extent restricted by the Game Laws, they have nearly all acquired horses and are as bold and keen Nimrods as ever. Latterly, many of the Beni Amer Arabs from Eritrea have brought their flocks for pasturage to the banks of the Setit during the dry season.

Above Umbrega there was no track on the right bank in March 1900, as the Abyssinian Baza, living east of Maietib, were said to terrorise the country. There is now (1904) a fairly good track made by the Italians who have a small post at Um Hagar.

In Abyssinia the Setit is known as the Takazze.

The junction of the Royan and Setit is about 4 miles east of Khor Umbrega. The Royan appears to be merely a khor which is dry, except for occasional pools, a few months after the cessation of the rains. Its junction marks the boundary on the Setit between the Sudan and Eritrea on the north bank, and Abyssinia on the south bank.