A CYCLOPÆDIA OF PRACTICAL RECEIPTS, &c. VOLUME II (continued 47)

Obs. In a similar way may be made currie (powder), ragout (spice), and several other similar wines used in the kitchen.

WINES (Medicated). Syn. Impregnated wines; Vina medicata, L. The medicated wines of pharmacy are prepared by cold maceration, in well-closed vessels, in precisely the same way as the tinctures. In the Ph. L. of 1824, a diluted spirit was substituted for wine, without altering the name of the preparation; but the use of wine (sherry) was restored in that of 1836. The druggists commonly use cape or raisin wine as a menstruum, from its being cheaper than sherry, and, perhaps, scarcely less power as a solvent. The ‘vinum’ of the Ph. U. S. was formerly Teneriffe. Dr B. Lane’s process for preparing medicated wines by fermentation is noticed at the end of the alphabetical list given below.

“Medicated wines should be kept in stoppered glass vessels, and be frequently shaken during maceration.” (Ph. L.)

The following are the principal medicated wines at present in use:

Wine of Acetate of Iron. Syn. Vinum ferri acetatis. (Soubeiran.) Prep. Acetate of iron, 32 gr. white wine, 16 oz.

Wine, Alkaline Diuretic. Syn. Vinum alkalinum diureticum; (Sydenham). Prep. Ashes of broom, 12 oz.; Rhenish wine, 4 pints.—Dose, 3 oz. twice a day.

Wine of Al′oes. Syn. Vinum aloës (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), Tinctura sacra†, Tinct. hieræ picræ†, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Socotrine aloes, 1¹⁄₂ oz.; ginger, in coarse powder, 80 gr.; cardamom seeds, bruised, 80 gr.; sherry, 40 oz.; digest seven days, strain, and make it up to 40.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Powdered Socotrine or hepatic aloes, 2 oz.; powdered canella, ¹⁄₂ oz.; sherry, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days, and filter. In the Ph. E. cardamoms and ginger, of each 1¹⁄₂ dr., are substituted for canella.—Dose. As a purgative, ¹⁄₂ to 2 fl. oz.; as a stomachic, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

Wine of Aloes (Al′kaline). Syn. Vinum aloës alkalinum, L. Prep. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Carbonate of soda, 3 oz.; myrrh and extract of aloes, of each 6 dr.; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 4¹⁄₂ dr.; sherry, 24 fl. oz. (say 1¹⁄₄ pint); macerate, as before. In dyspepsia, chlorosis, &c.—Dose. As the last.

Wine, Antimo′′nial. Syn. Tartar emetic wine; Wine of potassio-tartrate of antimony; Vinum antimonii potassio-tartratis (Ph. L.), V. antimoniale (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Tartarated antimony, 2 gr.; sherry, 1 oz.—Dose, 10 to 60 minims. (In consequence of the insolubility of the tartarated antimony in the sherry, Squire recommends it to be dissolved in about ten times its weight of hot water, and that the wine be added to the solution.)

2. (Ph. L. & E.) Potassio-tartrate of antimony, 40 gr.; sherry, 1 pint; dissolve. Each fluid oz. contains 2 gr. of emetic tartar.—Dose. As a diaphoretic and expectorant, 10 to 30 drops, frequently; as a nauseant, 1 to 2 fl. dr.; as an emetic, 2 to 4 fl. dr. The corresponding compound of the Ph. D. is ANTIMONII TARTARIZATI LIQUOR. See Solution of Potassio-tartrate of Antimony.

Wine, Antiscorbutic. Syn. Vinum antiscorbuticum (P. Cod.). Prep. Fresh horseradish root, 3 oz.; scurvy-grass, 1¹⁄₂ oz.; watercress leaves, 1¹⁄₂ oz.; buckbean, 1¹⁄₂ oz.; mustard seed, 1¹⁄₂ oz.; chloride of ammonium, 5¹⁄₂ dr.; wine, 5 pints; compound spirit of scurvy-grass, 1³⁄₄ oz.

Wine, Aromatic. Syn. Vinum aromaticum. (P. Cod.) Prep. Aromatic species, 1 oz.; vulnerary tincture, 1 oz.; red wine, 10 oz. For outward use. M. Ricord sometimes adds from 1 to 6 per cent. of tannin.

Wine of Bark. Syn. Vinum cinchonæ (P. Cod.) Yellow bark, 3 oz.; proof spirit, 6 oz. (by weight). Macerate 24 hours and add, red wine, 5 pints. Macerate for 10 days, shaking it occasionally; strain with expression, and filter.

Wine of Bark (Compound). Syn. Vinum cinchonæ compositum. (P. Cod.) Prep.

Wine of Bark, Muriated. Syn. Vinum cinchonæ muriatum. Prep. Ammonio-citrate of iron, ¹⁄₂ oz.; wine of pale Peruvian bark, 5 pints (made with double the quantity of bark contained in the yellow); dissolve the ammonio-citrate in twice its weight of distilled water, and add to the wine.

Wine of Bitter Sweet. Syn. Vinum dulcamaræ (Dr Currie). Prep. Dulcamara stalks and leaves, 1 lb.; sherry, 2 pints. Macerate for 14 days, and strain.

Wine of Buchu. Syn. Vinum buchu (Brandes). Prep. Buchu leaves, 2¹⁄₂ oz.; white wine, 1 pint.

Wine of Cachina. Syn. Vinum cacinæ. Prep. Cachina, bruised, 1 oz.; Malaga wine, 16 oz. Macerate for 6 days, and strain.

Wine, Camphorated. Syn. Vinum camphoratum. (Ph. G.) Camphor and gum acacia in powder, of each ¹⁄₂ oz. Mix accurately and gradually. Add 24 oz. (by weight) of white wine.

Wine of Cascarilla. Syn. Vinum cascarillæ (Bernardeau). Prep. Cascarilla, 1 oz.; Malaga wine, 1 pint.—Dose, 1 oz., twice a day in consumption.

Wine of Catechu. Syn. Vinum catechu (Soubeiran). Prep. Tincture of catechu, 1 part; red wine, 12¹⁄₂ parts. Mix, and after a few days, filter.

Wine of Centaury (Compound). Syn. Vinum centaurii compositum. Hoffman’s elixir viscerale. Prep. Centaury, orange peel, extract of blessed thistle, gentian, myrrh, cascarilla, each 1 dr.; sherry, 2 pints.

Wine, Chalyb′eate. See Wine of iron.

Wine of Cinnamon. Syn. Vinum cinnamomi (Beral). Prep. Cinnamon, 1 oz.; alicant wine, 16 oz.; macerate and filter. Sugar is sometimes added.

Wine of Citrate of Iron. Syn. Vinum ferri citratis. (B. P.) Dissolve 140 grains of citrate of iron and ammonia in 1 pint of orange wine; let the solution remain for 3 days in a closed vessel, shaking occasionally; then filter.

Wine of Col′chicum. Syn. Wine of colchicum root; Vinum colchici (B. P.); Vinum radicis colchici (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Colchicum corms, dried and sliced, 4; sherry, 20; macerate seven days and strain.—Dose, 20 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried corms of meadow saffron (sliced), 8 oz.; sherry wine, 1 quart; macerate 7 days, and strain (press strongly the residuum and filter the mixed liquor—Ph. E.). A powerful sedative and purgative.—Dose, ¹⁄₂ to 1 fl. dr.; in gout, acute rheumatism, and other painful and inflammatory and nervous affections.

Obs. The celebrated EAU MÉDICINALE of M. Husson (aqua medicinales Hussonii) resembles, in composition and action, the above preparation in every point except its strength, which, we believe, is much above that of the wine of the British Colleges.

Wine of Colchicum Seed. Syn. Vinum seminis colchici, V. seminum c., L. Prep. (Ph. U. S. & Dr Williams.) Seeds of meadow saffron (preferably ground in a coffee-mill), 2 oz.; sherry, 16 fl. oz.; macerate for 14 days.—Dose, 1 to 1¹⁄₂ fl. dr.; in gout, &c.

Wine, Emet′ic. See Antimonial Wine, Wine of Ipecacuanha, &c.

Wine of Colocynth. Syn. Vinum colocynthidis (Van Mons). Prep. Colocynth, 2 oz.; white wine, 24 oz. Macerate for 8 days, and filter.

Wine of Elecampane. Syn. Vinum inulæ. As wine of wormwood.

Wine of Ergot. Syn. Vinum ergotæ (Ph. U. S.) Prep. Fluid extract of ergot (Ph. U. S.), 2 oz. (o. m.); white wine, 14 oz. (o. m.). Mix and filter.

Wine of Foxglove. Syn. Vinum digitalis. (Ph. Port.) Prep. Dried foxglove, 1 oz.; good white wine, 32 oz. Macerate for 4 days, and strain.

Wine of Gen′tian. Syn. Bitter wine, Tonic w.; Vinum amara, V. gentianæ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Gentian, in coarse powder, ¹⁄₂ oz.; yellow bark (do.), 1 oz.; dried orange peel, 2 dr.; canella, in coarse powder, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 4¹⁄₂ fl. oz.; digest for 24 hours, then add of sherry 1 pint and 16 fl. oz., and further digest for 7 days. Tonic and stomachic.—Dose, ¹⁄₂ to ³⁄₄ fl. oz.

Wine of Hedge Hyssop. Syn. Vinum gratiolæ (Niemann). Syn. Hedge hyssop, 2 dr.; white wine, 16 dr. Digest at a gentle heat for 4 hours, and strain.—Dose, 1 oz.; frequently in hypochondriasis.

Wine of Hel′lebore. See Wine of White Hellebore.

Wine of Holly. Syn. Vinum ilicis (Rousseau). Powdered holly leaves, 2 dr.; white wine, 6 oz. Infuse for 12 hours.

Wine of Iodide of Iron. Syn. Vinum ferri iodidi (Pierquin). Prep. Iodide of iron, 4 dr.; Bordeaux wine, 1 pint.

Wine of Ipecacuan′ha. Syn. Emetic wine; Vinum ipecacuanhæ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Ipecacuanha, bruised, 1; sherry, 20; macerate seven days, shaking occasionally, strain, and make up to 20.—Dose. As an expectorant, 5 to 40 minims; as an emetic, 3 to 6 dr.

2. Ipecacuanha root, bruised, 2¹⁄₂ oz.; sherry, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days, and strain, with, expression—Ph. D.). This is a mild and excellent preparation.—Dose. As a diaphoretic and expectorant, 10 to 40 drops, in coughs, diarrhœa, dysentery, dyspepsia, &c.; as an emetic, 2 fl. dr. to 1 fl. oz., in divided doses; as an emetic for infants and young children, ¹⁄₂ teaspoonful every 10 or 15 minutes until it operates.

Wine of I′ron. Syn. Chalybeate wine,Steel w.; Vinum ferri (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Fine iron wire (No. 35), 1 oz.; sherry, 20 oz.; digest thirty days with frequent agitation. The bottle to be corked, but the wire not wholly immersed.—Dose, 1 to 4 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Iron wire, 1 oz.; sherry, 1 quart; digest, with frequent agitation, for 30 days, and strain. Each fl. oz. contains less than 1¹⁄₂ gr. of metallic iron.

3. Ammonio-tartrate of iron (Aikin’s), 1¹⁄₂ dr.; sherry, 1 pint; dissolve. Frequently substituted for the last, especially when the preparation is required in a hurry.—Dose, 1 to 5 fl. dr.; as a mild chalybeate.

Obs. The formula for WINE OF IRON was modified in the Ph. L. 1824, omitted in that of 1836, and restored, in its original character, in that of 1851.

Wine of Liquorice. Syn. Vinum glycyrrhizæ, Fuller’s sweet tincture. Prep. Liquorice (Italian juice), 1 oz.; cochineal, 2 scruples; canary wine, 2 pints. Sometimes 1 drachm of saffron is added.

Wine of Malate of Iron. Iron wire steeped in cider.

Wine of Mea′dow Saf′fron. Wine of colchicum.

Wine of Olive. Syn. Vinum olivæ (Louis). Prep. Fresh olive leaves, 2 oz.; white wine 32 oz. Half a glass twice a day.

Wine of Onion. Syn. Vinum cepæ. Prep. Two onions, sliced; white wine, 1¹⁄₂ pint. Digest and strain. For gravel.

Wine of O′′pium. Syn. Sydenham’s liquid laudanum†; Vinum opii (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), Tinctura, thebaica†, Laudanum liquidum Sydenham†, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Extract of opium, 1 oz.; cinnamon bark, 75 gr.; cloves, 75 gr.; sherry wine, 20 oz.; macerate for seven days and filter.—Dose, 10 to 40 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Extract of opium (Ph. L.), 2¹⁄₂ oz.; cinnamon and cloves, of each, bruised, 2¹⁄₂ dr.; sherry, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days—Ph. D.), and filter. In the Ph. E., opium, 3 oz., and in the Ph. D., opium, in coarse powder, 3 oz., are ordered, instead of extract of opium. The Dublin College also omits the aromatics.

3. (Wholesale.) From extract of opium, 11 oz.; oil of cassia, 25 drops; oil of cloves, 20 drops; wine, 1 gall. (or rectified spirit, 1¹⁄₂ pint; water, 6¹⁄₂ pints; colouring, q. s.); digest, with agitation, until dissolved. Milder than the tincture.—Dose, 10 to 40 drops; as an anodyne and hypnotic.

Wine of Opium (Fermented). Syn. Rousseau’s laudanum, Black-drop; Vinum opii fermentatione paratum, Gutta nigra, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Opium, 4 oz.; boiling water, 5 lbs.; dissolve, add of honey, 1 lb.; yeast, 2 dr.; keep it at 86° Fahr. for a month, or until the fermentation is complete; then press, filter, distil off 16 oz., and evaporate the residuum to 10 oz.; distil the 16 oz. of spirit obtained above until 12 oz. have passed over, and from this, by a third distillation, obtain 4¹⁄₂ oz., which add to the evaporated solution (10 oz.), and filter. About four times as strong as tincture of opium. See Drop, Black.

Wine of Orange. Syn. Vinum aurantii (B. P.) Prep. Made in Britain by the fermentation of a saccharine solution, to which the fresh peel of the bitter orange has been added, contains 12 per cent. of alcohol, and is but slightly acid to test-paper.

Wine of Pepsin. Syn. Vinum pepsini (Ph. G.). Prep. Remove by hard scraping, by means of a bone knife, the pepsin from the mucous membrane of a previously washed, freshly killed, pig’s or ox’s fourth stomach, and mix 10 drams of it with 5 drams (by weight) of glycerin diluted with 5 drams of water; put into a large flask and shake up vigorously with 13¹⁄₂ oz. (by weight) of white wine, and ¹⁄₂ dr. (by weight) of hydrochloric acid. Macerate for 3 days at 68° Fahr., frequently shaking, and filter.

Wine of Potas′sio-tartrate of Antimony. See Wine, Antimonial (above).

Wine of Quinine. Syn. Vinum quinlæ (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Sulphate of quinina, 20 gr.; citric acid, 30 gr.; orange wine, 20 oz.; dissolve the citric acid and then the sulphate of quinia in the wine; digest three days and filter.—Dose, ¹⁄₂ to 1 oz.

2. (Magendie.) Sulphate of quinine, 14 gr.; sherry, 1 quart; agitate frequently for some time. “The sulphate of quinine requires to be dissolved in a little dilute sulphuric acid before it is added to the wine.” (Dr Hayes.)—Dose, 1 wine-glassful, as a tonic and stomachic.

Wine of Quinine, Aromatic. Syn. Vinum quiniæ aromaticum. Dr Collier’s aromatic quinine wine. Prep. Disulphate of quinine, 18 gr.; citric acid, 15 gr.; sound orange wine, 1 bottle (24 fl. oz.).

Wine of Rhu′barb. Syn. Vinum rhei (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Tinctura rhæi vinosa. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Rhubarb, in coarse powder, 1¹⁄₂; canella bark, ¹⁄₈; sherry, 20; macerate seven days, filter, and make up to 20.—Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. B.) Rhubarb, in coarse powder, 5 oz.; canella, in coarse powder, 2 dr.; proof spirit, 5 fl. oz.; sherry, 1³⁄₄ pint; macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.

3. (Ph. D.) Rhubarb, 3 oz.; canella, 2 dr.; sherry, 1 quart; macerate 14 days. Weaker than the last.—Dose. As a stomachic, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; as a purgative, ¹⁄₂ to 1 fl. oz., or more. It does not keep well.

Wine of Sarsaparilla. Syn. Vinum sarsaparillæ (Beral). Prep. Alcoholic extract of sarsaparilla, 1 oz.; white wine, 16 oz.

Wine of Senna. Syn. Vinum sennæ (Ph. Swed.). Prep. Senna, 4 oz.; coriander seed, 2 dr.; fennel seed, 2 dr.; sherry, 2¹⁄₂ lbs.¹⁄₂ oz. Macerate for 24 hours, and strain with expression.

Wine of Squills. Syn. Vinum scillæ (P. Cod.). Prep. Dried squills, 3 oz.; Malaga wine, 2¹⁄₂ pints. Macerate for 10 days.

Wine of Squills, Bitter. Syn. Vinum scilliticum amarum (P. Cod.). Pale Peruvian bark, 6 oz.; winter’s bark, 6 oz.; lemon peel, 6 oz.; swallow-wort, 1¹⁄₂ oz.; angelica root, 1¹⁄₂ oz.; squill, 1¹⁄₂ oz.; wormwood, 3 oz.; balm, 3 oz.; jumper berries, 1¹⁄₂ oz.; mace, 1¹⁄₂ oz.; white wine, 2¹⁄₂ galls.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Macerate for 10 days.

Wine of Squills, Compound. Syn. Vinum scillæ compositum (Richter). Prep. Dried squill, 1 oz.; orange peel, 3 dr.; juniper berries, 2 dr.; white wine, 2¹⁄₂ pints. Digest for 3 days, filter, and add 2 oz. of oxymel of squills.

Wine of Stramonium. Syn. Vinum stramonii (Ph. Bat.). Prep. Stramonium seeds, 2 oz.; Malaga wine, 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 oz. Digest and filter.

Wine of Tobac′co. Syn. Vinum tabaci (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Tobacco, 3¹⁄₂ oz.; sherry, 1 quart; digest 7 days, strain, with strong pressure, and filter. A powerful sedative and diuretic.—Dose, 10 to 30 drops; in dropsy, lead colic, ileus, &c.

Wine of Vipers. Syn. Vinum viperinum (Ph. L., 1746). Prep. Dried vipers, 2 oz.; white wine, 3 lbs. Macerate for 7 days.

Wine of White Hel′lebore. Syn. Vinum veratri (Ph. L.), Tinctura veratri albi†, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) White hellebore, sliced, 8 oz.; sherry wine, 1 quart; digest for 7 days, press, and filter.—Dose, 10 drops, gradually increased to 25 or 30; as a substitute for colchicum, in gout and rheumatism, &c. It is less manageable than wine of colchicum, and is now seldom employed.

Wine of White Hellebore (Opiated). Syn. Moore’s eau médicinale; Vinum veratri opiatum, L. Prep. From wine of white hellebore, 3 fl. dr.; tincture of opium, I fl. dr.—Dose. As the last.

Wine of Wormwood. Syn. Vinum absinthii (P. Cod.). Prep. Dried wormwood leaves, 3 oz.; white wine, 5 pints; proof spirit, 6 oz. Macerate the leaves in the spirit, in 24 hours add the wine, macerate for 10 days, and strain.

Wines, Medicated (Dr B. Lane’s). Syn. Vinous essences; Essentiæ vinosæ, Liquores vinosi, L. Prep. From an infusion or solution of the drug, of about 3 or 4 times the usual strength, fermented with a little yeast, and about 3 or 4 lbs. of sugar per gallon; the fermented liquor being afterwards set in a cool cellar until fit for bottling. Compounds of CALUMBA, CASCARILLA, GENTIAN, OPIUM, RHUBARB, SENNA, and VALERIAN, have been thus prepared. That of OPIUM is made of only twice the strength of the common tincture.

WINE-STONE. Crude tartar or ARGOL.

WINE TESTS. Prep. 1. (Hahnemann’s.) From quicklime, 1 oz.; flowers of sulphur, 1¹⁄₂ oz.; mix, and heat them in a covered crucible for 5 or 6 minutes; put 2 dr. of the product and an equal weight of tartaric acid (separately powdered), into a stoppered bottle, with a pint of water, and shake them well; let the liquid settle, pour off the clear portion, and add of tartaric acid, 1¹⁄₂ dr.

2. (Dr Paris’s.) From sulphide of calcium and cream of tartar, of each (in powder), ¹⁄₂ oz.; hot water, 1 pint; agitate, &c., as before; decant the cold clear liquid into 1-oz. phials, and add 20 drops of hydrochloric acid to each of them.

Obs. The above tests will throw down the least quantity of lead from wines, as a very sensible black precipitate. As iron might be accidentally contained in the wine, the hydrochloric acid is added to the last test, to prevent the precipitation of that metal.

WIN′TER-GREEN (American). Syn. Pipsissewa; Chimaphila (Ph. L. & E.). Pyrola (Ph. D.), L. The herb of Chimaphila umbellata. It is astringent, diuretic, tonic, and stomachic; and has been successfully administered in loss of appetite, dyspepsia, dropsy, chronic affections of the urinary organs, scrofula, &c. It must not be confounded with ordinary winter-green (box berry, chequer b., partridge b., mountain tea), which is the Gaultheria procumbens, a plant belonging to the Ericaceæ, whilst the former plant belongs to a genus of the Pyrolaceæ. See Decoction, Extract, and Oils (Essential).

WIREWORM. The Editor is indebted to Dr Spencer Cobbold, F.R.S., for the following communication on this subject:—“Dear Prof. Tuson,—You asked me about the remedies for wireworm. Although a great deal has been said on the subject, yet it is not easy to advise. I believe the best plan is to ‘catch-’em-alive’ by means of sliced potatoes, turnips, or carrots laid in rows, women and children being employed every morning to pick up the slices, and brush off the larvæ into a jar (the slices being replaced). Mr Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd) found lettuce leaves very serviceable when laid as a bait in a similar way. Pheasants are very destructive to them. As agriculturists do not like the trouble and expense of this baiting method (by far the best if persevered in) some have recommended deep ploughing, &c. The following extract taken from the ‘Journal of the Agricultural Society, of Victoria,’ bears on the question at issue. Trusting it may be found useful, believe me, yours faithfully, T. Spencer Cobbold.”

“Remedy for Wireworm.—Having seen in your issue of the 24th ult. that ‘B,’ would be glad if any one could give any information as to a remedy for the ravages of the wireworm, which plays such havoc in our corn fields during the early part of the growth ofJohn Thomas, 32, Capel Street, Dublin.”

WITCH MEAL. Syn. Vegetable sulphur, Lycopodium. The spores of Lycopodium clavatum, or club moss.

WOAD. Syn. Dyer’s woad; Pastel, Fr. The Isatis tinctoria. To prepare them for the dyer, the leaves are partially dried and ground to a paste, which is made into balls; these are placed in heaps, and occasionally sprinkled with water, to promote the fermentation; when this is finished, the woad is allowed to fall down into lumps, which are afterwards reground and made into cakes for sale. On mixing the prepared woad with boiling water, and, after standing for some hours in a closed vessel, adding about 1-20th its weight of newly slaked lime, digesting in a gentle warmth, and stirring the whole together every 3 or 4 hours, a new fermentation begins; a blue froth rises to the surface, and the liquor, though it appears itself of a reddish colour, dyes woollens of a green, which, like the green from indigo, changes in the air to a blue. This is said to be one of the nicest processes in the art of dyeing, and does not well succeed on the small scale. Woad is now mostly used in combination with indigo. 50 lbs. of woad are reckoned equal to 1 lb. of indigo.

WOL′FRAM. See Tungsten.

WOLFS′BANE. See Aconite.

WOOD is polished by carefully rubbing down the grain with fine glass paper, or pumice-stone, and then rubbing it, first with finely-powdered pumice-stone and water, and afterwards with tripoli and linseed oil, until a proper surface is obtained. For common purposes, glass paper, followed by a metal burnisher, is employed.

Wood is stained by the application of any of the ordinary liquid dyes employed for wool or cotton. They sink deeper into the wood when they are applied hot. When the surface is properly strained and dried, it is commonly cleaned with a rag dipped in oil of turpentine or boiled oil, after which it is either varnished or polished with beeswax. Musical instruments, articles of the toilette, &c., are usually treated in this way.

Wood is preserved by any agents which destroy the tendency to putrefaction of the matter within its pores, or which enables it to resist the attacks of insects, or renders it unsuited to the growth of minute fungi. See Dry-rot.

WOOD NAPH′THA. See Spirit (Pyroxylic).

WOOD OIL. See Balsam, Gurgun.

WOODY FIBRE. See Lignin.

WOODY NIGHT′SHADE Bitter-sweet, Solanum dulcamara.

WOOL. Syn. Lana, L. Wool is a fine, soft, elastic variety of hair, cellulated in its structure. Its filaments are cylindrical, like those of silk; but the surface is covered with thin scales or epidermic cells. In the finer qualities, these filaments vary in thickness from ¹⁄₁₁₀₀ to ¹⁄₁₅₀₀ of an inch; and under a good microscope distinctly exhibit, at intervals of about ¹⁄₃₀₀ of an inch, a series of serrated rings, imbricated towards each other, “like the joints of equisetum, or, rather, like the scaly zones of a serpent’s skin.” These appearances render it almost impossible to mistake wool for silk, linen, or cotton. From experiments made by different competent authorities, it is found that wool is one of the worst conductors of heat known. This property renders woollen fabrics particularly adapted for clothing in cold, damp, and changeable climates, since it enables them to maintain the surface of the body at a proper and equable temperature. Wool, sometimes, however, proves too irritative for highly sensitive skins, and, moreover, disturbs the electricity of the cutaneous surface, on friction, even more than silk. On these accounts there are persons who find it unpleasant to wear woollen garments, of any description, next the skin; in which cases all the advantages that can be derived from their use may beFlannel.

Identif. 1. By the microscope. (See above.)

2. Its fibres, when inflamed, shrivel up, and burn with difficulty, and evolve the peculiar and characteristic odour of hair when similarly treated, leaving a bulky charcoal; whereas cotton and linen burn rapidly, leave no charcoal, and evolve little or no odour. Silk acts in nearly the same manner as wool.

3. Nitric acid, picric acid, and gaseous chlorine, stain the fibres of wool and silk yellow. Dr J. J. Pohl recommends an aqueous or alcoholic solution of picric acid as well adapted for a test—After immersion of a small portion of the fabric or yarn for from 5 to 10 minutes in the solution, it is to be taken out, and washed in warm water. The linen and cotton in it will then appear white, but the wool, silk, or other animal fibre, will retain its yellow colour. In stuffs, cloths, flannel, &c., the mixed threads may be readily observed by means of a pocket lens, and their relative numbers may be ascertained by means of a ‘thread counter.’ This test acts best with white, but is also applicable to many other colours. For dark colours nitric acid is preferable.

4. A square inch of the fabric or a small portion of the yarn, is boiled for a short time in a solution of caustic soda or potassa, and then withdrawn and washed. If it be of pure wool, it will be dissolved, and wholly disappear; if any threads or fibres are left undissolved, they consist of either cotton or linen; of these, such as have acquired a dark yellow tinge, are linen, whilst those which have retained their whiteness, or which are only slightly discoloured, are cotton. The relative proportion of the adulteration may be ascertained as before. See Cotton, Linen, and Silk.

Wool and woollen goods exhibit a greater affinity for colouring matter than either cotton or linen, and in many cases this exceeds even that of silk. The most difficult dye to impart to wool is a rich, deep, and permanent black. See Dyeing, Mordants, &c.

Woollen goods are cleaned and scoured in the manner noticed under Bleaching and Scouring.

Wool, Spanish. Rouge-crepons.

Wool, Styptic. Dr. Erie, of Isny, prepares this by boiling the finest carded wool for half an hour or an hour in a solution containing 4 per cent. of soda, then thoroughly washes it out in cold spring water, wrings it; and dries it. The wool is thus effectually purified, and is now capable of imbibing fluids uniformly. It is then to be dipped two or three times in fluid chloride of iron diluted with one-third of water, expressed and dried in a draught of air, but not in the sun or by the aid of high heat; finally, it is carded out. Thus prepared, it is of a beautiful yellowish-brown colour, and feels like ordinary dry cotton wool.

As it is highly hygroscopic, it must be kept dry, and when required to be transported, must be packed in caoutchouc or bladder. Charpie may be prepared in a similar manner, but on account of its coarser texture, is not so effective as cotton wool, presenting a less surface for producing coagulation. When the wool is placed on a bleeding wound, it induces moderate contraction of the tissue, coagulation of the blood that has escaped, and subsequently coagulation of the blood that is contained within the injured vessels, and thus arrests the hæmorrhage. The coagulating power of the chloride of iron is clearly exalted by the extension of its surface that is in this way affected. The application of the prepared wool is not particularly painful, whilst by sucking up the superfluous discharge, and preventing its decomposition, it seems to operate favorably on the process of the wound.[272]

Wool Work, Woollen Shawls, &c., to clean.—Boil a large piece of soap in rain-water. Put it into an earthenware pan and add a teacupful of ox-gall, which any butcher will supply. Put in the work to be cleaned, and rub it briskly, as you would a pocket handkerchief, lifting it up and down. Wash in two waters, if very dirty; then rinse quickly in cold water, lay a cloth over it, and fold it tightly. Iron it immediately on the wrong side with hot, heavy irons.

WOORA′RA. Syn. Ourari, Wourali. A deadly poison employed in Guiana, obtained from the Strychnos toxifera. See Upas.

WOOTZ. The Indian name of steel; applied in this country to the steel imported from Bengal.

WORM BARK. Syn. Cabbage-tree bark, or Geoffræya inermis, L. The bark of Andira inermis (Geoffræya i. of some botanists). A powerful astringent, purgative, anthelmintic, and narcotic.—Dose, 10 to 30 gr. In larger doses, or if cold water be drunk during its action, it is apt to occasion sickness, vomiting, and delirium. The remedy for this is copious draughts of warm water.

WORM SEED. Syn. Semen contra, SEMEN CINÆ, L. The broken peduncles, mixed with the calyces and flower-buds, of several species of Artemisia imported from the Levant.—Dose, 10 to 30 gr., in powder; as a vermifuge. See Santonin.

WORMS (Intes′tinal). Syn. Vermes, Intestinalia (Cuvier), Entozoa (Rudolphi), L. The principal parasites which are generatedAscaris lumbricoides (Gmelin), or long round-worm, found in the small intestines, and which is generally of the thickness of a goose-quill, and varies in length from 10 to 15 inches;—Ascaris vermicularis (Gmelin), maw, or thread-worm, which is thread-like in appearance, varies from 1¹⁄₂ to 5 lines in length, and confines itself chiefly to the rectum;—Tricocephalus hominis (Gmelin), or long thread-worm, varying from 1¹⁄₄ to 2 inches in length, and found chiefly in the cæcum;—Tænia solium (Gmelin), or common tapeworm, having a flattened riband-like appearance, varying in length from 3 or 4 to 15 or 20 feet, and occupying the small intestines;—Bothriocephalus latus, or broad tapeworm, a variety seldom found in this country, but common in Switzerland and the north of Europe; and, Tænia mediocanellata, another large species, described by Küchenmeister.

Causes. A debilitated state of the digestive organs, improper food, sedentary, habits, impure air, bad water, and, apparently, an occasional hereditary tendency to worms.

Symp. Griping pains, especially about the navel; acid eructations; slimy stools; occasional nausea and vomiting, without any manifest cause; heat and itching about the anus; tenesmus;, emaciation; disturbed dreams; grinding of the teeth during sleep; pallor of countenance; discoloration round the eyes; feverishness; headache; vertigo, &c. In many cases these symptoms are often highly aggravated, and mistaken for primary diseases. The only absolutely positive evidence of the existence of worms is, however, their being seen in the fæces.

Treat. In common cases, an occasional moderately strong dose of calomel overnight, followed by a smart purgative the next morning, is an excellent remedy, where the use of mercurials is not contra-indicated. Cowhage, made into an electuary with honey or treacle, is also an excellent vermifuge. Oil of turpentine is useful against nearly every variety of worms, and, when taken in sufficient doses to reach the rectum, is almost specific in ascarides (thread-worms). When this is inconvenient, an occasional enema of oil of turpentine is even more effective. Enemas of aloes are also very useful in such cases. Scammony, under the form of basilic powder, has long been employed to expel worms in children. Aloes, castor-oil, worm-seed, tin-filings, and sulphur, are likewise popular remedies. Cabbage-tree bark is a powerful anthelmintic; but its use requires caution. Most of the quack vermifuges contain either aloes or gamboge, or calomel and jalap. The substances which have been most highly extolled for the destruction or expulsion of tapeworm (tænia) are kousso, oil of turpentine, male fern, pomegranate, and tin-filings. The first two are those on which the most dependence may be placed. Madame Nouffer’s celebrated ‘Swiss remedy’ for tapeworm, for which Louis XVI gave 18,000 francs, consisted of 2 or 3 dr. of powdered male fern, taken in ¹⁄₄ pint of water, in the morning, fasting, followed in 2 hours by a bolus made of calomel and scammony, of each 10 gr.; gamboge, 6 or 7 gr. ‘Swain’s vermifuge’ is prepared from worm-seed, 2 oz.; valerian, rhubarb, pink-root, and white agaric, of each 1¹⁄₂ oz.; boiled in water, q. s. to yield 3 quarts of decoction, to which 30 drops of oil of tansy, and 45 drops of oil of cloves, dissolved in a quart of rectified spirit, are added. All purgatives may be regarded as vermifuges. Besides our efforts to destroy and expel the worms, the tone of the primæ vitæ should be raised by the use of stomachics and tonics, by which the tendency to their equivocal generation will be either removed or lessened. See Ascaris lumbricoides, Decoction, Enema, Pills, Patent Medicines, Vermifuges, &c.; and also the several vermifuges under their respective names.

Obs. Parasitic worms as existing in animals are so remarkably prevalent and so widely diffused that probably no creature can be said to be secure against their attack. Among domestic animals, sheep often suffer to a most serious extent from these parasites, and more especially from the nematoid, known as Strongylus bronchialis. In some years lambs are lost by hundreds from the complications of disease which attend upon the presence of these worms within the windpipe and the bronchial tubes. Their existence is marked by great wasting of the body, hurried breathing, and distressing cough. After a time diarrhœa sets in, which quickly carries off the animal. It has been found that lambs fed on clover, and other allied plants, which had been pastured the year previously with sheep, suffer the most, and are far more likely to be affected than those which are differently managed. Remedial measures too often prove ineffectual, especially when structural disease of the lungs has followed as a consequence. The exhibition of oil of turpentine in doses of about half an ounce, mixed with an equal quantity of linseed oil, is sometimes found to be beneficial; but it must be conjoined with a corn diet, the free use of salt, and also sulphate of iron mixed with the manger food, tincture of assafœtida, and the essential oil of savin, in small doses, are remedies greatly extolled by some persons. The inhalation of diluted chlorine gas or of sulphurous acid gas is often exceedingly beneficial; but remedies of this kind ought always to be confided to the superintending care of the veterinary surgeon.

WORM TEA. A preparation sold in the shops of the United States, and much used, consisting, according to Brande, of spigelia or pink-root, savin, senna, and manna.

WORM′WOOD. Syn. Absinthium (Ph. L. & E.), L. The flowering herb of Artemisia Absinthium, a well-known plant, indigenous to this country, and largely cultivated for medicinalDose, 20 to 40 gr. of the dried herb, either in powder or made into a tea or infusion; in dyspepsia, dropsy, scurvy, sympathetic epilepsy, &c. See Absinthine and Absinthic acid.

WORT. The technical name for the fermentable infusion of malted grain.

The strength of worts is ascertained by means of an instrument termed a saccharometer. “Brewers, distillers, and the excise, sometimes denote by the term ‘gravity’ the excess of weight of 1000 parts of a liquid by volume above the weight of a like volume of distilled water, so that if the specific gravity be 1045, 1070, 1090, &c., the gravity is said to be 45, 70, or 90; at others, they thereby denote the weight of saccharine matter in a barrel (36 galls.) of wort; and again, they denote the excess in weight of a barrel of wort over a barrel of water equal to 36 gallons, or 360 lbs. This and the first statement are identical, only 1000 is the standard in the first case, and 360 in the second.” (Ure.) The last is that commonly adopted by the brewers.

According to Dr Ure, the solid dry extract of malt, or ‘saccharine,’ has the specific gravity 1·264, and the specific volume ·7911; “that is, 10 lbs. of it will occupy the volume of 7·911 lbs. of water. The mean sp. gr., by computation of a solution of that extract in its own weight of water, is 1·116; but by experiment, the sp. gr. of that solution is 1·216, showing considerable condensation of volume in the act of combination with water.” The quantity of solid saccharine or sugar in a wort may be determined in the manner mentioned under Syrup.

“According to the compilers of the tables accompanying Field’s alcoholometer, 1·8 lb. of saccharine is decomposed for the production of 1% of proof spirit; but according to our experiments, the proportion of saccharine named is rather below the true equivalent.” (Cooley.)

The rapid cooling of worts is an important object with the brewer and distiller. On the large scale, the old system in which shallow coolers are employed, with all its numerous inconveniences and accidents, is now for the most part abandoned, being supplanted by the method introduced by Mr Yandall, nearly 40 years ago. This consists in the use of a ‘refrigerator,’ which is an apparatus so constructed that any hot liquid may be cooled by about its own volume of cold water, in a very short space of time. The principle is that of passing the two fluids through very shallow and very long passages, in opposite directions, being essentially that of a ‘Liebig’s condenser’ on a gigantic scale. The apparatus may consist of zigzag passages, flattened tubes or convoluted curves, of any convenient shape, so that they possess little capacity in one direction, but great breadth and length. A refrigerator, having the passages for the fluids ¹⁄₈ of an inch thick, is said to require a run of about 80 feet. The success of this method is such as to leave nothing more to desire. See Brewing, Fermentation, Malt, &c.

WOUND. Syn. Vulnus, L. A solution of continuity in any of the soft parts of the body, arising from external violence.

Wounds are distinguished by surgeons into CONTUSED WOUNDS, INCISED W., LACERATED W., POISONED W., PUNCTURED W., &c.; terms which explain themselves. Sword-cuts are incised wounds; gun-shot wounds, lacerated and contused ones. Slight wounds, and, indeed, all those not demanding material surgical assistance, after dirt and foreign substances have been removed, may be treated in the manner noticed under Cuts and Abrasions.

WOUND BAL′SAM. See Tincture of Benzoin.

WRIT′′ING, executed in the ordinary tanno-gallic ink, and which has been rendered illegible by age, may be restored by carefully moistening it, by means of a feather, with an infusion of galls, or a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, observing to apply the liquid so as to prevent the ink spreading.

WRITING FLU′IDS. A term commonly applied, of late years, to easy flowing inks, adapted for metallic pens; in contradistinction to the old tanno-gallic compounds at one time exclusively employed for writing.

Prep. 1. Dissolve pure basic or soluble Prussian blue in pure distilled water, and dilute the resulting solution with pure water until the desired shade of colour is obtained. Very permanent and beautiful. It is not affected by the addition of alcohol, but is immediately precipitated by saline matter. The precipitate, however, still possesses the property of dissolving in pure water.

2. From the soluble ferrocyanide of potassium and iron, dissolved in pure water. Resembles the last, but it is precipitated from its solution by alcohol.

3. Powdered Prussian blue, 1 oz.; concentrated hydrochloric acid, 1¹⁄₂ fl. oz.; mix in a matrass or glass bottle, and, after 22 or 30 hours, dilute the mass with a sufficient quantity of water.

4. Dissolve sulphindylate of potassa or ammonia in hot water, and, when cold, decant the clear portion. It is an intense blue, and dries nearly black; is perfectly incorrosive, and very permanent and easy flowing.

5. (Horning.) Perchloride of iron, 4 parts; water, 750 parts; dissolve, add of cyanide of potassium, 4 parts, dissolved in a little water; collect the precipitate, wash it with several effusions of pure water, allow it to drain until it weighs about 200 parts, then add of oxalic acid, 1 part; and promote solution by agitating the bottle or vessel containing it.

6. (Mohr.) Pure Prussian blue, 6 parts; oxalic acid, 1 part; triturate with a little

7. (Rev. J. B. Reade—patented.)—a. A solution of his patent soluble Prussian blue in distilled water. Blue.

b. Prepared by adding to good gall ink a strong solution of his soluble Prussian blue. This addition “makes the ink, which was previously proof against alkalies, equally proof against acids, and forms a writing fluid which cannot be erased from paper by any common method of fraudulent obliteration without the destruction of the paper.” This ink writes greenish blue, but afterwards turns intensely black. Stephen’s ‘patent ink,’ which does the same, is a similar compound.

8. (Prof. Runge—CHROMIC INK.) Logwood, in fine chips, ¹⁄₄ lb.; boiling water, 3 pints; digest for 12 hours, then simmer the liquid down gently to 1 quart, carefully observing to avoid dust, grease, and smoke; when cold, decant the decoction, and add to it of yellow chromate of potash, 20 gr.; dissolve by agitation, after which it will be fit for use. Cheap and good. It resists the action of all ordinary destructive agents better than the tanno-gallic inks; it may be washed after use with a wet sponge, or steeped for twenty-four hours in water, or even tested with dilute acids, and yet preserve its original blackness. It is perfectly liquid, it scarcely thickens by age, and neither deposits a sediment nor corrodes steel pens.

9. (Ure.) From vanadate of ammonia decomposed with infusion of galls. It is of a perfectly black hue, flows freely from the pen, is rendered blue by acids, is unaffected by dilute alkaline solutions, and resists the action of chlorine.

Obs. The preceding formulæ, under proper management, produce excellent products, all of which are extremely mobile, and most of them of a more or less beautiful colour. The blue ones, when concentrated, dry of a blue black, whilst two or three of the others, though at first pale, rapidly pass into a deep black, when exposed to the air. Care must be taken in all cases that the ingredients be pure. The Prussian blue, except when directly prepared for the purpose, should be washed in dilute hydrochloric acid before attempting its solution by means of oxalic acid. Unless these precautions are attended to, success is unlikely. A little gum may be added, if required, to prevent the fluid spreading on the paper; but in most cases the addition is no improvement. Most of the blue fluids may be used as ‘indelible ink’ to mark linen, and will be found very permanent, provided the part be first moistened with alum water, and dried.

XYLOID′IN. When starch is immersed in concentrated nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·45 to 1·50), it is converted, without disengagement of gas, into a colourless, tremulous jelly, which, when treated with an excess of water, yields a white, curdy, insoluble substance, which after being edulcorated with pure water, until every trace of acid is removed, is xyloidin. Paper, sugar, gum, mannite, and several other substances, treated in the same manner, become in great part changed to xyloidin or analogous compounds.

Obs. Pure xyloidin differs but slightly from pyroxylin, or pure gun-cotton.

XYL′OL. A hydrocarbon, homologous to benzol, found in wood-tar and coal-gas naphtha.

YAWS. Syn. Frambœsia, L. A peculiar disease of the skin, common in the Antilles and some parts of Africa. It is characterised by mulberry-like excrescences, which discharge a watery humour. The treatment chiefly consists in alleviating urgent symptoms (if any), and the adoption of a temperate diet and regimen, until the eruptions, having run their course, begin to dry, when tonics and alteratives, as cinchona bark, quinine, and sarsaparilla, with occasional small doses of mercurials, generally prove advantageous. The master (or principal) yaw, which frequently remains troublesome after the others have disappeared, may be dressed with the ointment of red oxide of mercury, or of nitrate of mercury, diluted with an equal weight of lard.

The yaws is not a dangerous, although a very disgusting, disease. It is contagious by contact, and, like the smallpox, only occurs once during life.

YEAST. Syn. Barm, Ferment, Zumine; Fermentum, L. Yeast, which consists almost entirely of minute vegetable cells, termed Torula cerevisiæ, is either the froth or the deposit of fermenting worts, according to the character of the fermentation.

The top yeast, or superficial ferment, which covers the surface of fermenting worts, is called ‘oberhefe’ by the Germans; and the bottom yeast, or the ferment of deposit, is termed ‘unterhefe,’ The first is the common yeast of the English brewer; the other, that used in Bavaria for the fermentation of worts from below (untergärung). Both varieties yield their own kind under proper conditions. Wort fermented with top yeast, at from 46° to 50° Fahr., yield both varieties, and each of these furnishes its own kind, nearly pure, by a second fermentation. See Brewing, Fermentation, &c.

Pres. 1. Ordinary beer yeast may be kept fresh and fit for use for several months, by placing it in a close canvas bag, and gently and gradually squeezing out the moisture in a screw press until the remaining matter acquires the consistence of clay or soft cheese, in which state it must be preserved in close vessels, or wrapped in waxed cloth. This is the method generally adopted for the best Flanders and German yeast.

2. Whisk the yeast until it forms a uniform liquid mass, and then lay it with a clean and soft painter’s brush evenly and thinly on flat dishes, or any convenient surface, on which it can be exposed to the sun or air; this operation must be repeated as soon as the first coat is sufficiently solid, and so on, until the layers acquire a proper thickness, when it must be detached and preserved as before. If rendered quite dry, its power of exciting fermentation will be destroyed.

3. By employing strips of clean new flannel (well washed), as above, and, when sufficiently dry, rolling these up, and covering them with waxed cloth or paper, or placing them in tin canisters or boxes. For use, a few inches of one of the strips is cut off, and soaked in lukewarm water, when the barm leaves the flannel, and mixes with the water, which may then be stirred up with the flour.

Yeast, Artifi′′cial. “Although the conversion of a small into a large quantity of yeast is a very easy thing, yet to produce that substance from the beginning is very difficult.” (Berzelius.) Both cases are met in the formulæ below.

Prep. 1. (Without a ferment.)—a. (Fownes.) Wheat flour is to be mixed with water into a thick paste, which is to be slightly covered, in a moderately warm place; about the third day it begins to emit a little gas, and to exhale a disagreeable sour odour; about the sixth or seventh day the smell changes, much gas is evolved, accompanied by a distinct and agreeable vinous odour, and it is then in a state to excite either to vinous or panary fermentation, and may be either at once employed for that purpose or formed into small and very thin cakes, dried in the air and preserved for future use. Wort fermented with it in the ordinary way yields a large quantity of yeast, of excellent quality, which is found at the bottom of the vessel. “This is a revival of a method which, although Mr Fownes seems to regard it as new, is to be found in the ‘Chemistry’ of Boerhaave” (‘Lancet.’) It is, indeed, a mere modification of the mode of preparing leaven, as practised from the most remote ages of antiquity; but is not the less valuable on that account.

2. (With a ferment.)—a. Take of bean flour, ¹⁄₄ lb.; water, 6 quarts; boil for ¹⁄₂ an hour, pour the decoction into any suitable vessel, add of wheat flour, 3¹⁄₂ lbs.; stir the whole well together, and, when the temperature reaches 55° Fahr., add of beer yeast, 2 quarts; mix well, and in 24 hours after the commencement of the fermentation add of barley or bean flour, 7 lbs.; make a uniform dough by thorough kneading, form it into small cakes, as above, and then preserve these in a dry situation. For use, one of these discs is to be broken into pieces, laid in tepid water, and set in a warm place during 12 hours, when the soft mass will serve the purpose of beer yeast.

b. (Patent yeast.) Take of hops, 6 oz.; water, 3 galls.; simmer for 3 hours, strain, and in 10 minutes stir in of ground malt, ¹⁄₂ peck; next reboil the hops in water, as before, and let the strained liquor run into the first mash, which must then be well stirred up, covered over, and left for 4 hours; after that time drain off the wort, and, when the temperature has fallen to 90° Fahr., set it to work with yeast (preferably patent), 1 pint; after standing for 20 to 24 hours in a warm place, take off the scum, strain it through a coarse hair sieve, and it will be fit for use. 1 pint is said to be enough for 1 bushel of bread.

Obs. The preparation of artificial yeast, and substitutes for yeast, has long engaged the attention of both the scientific chemist and the practical tradesman. The subject is, undoubtedly, of great importance to emigrants and voyagers. The above processes, by good management, yield products which are all that can be desired.

YEL′LOW DYES. The following substances impart a yellow to goods, either at once or after they have been mordanted with alumina or tin:—annotta, barberry root, dyer’s broom, French berries, fustic, fustet, quercitron bark, and turmeric. Goods mordanted with acetate of lead, and afterwards passed through a bath of chromate of potash, acquire a brilliant chrome-yellow colour;—solution of sulphate or acetate of iron, followed by immersion in potash or lime water, gives a buff or orange;—orpiment, dissolved in ammonia water, imparts a golden yellow. (See the above-named substances, in their alphabetical places.) An aniline yellow (chrysaniline) has recently been obtained by Mr Nicholson, which is said to be a most valuable dye-stuff, comparable, indeed, with the aniline reds and purples.

YELLOW FE′′VER. The bilious remittent fever of hot climates. It is very common in the West Indies and the Southern States of America. New Orleans has been several times nearly depopulated by it.

YELLOW PIG′MENTS. Of these the principal are—

Brown Pink. Prep. Take of French berries and pearlash, of each 1 lb.; fustic chips, ¹⁄₂ lb.; water, 2 galls.; boil in a tin or pewter vessel, and strain the decoction through flannel whilst hot; then dissolve alum, 1¹⁄₂ lb. in hot water, 2¹⁄₂ galls.; add the solution to the strained decoction as long as a precipitate falls, which must afterwards be washed, drained, and dried. Some manufacturers omit the fustic. A good glazing colour, when ground in linseed, and used with drying oil.

Yellow, Chrome. Syn. Chromate of lead, Yellow c. of l.; Plumbi chromas, Plumbi chromas flavum, L. The preparation of the pure salt is noticed under Chromium and Lead; that of the commercial pigment is as follows:

1. Add a filtered solution of nitrate or acetate of lead to a like solution of neutral chromate

2. To the lye of chromate of potash, prepared by roasting the chrome ore with nitre, and lixiviation with water, add a solution of acetate of lead, and otherwise proceed as before.

3. Dissolve acetate of lead in warm water, and add of sulphuric acid, q. s. to convert it into sulphate of lead; decant the clear liquid (vinegar), wash the residuum with soft water, and digest it, with agitation, in a hot solution of neutral (yellow) chromate of potash, containing 1 part of that salt to every three parts of sulphate of lead operated on; afterwards decant the liquid, which is a solution of sulphate of potash, and carefully drain, wash, and dry the newly formed pigment. The product contains much sulphate of lead, but covers as well, and has as good a colour, as pure chromate of lead, whilst it is much cheaper. The shade may be varied by increasing or lessening the quantity of the chromate.[273]

Obs. Four shades of this beautiful pigment are met with in the shops, viz. pale yellow or straw colour, yellow, deep yellow, and orange. The former are made by adding a little alum or sulphuric acid to the solution of the chromate before mixing it with the solution of lead; the last, by the addition of a little subacetate of lead (tribasic acetate), or by washing the precipitate with a weak alkaline lye. The darker colour appears to arise from a little ‘dichromate’ being thrown down intimately mixed with the neutral chromate, and the paler shades from a slight excess of acid, or from the presence of water-sulphate of lead, and, occasionally, alumina. The colour is also influenced by the temperature of the solutions at the time of admixture. Anthon has found that, when hot solutions of equal equivalents of acetate of lead (190 parts) and chromate of potash (100 parts, both neutral and in crystals) are mixed, the yellow precipitate, when dried, is anhydrous; but when the mixture is made at ordinary temperatures, the precipitate has a paler yellow, and when dried contains 1 eq., or nearly 5¹⁄₄% of water. (‘Buch. Rept.’) It thus appears that the shades of colour of chrome yellow may be varied, without any foreign addition. In practice, the third formula will be found very satisfactory. See Orange Chrome and Chrome Red.

Dutch Pink. Prep. Take of French berries, 1 lb.; turmeric, ¹⁄₂ lb.; alum, ¹⁄₂ lb.; water, 1¹⁄₂ gall.; boil ¹⁄₂ an hour, strain, evaporate to 2 quarts, adding of whiting, 3 lbs., and dry by a gentle heat. Starch, or white lead, is sometimes employed instead of whiting, to give it a body. Golden yellow. Used as a pigment; but will not glaze like brown pink.

English Pink. Syn. Light pink. As the last, but using 5 lbs. of whiting.

Indian Yellow. See Purree.

King’s Yellow. Factitious tersulphuret of arsenic.

Naples Yellow. Syn. Mineral yellow. Prep. 1. Take of metallic antimony, in powder, 3 lbs.; red lead, 2 lbs.; oxide of zinc, 1 lb.; mix, calcine, well triturate the calx, and fuse it in a covered crucible; the fused mass must be reduced to an impalpable powder by grinding and elutriation.

2. Flake white, 1¹⁄₂ lb.; diaphoretic antimony, ¹⁄₄ lb.; calcined alum, 1 oz.; sal ammoniac, 2 oz.; calcine in a covered crucible with a moderate heat for 3 hours, so that at the end it may be barely red hot. More antimony and sal ammoniac turn it on the gold colour.

3. (Guimel.) Washed diaphoretic antimony, 1 part; pure red lead, 2 parts; grind them to a paste with water, and expose this mixture to a moderate red heat for 4 or 5 hours, as before. Used in oil, porcelain, and enamel painting. Chrome has now nearly superseded it for ordinary purposes.

Patent Yellow. Syn. Cassel Yellow, Montpellier y., Turner’s y. Prep. Take of dry chloride of lead, 28 parts; pure carbonate of lead, 27 parts; grind them together, fuse, and powder.

2. Common salt, 1 part, and litharge, 4 parts, are ground together with water, and digested at a gentle heat for some time, water being added to supply the loss by evaporation; the carbonate of soda formed is then washed out with more water, and the white residuum heated until it acquires a fine yellow colour. Works well in oil. Chiefly used in coach-painting. See Oxychloride of lead.

Weld Yellow. Prepared from a decoction of weld brightened with a little alum, in the same manner as Dutch pink. Used chiefly for paper hangings.

YTTRIUM. Y. The oxide of this metal (yttria), a rare, white earth, was discovered by Gadolin, in 1794, in a mineral from Ytterby, in Sweden, since called gadolinite. Yttrium was obtained by Wöhler in 1828, as a brittle, dark-grey metal, made from the chloride by the action of sodium. Its salts have in general a sweetish taste, and the sulphate and several others an amethystine colour. Its solutions are precipitated by pure alkalies, but alkaline carbonates, especially carbonate of ammonium, dissolve it in the cold. They are distinguished from glucinium salts by the colour of the sulphate by being insoluble in pure alkalies, and by yielding a white precipitate with ferrocyanide of potassium. Yttria may be obtained from gadolinite by a similar process to that by which glucina is extracted from the beryl.

According to Professor Mosander, ordinary yttria is a mixture of the oxides of not less than three metals—yttrium, erbium, and terbium. These metals differ from each other

ZAF′FRE. Syn. Saffra, Safflor, Zaffer. Crude oxide of cobalt, obtained by roasting cobalt ore, reduced to an impalpable powder, and then ground with 2 or 3 parts of very pure quartzose or siliceous sand. Used as a blue colour by enamellers and painters on porcelain and glass. Chiefly imported from Saxony. See Smalts.

ZE′′RO. See Thermometer.

ZESTS. See Powders, Sauce, Spice, &c.

ZINC. Zn. Syn. Zink, Spelter; Zincum. (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. This metal was first noticed by Paracelsus, in the 16th century, who called it ‘zinetum,’ but its ores must have been known at a much earlier period, as the ancients were acquainted with the manufacture of brass.

Prep. The zinc of commerce is obtained from the native sulphide (zinc blende), or carbonate (calamine), by roasting those ores, and distilling the calx with carbonaceous matter in a covered earthen crucible, having its bottom connected with an iron tube, which terminates over a vessel of water situated beneath the furnace. The first portion that passes over contains cadmium and arsenic, and is indicated by what is technically called ‘brown blaze,’ but when the metallic vapour begins to burn with a bluish-white flame, or the ‘blue blaze’ commences, the volatilised metal is collected.

The following method, by which several pounds of chemically pure zinc may be obtained in about ¹⁄₄ of an hour, will be found very useful:—Melt the zinc of commerce in a common crucible, and granulate it by throwing it into a tolerably deep vessel of water, taking care that the metal be very hot at the time; dry the metallic grains, and dispose them by layers in a Hessian crucible with ¹⁄₄ of their weight of nitrate of potassium, using the precaution to place a slight excess at the top and at the bottom; cover the crucible, and secure the lid, then apply heat; after the vivid deflagration which occurs is over, remove the crucible from the fire, separate the dross with a tube, and, lastly, run the zinc into an ingot mould. This zinc, tested in Marsh’s apparatus during entire days, has never given any stain, and in solution the most sensitive reagents, such as hydro-sulphocyanic acid, have never indicated the least atom of iron. (‘Journ. de Pharm.’)

Prop. Zinc is a bluish-white metal, having the sp. gr. 6·8 to 7·2; tough (under some circumstances, brittle) when cold, ductile and malleable at from 250° to 300° Fahr.; brittle and easily pulverised at 400°; fuses at 773° (Daniell); at a white heat it boils, and sublimes unchanged in close vessels; heated to whiteness (941° Daniell) in contact with the air, it burns with a brilliant green light, and is converted into oxide. It is very soluble in dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acid, with the evolution of hydrogen gas. It is little acted on by the air, even when moist. The salts of zinc are colourless.

Pur. Commercial zinc is never pure. Its specific gravity is 6·86. It is soluble in nitric, hydrochloric, and dilute sulphuric acids.

Tests. 1. The solutions of zinc give a gelatinous white precipitate with the alkalies and carbonate of ammonium, which is completely redissolved by an excess of the precipitant.—2. The carbonates of potassium and sodium give a white precipitate of carbonate of zinc. All the above precipitates acquire a lemon-yellow colour when dried and heated, but again become white on cooling.—3. Sulphide of ammonium gives, in neutral solutions, a white precipitate, insoluble in excess of the precipitant, or in solutions of hydrate of potassium or ammonium, but freely soluble in the dilute mineral acids.—4. Sulphuretted hydrogen, in neutral and alkaline solutions, also gives a like white precipitate.—5. Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a gelatinous white precipitate.

Estim., &c.—a. 100 gr. are digested in dilute hydrochloric acid in excess, and the insoluble portion, which is chiefly carbon, dried and weighed.

b. The acidulous solution (see a) is next treated with a current of sulphuretted hydrogen until it smells very strongly of that gas; the whole is then left for some time in a warm situation. The precipitate which subsides consists of the sulphides of arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, &c., if any of these metals were present in the sample.

c. The filtrate from b, after being boiled, is treated with a little nitric acid, after which it is again boiled, and, when cold, is precipitated with carbonate of barium added in excess; the precipitate (ferric hydrate) is then collected, dried, ignited, and weighed. The weight, in grains, multiplied by ·7, gives the percentage of iron in the sample examined.

d. The filtrate from c is next precipitated with dilute sulphuric acid, and solution of carbonate of sodium is added in excess to the filtered liquid; the whole is then boiled, after which the new precipitate is washed, dried, gently ignited for some time, and then cooled and weighed. The weight, in grains, multiplied by ·80247, gives the percentage of pure zinc in the sample.

Uses, &c.—Zinc is used to form galvanic plates; in fireworks, and in medicine. Of late years it has also been extensively used in the manufacture of vessels of capacity, tubing, sheets for roofing, and other things that require lightness and durability.

Zinc, Amalgamated, which is employed for voltaic batteries, is prepared as follows:—The plates, having been scoured with emery, are immersed for a few seconds in dilute sulphuric

Zinc, Granulated. Syn. Zincum granulatum (B. P.). Fuse commercial zinc in a crucible, pour it in a very thin stream into a bucket of cold water, and afterwards dry the zinc.

Zinc, Ac′etate of. Zn(C₂H₃O₂)₂. Syn. Zinci acetas, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D.) Acetate of lead, 1 lb., is dissolved in distilled water, 2¹⁄₂ pints, and the solution being placed in a cylindrical jar, sheet zinc, 4 oz., rolled into a coil, is immersed therein; after 24 hours the liquid is decanted, evaporated to 15 oz., and solution of hypochlorite of calcium added drop by drop, until a reddish precipitate ceases to form; the liquid is then filtered, acidulated by the addition of a few drops of acetic acid, reduced by evaporation to 10 fl. oz., and set aside to crystallise; the crystals are dried on bibulous paper set on a porous brick, and then preserved in a well-stopped bottle. More crystals may be obtained from the mother-liquor.

2. (B. P.) Add 2 oz. of carbonate of zinc in successive portions to 3 fl. oz. of acetic acid, previously mixed with 6 fl. oz. of distilled water, in a flask; heat gently, add by degrees 2 fl. oz. of acid, or q. s., till the carbonate is dissolved; boil for a few minutes, filter while hot, and set it aside for two days to crystallise. Decant the mother liquor, evaporate to one half, and again set it aside for two days to crystallise. Place the crystals in a funnel to drain, then spread them on filtering paper on a porous tile; and dry them by exposure to the air at ordinary temperatures.

Prop., &c. Efflorescent, white, hexagonal plates, having a powerful styptic taste; very soluble in water; less soluble in alcohol; decomposed by heat. It is tonic, antispasmodic, and emetic.—Dose, 1 to 2 gr.; as an emetic, 10 to 20 gr.; externally, 2 or 3 gr. to water, 1 fl. oz., as an astringent lotion or injection.

Zinc, Bro′mide of. ZnBr₂. Syn. Zinci bromidum, L. Prepared like the corresponding salt of iron.

Zinc, Car′bonate of. ZnCO₃. Syn. Zinci carbonas purum, Zinci carbonas (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D.) Solution of chloride of zinc (Ph. D.), 1 pint is added, in successive portions, to a solution of crystallised carbonate of sodium of commerce, 2 lbs., dissolved in boiling distilled water, 6 pints, and the whole is boiled until gas ceases to be evolved; the precipitate is then washed, and dried, at first on blotting-paper, and, finally, by a steam or water heat.

2. (B. P.) Dissolve 10¹⁄₂ oz. carbonate of soda with 1 pint of boiling water in a capacious porcelain vessel, and pour into it 10 oz. of sulphate of zinc, also dissolved in 1 pint of water, stirring diligently. Boil for 15 minutes after effervescence has ceased, and let the precipitate subside. Decant the supernatant liquor, pour on the precipitate 3 pints of boiling distilled water, agitating briskly; let the precipitate again subside, and repeat the process of affusion of hot distilled water and subsidence till the washings are no longer precipitated by chloride of barium. Collect the precipitate on calico, let it drain, and dry it with a gentle heat.

Zinc, Chlo′′ride of. ZnCl₂. Syn. Butter of zinc, Muriate of z.†; Zinci chloridum (B. P., Ph. L.), Z. murias†, L. Prep. 1. By heating metallic zinc in chlorine.

2. (Ph. L.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 pint; water, 1 quart; and zinc (in small pieces), 7 oz.; when the effervescence is nearly finished, apply heat until bubbles cease to be evolved; decant the clear, and evaporate to dryness; fuse the resulting mass in a lightly covered crucible, by a red heat, pour it out on a flat smooth stone, and, when cold, break it into small pieces, or cast it into rods in iron moulds, and preserve it in a well-stoppered bottle.

3. (B. P.) Put 16 oz. of granulated zinc into a porcelain basin, add by degrees 44 fl. oz. of hydrochloric acid previously mixed with 1 pint of distilled water, and aid the action by gently warming it on a sand-bath, until gas is no longer evolved. Boil for half an hour, supplying the water lost by evaporation, and allow it to stand on the cool part of the sand-bath for 24 hours, stirring frequently. Filter the product into a gallon bottle, and pour in solution of chlorine q. s. by degrees, with frequent agitation, until the fluid acquires a permanent odour of chlorine. Add ¹⁄₂ oz. or a sufficient quantity of carbonate of zinc, in small quantities at a time, and with renewed agitation, until a brown sediment appears. Filter through paper into a porcelain basin, and evaporate until a portion of the liquid, withdrawn on the end of a glass rod and cooled, forms an opaque white solid. Pour it out now into proper moulds, and when the salt has solidified, but before it has cooled, place it in closely-stoppered bottles.

4. (In SOLUTION).—a. (Liquor zinci chloridi—Ph. D.) Hydrochloric acid and water, of each 2¹⁄₂ pints; sheet zinc, 1 lb.; dissolve, filter through calico, add of hypochlorite of calcium, 1 fl. oz., and evaporate, by boiling, to a pint; when cold, pour it into a bottle, add of prepared chalk, 1 oz., and water, q. s. to make the whole measure 1 quart; agitate occasionally for 24 hours, decant or filter, and preserve the liquid in a stoppered bottle. Sp. gr. 1·593. See Solutions.

b. (E. Parrish.) Granulated zinc, 4 lbs.; hydrochloric acid, 4 lbs., or q. s.; water, 9 quarts; dissolve, avoiding excess of acid. The

Prop., &c. When pure, a colourless, amorphous mass or crystals; generally a whitish-gray, semi-transparent mass, having the consistence of wax; fusible; volatile at strong heat, condensing in acicular crystals; freely soluble in alcohol, ether, and water; highly deliquescent; coagulates albumen and gelatin, and corrodes animal substances. The solution possesses the same properties in a minor degree.

Pur. From the aqueous solution, hydrosulphuric acid or ferrocyanide of potassium being dropped in, a precipitate is thrown down. What is thrown down by ammonia or hydrate of potassium from the same solution is white, and is redissolved by either precipitant in excess. The precipitate thrown down by the carbonate of either ammonium or potassium is (also) white, but is not redissolved when these are added in excess.

Uses, &c. Dry chloride of zinc is chiefly used as a caustic, for which it is highly recommended by Voght, Canquoin, and others. It is more powerful than chloride of antimony, and its action extends deeper than does nitrate of silver, whilst it exercises an influence over the vital actions of neighbouring parts. The sore is generally healthy after the separation of the eschar, and no constitutional disorder ensues. It has been given in scrofula, epilepsy, chorea, &c.; and, combined with hydrocyanic acid, in facial neuralgia.—Dose, ¹⁄₂ gr. to 2 gr.; externally, as a lotion, 2 to 3 gr. to water, 1 oz. In large doses it is poisonous.

The solution is also used as a caustic, but chiefly as a disinfectant and deodorizer, e.g. as Sir Wm. Burnett’s Fluid and Professor Tuson’s ‘Sporokton,’ of which it is one of the very best, possessing, as it does, the power of rapidly decomposing sulphide of ammonium and of rendering inert the virus of infectious diseases.

Zinc, Cy′anide of. ZnCy₂. Syn. Cyanuret of zinc; Zinci cyanidum, Zinci cyanuretum, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Add a solution of cyanide of potassium to another of pure sulphate of zinc; wash, and dry the precipitate.—Dose, ¹⁄₈ to 1 gr., twice a day; in epilepsy, hysteria, and other nervous affections, heartburn, worms, &c.; and as a substitute for hydro-cyanic acid.

Zinc, Ferrocy′anide of. Zn₂FeCy₆. Syn. Zinci ferrocyanidum, L. Prep. By adding a hot solution of ferrocyanide of potassium to a hot and strong solution of pure sulphate of zinc, and washing, and drying the precipitate. White.—Dose, 1 to 4 gr.; in the same cases as the last.

Zinc, I′odide of. ZnI₂. Syn. Hydriodate of zinc†; Zinci iodidum, Zinci hydriodas, L. Prep. 1. (Duflos.) Iodine, 2 parts; granulated zinc, 1 part; water, 4 parts; proceed as for ferrous iodide, only employing a glass or porcelain vessel.

2. (Magendie.) Iodine, 17 parts; zinc (in powder), 20 parts; mix, and sublime in a matrass.

Prop., &c. Deliquescent. Chiefly used externally; 15 gr. to water, 6 fl. oz., as a collyrium in scrofulous inflammation of the eye (Poulet); 1 dr. to lard, 1 oz., as a powerful resolvent in scrofulous and other glandular swellings, rubbed on the part twice a day. (Ure.)

Zinc, Lac′tate of. Zn(C₃H₅O₂)₂. Syn. Zinci lactas, L. Prepared from zinc in the same way as ferrous lactate is from iron.

Zinc, Ox′ide of. Syn. Protoxide of zinc; Zinci oxydum (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Sulphate of zinc (pure), 1 lb.; carbonate of ammonium, 6¹⁄₂ oz.; dissolve each separately in 6 quarts of water, filter, mix the solutions, well wash the precipitate with water, and calcine it for 2 hours in a strong fire. The Ph. E. is nearly similar.

2. (Ph. D., B. P.) Place carbonate of zinc in a covered clay crucible, and expose it to a very low red heat, until a portion taken from the centre of the mass ceases to effervesce on being dropped into dilute sulphuric acid.

Prop., &c. A white, tasteless powder; insoluble in water; freely soluble in acids, the solution yielding colourless and easily crystallisable salts; strongly basic.

Uses, &c. It is tonic and antispasmodic, and has been advantageously used in chorea, epilepsy, and other nervous and spasmodic affections.—Dose, 1 to 6 gr., twice a day. It is also used as a dusting powder, and to make an ointment. It has been proposed as a substitute for white lead in painting, than which it covers better, but dries slower, and hence requires the addition of dried white vitriol. This oxide is the only compound which zinc forms with oxygen.

Zinc, Phosphide. Fragments of pure distilled zinc are introduced into a tubulated stoneware retort, so as to occupy about one fourth of its capacity; the retort is placed in an ordinary furnace, and a current of dry carbonic acid is passed into it through the neck. Over the tubulure is placed a crucible cover, so as to close the orifice incompletely, and allow the carbonic acid, after traversing the retort, to escape. When the zinc enters into ebullition, small fragments of previously-dried phosphorus are successively thrown in through the tubulure. The cover is removed and returned after each addition to prevent loss of phosphorus. From time to time it is necessary to break the crust of phosphorus formed, in order to expose a new layer of metal to the action of the phosphorus. The operation is terminated by increasing the heat strongly—a precaution that is indispensable, in order to separate as completely as possible the zinc phosphide from the metallic button of nearly pure zinc, which collects at the bottom of the retort. Further, the zinc phosphide₂Zn₃. In this state it resembles iron reduced by hydrogen, and only thus should it be used by pharmaceutists. It is completely soluble in hydrochloric acid.[274]

Zinc, Sulphate of. ZnSO₄. Syn. White copperas*; White vitriol*; Zinci sulphus (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Granulated zinc, 5 oz.; diluted sulphuric acid, 1 quart; dissolve, filter. Evaporate to a pellicle, and set it aside to crystallise.

2. (Ph. D.) Zinc (laminated or granulated), 4 oz.; sulphuric acid, 3 fl. oz.; water, 1 pint; mix in a porcelain capsule, and, when gas ceases to be evolved, boil for 10 minutes, filter through calico, and evaporate the filtrate to dryness; dissolve the dry salt in water, 1 pint; frequently agitate the solution, when cold, during 6 hours, with prepared chalk, ¹⁄₄ oz.; next filter, acidulate the filtrate with nitric acid and dilute sulphuric acid, of each 1 fl. dr.; evaporate until a pellicle forms on the surface, and set it aside to crystallise; dry the crystals on bibulous paper, without heat, and preserve them in a bottle. More crystals may be obtained from the mother-liquor.

3. (B. P.) Pour 12 fl. oz. of sulphuric acid, previously mixed with 4 pints of distilled water, on 16 oz. of granulated zinc contained in a porcelain basin, and when effervescence has nearly ceased, aid the action by a gentle heat. Filter the fluid into a gallon bottle, and add, gradually, with constant agitation, solution of chlorine until the fluid acquires a permanent odour of chlorine. Add now, with continued agitation, ¹⁄₂ oz. or q. s. of carbonate of zinc, until a brown precipitate appears; let it settle, filter the solution, evaporate till a pellicle forms on the surface, and set aside to crystallise. Dry the crystals by exposure to air on filtering paper placed on porous tiles. More crystals may be obtained by again evaporating the mother-liquor.

4. The common sulphate of zinc of commerce frequently contains copper, cadmium, lead, iron, and manganese, and nearly always one or more of them. By digesting its concentrated solution for some time with metallic zinc, it may be freed from copper, lead, and cadmium, for these metals are all reduced and precipitated in a metallic state; or, the acidulated solution may be treated with sulphuretted hydrogen as long as any precipitate forms. In order to separate the iron, chlorine gas may be passed into the solution, by which the iron is converted into the ferrous chloride; if this solution be exposed to the air for a length of time, it absorbs oxygen, and oxide of iron is deposited as a yellow powder, from which the solution must be filtered. When the sulphate contains manganese, which is not very often the case, the solution must be boiled up a few times with purified charcoal, filtered, and evaporated. (‘Jour. für prakt. Chem.’) The product of each of the above formulæ is nearly chemically pure.

5. (Commercial.) The crude sulphate of zinc (white copperas, or white vitriol, of the shops) is prepared by roasting native sulphide of zinc (zinc blende) in a reverberatory furnace, exposing the calcined mass to the air and humidity for some time, then lixiviating it, and evaporating the resulting solution until it forms a white semi-crystalline mass on cooling.

Prop. Pure sulphate of zinc forms inodorous, colourless, transparent, quadrangular prisms, closely resembling in appearance those of Epsom salt, which effloresce slightly in the air, and contains 7 equiv. of water; it has a slightly acidulous and very styptic metallic taste; the crystals dissolve in 2¹⁄₂ parts of cold and in less than their own weight of boiling water; they are insoluble in alcohol. The crude sulphate of zinc of commerce (white vitriol) occurs in irregular granular masses, which somewhat resemble loaf sugar.

When a solution of this salt, in 6 of water, is boiled with a little nitric acid, and a solution of ammonia is then added until the oxide of zinc at first precipitated is all redissolved, no yellow precipitate remains, or a trace only, and the solution is colourless.

Uses. In medicine, as a tonic, antispasmodic, &c.; in doses of 1 to 2 gr., twice daily; as an emetic, 10 to 30 gr. In large doses it is poisonous. It has been employed with benefit in dyspepsia, fluor albus, chorea, epilepsy, hooping-cough, and other convulsive and nervous affections, generally combined with bitters, foxglove, hemlock, henbane, or opium. As an emetic, it acts almost immediately, and is therefore well suited to empty the stomach at the commencement of a fit of ague, and in cases of poisoning, &c. It is also extensively used externally, to form astringent and repellant collyria, injections and lotions.

Zinc, Sulpho-carbolate. The acid prepared as in sulpho-carbolate of soda (which see) is saturated by aid of a gentle heat with oxide of zinc, filtered, and crystals allowed to form. The crystals should be dried by exposure to the air.

Zinc, Vale′′rianate of. Zn(C₅H₉O₂)₂. Syn. Zinci valerianas (B. P., Ph. D.) Prep. (Ph. D.) Valerianate of sodium, 2¹⁄₂ oz., and sulphate of zinc, 2 oz. 7 dr., are each separately dissolved in distilled water, 1 pint; the solutions are then heated to 200° Fahr., mixed, and the resulting crystals skimmed off; the liquid is next evaporated at a temperature not higher than 200°, until it measures 4 fl. oz., the crystals,

Prop., &c. Brilliant white, pearly scales; very light; astringent; smells strongly of valerianic acid; only slightly soluble in cold water, more so in hot water, and freely soluble in alcohol and ether; exposure to heat rapidly decomposes it; exposure to the air also decomposes it, but more slowly. It is regarded as powerfully antispasmodic and tonic.—Dose, 1 to 3 gr., thrice daily, made into pills; in neuralgia, tic douloureux, nervous headaches (more particularly hemicrania), hysteria, palpitation of the heart, vertigo, chorea, epilepsy, &c.

Obs. Butyrate of zinc, scented with valerianic acid, which is often sold for the above compound, may be detected by distilling it with sulphuric acid; the distillate, tested with a strong solution of acetate of copper, gives a bluish-white precipitate if it contains butyric acid. The valerianate is distinguished from the other salts of zinc by its extreme lightness.

ZINC-E′THYL. Zn(C₂H₅)₂. A curious liquid body, discovered by Dr Frankland, and formed, along with iodide of zinc, when iodide of ethyl is heated with pure zinc in a sealed glass tube. The mixed white product, by distillation in a current of hydrogen, yields pure zinc-ethyl. It is a highly volatile liquid, having a rather disagreeable odour, and so rapidly decomposed by contact with the air that it takes fire. Water resolves it into hydride of ethyl, and other products.

ZINC-ME′THYL. Zn(CH₃)₂. Obtained by the action of zinc upon iodide of methyl, as zinc-ethyl. It takes fire on coming in contact with the air.

ZINC′ING. Syn. Zinking. Vessels of copper and brass may be covered with a firmly adherent layer of pure zinc, by boiling them in a solution of chloride of zinc, pure zinc turnings being at the same time present in considerable excess. The same object may be effected by means of zinc and a solution of chloride of ammonium or hydrate of potassium.

The variety of zinced iron commonly known by the name of ‘galvanised iron’ is prepared by immersing the sheets of metal, previously scoured and cleaned with dilute hydrochloric acid, in a bath of melted zinc covered with powdered sal ammoniac, and moving them about until they are sufficiently coated.

ZINCOG′RAPHY. An art closely resembling lithography, in which plates of zinc are substituted for slabs of stone.

ZIR′CON. See Gems.

ZIRCONIUM. Zr. Syn. The oxide of this metal, a white pulverulent earth, discovered in the mineral gargon or zircon of Ceylon, by Klaproth, in 1789. It has since been found in the hyacinth.

Prep. The stone is calcined and thrown into cold water, and then powdered in an agate mortar; the powder is mixed with 9 parts of pure hydrate of potassium, and the mixture projected, by spoonfuls, into a red-hot crucible, care being taken that each portion is fused before another is added; after fusion, with an increased heat, for an hour and a half, the whole is allowed to cool; the calcined mass is next powdered, and boiled in water; the insoluble portion is then dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the solution heated, that the silicic acid may fall down, after which the zirconia is precipitated with hydrate of potassium; or, the zirconia may be precipitated with carbonate of sodium, and the carbonic acid expelled by heat.

From this, metallic zirconium is obtained by heating in a glass tube, with a spirit lamp, a mixture of potassium and the double fluoride of zirconium and potassium, carefully dried; the product is washed with water, and digested for some time in dilute hydrochloric acid.

Prop., &c. A black powder; it acquires a feeble metallic lustre under the burnisher, and takes fire when heated in the air. It has not been thoroughly examined.

Oxide of zirconium, or zirconia, ZrO₂, has neither taste nor odour, is insoluble in water, and forms salts with the acids. It is distinguished from all the other earths, except thorina, by being precipitated when any of the neutral salts of zirconium are boiled with a saturated solution of sulphate of potassium. The salts of zirconium are distinguished from those of aluminium and glucinium by being precipitated by all the pure alkalies, and by being insoluble when they are added in excess. The precipitated hydrate and carbonate are readily soluble in acids.