A CYCLOPÆDIA OF PRACTICAL RECEIPTS, &c. VOLUME II (continued 46)

(2) Drugs, when sold by retail, may be sold by apothecaries’ weight.

Every person who acts in contravention of this section shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds.

A contract or dealing shall not be invalid or open to objection on the ground that the weights or measures expressed or referred to therein are weights or measures of the metric system, or on the ground that decimal sub-divisions of imperial weights and measures, whether metric or otherwise, are used in such contract or dealing.

Nothing in this act shall prevent the sale, or subject a person to a fine under this Act for the sale, of an article in any vessel, where such vessel is not represented as containing any amount of imperial measure, nor subject a person to a fine under this Act for the possession of a vessel where it is shown that such vessel is not used nor intended for use as a measure.

Any person who prints, and any clerk of a market or other person who makes, any return, price list, price current, or any journal or other paper containing price list or price current, in which the denomination of weights and measures quoted or referred to denotes or implies a greater or less weight or measure than is denoted or implied by the same denomination of the imperial weights and measures under this Act, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding ten shillings for every copy of every such return, price list, price current, journal, or other paper which he publishes.

Every person who uses or has in his possession for use for trade a weight or measure which is not of the denomination of some Board of Trade standard, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds, or in the case of a second offence ten pounds, and the weight or measure shall be liable to be forfeited.

Unjust Weights and Measures.

Every person who uses or has in his possession for use for trade any weight, measure, scale, balance, steelyard, or weighing machine which is false or unjust, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds, or in the case of a second offence ten pounds, and any contract, bargain, sale, or dealing made by the same shall be void, and the weight, measure, scale, balance, or steelyard shall be liable to be forfeited.

Where any fraud is wilfully committed in the using of any weight, measure, scale, balance, steelyard, or weighing machine, the person committing such fraud, and every person party to the fraud, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds, or in the case of a second offence ten pounds, and the weight, measure, scale, balance, or steelyard shall be liable to be forfeited.

A person shall not wilfully or knowingly make or sell, or cause to be made or sold, any false or unjust weight, measure, scale, balance, or weighing machine.

Every person who acts in contravention of this section shall be liable to a fine not exceeding ten pounds, or in the case of a second offence fifty pounds.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Every inquisition which, in pursuance of any Act hereby repealed, has been taken for ascertaining the amount of contracts to be performed or rents to be paid in grain or malt, or in any other commodity or thing, or with reference to the measure or weight of any grain, malt, or other commodity or thing, and the amount of any toll rate or duty payable according to any weight or measure in use before the passing of the said Act, and has been enrolled of record in Her Majesty’s Court of Exchequer, shall continue in force, and may be given in evidence in any legal proceeding,

Standards and Definitions.

Nothing in this Act shall affect the validity of the models of gas holders verified and deposited in the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, in pursuance of the Act of the session of the twenty-second and twenty-third years of the reign of Her present Majesty, chapter sixty-six, entituled “An Act for regulating measures used in sales of gas,” and of the Acts amending the same, and the provisions of this Act with respect to Board of Trade standards shall apply to such models; and the provisions of this Act with respect to defining the amount of error to be tolerated in local standards when verified or reverified, shall apply to defining the amount of error to be tolerated in such copies of the said models of gas holders as are provided by any justices, council commissioners, or other local authority in pursuance of the said Acts.

Nothing in this Act shall extend to prohibit, defeat, injure, or lessen the rights granted by charter to the master, wardens, and commonalty of the mystery of the Founders of the City of London.

Nothing in this Act shall prohibit, defeat, injure, or lessen the rights of the mayor and commonalty and citizens of the City of London, or of the Lord Mayor of the City of London for the time being, with respect to the stamping or sealing of weights and measures, or with respect to the gauging of wine or oil, or other gaugeable liquors.

APPLICATION OF ACT TO SCOTLAND.

This Act shall apply to Scotland with the following modifications:

In the application of this Act to Scotland the expression ‘rents and tolls’ includes all stipends, feu duties, customs, casualties, and other demands whatsoever, payable in grain, malt, or meal, or any other commodity or thing.

The fair’s prices of all grain in every county shall be struck by the imperial quarter, and all other returns of the prices of grain shall be set forth by the same, without reference to any other measure whatsoever.

APPLICATION OF ACT TO IRELAND.

This Act shall apply to Ireland with the following modifications:

In Ireland every contract, bargain, sale, or dealing—

For any quantity of corn, grain, pulses, potatoes, hay, straw, flax, roots, carcasses of beef or mutton, butter, wool, or dead pigs, sold, delivered, or agreed for:

Or for any quantity of any other commodity sold, delivered, or agreed for by weight (not being a commodity which may by law be sold by the troy ounce or by apothecaries’ weight), shall be made or had by one of the following denominations of imperial weight; namely, the ounce avoirdupois; the imperial pound of sixteen ounces; the stone of fourteen pounds; the quarter hundred of twenty-eight pounds; the half hundred of fifty-six pounds; the hundredweight of one hundred and twelve pounds; or the ton of twenty hundredweight; and not by any local or customary denomination of weight whatsoever, otherwise such contract, bargain, sale, or dealing shall be void:

Provided always, that nothing in the present section shall be deemed to prevent the use in any contract, bargain, sale, or dealing of the denomination of the quarter, half, or other aliquot part of the ounce, pound, or other denomination aforesaid, or shall be deemed to extend to any contract, bargain, sale, or dealing relating to standing or growing crops.

In Ireland every article sold by weight shall, if weighed, be weighed in full net standing beam; and for the purposes of every contract, bargain, sale, or dealing the weight be ascertained shall be deemed the true weight of the article, and no deduction or allowance for tret or beamage, or on any other account, or under any other name whatsoever, the weight of any sack, vessel, or other covering in which such article may be contained alone excepted, shall be claimed or made by any purchaser on any pretext whatever under a penalty not exceeding five pounds.

SCHEDULES.

First Schedule.

Part I.

IMPERIAL STANDARDS.

The following standards were constructed under the direction of the Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury, after the destruction of the former imperial standards in the fire at the Houses of Parliament.

The imperial standard for determining the length of the imperial standard yard is a solid square bar, thirty-eight inches long, and one inch square in transverse section, the bar being of bronze or gun-metal; near to each end a cylindrical hole is sunk (the distance between the centres of the two holes being thirty-six inches) to the depth of half an inch, at the bottom of this hole is inserted in a smaller hole a gold plug or pin, about one tenth of an inch in diameter, and upon the surface of this pin there are cut three fine lines at intervals of about the one hundredth part of an inch transverse to the axis of the bar, and two lines at nearly the same interval parallel to the axis of the bar; the measure of length of the imperial standard yard is given by the interval between the middle transversal line at one end and the middle transversal line at the other end, the part of each line which is employed being the point midway between the longitudinal lines; and the said points are in this Act referred to as the centres of the said gold plugs or pins; and such bar is marked “copper 16 oz., tin 2¹⁄₂, zinc 1. Mr Baily’s metal. No 1 standard yard at 62°·30 Fahrenheit. Cast in 1845. Troughton and Simms, London.”

Denominations of Standards of Apothecaries’ Weight and Measure.

1. Apothecaries’ Weight.

Denomination. Weight in grains in terms of the Imperial Standard Pound which contains 7000 such grains.

Ounces. 10 ounces. 4800

8 ounces 3840

6 ounces 2880

4 ounces 1920

2 ounces 960

1 ounce 480

Drachms. or half an ounce 4 drachms 240

2 drachms 120

1 drachm 60

Scruples. 2 scruples 40

1¹⁄₂ scruples or half a drachm 30

1 scruple 20

half a scruple 10

6 grains 6

5 grains 5

4 grains 4

3 grains 3

2 grains 2

1 grain 1

half a grain 0·5

2. Apothecaries’ Measure.

Denomination. Containing the following weight, of distilled water. Temperature = 62° Fahr. Barometer = 30 inches. Imperial Pound = 7000 gr.

A fluid ounce and the multiples thereof from 1 to 40 fluid ounces. Half a fluid ounce One fluid ounce contains 437·5 grains weight, or ¹⁄₁₆₀ imperial gallon.

A fluid drachm and the multiples thereof from 1 to 16 fluid drachms. Half a fluid drachm One fluid drachm equals ¹⁄₈ fluid ounce.

A minim and the multiples thereof from 1 to 60 minims. One minim equals ¹⁄₆₀ fluid drachm.

The imperial standard for determining the weight of the imperial standard pound is of platinum, the form being that of a cylinder nearly 1·35 inch in height and 1·15 inch in diameter, with a groove or channel round it, whose middle is about 0·34 inch below the top of the cylinder, for insertion of the points of the ivory fork by which it is to be lifted; the edges are carefully rounded off, and such standard pound is marked, P.S. 1844, 1 lb.

The following new and additional denominations of standards of apothecaries’ weights and measures, were created under the Weights and Measures Act, by an Order in Council, dated the 14th August, 1879.[269]

THIRD SCHEDULE.

Part I.—Metric Equivalents.

Table of the values of the principal denominations of measures and weights on the metric system, expressed by means of denominations of imperial measures and weights, and of the values of the principal denominations of measures and weights of the imperial system, expressed by means of metric weights and measures.

Measures of Length.

Metric Denominations and Values Equivalents in Imperial Denominations

Metres. Miles. Yards. Feet. Inches. Decimals.

Myriametre 10,000 6 376 0 11·9

or 10,936 0 11·9

Kilometre 1000 ... 1093 1 10·79

Hectometre 100 ... 109 1 1·079

Decametre 10 ... 10 2 9·7079

Metre 1 ... 1 0 3·3708

Decimetre ¹⁄₁₀ ... ... ... 3·9371

Centimetre ¹⁄₁₀₀ ... ... ... 0·3937

Millimetre ¹⁄₁₀₀₀ ... ... ... 0·0394

Measures of Surface.

Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Imperial Denominations.

Square Metres. Acres. Square Yards. Decimals.

Hectare, i.e. 100 Ares 10,000 2 2280·3326

or 11960·3326

Decare, i.e. 10 Ares 1000 ... 1196·0333

Are 100 ... 119·6033

Centiare, i.e. ¹⁄₁₀₀ Are 1 ... 1·1960

Measures of Capacity.

Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Imperial Denominations.

Cubic Metres. Quarters. Bushels. Pecks. Gallons. Quarts. Pints. Decimals.

Kilolitre i.e. 1000 Litres 1 3 3 2 0 0 0·77

Hectolitre, i.e. 100 Litres ¹⁄₁₀ ... 2 3 0 0 0·077

Decalitre, i.e. 10 Litres ¹⁄₁₀₀ ... ... 1 0 0 1·6077

Litre ¹⁄₁₀₀₀ ... ... ... ... ... 1·76077

Decilitre, i.e. ¹⁄₁₀ Litre ¹⁄₁₀₀₀₀ ... ... ... ... ... 0·176077

Centilitre, i.e. ¹⁄₁₀₀ Litre ¹⁄₁₀₀₀₀₀ ... ... ... ... ... 0·0176077

Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Imperial Denominations.

Grams. Cwts. Stones. Pounds. Ounces. Drams. Decimals.

Millier 1,000,000 19 5 6 9 15·04

Quintal 100,000 1 7 10 7 6·304

Myriagram 10,000 ... 1 8 0 11·8304

Kilogram 1,000 ... (or 15432·3487 grs.) ... 2 3 4·3830

Hectogram 100 ... ... 3 8·4383

Decagram 10 ... ... ... ... 5·6438

Gram 1 ... ... ... ... 0·56438

Decigram ¹⁄₁₀ ... ... ... ... 0·056438

Centigram ¹⁄₁₀₀ ... ... ... ... 0·0056438

Milligram ¹⁄₁₀₀₀ ... ... ... ... 0·00056438

Measures of Length.

Imperial Measures. Equivalents in Metric Measures.

Millimetre. Decimetre. Metre. Kilometre.

Inch = 25·39954

Foot or 12 inches ... = 3·04794 = 0·30479

Yard, or 3 feet, or 36 inches ... ... = 0·91428

Fathom, or 2 yards, or 6 feet ... ... = 1·82877

Pole or 5¹⁄₂ yards ... ... = 5·02911

Chain, or 4 poles, or 22 yards ... ... = 20·11644

Furlong, 40 poles, or 220 yards ... ... = 201·16437 = 0·20116

Mile, 8 furlongs, or 1760 yards ... ... = 1609·31493 = 1·60931

Measures of Surface.

Imperial Measures. Equivalents in Metric Measures.

Square Decimetres. Square Metres. Ares. Hectares.

Square inch = 0·06451

Square foot, or 144 square inches = 9·28997 = 0·092900

Square yard, or 9 square feet, or 1296 square inches = 83·60971 = 0·836097

Pole or perch, or 30¹⁄₄ square yards ... = 25·291939

Rood, or 40 perches, or 1210 square yards ... ... = 10·116776

Acre, or 4 roods, or 4840 square yards ... ... ... = 0·40467

Square mile or 640 acres ... ... ... = 258·98945

Measures of Capacity.

Imperial Measures. Equivalents in Metric Measures.

Decilitres. Litres. Decalitres. Hectolitres.

Gill = 1·41983 = 0·14198

Pint or 4 gills = 5·67932 = 0·56793

Quart or 2 pints ... = 1·13587

Gallon or 4 quarts ... = 4·54346

Peck or 2 gallons ... = 9·08692 = 0·90869

Bushel, or 8 gallons, or 4 pecks ... ... = 3·63477

Quarter or 8 bushels ... ... ... = 2·90781

Cubic Measure.

Imperial Measures. Equivalents in Metric Measures.

Cubic Centimetres. Cubic Decimetres. Cubic Metres.

Cubic inch 16·38618

Cubic foot or 1728 cubic inches ... 28·31531

Cubic yard or 27 cubic feet ... ... 0·76451

Weights.

Imperial Weights. Equivalents in Metric Weights.

Grams. Decagrams. Kilograms. Millier or Metric Ton.

Grain = 0·06479895

Dram = 1·77185

Ounce, avoirdupois, or 16 drams, or 437·5 grains = 28·34954 = 2·83495

Pound, or 16 ounces, or 256 drams, or 7000 grains = 453·59265 = 45·35927 = 0·45359

Hundredweight or 112 lbs. ... ... = 50·80238

Ton or 20 cwt. ... ... = 1016·04754 = 1·01605

Ounce, troy, or 480 grains = 31·103496 = 3·11035

WELD. Syn. Woald. The Reseda luteola (Linn.), an herbaceous annual employed by the dyers. A decoction of the stems and leaves gives a rich yellow to goods mordanted with alum, tartar, or muriate of tin. See Yellow Pigments.

WELSH RARE′BIT. Prep. Cut slices of bread, toast and butter them; then cover them with slices of rich cheese, spread a little mustard over the cheese, put the bread in a cheese-toaster before the fire, and in a short time serve it up very hot.

WEN. The popular name of pulpy, encysted, and fleshy tumours of the face and neck.

WET (to keep out from Gun Locks). In giving hints to sportsman going to Norway, Mr. Lock, in his book on ‘Sport in Norway,’ gives some capital advice on this subject, which would be equally serviceable in wet weather in England. Sportsmen will do well, he says, to remove the locks from their rifle and gun, oil them with a little Rangoon oil, lay them on the hob of the fireplace until they are quite hot, and then wipe them as dry as possible with a little cotton waste, so that there will be no superfluous oil left to clog the works. While the locks are getting hot get a little beeswax and melt it in a cup, and with the tip of a penknife carefully pay, as though you were using putty to place in a pane of glass, though more sparingly, the wooden ledges where the lock-plates rest when in their places, in such a manner that none of the wax gets into the places hollowed out to receive the works of the lock. When the warm locks are put back in their places, and screwed up tight, the wax will adhere to the edge of the lock-plates and the wood wherein they bed, and effectually render them impervious to wet. The sportsman can afterwards, when stalking, push his rifle through wet grass, and use his fowling-piece when the water, after a shower, drops from the trees upon him as he forces his way between the wet branches, without fear of the wet making its way into the locks.

WHEAT. Syn. Triticum, L. The ripe seed or fruit of several varieties of Triticum vulgare (Linn.), of which the principal are Triticum œstivum, or spring wheat, Triticum hybernum, or winter wheat, and Triticum turgidum, or turgid wheat, the last two of which include several red and white sub-varieties. Of all the cereal grains wheat appears to be that best adapted for bread corn, not merely on account of its highly nutritious character, but also on account of the power it possesses from its richness in gluten, of forming a light and agreeable loaf by the process of fermentation.

According to Sir H. Davy, good English wheat contains of gluten, 19%; starch, 77%; soluble matter, 4 to 5%.

The average weight of good wheat per bushel is from 58 to 60 lbs.; and its average yield of flour is fully 12¹⁄₂ lbs. for every 14 lbs. The weight of the straw is said to be about double that of the grain. The produce per acre varies from 12 to 60, or even 64, bushels an acre. See Flour, Starch, &c.

Buckwheat. Syn. Fagopyrum. The seed of Fagopyrum esculentum, a plant of the natural order Polygonaceæ. It makes excellent cakes, crumpets, and gruel. In North America, buckwheat cakes, or rather fritters, are in general use at breakfast, eaten with molasses. In England, buckwheat is cultivated as food for pheasants.

Wheat, Indian. See Maize.

Wheat, Steeps for. Quicklime, sulphate of zinc, or white vitriol, sulphate of copper or blue vitriol, and arsenious acid or white arsenic, are the substances chiefly employed for this purpose. About 5 lbs. of the first (slaked and made into a milk with water), 1¹⁄₄ lb. of the second, 1 lb. of the third, and 3 or 4 oz. of the last, are regarded as sufficient for each sack of seed. The method of applying them is either to dissolve or mix them with just sufficient water to cover the seed, which is then to be soaked in the mixture for a few hours, or a less quantity of water is employed, and the more concentrated solution is, at intervals, well sprinkled, by means of a ‘watering pot,’ over the seed wheat spread upon the barn floor, the action being promoted by occasional stirring.

Obs. The first two substances above named have been separately proved to be amply sufficient to destroy the ‘smut’ in seed wheat, and are perfectly harmless in their effects, which renders them greatly preferable to arsenic, or even to sulphate of copper. Nearly all the numerous advertised ‘anti-smuts,’ or nostrums to prevent the smut in wheat, contain one or other of the last three of the above substances.

WHEY. Syn. Serum lactis, L.; Petit lait, Fr. The liquid portion of milk after the curd has been separated. It consists chiefly of water, holding in solution 3 or 4% of sugar of milk. A pound of milk mixed with a tablespoonful of proof spirit allowed to become sour, and the whey filtered from the sediment, yields, in the course of a few weeks, a good vinegar (whey vinegar), free from lactic acid (Scheele). Skimmed milk may be used.

Whey, Al′um. Syn. Serum lactis aluminatum, L. Prep. Take of powdered alum 1 dr.; hot milk, 1 pint; simmer a few seconds, let it repose for a short time, and strain the whey from the coagulum. Used in diarrhœa, &c.; a wine-glassful after every motion. Acid whey (SERUM LACTIS ACIDUM) may be prepared in a similar manner by substituting ¹⁄₂ dr. of tartaric or citric acid for the alum. Orange whey and lemon whey are prepared from the juice of the respective fruits, with a little of the yellow peel to impart flavour.

WHEY POWDER. Prep. 1. From whey gently evaporated to dryness, and powdered along with about 1-3rd of its weight of lump sugar.

2. Sugar, 7 oz.; sugar of milk, 2 oz.; gum Arabic, 1 oz. (all in fine powder); mix well. 1 oz. dissolved in 1¹⁄₄ pint of water forms extemporaneous whey.

WHIS′KY. Dilute alcohol obtained from the fermented wort of malt or grain. That from the former is the most esteemed. The inferior qualities of this spirit are prepared from barley, oats, or rye, a small portion only of which is malted, or from potatoes mashed with a portion of barley malt, the resulting wash being carelessly fermented and distilled, and purposely suffered to burn, to impart the peculiar empyreumatic or smoky flavour so much relished by the lower orders of whisky drinkers. The malt whisky, sold as such, of the principal Scotch and Irish distillers is fully equal in quality to London gin, from which it merely differs in flavour. The peculiar flavour of whisky may be imitated by adding a few drops each of pure creosote and purified fusel oil to 2 or 3 gallons of good London gin; and the imitation will be still

We are indebted to ‘Land and Water’ for the following interesting particulars relating to Irish whiskey:

“Genuine unadulterated Irish whisky has, of late years, become a great desideratum as a wholesome and agreeable beverage, and in the article produced by the large and successful company whose premises and business I am about to describe, the consuming public have every guarantee of its excellence and purity, as far as can be insured by the use of the very best materials, great skill and care in the manufacturing processes, and the valuable and extensive buildings in which the spirit is stored until it attains the maturity and mellowness which age alone can confer.

“No blending process of new whiskies can effect this, no distiller who has not very extensive bonded warehouses is to be trusted. Acre after acre of cellars, vault after vault, corridor after corridor, each and all dim, damp, and dark, and guarded by the exciseman’s talismanic padlock—all these are necessary for the soundness of the distillery. For to secure age and quality, the effect of several years storage in these vaults is required. If you wish to see such store-rooms to perfection, go to Cork, which may be considered the capital of the Irish whisky trade. Even Dublin, with its Jamiesons, its Powers, and its Roes, must bow down before it.

“But what is most singular of all, one company represents that important branch of manufacture, and have therefore a good right to their title of ‘Cork Distilleries Company.’ A little over a quarter of a century ago there were five distilleries in Cork—Wise’s, Hewett’s, Daly’s, Murphy’s, and Waters’. In 1867, however, an amalgamation took place, and the present company was started, and the work of the five distilleries was concentrated into three—the North Mall, still known as Wise’s (that proprietor wisely allowing himself to be bought out, after having made one of the largest private fortunes in Ireland); the Midleton, situated at a pretty village of that name, about ten miles from Cork, and the Watercourse, in the north-western suburb of the city. The three distilleries are capable of producing 1,000,000 gallons each per annum, which represents an annual duty of one million and a half pounds sterling. Their paid-up capital is a quarter of a million, and a very large rest fund. Their works and property are insured for over three-quarters of a million sterling, and they find employment for about 1000 men.

“The Brewing Process.—I shall have occasion to describe each of these three distilleries during the course of this paper, but it would perhaps be as well to run hurriedly through the several processes of whisky distillation. It may be divided roughly into brewing and distilling. Malt and barley, are, of course, the ingredients used. Barley as it comes from the market is distinguished by the appellation ‘green.’ This is either steeped and converted into malt, or kiln-dried and ground. It is then removed to the mash-tuns, where water is added, and the whole mixed by revolving machinery. After some hours’ steeping, the water has soaked all the desired properties from the grain, and is known as wort. This is led away or pumped by a complicated series of pipes to the top of the manufactory, where it undergoes a cooling process. When of the desired temperature it is conducted to the fermenting vats—vast wooden vessels of imposing appearance ranged in rows. The brewing processes end with this fermentation.

“The Distilling Processes. When this is done, which generally takes five days, the fermented liquor is conducted to the ‘wash’ charger, and from thence pumped to the intermediate charger, where it is heated before undergoing the first process of distillation, which now takes place. The still is a vast copper vessel, shaped exactly like an inverted funnel, with the pipe leading to the roof. The ‘wash’ or liquor from the charger is conducted into this vessel. Beneath it are two furnaces, which soon raise the temperature of the vessel to boiling point. When evaporation commences the steam (which is the spirit, and is technically known as ‘low wines’) is conducted up the copper pipe into a refrigerator, known as the ‘worm.’ This worm is, in reality, a continuation of the pipe of the still twisted into regular coils in and about a vessel filled with the coldest water obtainable. By this means the steam is converted into liquor. This liquor passes into the close safe, a glass vessel somewhat like an aquarium tank. The distiller stands by and watches the running liquor, and his practised eye and educated palate immediately detects any fault in the distillation. He is not allowed to open his tank, however, except by notice in the presence of the excise officer, one or more of whom are always present in every distillery. Through this tank it runs into ‘low wines’ receiver, a large tank placed below, and from these it again passes to ‘feints chargers’ en route to the ‘low wines still,’ where the second distillation takes place. I forgot to say that the refuse liquor left after the first distillation is much valued by farmers for its milk-producing qualities, and is bought up by them for cow food. The refuse liquor from the second distillation, however, is only water, and the refuse liquor from the third and final distillation is water also.

“The second distillation is like the first—the same process of ‘worm’ cooling, conducting, and charging is carried on. The third still is known as the spirit still. The spirit is now considered perfect, and is led off to the large vats in the spirit stores, where it is reduced to desired strength, racked off into casks, and removed to bonded warehouses for maturity.

“Within a Distillery. But the distillery itself, who can describe it—its story upon story of granaries—its kilns, floored with perforated tiles—its steeping vats and its low-roofed malting sheds—its roaring mills—its terrible and mysterious tanks—its inextricable machinery—its innumerable rafters and false roofs—its ladders perched up in inaccessible places—its bewildering passages—and far away, above all, its immense chimneys towering up to the sky? But this is not all—the bonded warehouses have to be gone through. The excise officer has to be called, and the sealed lock has to be broken, and you enter into the vast cool place. Black as night is everything around you; the lamps which the attendants hold are utterly incapable of dissipating the darkness, and only cast a strong orange glare upon the faces of the men who hold them. To show one the dimensions of the place a man is sent to the opposite end. Away he goes, only traceable by the lamp he bears, and before he waves it to show that the opposite end of the vault is reached, it has become a scarcely discernible glimmer. As we become more used to the darkness we see straight passages leading in every direction, and lined on every side by barrels piled almost to the ceiling.

“The North Mall. The first of the Cork distilleries I visited was the one at North Mall, formerly, and, in fact, still known as Wise’s. It is in a western suburb of the town out among the meadows. The Lee winds its silvery course between tall alders close by it, and a branch stream is made to do much of the work of the immense manufactory. On approaching it it has a picturesque effect. It lies underneath a tall bank, over which the road to Sunday’s Well leads. Looking down from this road the whole of its vast dimensions can be taken in at a glance. The extensive yard, where one would imagine enough coal was stored to supply the whole city, is being raised from the adjoining fields. I was looking over an old history of Cork, published by a certain Dr Smith, over a century ago, and I find that formerly on this spot a Franciscan monastery stood. Such discipline was preserved here that it was called the Mirror of Ireland, and their sacerdotal character was so great that they had the power of curing sore eyes. The only remains of this ancient edifice now visible is a carved stone built into the wall of the great bonded warehouses in the Sunday’s Well Road. It was here that the noted water oozed out of the red-stone rock Whether it is ever now used in making the agreeable beverage manufactured from the old whisky stored below I did not ascertain. These old Franciscan fathers had, doubtless, a good cellar of their own; but what would they have said of the vast, well-filled vaults which now are found upon perhaps the identical spot? But, large as these are, they are not large enough for the requirements of the distillery, and other extensive premises have been secured in Leitrim Street, which are now used as bonded warehouses.

“The whisky produced at this distillery is, if possible, still better now than it was in Wise’s time; the same distiller who worked the concern for him for twenty years is still there, and none but the very finest description of malt and barley (a large proportion of the former) is used. Its production, as well as those of the other two distilleries of the company, gained a first-class medal last year at Philadelphia, and the jurors described it as ‘very fine, full flavour, and good spirit.’ As a natural consequence, there is a demand for this whisky all over the world, and there are very few large towns in either hemisphere where it is not represented by an agent.

“The ‘Watercourse,’ By-the-bye these lie on our way to the celebrated Watercourse Distillery, the second of those used by this great firm. Entering through the broad portals, long ranges of old-fashioned buildings spread out on every side. Here is the mill, gaunt and square and stolid; those jealously guarded doors to the right are the bonded warehouses; the buildings across the yard are devoted to the coopers’ and smiths’ work, which in all three distilleries is done on the premises.

That tall black and white building far away on the opposite side is the grain store; this, nearer to you, with the irregular roofs, the complicated piping and open walled structures running away overhead, is the distillery proper. This distillery is about of equal size to that at North Mall. It has an older and more venerable appearance. It turns out as good and extensive work, and, like it, is not satisfied with the extensive storing facilities at its command, but must needs go abroad to an old, unused distillery, further in the suburbs, where it hides most of its rich and treasured productions. A picturesque old place is this; the ruins of the old works are still standing, and their architecture is such that it only requires a mantle of ivy to transform it into a remnant of feudal savagery.

“The Midleton Distillery. The company have handsome and extensive offices on Morrison’s Island, in the centre of the city, and close to the water’s edge. Here the directors sit day after day, and the scores of clerks attend to the interests of 4000 customers. But I cannot linger here, for I have another distillery to visit. Another, the brightest of all, far out in the beautiful country, at the town of Midleton, situate at the north-east extremity of Cork’s magical harbour. ApproachingGin, Spirits, and Usquebaugh.

WHITE AR′SENIC. Arsenious acid.

WHITE-BAIT. The Clupea Latulus (Clupea alba, Yarrell), a very small and delicate fish, common in the brackish waters of the Thames from April to September. When fried in oil it is esteemed a great luxury by epicures.

WHITE COPPER. See German Silver and Packfong.

WHITE HEL′LEBORE. Syn. Veratrum (Ph. L. & E.); Veratri albi radix, L. “The rhizome of Veratrum album, Linn., or white hellebore.” (Ph. L.) A powerful acrid cathartic, emetic, and sternutatory. It is now seldom exhibited internally, and its external use over a large or ulcerated surface is not unaccompanied with danger.—Dose, ¹⁄₂ to 2 gr. of the powder, made into a pill; in gout, mania, &c.; or 1 to 3 gr., carefully triturated with 12 or 15 gr. of liquorice powder, as an errhine, in amaurosis, &c.

WHITE LEAD. Syn. Fine white, Flake w., Carbonate of lead, Ceruse, Magistery of lead; Cerussa, Plumbi carbonas (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Made by suspending rolls of thin sheet lead over malt liquor, or pyroligneous acid, in close vessels, the evaporation from the acid being kept up by the vessels being placed in a heap of dung, or a steam bath.

Obs. Commercial carbonate of lead, however prepared, is not the pure carbonate of lead, but always contains a certain proportion of hydrate. It is generally largely adulterated with native sulphate of baryta (‘heavy spar’), and sometimes with chalk. The former may be detected by its insolubility in dilute nitric acid, and the latter by the nitric solution yielding a white precipitate with dilute sulphuric acid, or a solution of oxalic acid or oxalate of ammonia, after having been treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, or a hydrosulphuret, to throw down the lead. “Pure carbonate of lead does not lose weight at a temperature of 212° Fahr.; 68 gr. are entirely dissolved in 150 minims of acetic acid diluted with 1 fl. oz. of distilled water; and the solution is not entirely precipitated by a solution of 60 gr. of phosphate of soda.” (Ph. E.) The solution in nitric acid should not yield a precipitate when treated with a solution of sulphate of soda.—Used as a superior white paint, and, in medicine, as an external astringent, refrigerant, and desiccant. The particles of carbonate of lead prepared by precipitation, or by any of the quick processes, are in a somewhat crystalline and semi-translucent condition, and hence do not cover so well as that just noticed. The following are some of the varieties of ‘white lead’ found in commerce:

1. (Dutch white lead.)—a. (Finest.) From flake white, 1 cwt.; cawk, 3 cwt.—b. (Ordinary.) Flake white, 1 cwt.; cawk, 7 cwt. These form the best white lead of the shops.

2. (English white lead.) Flake white lowered with chalk. Covers badly, and the colour is inferior to the preceding.

3. (French white lead; Blanc de plomb, Fr.) From litharge dissolved in vinegar, and the lead thrown down by a current of carbonic acid gas from coke. Does not cover so well as flake white.

4. (Grace’s white lead.) Made from sheet lead, with the refuse water of the starch-maker’s, soured brewer’s grain, &c.

5. (Hamburg white, Hamburg white lead.) From flake white, 1 cwt.; cawk, 2 cwt. Also sold for best Dutch white lead.

6. (Venetian white, Venetian white lead; Cerusa Veneta, L.) From flake white, or pure white lead and cawk, equal parts. (See below.)

White Precip′itate of Lead. Syn. Miniature painter’s white, Sulphate of lead. From an acetic or nitric solution of litharge,

Whi′′ting. The same as prepared chalk, but prepared more carelessly, in horse-mills.

White, Wilkinson’s. From litharge ground with sea water until it ceases to whiten, and then washed and dried.

White, Zinc (Hubbuck’s). A hydrated oxide of zinc. It possesses the advantage of being innocuous in use, and not being blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen, like white lead.

WHITE PIG′MENTS. Syn. Pigmenta alba, L. The following list embraces the more important white pigments of commerce:

White, Alum. Syn. Baumé’s white. Take of powdered Roman alum, 2 lbs.; honey, 1 lb.; mix, dry, powder, calcine in a shallow dish to whiteness, cool, wash, and dry. A beautiful and permanent white, both in oil and water.

White, Derbyshire. From cawk or heavy spar, by grinding and elutriation.

White, Flake. The finer kinds of white lead are so called.

White, Min′eral. Precipitated carbonate of lead.

White, Newcastle. White lead made with molasses vinegar.

White, Nottingham. White lead made with alegar. Permanent white is now commonly sold for it.

White, Pearl. Syn. Fard’s Spanish white. Trisnitrate of bismuth.

White, Per′manent. Artificial sulphate of baryta, prepared by precipitating chloride of barium with dilute sulphuric acid, or a solution of glauber salts. A good fast white, unchanged by sulphurous fumes. Used to mark jars and bottles for containing acids or alkalies, as it is affected by very few substances; also to adulterate white lead.

White, Spanish. Syn. Blanc d’Espagne, Blanc de Troyes, Fr. The softest and purest white chalk, elutriated, made into balls, and well dried. Used as a cheap white paint.

WHITE SWEL′LING. Syn. Hydrarthrus, L. A variety of indolent, malignant, scrofulous tumours, attacking the knee, ankle, wrist, and elbow, especially the first.

WHITES (Sharp). Prep. 1. From wheaten flour and powdered alum, equal parts, ground together.

2. (Stuff; Baker’s stuff.) From alum, ground to the coarseness of common salt, 1 lb.; common salt, 3 lbs.; mix together. Both the above are used by bakers for the purpose of clandestinely introducing alum into their bread.

WHITE′WASH. Whiting is made into a milk with water, and a small quantity of melted size or dissolved glue added. It is applied to walls or ceilings with a broad, flat brush, worked in a uniform direction. Should the surface have been previously whitewashed, it is requisite first to remove the dirt by washing it with a brush and abundance of clean water.

“Lime-washing is, from the cleansing action of the quicklime, much the more effectual mode of purification, but is less frequently had recourse to, from the general ignorance respecting the proper mode of preparing the lime-wash. If glue is employed, it is destroyed by the corrosive action of the lime, and, in consequence, the latter easily rubs off the walls when dry. This is the case also if the lime be employed, as is often absurdly recommended, simply slaked in water, and used without any fixing material. Lime-wash is prepared by placing some freshly-burned quicklime in a pail, and pouring on sufficient water to cover it; ‘boiled oil’ (linseed) should then be immediately added, in the proportion of a pint to a gallon of the wash. For coarser work, any common refuse fat may be used instead of the boiled oil. The whole should then be thinned with water to the required consistency, and applied with a brush. Care should be taken not to leave the brush in the lime-wash for any length of time, as it destroys the bristles.” (W. B. Tegetmeier.)

WHI′′TING. See White Pigments.

WHITING. The Gadus merlangus (Linn.), a member of the cod family of fishes. It is a very light and nutritious fish, and well adapted to dyspeptics and invalids; but it has too little flavour to be a favourite with gourmands.

WHIT′LOW. Syn. Whitloe; Paronychia, L. A painful inflammation, tending to suppuration and abscess, at the ends of the fingers, and mostly under or about the nails. Emollient poultices are useful in this affection; extreme tension and pain may be relieved by an incision, so as to allow the exit of the pus or matter from under the nail. The treatment must also be directed to establish the general health, as without this local remedies often fail.

WHOOP′ING-COUGH. Syn. Chin-cough, Hooping-c., Kin-c.; Pertussis, L. A convulsive strangling cough, characterised by peculiar sonorous or whooping inspirations, from which its popular name is taken. It comes on in fits, which are usually terminated by vomiting. It is infectious, chiefly attacks children, and, like the small-pox, only occurs once during life.

The treatment of whooping-cough consists, chiefly, in obviating irritation, and in exciting nausea and occasional vomiting. For the first, aperients and sedatives (hemlock or henbane), in small doses, may be given; for the second intention, an extremely weak sweetened solution of tartarised antimony, or a mixture containing squills or ipecacuanha, may be administered in small doses every hour or two,Antimonials, Draughts, Mixture, Oxymel, Syrup, Wines, &c.

WHOR′TLEBERRY. (Bear’s). Syn. Uvæ ursi folia (B. P.), Uva ursi (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The leaf of Arctostophylos Uva Ursi, trailing arbutus, or Bearberry, Astringent.—Dose, 10 to 30 gr. of the powder, thrice daily. See Decoction and Extract.

WIK′ANA. Syn. Wacaka des Inds, Fr. Prep. (Guibourt.) Roasted chocolate nuts (ground), 2 oz.; powdered cinnamon, 2 dr.; powdered vanilla, ¹⁄₂ dr.; ambergris, 3 gr.; musk, 1¹⁄₂ gr.; sugar, 6 oz.; well mixed together. A teaspoonful is boiled with ¹⁄₂ pint of milk, or arrow-root, as a stimulating diet for convalescents.

WILD CHERRY. The Prunus Virginiana, a beautiful tree, growing wild in the western states of America. The inner bark (wild-cherry bark) is officinal in the Ph. U. S., and is a valuable sedative tonic. It is specially adapted for the alleviation of the distressing cough which is so harassing to patients with pulmonary disease. See Infusion.

WILD′FIRE RASH. Strophulus volaticus.

WILLOW. Syn. Salix, L. The barks of Salix alba or white willow, Salis fragilis or crack willow, and Salix Caprea or great round-leaved willow (WILLOW BARKS; Salicis corticis—Ph. E.), were officinal in the Ph. D. 1826; and, with that of Salix Russelliana, and other species, are rich in salicin, and hence possess considerable febrifuge power.—Dose, ¹⁄₂ to 1 dr., either in powder or made into a decoction; as a substitute for Peruvian bark, in agues, hectics, debility, dyspepsia, &c.

WIN′DOWS. A prismatic or crystalline appearance may be imparted to windows by several expedients:

1. Mix a hot solution of sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salt) with a clear solution of gum Arabic, and lay it on hot. For a margin, or for figures, wipe off the part you wish to remain clear with a wet towel as soon as the surface has become cold and hard. The effect is very pretty, and may be varied by substituting oxalic acid, red or yellow prussiate of potash, or any other salt (not efflorescent), for the sulphate of magnesia. Sulphate of copper gives a very beautiful crystallisation of a blue colour.

2. Evenly cover the surface of the glass with a layer of thin gum water, and sprinkle any of the saline crystals before noticed over it whilst wet. The gum water may be tinged of any colour to vary the effect.

A blinded appearance, more or less resembling ground glass, may be given as follows:

1. By evenly dabbing the surface with a piece of soft glazier’s putty.

2. A coating of stained rice jelly, laid on with a painter’s brush (sash tool), and afterwards dabbed with a duster brush, applied endways.

3. Tissue paper, either white or coloured, applied by means of clear gum water or some pale varnish. The pattern may be lined with a pencil, and, when the whole is somewhat dry, but not hard, the lines may be cut through, and the pattern stripped off with the flat point of a knife.

4. The surface of the glass being coated with mucilage, or any pale varnish, as before, coarsely powdered glass or quartz, reduced to a uniform state of grain by a sieve, may be sprinkled over it; when dry, the loose portion should be removed with a soft brush.

WINE. Syn. Vinum, L.; Vin, Fr. The fermented juice of the grape. The general

Officinal Wine. The only wine ordered by the British Colleges is sherry (WHITE WINE; vinum Xericum—B. P., Ph. L.; VINUM ALBUM—Ph. E.; vinum Hispanicum—Ph. D.); but several other wines are employed in medicine, as tonics, stimulants, antispasmodics, and restoratives, according to the circumstances of the case or the taste of the patient. In pharmacy, the less expensive Cape or marsala, or even raisin wine, is usually substituted for sherry in the preparation of the medicated wines of the Pharmacopœias.

Varieties, characteristics, &c. The following Tables will convey much useful information on this subject in a condensed form.

I. Table of the Quantity of Alcohol in Wine. By Dr. Christison

Name, &c. Alcohol of ·7937 per cent. by weight Proof spirit per cent. by volume

Port Weakest 14·97 31·31

Mean of 7 samples 16·20 34·91

Strongest 17·10 37·27

White 14·97 31·31

Sherry Weakest 13·98 30·84

Mean of 13 wines, excluding those very long kept in cask 15·37 33·59

Strongest 16·17 35·12

Mean of 9 wines long kept in cask in the East Indies 14·72 31·30

Madre da Xeres 16·90 37·06

Madeira Long kept in cask in the East Indies Strongest 16·90 37·06

Weakest 14·09 30·86

Teneriffe (long in cask at Calcutta) 13·84 30·21

Cercial 15·45 33·65

Lisbon (dry) 16·14 34·71

Shiraz 12·95 28·30

Amontillado 12·63 27·60

Claret (a first growth of 1811) 7·72 16·95

Chateau-Latour (ditto 1825) 7·78 17·06

Rosan (second growth of 1825) 7·61 16·74

Ordinary Claret (Vin Ordinaire) 8·99 18·96

Rivesaltes 9·31 22·35

Malmsey 12·86 28·17

Rüdesheimer. 1st quality 8·40 18·44

Rüdesheimer. Inferior 6·90 15·19

Hambacher. Superior quality 7·35 16·15

II. Quantity of Alcohol (sp. gr. ·825[270] at 60° Fahr.) in 100 parts of Wine by volume.

Names of Wines. Alcoholic content. Authority.

Alba Flora 17·26 Brande.

Barsac 13·86 do.

Bucellas 18·49 do.

Burgundy (average) 14·57 do.

Ditto 12·16 Prout.

Calcavella (average) 18·69 Brande.

Cape Madeira (do.) 20·51 do.

Cape Muschat 18·25 do.

Champagne (average) 12·61 do.

Ditto 12·20 Fontenelle.

Claret (average) 15·10 Brande.

Colares 19·75 do.

Constantia (White) 19·75 do.

Ditto (Red) 18·92 do.

Ditto (average) 14·50 Prout.

Côte Rôtie 12·32 Brande.

Currant 20·55 do.

Elder 8·79 do.

Frontignac (Rivesalte) 12·79 do.

Gooseberry 11·84 do.

Grape (English) 18·11 do.

Hermitage (Red) 12·32 do.

Ditto (White) 17·43 do.

Hock (average) 12·08 do.

Lachryma Christi 19·70 do.

Lisbon 18·94 do.

Lissa (average) 25·41 do.

Ditto (do.) 15·90 Prout.

Lunel 15·52 Brande.

Madeira (average) 22·27 do.

Ditto (do.) 21·20 Prout.

Malaga 17·26 Brande.

Ditto 18·94 do.

Malmsey Madeira 16·40 do.

Marsala (average) 25·09 do.

Ditto (do.) 18·40 Prout.

Nice 14·63 Brande.

Orange (average) 11·26 do.

Port (do.) 20·64 Prout.

Ditto (do.) 22·96 Brande.

Raisin (do.) 25·41 do.

Ditto (do.) 15·90 Prout.

Red Madeira (do.) 20·35 Brande.

Roussillon (do.) 18·13 do.

Sauterne 14·22 do.

Shiraz 15·52 do.

Sherry (average) 19·17 do.

Ditto (do.) 23·80 Prout.

Syracuse 20·00 do.

Ditto 15·28 Brande.

Teneriffe 19·79 do.

Tent 13·30 do.

Tokay 9·88 do.

Vidonia 19·25 do.

Vin de Grave 13·94 do.

Zante 17·05 do.

Composition. The constituents of wine are—alcohol, which is one of its principal ingredients, and on which its power of producing intoxication depends; sugar, which has escaped the process of fermentation, and which is most abundant in the sweet wines, as tokay, tent, frontignac, &c.; extractive, derived chiefly from the husk of the grape, and is extracted from it by the newly formed alcohol; tartar, or bitartrate of potassa, which constitutes the most important portion of the saline matter of wine; odoriferous matter, imparting the characteristic vinous odour, depending chiefly upon the presence of œnanthic acid and ether; bouquet, arising from essential oil or amyl-compounds, probably existing under the form of ethers. Besides these, small quantities of tannin, gum, acetic and malic acid, acetic ether, lime, &c., are found in wine. The specific gravity of wine depends on the richness and ripeness of the grapes used in its manufacture, the nature of the fermentation and its age. It varies from about ·970 to 1·041.

Purity. The most frequent species of fraud in the wine trade is the mixing of wines of inferior quality with those of a superior grade. In many cases the inferior kinds of foreign wines are flavoured and substituted for the more expensive ones. This is commonly practised with Cape wines, which, after having a slight ‘nuttiness’ communicated to it by bitter almonds or peach kernels, a lusciousness or fulness by honey, and additional strength by a little plain spirit or pale brandy, is made to undergo the operation of ‘fretting in,’ and is then sold for ‘sherry.’ Formerly, it was a common practice of ignorant wine-dealers to add a little litharge or acetate of lead to their inferior wines to correct their acidity, but it is believed that this highly poisonous substance is now never employed in this country, ‘salt of tartar’ being made to perform the same duty. The lead which is frequently detected in bottled wine, and which often causes serious indisposition, may be generally traced to shot being carelessly left in the bottles, and not to wilful fraud. Sherry is commonly coloured in Spain by the addition of must boiled down to ¹⁄₅ of its original volume; and in England, by burnt brown sugar, or spirit colouring. Amontillado (a very nutty wine) is frequently added to sherries deficient in flavour. Various other ingredients, as the essential oil of almonds, bitter almonds in substance, cherry-laurel leaves, cherry-laurel water, &c., are also employed for a like purpose. In Portugal the juice of elderberries is very commonly added to port wine to increase its colour, and extract of rhatany for the double purpose of improving its colour and imparting an astringent taste. In England beet-root, Brazil wood, the juices of elderberries and bilberries, the pressed cake of elder wine, extract of logwood, &c., are frequently added to port to deepen its colour; and oak sawdust, kino, alum, and extract

Tests. These, for the most part, are applicable to all fermented liquors:

1. Richness in alcohol. This may be found by any of the methods noticed under Alcoholmetey, Porter, and Tincture.

2. Saccharine and EXTRACTIVE MATTER. The sp. gr. corresponding to the alcoholic strength, last found, is deducted from the real sp. gr. of the sample, the difference divided by ·0025, or multiplied by 400, gives the weight of solid matter (chiefly sugar) in oz. per gallon (nearly).

3. Narcotics. These may be detected in the manner noticed at page 1630.

4. Lead. The presence of lead or litharge in wine may be readily detected by sulphuretted hydrogen, or a solution of any alkaline sulphydrate, which will, in that case, produce a black precipitate. See Wine-tests.

5. Potassa or SODA improperly present. A portion of the wine is evaporated nearly to dryness, and then agitated with rectified spirit; the filtered tincture, holding in solution acetate of potassa, is then divided into two portions, one of which is tested for acetic acid, and the other for the alkali.

6. Alum. A portion of the wine is evaporated to dryness, and ignited; the residuum is then treated with a small quantity of hydrochloric acid, the mixture evaporated to dryness, again treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, and tested with liquor of potassa. If a white bulky precipitate forms, which is soluble in an excess of caustic potassa, and which is reprecipitated by a solution of sal ammoniac, the sample examined contained alum.

7. Oil of vitriol.—a. A drop or two of the suspected wine may be poured upon a piece of paper, which must then be dried before the fire. Pure wine at most only stains the paper, but one containing sulphuric acid causes it to become charred and rotten. The effect is more marked on paper which has been previously smeared with starch paste.

b. According to M. Lassaigne, pure red wine leaves, by spontaneous evaporation, a violet or purple stain on paper; whilst that to which sulphuric acid has been added, even in quantity, only equal to ¹⁄₂₀₀₀ to ¹⁄₃₀₀₀th part, leaves a pink stain in drying.

8. Spurious colouring-matter.—a. Genuine red wine yields greenish-grey precipitates with sugar of lead, and greenish ones with potassa; but those coloured with elderberries, bilberries, litmus, logwood, and mulberries, give deep blue or violet precipitates, and those coloured with Brazil wood, red sanders wood, or red beet, give red ones.

b. Pure red wine is perfectly decoloured by agitation with recent hydrate of lime.

c. Dissolve a piece of caustic potash in a small quantity of the liquid to be experimented upon. If no deposit is formed, and the wine assumes a greenish shade, there is no artificial coloration. A violet-coloured deposit indicates the presence of elderberries or mulberries, a red one indicates the presence of beetroot for Brazil wood, red violet that of logwood. If the deposit is blue violet, privet berries have been employed; and if of a pale violet the coloration is due to litmus.

d. For the detection of the principal colouring matters employed in the sophistication of wines, M. Chancel proceeds as follows:—He takes 10 c. c. of wine, and adds 3 c.c. of a dilute solution of subacetate of lead, allowing the mixture to subside for a few minutes to make sure that the precipitation is complete. If this is not the case a slight excess of the reagent is added.

After stirring and heating for a few moments it is thrown on a very small filter, the filtrate collected in a test-tube, and the precipitate washed three or four times in hot water. If the filtrate is coloured magenta is present, and may be sought for by the aid of the spectroscope. But if the wine contains a mere trace of this colour, it is retained in the precipitate, and is sought for in the manner directed below. To discover the colouring matter which may be contained in the plumbic precipitate, it is treated upon the filter with a few c.c. of a solution of carbonate of potassa (2 parts of the dry salt to 100 of water), taking care to repass the same solution several times through the precipitate. Any magenta present is thus extracted, along with carminamic (ammoniacal cochineal) and sulphindigotic acid. The colouring matters of logwood and of alkanet remain undissolved.

With a genuine wine the alkaline liquid takes a very faint yellow, or greenish-yellow tint. For the detection of magenta the filtrate is mixed with a few drops of acetic acid, and it is then shaken up with amylic alcohol. The magenta dissolves in this alcohol with a fine rose tint, and its presence is proved by spectroscopic examination. Carminamic and sulphindigotic acids remain in the aqueous solution, and are decanted off. A couple of drops of sulphuric acid are added, and the mixture is again shaken up with amylic alcohol, which now dissolves the ammoniacal cochineal. It may be detected by the spectroscope. The sulphindigotic acid remains undissolved in the amylic alcohol, and may be found in the blue aqueous residual liquor by means of the[271]

e. (Dr Dupré.) The colouring matter of pure red wine does not pass through the dialyser. The dialysate from pure wine is therefore colourless, or shows but a slight purplish coloration, such as water would assume on the addition of a small quantity of the wine. A yellow or brownish-yellow dialysate indicates an adulteration with logwood, Brazil wood, or cochineal, the colouring matters of which may be identified by the chemical and optical tests employed for this purpose. The ammoniacal solution of the colouring matter of cochineal yields three well-marked absorption bands.

f. For the detection in wine of fuchsine only, the following methods are given by M. E. Jacquemin: 1. A small quantity of gun cotton is heated for a few minutes in 10-20 c.c. of the wine, and then washed with the water. The nature of the coloration (if any) imparted to the cotton is now identified by means of solution of ammonia, which decolorises rosaniline, but turns archil violet.

2. 100 c.c. of the wine are boiled to expel the alcohol, and then boiled for some time with white Berlin wool, previously moistened with water. The colour imparted to the wool by fuchsine is retained after washing, and may be distinguished from archil by ammonia.

3. 100-200 c.c. of the wine are boiled to expel the alcohol, then allowed to cool, mixed with ammonia in excess, and shaken with ether. By immersing white wool in the ethereal solution, and evaporating the latter, the wool acquires the characteristic colour of fuchsine.

9. Artificial flavouring. This can only be detected by a discriminating and sensitive palate,

10. Artificial bouquet. The substances added for this purpose may often be readily detected by a comparison of the sample with another of known purity.

Uses. The uses of wine as a beverage are too well known to require description. As a medicine, port wine is most esteemed as an astringent and tonic; and sherry and Madeira as stimulants and restoratives, in diseases where the acidity of the former would be objectionable; champagne is reputed diuretic and excitant, but its effects are not of long duration; and the Rhenish wines are regarded as refrigerant, diuretic, and slightly aperient. Claret, Rhenish, and Moselle wines are said to be the most wholesome. In pharmacy, wine is used as a menstruum.

Management of wine.

Age. The sparkling wines are in their prime in from 18 to 30 months after the vintage, depending on the cellaring and climate. Weak wines, of inferior growths, should be drunk within 12 or 15 months, and be preserved in a very cool cellar. Sound, well-fermented, full-bodied still wines are improved by age, within reasonable limits, provided they be well preserved from the air, and stored in a cool place, having a pretty uniform temperature. See Maturation (below).

Bottling. The secret of bottling wine with success consists in the simple exercise of care and cleanliness. The bottles should be all sound, clean, and dry, and perfectly free from the least mustiness or other odour. The corks should be of the best quality, and immediately before being placed in the bottles should be compressed by means of a ‘cork-squeezer.’ For superior or very delicate wines, the corks are usually prepared by placing them in a copper or tub, covering them with weights to keep them down, and then pouring over them boiling water holding a little pearlash in solution. In this state they are allowed to remain for 24 hours, when they are well stirred about in the liquor, drained, and re-immersed for a second 24 hours in hot water, after which they are well washed and soaked in several successive portions of clean and warm rainwater, drained, dried out of contact with dust, put into paper bags, and hung up in a dry place for use. The wine should be clear and brilliant, and if it be not so, it must undergo the process of ‘fining’ before being bottled. In fact, it is a common practice with some persons to perform this operation whether the wine require it or not; as, if it had been mixed and doctored, it “amalgamates and ameliorates the various flavours.” The bottles, corks, and wine, being ready, a fine clear day should be preferably chosen for the bottling, and the utmost cleanliness and care should be exercised during the process. Great caution should also be observed to avoid shaking the cask so as to disturb the ‘bottoms.’ The remaining portion that cannot be drawn off clear should be passed through the ‘wine-bag,’ and, when bottled, should be set apart as inferior to the rest. The coopers, to prevent breakage and loss, place each bottle, before corking it, in a small bucket, having a bottom made of soft cork, and which is strapped on the knee of the bottler. They thus seldom break a bottle, though they ‘flog in’ the corks very hard. When the process is complete the bottles of wine are stored in a cool cellar, and on no account upright, or in damp straw,

Bouquet. See Flavouring and Perfuming.

Brandying. Brandy is frequently added to weak or vapid wines, to increase their strength or to promote their preservation. In Portugal, one third of brandy is commonly added to port before shipping it for England, as without this addition it generally passes into the acetous fermentation during the voyage. A little good brandy is also usually added to sherry before it leaves Spain. By the regulation of the Customs of England, 10% of brandy may be added to wines in bond, and the increased quantity is only charged the usual duty on wine. The addition of brandy to wine injures its proper flavour, and hence it is chiefly made to port, sherry, and other wines, whose flavour is so strong as not to be easily injured. Even when brandy is added to wines of the latter description, they require to be kept for some time to recover their natural flavour. To promote this object, the wine-doctors employ the process called ‘fretting in,’ by which they effect the same change in 3 or 4 weeks, as would otherwise require some months, at the very least.

Cellaring. A wine-cellar should be dry at bottom, and either covered with good hard gravel or be paved with flags. Its gratings or windows should open towards the north, and it should be sunk sufficiently below the surface to ensure an equable temperature. It should also be sufficiently removed from any public thoroughfare, so as not to suffer vibration from the passing of carriages. Should it not be in a position to maintain a regular temperature, arrangements should be made to apply artificial heat in winter, and proper ventilation in summer.

Colouring. Wines are as commonly doctored in their colour as their flavour. A fawn-yellow and golden-sherry yellow are given by means of tincture or infusion of saffron, turmeric, or safflower, followed by a little spirit colouring, to prevent the colour being too lively. All shades of amber and fawn, to deep brown and brandy colour, are given by burnt sugar. Cochineal (either alone or with a little alum) gives a pink colour; beet-root and red sanders give a red colour; the extracts of rhatany and logwood, and the juice of elderberries, bilberries, &c., give a port-wine colour.

Crusting. To make port wine form a crust on the inside of the bottles, a spoonful of powdered catechu, or ¹⁄₂ a spoonful of finely powdered cream of tartar, is added to each bottle before corking it, after which the whole is well agitated. It is also a common practice to put the crust on the bottle before putting the wine into it, by employing a hot saturated solution of red tartar, thickened with gum and some powdered tartar.

Deacetification. This is effected by the cautious addition of either salt of tartar or carbonate of soda. Wine so treated soon gets insipid by exposure and age; and, without care, the colour of red wines is thus frequently spoiled.

Deacidification. See Detartarization (below).

Decanting. This only refers to small quantities of wine, ready for consumption. In decanting wine, care must be taken not to shake or disturb the crust when moving it about or drawing the cork, particularly of port wine. Never decant wine without a wine-strainer, with some clean fine cambric in it, to prevent the crust and bits of cork going into the decanter. In decanting port wine, do not drain it too close; as there are generally two thirds of a wine-glassful of thick dregs in each bottle, which ought to be rejected. In white wine there is not much settling; but it should nevertheless be poured off very slowly, the bottle being raised gradually.

Decolouring. The colour of wine is precipitated by age and by exposure to the light. It is also artificially removed by the action of skimmed milk, lime water, milk of lime, and fresh burnt charcoal. Wine merchants avail themselves of this property for the purpose of whitening wines that have acquired a brown colour from the cask, or which are esteemed pale; and also for turning ‘pricked’ red or dark-coloured wines into white wines, in which a small degree of acidity is not so much perceived. In this way brown sherry is commonly converted into pale or gold-coloured sherry. For the latter purpose, 2 to 3 pints of skimmed milk are usually sufficient; but to decolour red wine 2 to 3 quarts or more will be required, according to the nature and intensity of the colour, or the shades of paleness desired. Charcoal is seldom used, as it removes the flavour as well as colour, but a little milk of lime may sometimes be advantageously substituted for milk, when the wine has much acidity, more particularly for red wines, which may even be rendered quite colourless by it.

Detartarization. Rhenish wines, even of the most propitious growths, and in the best condition, besides their tartar, contain a certain quantity of free tartaric acid, on the presence of which many of their leading properties depend. The excess of tartar is gradually deposited during the first years of the vatting, the sides of the vessels becoming more and more encrusted with it; but, owing to the continual addition of new wine and other causes, the liquid often gains such an excess of free tartaric acid as to acquire the faculty of redissolving the deposited tartar, which thus again disappears after a certain period. The taste and flavour of the wine are thus exalted, but the excess of acid makes the wine less agreeable in use, and probably less wholesome. Amateurs and manufacturers should therefore welcome a means of taking away the free¹⁄₂ part of neutral tartrate of potash, there will separate on repose at 70° to 75° Fahr., 2 parts of crystallised tartar; and the wine will then contain only ¹⁄₂ part of tartar dissolved, in which there are only ·2 part of the original free acid; ·8 part of the original free acid having been withdrawn from the wine.” (Liebig’s ‘Annalen.’) This method is particularly applicable to recent must and to wines which do not contain much free acetic acid; but when this last is the case, so much acetate of potash is formed as occasionally to vitiate the taste of the liquor.

Fining. Wine is clarified in a similar manner to beer. White wines are usually fined by isinglass, in the proportion of about 1¹⁄₂ oz. (dissolved in 1¹⁄₂ pint of water, and thinned with some of the wine) to the hogshead. Red wines are generally fined with the whites of eggs, in the proportion of 15 to 20 to the pipe. Sometimes hartshorn shavings, or pale sweet glue, is substituted for isinglass.

Flatness. This is removed by the addition of a little new brisk wine of the same kind; or by rousing in 2 or 3 lbs. of honey; or by adding 5 or 6 lbs. of bruised sultana raisins, and 3 or 4 quarts of good brandy, per hogshead. By this treatment the wine will usually be recovered in about a fortnight, except in very cold weather. Should it be wanted sooner, a table-spoonful or two of yeast may be added, and the cask removed to a warmer situation.

Flavouring. Various ingredients are added to inferior wines, to give them the flavour of others more expensive, and to British wines, to make them resemble those imported. Substances are also added in a similar manner to communicate the aroma of the high-flavoured grape wines. Among the first are bitter almonds, almond cake, or the essential oil of almonds, or, preferably, its alcoholic solution, which are used to impart a ‘sherry’ or ‘nutty’ taste to weak-flavoured wines, as poor sherry, white cape, and malt, raisin, parsnip, and other similar British wines; rhatany, kino, oak sawdust and bark, alum, &c., to convey astringency, and—tincture of the seeds of raisins, to impart a ‘port wine’ flavour. Among the substances employed to communicate the bouquet of the finer wines, may be mentioned—orris root, eau de fleurs d’oranges, neroli, essence de petit grain, ambergris, vanilla, violet petals, essence of cedrat, sweet briar, clary, and elder flowers, quinces, cherry-laurel water, &c. By the skilful, though fraudulent use of the above flavouring substances and perfumes, the experienced wine-brewer manages to produce, in the dark cellars of London, from white cape, currant, gooseberry, raisin, rhubarb, parsnip, and malt wine, very excellent imitations of foreign wine, and which pass current among the majority of English wine-drinkers as the choicest productions of the grape, “genuine as imported.”—A grain or two of ambergris, well rubbed down with sugar and added to a hogshead of claret, gives it a flavour and bouquet much esteemed by some connoisseurs.

Fretting-in. See Sweating-in (below).

Improving. This is the cant term of the wine trade, under which all the adulteration and ‘doctoring’ of wine is carried on. A poor sherry is improved by the addition of a little almond flavour, honey, and spirit; a port deficient in body and astringency, by the addition of some red tartar (dissolved in boiling water), some rhatany, kino, or catechu, and a little honey or foots, and brandy. See Mixing (below).

Insensible Fermentation. See Maturation (below).

Insipidity. See Flatness (above).

Maturation. The natural maturation or ‘ripening’ of wine and beer by age depends upon the slow conversion of the sugar which escaped decomposition in the ‘gyle tun,’ or fermenting vessel, into alcohol. This conversion proceeds most perfectly in vessels which entirely exclude the air, as in the case of wine in bottles; as when air is present, and the temperature sufficiently high, it is accompanied by slow acetification. This is the case of wine in casks, the porosity of the wood allowing the very gradual permeation of the air. Hence the superiority of bottled wine over draught wine, or that which has matured in wood. Good wine, or well-fermented beer, is vastly improved by age when properly preserved; but inferior liquor, or even superior liquor, when preserved in improper vessels or situations, becomes acidulous, from the conversion of its alcohol into vinegar. Tartness or acidity is consequently very generally, though wrongly, regarded by the ignorant as a sign of age in liquor. The peculiar change by which fermented liquors become mature or ripe by age is termed the ‘insensible fermentation.’ It is the alcoholic fermentation impeded by the presence of the already formed spirit in the liquor, and by the lowness of the temperature. See Ripening (below).

Mixing. Few wines are sold without admixture. It is found that the intoxicating properties of wine are increased by mixing them with other wines of a different age and growth. In many cases the flavour is at the same time improved. Thus, a thin port is improved by the addition of a similar wine having a full body, or by a little Malaga, Teneriffe, or rich sherry; and an inferior old sherry may be improved by admixture with a little full-bodied wine of the last vintage. In

Mustiness. This may generally be removed by violently agitating the wine for some time with a little of the sweetest olive oil or almond oil. The cause of the bad taste is the presence of an essential oil, which the fixed oil seizes on, and rises with to the surface, when it may be skimmed off; or the liquor under it may be drawn off. A little coarsely powdered fresh-burnt charcoal, or even some slices of bread toasted black, will frequently have a like effect. A little bruised mustard seed is also occasionally used for the same purpose.

Perfuming. This is chiefly performed on British wines for family use. For its application to foreign wine, see Flavouring (above). Wines may be perfumed by the simple addition of any odorous substances previously well mixed with a little of the wine, or dissolved in a few fluid ounces of rectified spirit.

Racking. This should be performed in cool weather, and preferably early in the spring. A clean syphon, well managed, answers better for this purpose than a cock or faucet. The bottoms, or foul portion, may be strained through a wine-bag, and added to some other inferior wine.

Ripening. To promote the maturation or ripening of wine, various plans are adopted by the growers and dealers. One of the safest ways of hastening this, especially for strong wines, is not to rack them until they have stood 15 or 18 months upon the lees; or, whether ‘crude’ or ‘racked,’ keeping them at a temperature ranging between 50° and 60° Fahr., in a cellar free from draughts and not too dry. Another method is to remove the corks or bungs, and to substitute bladder tied or fastened air-tight over the openings. Bottled wine, treated in this way, ripens very quickly in a temperate situation. Some dealers add a little dilute sulphuric acid to the coarser wines for the same purpose; but a small quantity of concentrated acetic acid or tartaric acid would be preferable, since these acids are found in all wines. 4 or 5 drops of the former, added to a bottle of some kinds of new wine, immediately give it the appearance of being 2 or 3 years old.

Ropiness, viscidity; Graisse. This arises from the wine containing too little tannin or astringent matter to precipitate the gluten, albumen, or other azotised substance, occasioning the malady. Such wine cannot be clarified in the ordinary way, because it is incapable of causing the coagulation or precipitation of the finings. The remedy is to supply the principle in which it is deficient. M. François, of Nantes, prescribes the bruised berries of the mountain ash (1 lb. to the barrel) for this purpose. A little catechu, kino, or, better still, rhatany, or the bruised footstalks of the grape, may also be conveniently and advantageously used in the same way. For pale white wines, which are the ones chiefly attacked by the malady, nothing equals a little pure tannin or tannic acid dissolved in proof spirit. See Viscous fermentation, Malt liquors, &c.

Roughening. See Flavouring (above).

Second fermentation; La-pousse. Inordinate fermentation, either primary or secondary, in wine or any other fermented liquor, may be readily checked by sulphuration, or by the addition of mustard seed or sulphite of lime. 1 oz. of brimstone, ³⁄₄ to 1 lb. of bruised mustard seed, and about 4 to 8 oz. of sulphite of lime, are fully sufficient for a hogshead. This substance seldom fails of arresting the fermentation.—In addition to the above remedies, a little sulphuric acid is sometimes employed, and the use of black oxide of manganese, or chlorate of potash, has been proposed on theoretical grounds.

Souring. This is either occasioned by the wine having been imperfectly fermented, or from its having been kept in too warm a cellar, where it has been exposed to draughts of air or to continual vibrations, occasioned by the passage of loaded vehicles through the adjoining thoroughfare. The remedy commonly recommended in books for this purpose is to saturate the acid with chalk, milk of lime, or calcined oyster shells; but such additions, made in sufficient quantity to effect this object, destroy the character of the wine, and render it sickly and vapid. The best and only safe remedy is a little neutral tartrate of potash, cautiously added; or it may be mixed with a considerable portion of full-bodied new wine of its class, adding at the same time a little brandy, and in two or three weeks fining it down, when it should be either at once put into bottles, or consumed as soon as possible. See Deacetification and Detartarisation. (above).

Sparkling, creaming, and briskness. These properties are conveyed to wine by racking it into closed vessels before the fermentation is complete, and while there still remains a considerable portion of undecomposed sugar. Wine of this description, which has lost its briskness, may be restored by adding to each bottle a few grains of white lump sugar or sugar candy. This is the way in which champagne is treated in France. The bottles are afterwards inverted, by which means any sediment that forms falls into the necks, when the corks are partially withdrawn, and the sediment is immediately expelled by the elastic force of the compressed carbonic acid. If the wine remains muddy, a little solution of sugar and finings are added, and the bottles are again placed in a vertical position, and, after two or three months, the sediment is discharged, as before.

Sweating-in. The technical terms ‘sweating-in’ and ‘fretting in’ are applied to the partial production of a second fermentation, for the purpose of mellowing down the flavour of foreign ingredients (chiefly brandy), added to wine. For this purpose 4 or 5 lbs. of sugar or honey, with a little crude tartar (dissolved), are commonly added per hogshead; and when the wine is wanted in haste, a spoonful or two of yeast, or a few bruised vine leaves, are also mixed in, the cask being placed in a moderately warm situation until the new fermentation is established, when it is removed to the wine cellar, and, after a few days, ‘fined down.’

Taste of Cask. The remedies for this malady are the same as those for mustiness.

⁂ For further information connected with the nature and management of wines, and other fermented liquors, see Brewing, Fermentation, Malt liquors, Porter, Sugar, Syrup, Vinous fermentation, Viscous f., Wort, Yeast, &c., and below.

Wine, British. The various processes in British wine-making depend upon the same principles, and resemble those employed for foreign wine.

The FRUIT should be preferably gathered in fine weather, and not until mature, as evinced by its flavour; for if it be employed whilst unripe, the resulting wine will be harsh, disagreeable, and unwholesome, and a larger quantity of sugar and spirit will be required to render it palatable. The common practice of employing unripe gooseberries for the manufacture of British champagne arises from a total ignorance of the scientific principles of wine-making. On the other hand, if ordinary British fruit be employed in too ripe a state, the wine is apt to be inferior, and deficient in the flavour of the fruit.

The FRUIT, being gathered, at once undergoes the operation of picking or garbling, for the purpose of removing the stalks and unripe or damaged portions. It is next placed in a tub, and is well bruised, to facilitate the solvent action of the water. Raisins are commonly permitted to soak about 24 hours previously to bruising them, but they may be advantageously bruised or minced in the dry state. The bruised fruit is then put into a vat or vessel with a guard placed over the tap-hole, to keep back the husks and seeds of the fruit when the must, juice, or extract is drawn off. The water is now added, and the whole is allowed to macerate for 30 to 40 hours, more or less, during which time the magma is frequently roused up with a suitable wooden stirrer. The liquid portion is next drawn off, and the residuary pulp is placed in hair bags, and undergoes the operation of pressing, to expel the fluid which it contains. The sugar, tartar (in very fine powder or in solution), &c., are now added to the mixed liquors, and the whole is well stirred or ‘rummaged’ up for some time. The temperature being suitable, the vinous fermentation soon commences, when the liquor is frequently skimmed (if necessary), and well ‘roused’ up, and, after 3 or 4 days of this treatment, it is run into casks, which should be quite filled, and left purging at the bung-hole. In about a week the flavouring ingredients, in the state of coarse powder, are commonly added, and well stirred in; and in about another week, depending upon the state of the fermentation, and the attenuation of the must, the brandy or spirit is added, and the cask is filled up, and bunged down close. In four or five weeks more the cask is again filled up, and, after some weeks, (the longer the better), it is ‘pegged’ or ‘spiled,’ to ascertain if it be fine or transparent; if so, it undergoes the operation of racking; but if, on the contrary, it still continues muddy, it must be either again bunged up, and allowed to repose for a few weeks longer, or it must pass through the process of fining. Its future treatment is similar to that already noticed under Foreign wine. (See above.)

The must of many of the strong-flavoured fruits, as black currants, mulberries, &c., is improved by being boiled before being made into wine. The flavour and bouquet of the more delicate fruits are either greatly diminished or utterly dissipated by boiling.

General Formulæ for the Preparation of British wines:

1. From ripe saccharine fruits. Take of the ripe fruit, 4 to 6 lbs.; clear soft water, 1 gall.; sugar, 3 to 5 lbs.; cream of tartar (dissolved in boiling water), 1¹⁄₄ oz.; brandy, 2 to 3% flavouring, as required. If the full proportions of fruit and sugar are used, the product will be good without the brandy, but better with it. 1¹⁄₂ lb. of raisins may be substituted for each pound of sugar.

In the above way are made the following wines:—Gooseberry wine (‘British champagne’);—currant wine (red, white, or black);—mixed fruit wine (currants and gooseberries, or black, red, and white currants, ripe black-heart cherries, and raspberries, equal part), a good family wine;—cherry wine;—colepress’s wine (from apples and mulberries, equal part); elder wine;—strawberry wine;—raspberry wine;—mulberry wine (when flavoured, makes ‘British port’);—whortleberry wine (bilberry wine), makes a good factitious ‘port’;—blackberry wine;—damson wine (makes good factitious ‘port’);—morella wine;—apricot wine;—apple wine;—grape wine, &c.

2. From dry saccharine fruit (as raisins). Take of the dried fruit, 4¹⁄₂ to 7¹⁄₂ lbs.; clear soft water, 1 gall.; cream of tartar (dissolved), 1 oz.; brandy, 1¹⁄₂ to 4%. Should the dried fruit employed be at all deficient in saccharine matter, 2 to 3 lbs. of it may be omitted, and half that quantity of sugar, or two thirds of raisins added. In the above way are made—date wine,—fig wine,—raisin wine, &c.

3. From ACIDULOUS, ASTRINGENT, orSCARCELY RIPE FRUITS, or those which are deficient in saccharine matter. Take of the picked fruit, 2¹⁄₂ to 3¹⁄₂ lbs.; sugar, 3¹⁄₂ to 5¹⁄₂ lbs.; cream of tartar (dissolved), ¹⁄₂ oz.; water, 1 gall.; brandy, 2 to 6%.

In the above way are made—gooseberry wine (‘British champagne’);—bullace wine (which makes an excellent ‘factitious port’);—damson wine, &c.

4. From FOOTSTALKS, LEAVES, CUTTINGS, &c. By infusing them in water, in the proportion of 3 to 6 lbs. to the gall., or q. s. to give a proper flavour, or to form a good saccharine liquor; and adding 2¹⁄₂ to 4 lbs. of sugar to each gall. of the strained liquor, 1¹⁄₂ lb. of raisins may be substituted for each lb. of sugar.

In the above way are made—grape wine (from the pressed cake of grapes);—English grape wine;—rhubarb wine (‘Bath champagne,’ ‘patent c,’), from garden rhubarb;—celery wine, &c.

5. From SACCHARINE ROOTS and STEMS OF PLANTS. Take of the bruised, rasped, or sliced vegetable, 4 to 6 lbs.; boiling water, 1 gall.; infuse until cold, press out the liquor, and to each gall. add of sugar 3 to 4 lbs.; cream of tartar, 1 oz.; brandy, 2 to 5%. For some roots and stems the water must not be very hot, as they are thus rendered troublesome to press.

In the above way are made—beet-root wine (‘British Roussillon’);—parsnip wine (‘British malmsey’);—turnip w., &c.

6. From FLOWERS, SPICES, AROMATICS, &c. These are prepared by simply infusing a sufficient quantity of the bruised ingredient for a few days in any simple wine (as that from sugar, honey, raisins, &c.) after the active fermentation is complete, or, at all events, a few weeks before racking them.

In the above way are made—clary wine (‘muscadel’), from flowers, 1 quart to the gall.;—cowslip wine (flowers, 2 quarts to the gall.);—elder-flower wine (‘Frontignac’), flowers of white-berried elder, ³⁄₄ pint, and lemon juice, 3 fl. oz., to the gall.;—ginger wine (1¹⁄₄ oz. of ginger to the gall.);—orange wine (1 dozen sliced oranges per gall.);—lemon wine (juice of 12 and rinds of 6 lemons to the gall.);—spruce wine (¹⁄₄ oz. of essence of spruce per gall.);—juniper wine (berries, ³⁄₄ pint per gall.);—peach wine (4 or 5 sliced, and the stones broken, to the gall.);—apricot wine (as peach wine, or with more fruit);—quince wine (12 to the gall.); rose clove gillyflower, carnation, lavender, violet, primrose, and other flower wines (distilled water, 1¹⁄₂ pint, or flowers, 1 pint to the gall.);—balm wine (balm tops, 4 oz. per gall.) &c.

7. From SACCHARINE JUICES, or INFUSIONS, or from fermented liquors. Take of the juice or liquor, 1 gall.; honey or sugar, 2 to 3 lbs. (or raisins, 3 to 5 lbs.); cream of tartar, 1¹⁄₄ oz.; brandy, 2 to 4%.

In this way are made—English grape wine;—mixed fruit wine—pine-apple wine;—cider wine;—elder wine;—birch wine (from the sap, at the end of February or beginning of March); sycamore wine (from the sap);—malt wine (‘English Madeira’), from strong wort;—and the wines of any of the saccharine juices of ripe fruit.

8. From SIMPLE SACCHARINE MATTER. Take of sugar, 3 to 4, lbs.; cream of tartar, ¹⁄₂ oz.; water, 1 gall.; honey, 1 lb.; brandy, 2 to 4%. A handful of grape leaves or cuttings, bruised, or a pint of good malt wort, or mild ale, may be substituted for the honey. Chiefly used as the basis for other wines, as it has little flavour of its own; but makes a good ‘British champagne.’

Obs. In all the preceding formulæ lump sugar is intended when the wines are required very pale, and good Muscovado sugar when this is not the case. Some of the preceding wines are vastly improved by substituting good cider, perry, or pale ale or malt wort, for the whole or a portion of the water. Good porter may also be advantageously used in this way for some of the deep-coloured red wines. When expense is no object, and very strong wines are wanted, the expressed juices of the ripe fruits, with the addition of 3 or 4 lbs. of sugar per gall., may be substituted for the fruit in substance, and the water.

Examples of British imitations of foreign wines:

American honey wine. From good honey, 21 lbs.; cider, 12 galls.; ferment, then add, of rum, 5 pints; brandy, 2 quarts; red or white tartar (dissolved), 6 oz.; bitter almonds and cloves, of each, bruised, ¹⁄₄ oz.; powdered capsicum, 3 dr. This is also called ‘mead wine.’ With the addition of 3 oz. of unbleached Jamaica ginger (finely grated), it forms the best American ginger wine.

British Burgundy. By adding a little lemon juice, and a ‘streak’ of orris or orange-flower water, to ‘British port,’ the ingenious wine-brewer converts it into ‘British Burgundy.’ It is also made by mixing together equal parts of ‘British port’ and claret.

British cape. 1. (White.) Raisin wine, well attenuated by fermentation, either alone or worked up with a little cider and pale malt wort.

2. (Red.) British white cape, sound rough cider and mulberry wine, equal parts; well mixed and fined down.

British champagne. 1. From stoned raisins, 7 lbs.; loaf sugar, 21 lbs.; water, 9 galls.;. crystallised tartaric acid, 1 oz.; cream of tartar, ¹⁄₂ oz.; Narbonne honey, 1 lb.; sweet yeast, ¹⁄₄ pint; ferment, skimming frequently, and, when the fermentation is nearly over, add, of coarsely powdered orris root, 1 dr.; eau de fleurs d’oranges, ¹⁄₄ pint; and lemon juice, 1 pint; in 3 months fine it down with isinglass, ¹⁄₄ oz.; in 1 month more, if not sparkling, again fine it down, and in another fortnight bottle it, observing to put a piece of

2. As the preceding, but substituting 32 lbs. of double-refined sugar for the sugar and raisins therein ordered, with the addition of 3 galls. of rich pale-coloured brandy.

3. From amber hairy champagne gooseberries, English grape juice, or the stalks of garden rhubarb, and lump sugar; with a little sweetbriar, orris, or orange-flower water, to impart a slight bouquet. The last forms what is known as ‘patent’ or ‘Bath champagne.’

4. (Pink.) To either of the preceding add red currant juice, q. s. to colour; or 1 oz. of coarsely powdered cochineal to each 10 or 12 galls. at the time of racking.

Obs. It is notorious that two bottles of wine out of every three sold for ‘genuine champagne’ in England is of British manufacture. “We have ourselves seen sparkling gooseberry, rhubarb, and white sugar wines, sold for imported champagne, at 7s. 6d. per bottle, and the fraud has passed undetected, even by habitual wine drinkers. (Cooley.)

British claret. 1. Rich old cider or perry and port wine, equal parts.

2. To each gall. of the last add of cream of tartar (genuine), 3 dr., with the juice of 1 lemon. Sometimes ¹⁄₄ pint of French brandy is also added.

Obs. If these mixtures are well fined down, and not bottled for at least a month or 5 weeks, they closely resemble good ‘Bordeaux.’ A mixture of 4 parts of raisin wine, with 1 part each of raspberry and barberry or damson wine, also forms, when so treated, an excellent factitious ‘claret.’

British cyprus. From the juice of white elderberries, 1 quart, and Lisbon sugar, 4 lbs., to water, 1 gall.; together with ¹⁄₂ dr. each of bruised ginger and cloves. When racked, add minced raisins and brandy, of each 2 oz.

British hock, British red hock. From cream of tartar, 1¹⁄₄ oz.; tartaric acid, ¹⁄₂ oz. (both in extremely fine powder); juices of the purple plum, ripe apples, and red beet, of each (warmed), 5 pints; lemon juice, 1 pint; with white sugar, 2¹⁄₂ lbs. per gall.

British madeira. From very strong pale malt wort, 36 galls., sugar candy, 28 lbs., and cream of tartar, 3 oz.; fermented with yeast, 2 lb., adding, when the fermentation is nearly finished, raisin wine, 2¹⁄₂ galls.; brandy and sherry wine, of each 2 galls.; rum and brandy, of each 3 pints; after 6 or 9 months, fine it down, and in another month bottle it. See British sherry (below).

British malmsey. From sliced or grated parsnips, 4 lbs.; boiling water, 1 gall.; when cold, press out the liquor, and to each gallon add of cream of tartar, ¹⁄₂ oz., and good Muscovado sugar, 3 lbs.; ferment, rack, and add of brandy, 3 to 5%. Good Malaga raisins may be substituted for the sugar.

British red moselle. The last, coloured with clarified elderberry juice.

British sparkling moselle. From rich cider apples (carefully peeled and garbled), pressed with 1-4th of their weight of white magnum-bonum plums (previously stoned), and the juice fermented with 2¹⁄₂ lbs. of double-refined sugar per gall., as champagne.

British muscadel. As ‘British sparkling Moselle,’ with some infusion of clary, or of the musk plant, to flavour it.

British port, London p., Southampton p. 1. From red cape, 2 galls.; damson or elder wine, 1 gall.; brandy, ¹⁄₂ pint; powdered kino, ¹⁄₂ oz.

2. Strong old cider, 6 galls.; elderberry juice, 4 galls.; sloe juice, 3 galls.; sugar, 28 lbs.; powdered extract of rhatany, 1 lb.; at the time of racking add, brandy, ¹⁄₂ gall.; good port wine, 2 galls.

3. Good port, 12 galls.; rectified spirit, 6 galls.; French brandy, 3 galls.; strong rough cider, 42 galls.; mix in a well-sulphured cask. (‘Publican’s Guide.’)

4. Port wine, 8 galls.; brandy, 6 galls.; sloe juice, 4 galls.; strong rough cider, 45 galls.; as the last. (‘Licensed Victuallers’ Companion.’)

5. Cider, 24 galls.; juice of elderberries, 6 galls.; sloe juice, 4 galls.; rectified spirit, 3 galls.; brandy, 1¹⁄₂ gall.; powdered rhatany. 7 lbs.; isinglass, 4 oz., dissolved in a gall. of the cider; bung it down; in 3 months it will be fit to bottle, but should not be drunk until the next year; if a rougher flavour is required, the quantity of rhatany may be increased, or alum, 5 or 6 oz. (dissolved), may be added.

British sherry. 1. From cape or raisin wine, slightly flavoured with a very little bitter-almond cake, or, what is more convenient, a little of the essential oil dissolved in alcohol (essence of bitter almonds). A mere ‘streak’ or ‘thread’ of sweet-briar, eau de fleurs d’oranges, or orris, is occasionally added by way of bouquet; but care must be taken not to overdo it.

2. To each gallon of strong raisin must, add, when racking, 1 Seville orange, and 3 or 4 bitter almonds, both sliced. By omitting the almonds, and adding 1 green citron to each 2 or 3 gallons, this forms ‘British madeira.’

3. Very strong pale malt wort, 36 galls.; finest Muscovado sugar, 1 cwt.; yeast, 1 pint; ferment; on the third day add of raisins, stoned, 14 lbs., and in another week add, of rectified spirit, 1 gall., rum, ¹⁄₂ gall., and bitter almonds, grated, 1¹⁄₄ oz.; bung down for 4 months, then draw it off into another cask, add of brandy, 1 gall., and in 3 months bottle it.

4. Teneriffe, slightly flavoured with cherry-laurel or bitter almonds, forms an excellent

British tokay. To good cider, 18 galls.; add, of elderberry juice, ¹⁄₂ gall.; honey, 28 lbs.; sugar, 14 lbs.; red argol (powdered), ³⁄₄ lb.; crystallised tartaric acid, 3 oz.; mix, boil, ferment, and, when the active fermentation is complete, add of brandy, 1 gall., and suspend in the liquor, from the bung-hole, a mixture of cassia and ginger, of each ¹⁄₂ oz.; cloves and capsicum, of each ¹⁄₄ oz.; the whole bruised, and loosely enclosed in a coarse muslin bag. It will be ripe in 12 months.

Obs. Some of the preceding formulæ, by skilful management, produce very good imitations of some of the imported wines; but (prejudice aside) many of the British fruit wines possess an equally agreeable flavour, and are frequently more wholesome. All British wines require to be kept at least a year, to ‘mellow.’ Much of the superiority of foreign wines arises from its age.

WINES (Culinary). Syn. Wines for kitchen use. These are prepared in a similar manner to the MEDICATED WINES noticed below.

Wine, Basil. Prep. From green basil leaves, 4 or 5 oz.; sherry, cape, or raisin wine, 1 pint; digest for 10 days, press, and strain. Used to give a turtle flavour to soups and gravies. In a similar way may be made the wines of celery leaves, celery seed, sage, shallots, and the various green and dried herbs used in cookery.

Wine, Cayenne. Prep. From capsicum or cayenne, 1 oz.; cape, 1 pint; steep for a fortnight, and strain.