A CYCLOPÆDIA OF PRACTICAL RECEIPTS, &c. VOLUME II (continued 45)

Chlorine.—Except in places near the sea, or in salt-bearing strata, an unpolluted water does not contain more than the merest trace of chlorine. Sewage, however, contains a large quantity of chlorine as sodic chloride (common salt) derived from the salt used in cooking, &c. Hence a mixture of sewage with water becomes known by the quantity of chlorine present. It is not safe to drink a water containing such an excessive quantity of chlorine as 4 grains per gallon. The chlorine in Ullswater and Thames water is ·7 and 1·1 grains per gallon respectively. Sewage has about 8 grains on the average.

Ammonia.—This determination acquires significance because it is one of the early substances produced by the decomposition of animal matter. It therefore indicates, when present in large quantities, recent contamination by sewage. Rain always contains a small amount of ammonia, and deep wells occasionally show ammonia derived from the reduction of nitrates by the oxygen-seeking organic matter. The above inferences must, therefore, be applied with caution.

Nitrates and Nitrites result from the oxidation of animal matter. Vegetable substances, under like conditions, yield none or but mere traces of these compounds. The presence of nitrates is a most unfavorable sign in a shallow well or river water, because the conditions to which these waters are subjected are so variable that there is a constant liability of the purifying processes diminishing, and allowing the sewage, now only represented by innoxious nitrates, to appear in its dangerous, unoxidised condition.

Dr Frankland takes the sum of the nitrogen existing in the water as ammonia and as nitrites and nitrates, as a sort of measure of the minimum amount of animal or sewage matter destroyed. The amount due to sewage or animal matter is considered to be all over ·032 part per 100,000 (or ·022 gr. per gallon), which is the average of ‘inorganic nitrogen’ natural to unpolluted rain water. Dr Frankland also expresses this ‘previous sewage or animal contamination,’ in terms of London sewage containing 10 parts of nitrogen in 100,000 parts of liquid, by multiplying the above-named corrected sum by 10,000. Thus, a water containing 1 part per 100,000 (·7 gr. per gall.) of ‘inorganic nitrogen’ would have a ‘previous sewage or animal contamination’ of 9680 parts per 100,000, for it would have required 100,000 {(1 - ·032)/10} = 9680 parts of London sewage to produce an amount of nitrogen equal to that found by analysis. A water which contains over 20,000 parts of previous sewage contamination (1·5 grains of inorganic nitrogen) is said to be dangerous. All other waters containing more inorganic nitrogen than in rain are said to be ‘doubtful’ except springs and deep well waters containing less than 10,000 parts of previous sewage contamination per 100,000, and such shallow wells and running water which from their source may be taken to be free from sewage.

Organic matter.—There is no method by which the actual weight of organic matter can be determined, still less is it possible to say how much is likely to be actually injurious organic matter, but there are several means of measuring the proportionate amount of organic contamination.

Dr Frankland determines the amount of carbon and nitrogen in the organic matter. The smaller the amount of these elements the better the water, and the less the amount of nitrogen, especially in proportion to organic carbon, the less chance of animal matter. A good drinking water will not have more than ·2 parts in 100,000 (·14 gr. per gall.) of carbon, or ·03 part of organic nitrogen in 100,000 parts (·02 gr. per gall.) of the water. The amount of putrescent matter may be estimated by the amount of oxygen consumed in destroying it. Dr Tidy (‘Chem. Soc. Jour.,’ January, 1879) considers that, speaking generally, waters requiring ·05 part per 100,000 (·035 gr. per gall.) to be of great organic purity; ·15 part (·1 gr. per gall.) waters of medium purity; waters of doubtful purity, from ·15 to ·21 part per 100,000 (·15 gr. per gallon). Impure waters, all above ·15 gr. per gall.

The proportion of albuminous substances present is measured by Mr Wanklyn by the amount of ammonia set free by alkaline permanganate. A water containing over ·15 part per million albuminoid ammonia condemns a water absolutely (‘Wanklyn’s Water Analysis,’ 4th edit., p. 54); ·10 part per million with little free ammonia, or ·05 part albuminoid ammonia with much free ammonia, is ‘suspicious.’ A water with less than ·05 part albuminoid ammonia belongs to the class of very pure waters.

Of course the above data are not hard and fast lines, but serve as aid to a judgment which may be modified by other circumstances connected with the analysis, and the source of the water.

Methods of Analysis. Total solid residue.—1000 grains are evaporated to dryness in a platinum dish over a water bath and residue dried in an oven at 212° F. for an hour, or until the weight is constant. The increase in weight of the platinum vessel multiplied by 70 gives the number of grains of total solid residue per gallon.

Hardness is determined by a solution of soap of which 320 grain-measure will soften a water of 16° of hardness. Each degree of hardness represents an amount of soap-destroying matter equivalent to 1 grain of chalk per gallon. 1000 measured grains of the⁴⁄₂₀ = ·2.

The hardness of the water in the natural state is the ‘total hardness.’ By boiling for an hour and making up loss by evaporation with boiled distilled water and again determining the hardness, the ‘permanent hardness’ is found. That which has been removed by the boiling is the temporary hardness.

Table A.

Soap test measures corresponding to one thousand measures of water of each degree of hardness.

Degree of hardness. Soap test measures. Difference.

0 14 18

1 32 22

2 54 22

3 76 20

4 96 20

5 116 20

6 136 20

7 156 19

8 175 19

9 194 19

10 213 18

11 231 18

12 249 18

13 267 18

14 285 18

15 303 17

16 320 —

The standard water of 16° of hardness is thus made:—Pure carbonate of calcium (Iceland spar) is weighed out into a porcelain or platinum dish in the proportion of 16 grains for a gallon of solution. It is dissolved in weak hydrochloric acid, and the whole cautiously evaporated to dryness over a water bath, then re-dissolved in water and again evaporated to drive off any excess of acid. The dish is covered with a glass during the operation to prevent loss by spirting. The resulting neutral chloride of calcium is dissolved in a gallon of pure distilled water if 16 grains were weighed out, or a proportionate quantity in other cases. The soap solution can be made by dissolving good curd soap in weak methylated spirit in the proportion of one ounce of soap to the gallon. A potash soap made as follows is, however, less liable to change: 150 grains of lead plaster (Emplastrum plumbi, B. P.) and 40 grains of dry potassic carbonate are rubbed together in a mortar and repeatedly extracted with small portions of methylated spirit, triturating the mass meanwhile, till about a pint of spirit has been used; filter and add an equal bulk of recently boiled distilled water. Whichever method is followed the clear solution has now to be standardised by the ‘water of 16° of hardness.’ 1000 grains of the water of 16° of hardness are placed into a bottle, and this soap solution is run in from a burette until a permanent lather is formed. The soap solution must be fortified by strong soap solution or diluted with alcohol till 320 measures produce a lather permanent for five minutes in 1000 grain-measures of water of 16° of hardness.

Chlorine. To 1000 grains of the water add a drop or two of neutral chromate of sodium, so as to tinge the water yellow; run in standard nitrate of silver till the liquid acquires a very faint red tinge, showing that all the chlorine has been precipitated and that red silver chromate is beginning to be formed. The number of grains of standard solution divided by 100 will give the grains of chlorine in one gallon of the water.

The standard solution is prepared by dissolving pure nitrate of silver in the proportion of 47·90 grains to one gallon of distilled water.

Ammonia is always carried out as described in the account of Messrs Wanklyn and Chapman’s process.

Nitrate and Nitrites.—These substances can be most expeditiously estimated by the indigo process as follows: 200 grain-measures of the water are placed in a flask and a little of a standard solution of indigo added thereto; twice the volume of pure sulphuric acid is then suddenly poured in from a measuring cylinder, and the whole shaken. The temperature rises immediately to about 270° Fahr., and the blue colour will probably be immediately discharged; more indigo, therefore, must be rapidly run in till a brown-green tint shows itself. This gives the trial estimation,

Messrs Wanklyn and Chapman’s aluminium method is also a very convenient process. 2000 grains of the water are placed in a retort and half as much of a solution of 10 per cent. soda added. The soda solution is made from sodium soda and the absence of nitrates is secured by boiling the liquid with a piece of aluminium. Half the contents of the retort are distilled over and the residue cooled. A piece of aluminium foil of about six square inches area is tied to a piece of clean glass rod and sunk in the liquid. The neck of the retort is guarded by a tube containing fragments of glass moistened with hydrochloric acid; it is sloped, so that any liquid spurted into the neck will flow back into the retort. After resting several hours the neck of the retort is washed down with pure water, the contents of the tube are transferred to the retort, and the contents distilled over, down to about an ounce in two or three ounces water placed as a receiver. The contents of the receiver are made up to 200 grains and the ammonia is estimated in one half by Nessler’s test as below described.

An exceedingly accurate eudiometric method has also been devised by Dr Frankland, based on Crum’s observations, that a highly concentrated solution of nitrates, when vigorously agitated with mercury and an excess of concentrated pure sulphuric acid, yields all its nitrogen from the nitrates and nitrites, as nitric oxide, a compound occupying twice the volume of the nitrogen as nitrates. The weight of gas is easily calculated from the

Organic Contamination; means of estimating.—Messrs Wanklyn and Chapman’s method is most generally employed. It depends on the conversion of the nitrogen of the organic matter into ammonia and the employment of Nessler’s test to estimate this ammonia.

Nessler’s Test. 500 gr. of iodide of potassium are dissolved in a small quantity of hot distilled water, and to this is gradually added a cold saturated solution of mercuric chloride till the precipitate produced ceases to be dissolved upon stirring. To render this alkaline, add 2000 gr. of potassic hydrate and dilute the volume to 10,000 grain measures. A little more saturated mercuric chloride is added, and the whole allowed to settle, and the clear liquid decanted off. The test should have a slightly yellowish tint. If colourless, it is not sensitive, and more mercuric chloride must be added.

Standard Ammonia Solution.—Dissolve 27·164 gr. of pure sulphate of ammonium in 1 gall. of distilled water. For use dilute 100 gr. to 1000 gr. It will then contain 1 gr. of ammonia in 100,000 of water.

In order to estimate ammonia several six-ounce tall glass cylinders, free from colour, are graduated at 1000 grains. One of these is filled up to the graduation mark with the ammonia to be estimated, and about 30 gr. of Nessler’s reagent added from a pipette. The coloration produced is noted, a second cylinder is filled nearly to the mark with distilled water, and what is thought sufficient ammonia to produce a similar colour to the first run in, and the whole made up to 1000 gr., and 30 gr. of Nessler added; if after standing five minutes the colour in the second is the same as in the water examined, the quantity of ammonia they contain will be equal; but if this is not the case a second trial must be made, using more or less standard ammonia as the intensity of colour is greater or less than the first. After a little experience, more than two trials are rarely necessary.

Examination. (a) Free Ammonia. 7000 grains (a deci-gallon) of the water to be analysed is placed in a tabulated retort, and to it is added half an ounce of a supersaturated solution of carbonate of soda, made by dissolving ignited carbonate of soda in water free from ammonia. The contents are distilled over in two portions of 1000 grains each, and the second Nesslerised; if it contains no ammonia, the distillation may be stopped; if it does, the distillation must be continued and tested in portions of 500 grains till the ammonia no longer can be detected. If there is much ammonia in the cylinder of the second 1000 grains the first will probably contain too much to be conveniently estimated, and therefore an aliquot part diluted to 1000 grains with distilled water free from

(b) Albuminoid Ammonia. To the retort, after all the free ammonia has been driven off, one ounce of a solution of hydrate and permanganate of potassium of a strength of 2000 gr. of hydrate of potassium and 80 gr. of permanganate to 10,000 gr. of water is added, and the distillation continued until no more ammonia comes over, collecting the distillate in portions of 1000 c.c. as before. The sum is the albuminoid ammonia derived from the nitrogenous organic matter.

It is of course essential that the utmost care be taken to remove by rinsing or distillation all traces of ammonia from apparatus employed. Water which has been distilled till free from ammonia should alone be used in estimations and preparations of solutions, and the alkaline permanganate should lie boiled for a short time when made to expel ammonia.

“Oxygen” Process. This is a useful process when comparing waters of similar origin. It is probably a more reliable measure of the putrescent matter present than the total organic contamination. It is essential that the oxidizing agent potassium permanganate be added in excess and allowed to stand three hours. The following method is very delicate (vide Dr Tidy on Potable Waters, ‘Chem. Soc. Journ.,’ January, 1879.)

Cleanse with sulphuric acid and with tap water two flasks and place in one 500 septems (¹⁄₂₀ gall.) of the water, in the other an equal quantity of distilled water. Add to each 20 septems (140 gr.) of sulphuric acid (1 part pure acid to 3 of distilled water) and 20 septems of potassium permanganate and allow to rest for 3 hours. Then add to each flask a couple of drops of an aqueous solution of potassic iodide (1 in 10) when iodine is liberated equivalent to the amount of permanganate unacted on by the waters. Observe the amount of a sodic hyposulphite solution (5·4 gr. in 7000 gr.) which must be added to each to remove this free iodine (judging of the exact spot by adding towards the end of the experiment a few drops of starch).

The strength of the potassic permanganate solution is 2 gr. of the salt in 7000 gr. to ¹⁄₁₀ gall.; therefore the 20 septems will contain ·04 gr. permanganate, equivalent to ·01 of available oxygen. The experiment (A) with the amount of hyposulphite used up for the blank distilled water shows the amount of hyposulphite equivalent to 20 septems or ·01 gr. of oxygen. Therefore the amount of oxygen unconsumed in the water (B) to be examined was (B/A) × ·01 and the amount (C) actually used up was (A - B)/A × ·01 for 500 septems (¹⁄₂₀th gall). Then the oxygen consumed per gallon would be A-B x ·2 / A. It is necessary to perform this standardising of hyposulphite with every series of experiment on account of its tendency to change. Dr Tidy recommends that in addition to the three hours’ experiment one of a single hour duration be executed. The higher the proportion of oxygen consumed in one hour to the oxygen consumed in three hours the worse the water.

Nitrites, sulphuretted hydrogen, and ferrous salts interfere with this test, and there appears to be a different ratio between the oxygen consumed and the amount of organic matter according to the amount of oxidation that has already taken place. The organic matter of deep wells is proportionately least acted upon.

Combustion methods.—The “Frankland and Armstrong process” consists in burning with oxide of copper in vacuo the residue left on evaporating the water, and collecting and measuring in a suitable gas apparatus the carbonic acid, and nitrogen, and nitric oxide proceeding from the organic matter. From these estimations are calculated the organic carbon and nitrogen.

This method, though forming the most accurate means of measuring organic contamination, is not in general use in consequence of the difficulties attending Dr Frankland’s method of analysis. Professor Dittmar and Drs Dupré and Hake have lately introduced processes by which the same results may be obtained without necessitating the use of expensive gas apparatus.

Dittmar’s Carbon.—Concentrate a suitable quantity (say 10,000 gr.) in a pear-shaped flask, and, after adding some saturated solution of sulphurous acid to expel carbonates and nitrates, evaporate to dryness in a glass dish on a water bath. Transfer the residue from the dish to a porcelain or platinum boat, and introduce it into the tail end of a combustion tube, filled three fourths of its length with oxide of copper, and having a roll of silver gauze in the front part of the tube. Previous to the boat being put in, this tube is heated to redness, and a stream of air, freed from carbonic acid, passed through it till the gas which comes out no longer renders clear baryta water turbid. The combustion tube has attached in front a small V-Shaped tube charged with chromic acid, dissolved in 60 per cent. sulphuric acid. To it is permanently fixed a small tube filled with calcic chloride, and in front of all is a small-weighed U-tube the first three fourths of which is filled with soda lime, and the other fourth with calcic chloride. On turning the gas on gradually from the front to the tail the residue is at last reached, and burnt in the stream of pure air. The carbonic acid given off, after being freed from sulphurous anhydride by passing through the chromic acid solution and of moisture by the³⁄₁₁ gives the amount of carbon in the amount of water taken.

Dittmar’s Nitrogen. An amount of water, about half that taken for the carbon, is evaporated in a similar way. The residue is transferred to a large copper or silver boat, and mixed with about 50 grains of soda made from pure sodium, or with a mixture of soda and baryta, and burnt in a stream of hydrogen in a short combustion tube, which is closed in front by a nitrogen absorption bulb charged with exceedingly weak acidulated water. The amount of ammonia given off is estimated by the Nessler test as described under “Ammonia.” Subtracting the amount of inorganic ammonia the residue multiplied by ¹⁴⁄₁₇ yields the quantity of organic nitrogen in that volume of water.

A few blank experiments must be made to observe and allow correction for the amount of experimental error.

Carbon method of Drs Dupré and Hake.[261]—This method appears to be very accurate, but it necessitates a number of minute precautions, which cannot here be particularised. A residue is obtained by evaporating the water either in the ordinary hemispherical glass dish, or in an exceedingly thin silver one, which after being ignited is supported in a platinum hemisphere of convenient size. At the close of the evaporation this dish is crumpled up without being handled and introduced into a combustion tube, similar to that described under Dittmar’s process. The carbonic acid is absorbed in bright baric hydrate solution, and the precipitated baric carbonate is, with suitable precautions to prevent access of impure air, collected on a filter and washed. It is dried and weighed. The result divided by 19·4 gives the weight of organic carbon. As another method of estimating the carbon the authors propose to compare the turbidity produced by the carbonic acid evolved from the combustion of the residue in solutions of basic acetate of lead with that produced by known quantity of carbonic acid.

Pres. The preservation of rain water in a state of purity necessitates the greatest care in constructing the tanks, especially if the latter are underground. Of eight samples of stored rain water examined by the River Commissioners only one was fit for domestic use, the others were all polluted by animal matter. Storage room sufficient to hold 120 days’ supply will be found sufficient for the driest district. The small cisterns for service water should not be placed in positions where it can receive the emanation of water closets or sleeping apartments. They should be frequently cleaned out. The best are made of enamelled slate or properly painted iron. Wherever possible a water service should be on the constant supply system.

For wells the chief precaution necessary is to keep out surface and drainage water by maintaining the walls water-proof for a considerable depth. On shipboard water is preserved in iron tanks or in casks well charred on the inside. Water cannot be safely kept in copper or leaden vessels, and it receives a calcareous impregnation by contact with lime, mortar, slate, or stone containing lime. The addition of ¹⁄₂ to 1 per cent. of finely powdered binoxide of manganese materially promotes preservation, especially at sea, where the motion of the vessel and the subsequent agitation of the water increases the points of contact. Water never putrefies in iron vessels or when some fragments of metallic iron are immersed in it. Distilled water should be preserved in glass bottles or carboys. See Lotion, Spirits, Water, Distilled Eye water, Perfumed water, and the articles below.

Water, Soda. Each bottle of this liquid should contain at least 15 grains of carbonate of sodium, but that of the shops is usually nothing else but water highly charged with carbonic anhydride. Not a particle of soda enters into its composition, on which account it cannot be substituted for the preparation of the Pharmacopœias.

To produce a superior article of soda water, the possession of a powerful aërating and bottling machine is absolutely necessary. The water employed must also be of the purest quality, the carbonic anhydride well washed with water, and the corks so prepared that they will not impart their peculiar flavour to the beverage. See Powders, Solution, Wines, and Lead in Aerated water.

Water, Tar. See Infusion of Tar.

WATERS (Distilled). Syn. Aromatic waters, Odoriferous w., Perfumed w.; Aquæ (Ph. L.), Aquæ destillatæ (Ph. E. & D.), L. Pure water, charged, by distillation, with the volatile, odorous, and aromatic principles of plants.

Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)—a. 2 galls, of water are put into the still along with the vegetable matter (bruised, if necessary), but only 1 gall. is drawn over. In the Ph. L. 1836, 7 fl. oz. of proof spirit were added before distillation.

b. Take of the essential oil of the plant, 2 fl. dr.; powdered silex, 2 dr.; triturate them diligently together, and then with distilled water, 1 gall., gradually added; lastly (after briskly agitating the whole for some time), strain the solution.

2. (Ph. E.) As 1, a, but adding of rectified spirit, 3 fl. oz., before distillation.

3. (Ph. D.). From the respective essences (Ph. D), 1 fl. oz.; distilled water, 2 quarts; agitated well together, and then filtered through paper.

The following are the Aquæ destillatæ of the British Colleges, with some others, the quantities referring to a product of 1 gall., to

Angelica Water; Aqua angelicæ (P. Cod.). Bruised seed, 1 lb.; water, q. s., distil 4 lbs.

Aniseed Water; Aqua anisi (P. Cod.). From seeds, as Aqua angelicæ.

Balm Water; Aqua melissæ (P. Cod.), L. Fresh tops, 12 lbs.

Bergamot Water; Aqua bergamii (L. 1746). Bergamot peel, 5 oz.

Bitter-almond Water; Aquæ amygdalæ amaræ, Aqua amygdalarum amabarum (P. Cod.), L. Bitter-almond cake (from which the oil has been expressed), 5 lbs.; macerate for 24 hours, and filter the distilled product through paper previously wetted with pure distilled water. Poisonous.—Dose, 10 to 60 drops, as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid.

Black mustard-seed Water; Aqua sinapis nigræ (Guibourt). Mix 1 part of ground black mustard seed with 8 of water; macerate for 12 hours, and distil 4 parts, by means of steam conducted by a tube from a boiler to the bottom of the still. Filter through moistened paper to separate the oil. Used externally as a rubefacient.

Borage Water; Aqua boraginis (P. Cod.), L. Fresh leaves, 12 lbs.

Camphor Water; Aqua camphoræ (B. P.) Mistura camphoræ. Enclose ¹⁄₂ oz. of camphor, broken into pieces, in a muslin bag, and attach this to one end of a glass rod, to keep it at the bottom of a bottle containing 1 gall, of distilled water. Macerate for 2 days, then pour off the solution as required.

Caraway Water; Aqua carui (B. P., Ph. L. & D.). Caraway, bruised, 1; water, 20; distil 10.

Cascarilla Water; Aqua corticis cascarillæ (P. Cod.), L. Cascarilla, bruised, 3 lbs.

Cassia Water; Aqua cassiæ (Ph. E.), L. Cassia, bruised, 1¹⁄₂ lb.

Castor Water; Aqua castorei. Castor, 4 oz.

Chamomile Water; Aqua anthemidis (Ph. G.). Dried chamomile flower, 2 lbs.; water, q. s.; distil 20 lbs.

Cherry-laurel Water; Aqua lauro-cerasi (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Fresh leaves of common laurel, 16, water, 50; chop the leaves, crush them in a mortar, and macerate them in the water for twenty-four hours; distil 20 of the liquid, shake the product, filter through paper, and preserve in a stoppered bottle—2. (Ph. E.) Fresh leaves, chopped, 10 lbs. (10 lbs.—Ph. D.). To the product add of compound spirit of lavender, 8 fl. oz,; agitate well, and, if milky, filter it (through wet paper—Ph. D.& P. Cod.).—Dose, 10 to 60 drops, as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid. It is commonly imitated in trade by dissolving 75 drops (minims) of the oil of bitter almonds in 2¹⁄₂ fl. oz. of rectified spirit, agitating the mixture with warm distilled water, 1 gall., and filtering.

Cinnamon Water; Aqua cinnamomi (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. 1. Cinnamon, bruised, 18 oz.; or oil, 2 fl. dr.—2. (B. P.) Cinnamon, bruised, 1; water, 16; distil 8.

Clove Water; Aqua caryophylli (P. Cod.), L. Cloves, bruised, 3 lbs.

Coriander Water; Aqua coriandri. As Angelica water.

Dill Water; Aqua anethi (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. 1. Bruised seed, 1¹⁄₂ lb.; or essential oil, 2 fl. dr.—2. (B. P.) Bruised fruit, 1; water, 20; distil 10.

Distilled Water; Aqua destillata (B. P.). Take of water, 10 galls, distil from a copper state, connected with a block-tin worm; reject the first ¹⁄₂ gall., and preserve the next 8 galls. It should remain clear on the addition of either lime water, chloride of barium, nitrate of silver, oxalate of ammonia, or hydrosulphuric acid (sulphuretted hydrogen).

Elder-flower Water; Aqua sambuci (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. 1. Fresh elder flowers, 10 lbs.—2. (B. P.) Fresh elder flowers, separated from the stalks, 1; water 2; distil 1.

Fennel Water; Aqua fœniculi (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) L. As DILL WATER.

Hyssop Water; Aqua hyssopi (P. Cod.), L. Fresh tops, 12 lbs.

Eucalyptus Water. Syn. Aqua eucalypti. Prep. Dry leaves, 1 part; add sufficient water to yield 4 parts of product.

Hysteric Water; Aqua hysterica. Compound of spirit of bryony, omitting the bryony.

Juniper Water; Aqua baccæ Juniperi (P. Cod.), L. Berries, bruised, 3 lbs.

Lavender Water; Aqua lavendulæ (P. Cod.), L. Flowering tops, 3 lbs.

Lemon-peel Water; Aqua limonis (E., 1817). Fresh lemon peel, 2 lbs.; water, q. s.; distil 10 lbs.

Lettuce Water; Aqua lactucæ (P. Cod.), L. Fresh lettuces, bruised, 12 lbs.

Lime-tree-flower Water; AQUA TILLIÆ. From lime flowers, as melilot water.

Lily Water; Aqua liliorum convallium (Ph. Bruns.). Flowers of lily of the valley, 1 lb.; water, 4 lbs.; distil 2 lbs.

Melilot Water; Aqua mellioti (P. Cod.), L. Dried flower, 3 lbs.

Mint Water, Spearmint w.; Aqua menthæ viridis (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). L. 1. Dried herb, 2 lbs.; or fresh herb, 4 lbs.; or essential oil, 2 fl. dr.—2. (B. P.) English oil of spearmint, 1¹⁄₂ dr.; water, 1¹⁄₂ gall.; distil 1 gall.

Myrtle-flower Water; Aqua myrti. Myrtle flowers, 3 lbs.; water, q. s.; distil 1 gall.

Opium Water; Aqua opii (Ph. G). Opium, sliced and dried, 1 oz. Put into a glass retort with 10 oz. of. water, and distil 5 oz.

Orange-flower Water; Aqua aurantii floris (B. P., Ph. L.), A. florum aurantii, L. “Water distilled from the flowers of Citrus Bigaradia, Risso, and Citrus Aurantium,

Orange-peel Water; Aqua corticis aurantii (L. 1746). Rind of oranges, 5 oz.

Origanum Water; Aqua origani (P. Cod.), L. Dried flowers, 3 lbs.

Peach Water; Aqua persicæ (P. Cod.), L. Fresh leaves, chopped small, 12 lbs.; as CHERRY-LAUREL WATER.

Peach-leaf Water; Aqua persicæ (P. Cod.). Fresh peach leaves, cut small, 2 lbs.; water, 4 lbs. Distil gently 3 lbs.

Parsley-seed Water; Aqua petroselini (P. Cod.). From parsley seed, as angelica water.

Pennyroyal Water; Aqua pulegii (Ph. L. & E.), Aqua menthæ pulegii (Ph. D.), L. As Mint water (above).

Peppermint Water; Aqua menthæ piperitæ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. As MINT WATER (above).

Pimento Water; Aqua pimentæ: (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). L. 1. Pimento, bruised, 1 lb.; or oil, 2 fl. dr.—2. (B. P.) Pimento, bruised, 1; water, 23, nearly; distil one half.

Plantain-leaf Water; Aqua plantaginis (P. Cod.). From fresh plantain leaves, as lettuce water.

Raspberry Water. Fresh raspberries, 6 lbs.

Red-ant Water; Aqua formicarum. Distilled from red ants with water, q. s.

Rhodium Water; Aqua rhodii. Rhodium wood, 1 part; water, 8; macerate, and distil 4 parts.

Rosemary Water; Aqua rosmarini, Aqua anthos. Rosemary, in flower, 1 lb.; infuse 24 hours; distil 1 gall.

Rose Water; Aqua rosæ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Damask or hundred-leaved rose, 10 lbs. (Ph. L. & E.).—Otto 40 drops. (Ph. D.)—Fresh cabbage-rose petals, 1; water, 2; distil 1 (B. P.).

Rue Water; Aqua Rutæ. Fresh rue, 1 lb.; macerate 24 hours; distil 1 gall.

Sage Water; Aqua salviæ (P. Cod.), L. As Lavender water (above).

Sassafras Water; Aqua ligni sassafras (P. Cod.), L. Sassafras chips, 3 lbs.

Sassafras Water; Aqua sassafras (P. Cod.). From sassafras, as melilot water.

Scurvy-grass Water; Aqua cochleariæ (P. Cod.). Fresh scurvy grass, 8 lbs.

Spearmint Water. See Mint water.

Spirituous Waters. Many of the distilled spirits were formerly termed waters.

Spruce Fir Water; Aqua abirtis (P. Cod.). Bruised buds of spruce fir, 2 lbs.

Stinking Goose-foot Water; Aqua chenopodii valvariæ. Stinking goose-foot, 1 lb.; water, 6 lbs.; distil 3 lbs.; 1 to 2 oz. in hysteria.

Strawberry Water; Aqua fragariæ. Strawberries, 3 lbs.; water, q. s.; distil 3 lbs.

Tansy Water; Aqua tanaceti (P. Cod.), L. Flowering tops, 6 lbs.

Thyme Water; Aqua thymi (P. Cod.), L. As the last.

Valerian Water; Aqua valerianæ, A. radicis v. (P. Cod.), L. Root bruised, 3 lbs.

Vanilla Water; Aqua vanillæ, L. Vanilla, coarsely powdered, 1 lb.; salt, 5 lbs.; water 2¹⁄₂ galls.; macerate for 24 hours in a covered vessel, then distil 1 gall.

Violet Water; Aqua violæ. Violets, 1 part; water, 4; after 6 hours distil 2 parts.

Wormwood Water; Aqua absinthii (P. Cod.). Wormwood tops, 4 lbs.

Uses, &c. Distilled waters are mostly employed as vehicles or perfumes. A few, as bitter-almond, cherry-laurel, and peach water, are poisonous in doses larger than a few drops. The dose of the aromatic or carminative waters, as those of dill, caraway, peppermint, pennyroyal, &c., is a wine-glassful, ad libitum.

Concluding Remarks. In the preparation of distilled waters for medical purposes the utmost care should be taken to prevent contamination from contact with either copper, lead, or zinc, since these metals are gradually oxidised and dissolved by them. In preparing them from the essential oils, silica, in impalpable powder, is the best substance that can be employed to promote the division and diffusion of the oil, as directed in the Ph. L. Magnesia and sugar, formerly used for the purpose, are objectionable; as the first not; only decomposes a portion of the oil, but the water is apt to dissolve a little of it, and is hence rendered unfit to be used as a solvent for metallic salts, more especially for corrosive sublimate and nitrate of silver; whilst the other causes the water to ferment and acetify.

In the distillation of waters intended for perfumery the utmost care is requisite to produce a highly fragrant article. The still should be furnished with a high and narrow neck, and the heat of steam, or a salt-water bath, should alone be employed. The first 2 or 3 fl. oz. of the runnings should be rejected, except when spirit is used, and the remainder collected until the proper quantity be obtained, when the whole product should be mixed together, as distilled waters progressively decrease in strength the longer the process is continued. When a very superior article is desired, the waters may be redistilled by a gentle heat, the first two thirds only being preserved. The herbaceous odour of recently distilled waters is removed by keeping them for some months, loosely covered in a cold cellar.

When distilled waters have been carefully prepared, so that none of the liquor in the still has ‘spirted’ over into the condensing worm, they keep well, and are not liable to change; but when the reverse is the case, they frequently become ropy and viscid. The best remedy for this is to redistil them. Waters which have acquired a burnt smell in the ‘stilling’ lose it by freezing. Distilled waters

In general, the druggist draws off 2 galls., or more, of water from the quantities of the herbs, barks, seeds, or flowers, ordered in the Pharmacopœias; hence the inferior quality of the waters of the shops. They do, however, very well for vehicles. The perfumers, on the contrary, use an excess of flowers, or at least reserve only the first and stronger portion of the water that distils over, the remainder being collected and used for a second distillation of fresh flowers.

The most beautiful distilled waters are those prepared in the south of France, and which are imported into England under the French names. Thus eau de rose, eau de fleurs d’oranges, &c., are immensely superior to the best English rose or orange-flower water, &c. The water that distils over in the preparation of the essential oils is usually of the strongest and finest class. See Essence, Oils (Volatile), Spirits (Perfumed), Vegetables, &c.

WATERS (Eye). Syn. Collyria, L. Prep. 1. From distilled vinegar, 1 fl. oz.; distilled water ¹⁄₂ pint. Half a fl. oz. of rectified spirit, or 1 fl. oz. of brandy, is often added. In simple chronic ophthalmia, blear eyes, &c., also to remove particles of lime from the eyes.

2. Sugar of lead, 10 gr.; pure vinegar, ¹⁄₂ teaspoonful; distilled water, ¹⁄₂ pint. In ophthalmia, as soon as active inflammation ceases; also as the last.

3. Wine of opium, 2 fl. dr.; sulphate of zinc, 20 gr.; distilled water, ¹⁄₂ pint. Astringent and anodyne; in painful ophthalmia and extreme irritability.

4. Opium, 15 gr.; boiling water, 8 fl. oz.; when cold, add of solution of acetate of ammonia, 2¹⁄₂ fl. oz., and filter. As the last.

5. Sulphate of zinc, 20 gr.; distilled water, ¹⁄₂ pint; dissolve. Au excellent astringent water in chronic ophthalmia, weak and irritable, eyes, &c.

6. Sulphate of copper, 10 gr.; camphor mixture (julep), ¹⁄₂ pint; dissolve. In the purulent ophthalmia of infants.

I. Table exhibiting the Composition of several of the more celebrated Mineral Waters.

16 fl. oz. in the following Ingredients:—

WATERS. Nitrogen in cubic inches. Carbonic anhydride in cubic inches. Sulphuretted hydrogen in cubic inches. Carbonate of sodium in grains. Carbonate of magnesium in grains. Carbonate of calcium in grains. Sulphate of sodium in grains. Sulphate of magnesium in grains.

CARBONATED.

Seltzer 17· 4· 5· 3·

Pyrmont 26· 10· 4·5 5·5

Spa 13· 1·5 4·5 1·5

Carlsbad 5· 5· 1·5 8·5

Pouges 30· 10· 1·2 12·

Saint Parize 22· 0·5 11·5

CHALYBEATE.

Tunbridge 0·59 1· trace of oxygen 0·03

Cheltenham Chalybeate 2·5 0·5 22·7 6·

Brighton 2·2

SALINE.

Seidlitz 2·5 0·8 180·

Cheltenham Pure Saline 15· 11·

Bristol 3·5 1·5 1·5

Buxton 0·2 1·3

Bath 1·2 0·8 1·5

Scarborough a trace 20·

Barèges uncertain 2·5 ditto

Plombières 2·2 0·3 2·3

Kilburn 3·5 8·54? 0·5 1· 12· 37·

Leamington New Bath 0·4 a trace a trace 19·

Leamington Old Bath 0·3 ditto 7·5 7·

SULPHUROUS.

Harrogate 0·8 1· 2·3 0·7 2·5 1·3

Moffat 0·5 0·6 1·2

Aix-la-Chapelle 5·5 12· 4·2

Cheltenham Sulph. Spring 1·5 23·5 5·

WATERS. Sulphate of calcium in grains. Chloride of sodium in grains. Chloride of magnesium in grains. Chloride of calcium in grains. Ferric Oxide. Silica. Temperature. Total of saline contents. AUTHORITY.

CARBONATED.

Seltzer 17· Cold 29· Bergman.

Pyrmont 8·5 1·5 0·6 ditto 30·6 Ditto.

Spa 0·2 0·6 ditto 8·3 Ditto.

Carlsbad 4·5 a trace 0·3 165° 19·8 Klaproth.

Pouges 2·2 2·5 0·5 Cold 28·4 Hassentratz.

Saint Parize 13·5 ditto 25· Ditto.

CHALYBEATE.

Tunbridge 0·17 0·30 0·03 0·05 0·28 ditto 0·86 Scudamore.

Cheltenham Chalybeate 2·5 41·3 0·8 ditto 73·8 Parkes & Brande.

Brighton 4· 3· 0·75 1·4 0·14 ditto 9·29 Marcet.

SALINE.

Seidlitz 5· 4·5 ditto 192·8 Bergman.

Cheltenham Pure Saline 4·5 50· ditto 80·5 Parkes & Brande.

Bristol 1·5 0·5 1· 74° 6· Carrick.

Buxton 0·3 0·2 0·03 82° 1·83 Pearson.

Bath 9· 3·3 a trace 0·2 116° 14·8 Phillips.

Scarborough 9· ditto Cold 29· Saunders.

Barèges a trace 0·5 120° 3· Ditto.

Plombières 1·5 0·3 ? 6·6 Vanquelin.

Kilburn 5·5 2·5 5·5 0·2 a trace Cold 64·2 Schmeisser.

Leamington New Bath 14· 53· 1·5 0·8 ditto 88·3 Lambe.

Leamington Old Bath 18· 41· ditto 73·5 Ditto.

SULPHUROUS.

Harrogate 77· 11· 1·5 ditto 94· Garnet.

Moffat 4·5 ditto 4·5 Ditto.

Aix-la-Chapelle 5· 143° 21·2 Bergman.

Cheltenham Sulph. Spring 1·2 35· 0·3 Cold 65· Parkes & Brande.

II. Table exhibiting the Composition of the principal Mineral waters of Germany, and of the Saratoga Congress Spring of America, re-arranged expressly for this work.

Grains of anhydrous ingredients in one pound troy. Adelheids-Quelle. Auschowitz. Ferdinands-Brunnen. Carlsbad. Eger. Franzens-Brunnen. Ems. Fachingen. Kissengen. Ragozi. Krenznach. Elizen- Brunnen.

Carbonate of Soda 5·2443 4·5976 7·2712 3·8914 8·0625 12·3328 ... ...

Carbonate of Lithia 0·0902 0·0507 0·0150 0·0282 0·0405 ... ... ...

Carbonate of Baryta 0·0024 ... ... ... 0·0022 ... ... ...

Carbonate of Strontia 0·0387 0·0040 0·0055 0·0023 0·0080 ... 0·0592 ...

Carbonate of Lime 0·4703 3·0085 1·7775 1·3501 0·8555 1·8667 4·8180 0·2058

Carbonate of Magnesia 0·2980 2·2867 1·0275 0·5040 0·5915 1·2983 1·3185 1·1812

Carbonate of (Proto) Manganese 0·0012 0·0692 0·0048 0·0322 0·0028 ... 0·0121 0·0072

Carbonate of (Proto) Iron 0·0121 0·2995 0·0208 0·1762 0·0120 ... 0·1397 0·1495

Sub-Phos. of Lime ... ... 0·0012 0·0172 ... 0·0061 ... ...

Sub-Phos. of Alumina ... 0·0040 0·0019 0·0092 0·0014 ... ... ...

Sulphate of Potassa 0·0066 ... ... ... 0·4050 ... 1·2540 ...

Sulphate of Soda ... 16·9022 14·9019 18·3785 ... 0·1267 ... ...

Sulphate of Lithia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Sulphate of Lime ... ... ... ... ... ... 5·5485 ...

Sulphate of Strontia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Sulphate of Magnesia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Nitr. of Magnesia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Chlor. of Ammonium ... ... ... ... ... ... 0·0364 ...

Chlor. of Potassium 0·1845 ... ... ... 0·0338 ... ... 0·7287

Chlor. of Sodium 28·4608 6·7472 5·9820 6·9229 5·7255 3·2337 39·3733 54·6917

Chlor. of Lithium ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0·0562

Chlor. of Calcium ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 9·7358

Chlor. of Magnesium ... ... ... ... ... ... 3·6599 ...

Chlor. of Barium ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0·2366

Chlor. of Strontium ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0·5494

Bromide of Sodium 0·3060 ... ... ... ... ... 0·3331 0·2304

Iodide of Sodium 0·1500 ... ... ... ... ... ... 0·0024

Fluoride of Calcium ... ... 0·0184 ... 0·0014 ... ... ...

Alumina 0·0166 ... ... ... ... ... ... 0·0086

Silica 0·1922 0·5023 0·4329 0·3548 0·3104 0·0657 0·1609 0·2355

Total Saline contents 35·4739 34·4719 31·4606 31·6670 16·0525 18·9300 56·7136 68·0190

Carbonic Acid Gas in 100 cubic inches 10 154 58 154 51 135 96 12

Temperature, Fahr. 58 49° Spru. 165° Neub. 138° Mühl. 128° Ther. 122° 54° Kess. 117° Krán. 84° 50° 53° 47°

Authorities A B C C A D A A

Grains of anhydrous ingredients in one pound troy. Marienbad. Kreuzbr. Püllna. Pyrmont. Saratoga Congress Spring. Schlesischer. Obersalz-Brunnen. Seidschutz. Selters. Spa Pouhon.

Carbonate of Soda 5·3499 ... ... 0·8261 7·6211 ... 4·6162 0·5531

Carbonate of Lithia 0·0858 ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Carbonate of Baryta ... ... ... ... ... ... 0·0014 ...

Carbonate of Strontia 0·0028 ... ... 0·0672 0·0170 ... 0·0144 ...

Carbonate of Lime 2·9509 0·5775 4·7781 5·8531 1·5464 5·1045 1·4004 0·7387

Carbonate of Magnesia 2·0390 4·8045 ... 4·1155 1·5496 0·8235 1·5000 0·8421

Carbonate of (Proto) Manganese 2·0288 ... 0·0364 0·0202 0·0026 0·0032 ... 0·0389

Carbonate of (Proto) Iron 0·1319 ... 0·3213 0·0173 0·0356 0·0095 ... 0·2813

Sub-Phos. of Lime ... 0·0026 ... ... ... 0·0117 0·0007 0·0102

Sub-Phos. of Alumina ... ... 0·0110 ... ... 0·0088 0·0020 0·0064

Sulphate of Potassa ... 3·6000 0·0314 0·1379 0·3160 3·6705 0·2978 0·0593

Sulphate of Soda 28·5868 92·8500 1·6092 ... 2·5106 17·6220 ... 0·0281

Sulphate of Lithia ... ... 0·0067 ... ... ... ... ...

Sulphate of Lime ... 1·9500 5·0265 ... ... 1·1287 ... ...

Sulphate of Strontia ... ... 0·0154 ... ... 0·0347 ... ...

Sulphate of Magnesia ... 69·8145 2·3684 ... ... 62·3535 ... ...

Nitr. of Magnesia ... ... ... 0·1004 ... 5·9302 ... ...

Chlor. of Ammonium ... ... ... 0·0326 0·0164 ... ... ...

Chlor. of Potassium ... ... ... 1·6256 ... ... 0·2685 ...

Chlor. of Sodium 10·1727 ... ... 19·6653 0·8682 ... 12·9690 0·3371

Chlor. of Lithium ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Chlor. of Calcium ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Chlor. of Magnesium ... 14·7495 0·8450 ... ... 1·2223 ... ...

Chlor. of Barium ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Chlor. of Strontium ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Bromide of Sodium ... ... ... 0·1613 0·0051 ... ... ...

Iodide of Sodium ... ... ... 0·0046 ... ... ... ...

Fluoride of Calcium ... ... ... ... ... ... 0·0013 ...

Alumina 0·0023 ... ... 0·0069 ... ... ... ...

Silica 0·2908 0·1320 0·3727 0·1112 0·2423 0·0900 0·2265 0·3739

Total Saline contents 51·6417 88·4806 15·4221 32·7452 14·7309 98·0133 21·2982 3·2691

Carbonic Acid Gas in 100 cubic inches 105 7 160 114 98 20 126 136

Temperature, Fahr. 53° 58° 56° 50° 58° 58° 58° 58°

Authorities C A A E A A A A

Authorities: A Struve. B Steinm. C Berzelius. D Bischoff. E Schweitz.

7. Camphor julep, 5 fl. oz.; solution of acetate of ammonia and rose water, of each 2¹⁄₂ fl. oz.; mix. For weak or swollen eyes, particularly after ophthalmia.

8. Chloride of barium, 30 gr.; distilled water, ¹⁄₂ pint. In the ophthalmia of scrofulous and syphylitic habits.

9. (Bate’s.) From blue vitriol, 15 gr.; camphor, 4 gr.; hot water, ¹⁄₄ pint; agitate in a corked bottle, and, when cold, make it up to 4 pints, and filter. In purulent ophthalmia and blear eyes.

10. (Goulard’s.) From solution of diacetate of lead, 16 drops; distilled water, ¹⁄₂ pint; mix. As No. 2.

11. (Krimer.) Hydrochloric acid, 20 drops; mucilage, 1 dr.; water, 2 fl. oz. To remove particles of iron or lime from the eye.

12. (Marshall’s ‘EYE-DROPS,’) Nitrate of silver, 2 gr.; dilute nitric acid, 2 drops; pure soft or distilled water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve; add powdered gum, 15 gr.; agitate until dissolved, and the next day decant the clear portion.

13. (P. Cod.) Extract of opium, 4 gr.; rose water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolved. In painful ophthalmia.

WATERS (Mine′ral). Syn. Saline waters; Aquæ minerales, L. Our space will not permit a description of these individually. The tables given on pages 1746-7, exhibiting their composition, will, however, enable the reader, with a little attention, to produce artificial waters more closely resembling the natural ones than can be done by adopting any of the numerous formulæ published for the purpose. The ‘aerated waters’ are charged with 5 or 6 times their volume of carbonic acid gas, by means of the apparatus employed by the soda-water manufacturers. On the small scale the gas is often produced by the reaction of the ingredients on each other, in which case, on the introduction of the latter, the bottle must be instantly closed and inverted. Distilled water, or filtered rain water, should alone be employed in their composition; and for the chalybeated and sulphuretted waters it should be first boiled, and allowed to cool out of contact with the air.

In addition to the tables it may be remarked that traces of iodine have been found in the water of Cheltenham (old well), traces of bromine in the water of Epsom, and traces of both bromine and iodine in that of Leamington (royal pump). Manganese has been found in the waters of Tunbridge, Carlsbad, Spa, Pyrmont, Marienbad, Saidschüts, &c. Traces of phosphoric and fluoric acid have also been found in some mineral waters. It is the opinion of many high authorities that the medicinal virtues of these waters depend more on the minute quantities of the above substances, and the high state of dilution in which they are held, than on their more abundant saline ingredients.

WATER (Perfumed′). Syn. Aquæ odoriferæ,Spirits (Perfumed). Extraits are preferred to eaux and esprits as the basis of good perfumery, where the colour is not objectionable.

The following are a few additional formulæ and remarks:—

Angel Water, Portugal w. From orange-flower and rose water, of each 1 pint; myrtle water, ¹⁄₂ pint; essence of ambergris, ¹⁄₂ fl. oz.; essence of musk, ¹⁄₄ fl. oz.; shake them well together for some hours, then filter the mixture through paper.

Eau d’Ange, Fr.; Aqua myrti, L. From myrtle flowers, 3¹⁄₂ lbs.; water, 2 galls.; distil a gallon. A pleasant perfume.

Eau d’Ange Bouillée, Fr. From rose water and orange-flower water, of each 3 pints; benzoin, ¹⁄₂ lb.; storax, ¹⁄₄ lb.; cinnamon, 1 oz.; cloves, ¹⁄₂ oz.; 3 fresh-emptied musk bags; digest in a securely covered vessel, at nearly the boiling heat, for 2 hours, then allow it to cool; strain off the clear, press the remainder, and filter for use. Very fragrant.

Eau d’Ange distillée, Fr. From benzoin, 4 oz.; storax, 2 oz.; cloves, ¹⁄₂ oz.; calamus and cinnamon, of each ¹⁄₄ oz.; coriander seeds, 1 dr. (all bruised); water, 3 quarts; distil 2 quarts. Eau d’Ange distillée et musquée is made by adding a little essence of musk to the distilled product. Both are highly fragrant.

Eau de Lavande, Lavander Water. See Spirits (Perfumed).

Eau de Naphre, Eau le Naphe, Fr.; Aqua naphæ, L. This article is distilled in Languedoc from the leaves of the bigarade, or bitter-orange tree, but the preparation sold in England under this name is often prepared as follows:—Orange flowers, 7 lbs.; fresh yellow peel of the bigarade or Seville orange, ¹⁄₂ lb.; water, 2 galls.; macerate 24 hours, and distil 1 gall. In many cases ordinary orange-flower water is sold for eau de naphe.

Rose Water. From otto of roses, 3 dr.; rectified spirit (warm), 1 pint; dissolve, add of hot water, 10 galls.; mix in a 12-gallon carboy, cork, and well agitate the whole until quite cold. This makes the ordinary rose water of the shops, and is really excellent, but it is better for distillation. See Waters (Distilled).

Unparalleled Water; Eau incomparable, Fr. From oil of lemon, 4 dr.; oil of bergamot, 2¹⁄₂ dr.; oil of cedrat, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 3¹⁄₂ pints; Hungary water, ¹⁄₂ pint; mix, and distil all but 9 oz. (Guibourt.)

Supplementary Table of Mineral Waters.

Apollinaris Brunen.

Carbonate of soda 9·65 grains.

Carbonate of magnesia 3·39 ”

Carbonate of lime 0·45 ”

Chloride of sodium 3·57 ”

Sulphate of soda 2·30 ”

Oxide of iron Alumina 0·15 ”

Silica 0·06 ”

———

19·59

Carbonic acid 47·04

The above are the contents of 16 oz. Temp. Fahr. 70°.

(Bish.)

Baden-Baden. In 16 oz.

Chloride of sodium 16·520 gr.

Bicarbonate of lime 1·273 ”

Bicarbonate of magnesia 0·042 ”

Bicarbonate of protoxide of iron 0·037 ”

Bicarbonate of protoxide of manganese traces

Bicarbonate of ammonia 0·050 ”

Sulphate of lime 1·556 ”

Sulphate of potash 0·017 ”

Phosphate of lime 0·021 ”

Arseniate of iron traces

Chloride of magnesium 0·097 ”

Chloride of potassium 1·258 ”

Bromide of sodium traces

Silica 0·914 ”

Alumina 0·008 ”

Nitrates traces

————

22·093 gr.

Free carbonic acid 0·299 ”

(Bunsen.)

Friedrichshall. In 16 oz.

Sulphate of soda 46·51 gr.

Sulphate of magnesia 39·55 ”

Chloride of sodium 61·10 ”

Chloride of magnesium 30·25 ”

Bromide of magnesium 0·37 ”

Sulphate of potash 1·52 ”

Sulphate of lime 10·34 ”

Carbonate of lime 0·11 ”

Carbonate of magnesia 1·16 ”

Silica 0·33 ”

———

190·25 gr.

Carbonic acid 5·32 c. i.

(Liebig.)

Toeplitz. 16 oz. Temp., 14° Fahr.

Sulphate of potash 0·098 gr.

Sulphate of soda 0·290 ”

Carbonate of soda 2·635 ”

Phosphate of soda 0·014 ”

Floride of silicium 0·351 ”

Chloride of sodium 0·433 ”

Carbonate of lime 0·330 ”

Carbonate of strontia 0·027 ”

Carbonate of magnesia 0·088 ”

Carbonate of protoxide of iron 0·019 ”

Carbonate of protoxide of manganese 0·021 ”

Sulphate of alumina 0·020 ”

Silica 0·443 ”

Crenic acid 0·034 ”

———

4·804

(Wolf.)

Vichy (Grand Grille). Temp. 106° Fahr. In a litre.

Carbonic acid 0·908

Bicarbonate of soda 4·883

Bicarbonate of potash 0·352

Bicarbonate of magnesia 0·303

Bicarbonate of strontia 0·003

Bicarbonate of lime 0·434

Bicarbonate of protoxide of iron 0·004

Bicarbonate of protoxide of manganese a trace

Sulphate of soda 0·291

Phosphate of soda 0·130

Arseniate of soda 0·002

Borate of soda a trace

Chloride of sodium 0·534

Silica 0·070

Organic matter, bituminous a trace

————

grammes 7·914

Woodhall (Lancashire).

Iodine and bromine, with chlorides of calcium, magnesium, potassium; more than ¹⁄₂ grain of bromide of sodium and ¹⁄₄ grain of iodine of sodium.

190 grains in 20 oz. Strongly impregnated with carbonic acid.

WATERBRASH. See Pyrosis.

WATER-CLOSET. There are a number of conditions necessary to be observed in the construction and arrangement of the water-closet if we wish to prevent its becoming a nuisance and a source of danger to the health of the inmates of a dwelling-house. 1. As regards situation there can be no doubt that, upon strict sanitary principles, the closet, instead of forming part of the house, should, whilst within easy access to it, be entirely detached. Owing to various causes, however, this isolation is frequently impossible.

Under such circumstances the closet, whilst forming part of the dwelling, should be built out from it, so as to have as little connection as possible with the rooms, corridors, &c. To still further accomplish this end the approach to the closet should be through a small vestibule or passage connecting the closet with the corridor, and opening into the latter by means of a door. Where there are more than one closet, they should be built upon the plan just proposed, and one over the other. The basement of a house is a particularly objectionable locality for a water-closet, since the warm house acts as an aspirator, and thus draws any fetid and poisonous gases there may be in the closet into the house, and causes them to be diffused throughout it. The water-closet should, therefore, always be placed in the higher parts of a building. 2. As regards construction, &c., it would be impossible for us to attempt to canvass the merits or the reverse of the numerous designs, patents, &c., that relate to this part of our subject. We shall indicate, therefore, only the more important desiderata, which are—That the pan should be nearly cone-shaped, and not round, like a half-circle. It is mostly made of earthenware, sometimes of metal and occasionally of enamelled iron. The preferable substance is earthenware: the pan should always be ventilated, and there should likewise be a sufficient flow and force of water to sweep everything out of it, and thoroughly cleanse it.

The cistern supplying the closet should be kept solely for this purpose, and not, as is sometimes the case, be taken from the house cistern, as this latter practice may lead to the contamination of the drinking water, owing to the gases rising from the closet.

The bottom of the pan is attached to the soil-pipe which discharges into the drain. The soil-pipe is mostly trapped by means of a syphon valve; and it is important that the points of junction between the pipe and the syphon valve and the pipe and the main drain should be thoroughly secure and air-tight. Furthermore it is imperative, if we wish to prevent an influx into the pan of the gases and foul air which rise through the syphon as the water runs off, that the soil-pipe should be ventilated. This may be effected by attaching a small pipe having connection with the outer air to the discharge-pipe just below the syphon, and carrying it up to the top of the house. Another advantage arising from ventilating the soil-pipe, besides the prevention of the escape of sewer-gas into the house, is that there is no danger of its corrosion (if it be of lead) by the action of the pent-up sulphuretted vapours. The seat, which is mostly of wood, should be so arranged as to be easily movable, and thus allow of easy inspection of the different parts should they get out of order.

The seat as well as the closet should always be ventilated. A good and simple method for the ventilation of the latter is to carry a tube from the top of the closet into the outer air. “If the closet is in a bad situation it should be heated by a gas jet.”[262]

The lid attached to the seat should have a hole cut in it, so as to allow of the handle being pulled up when the pan is covered, which, strange to say, in perhaps ninety-nine cases out of every hundred it never is, after being used. Of course, in the absence of the ventilation of the pan and soil-pipe, the result of keeping the seat covered over would only be to fill the pan with malodorous and more or less dangerous gases, which would escape into the closet when the lid was again raised.

3. Precautions.—The use of unduly large pieces of paper, such as cause stoppage and obstruction in the discharge-pipe, should be particularly avoided. Any defect or impediment in the working of the closet should be remedied at once. As a general rule, servants are very careless in all matters connected with the water-closet; so much so that the masters of many houses are themselves compelled to exercise supervision over it.

During very hot weather, or the prevalence of an infectious disease in a dwelling-house or in the neighbourhood of the house, some disinfectant should be added to the water that supplies the closet. A substance that will very satisfactorily answer this purpose is the commercial sulphate of iron known as green vitriol. A pound of it should be put into the tank when filled with water.

The same disregard of sanitary obligations so frequently shown in the construction, site, &c., of water-closets is more obvious in the case of privies. The Public Health Act not only renders unlawful the erection or rebuilding of any dwelling-house without “a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy and an ash-pit, furnished with proper doors and coverings;” but also requires that, “If a house within the district of a local authority appears to such authority by the report of their surveyor or inspector of nuisances to be without a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy and ashpit, furnished with proper doors and coverings, the local authority shall, by written notice, require the owner or occupier of the house within a reasonable time therein specified, to provide a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy and an ashpit furnished as aforesaid, or either of them, as the case may require.”

Although in many large towns and cities a more or less effectual supervision may be exercised by the sanitary inspector in the above direction, as every one’s experience of the usual outdoor privy of a small English country town or village, will suggest to them the extreme toleration prevailing amongst the sanitary authorities in many provincial and rural districts in this particular. Ventilation is as essential for the privy as the water-closet, so also is the thorough trapping of the exit-pipe from the pan, as well as the cleansing and flushing of this latter by water directly after it has been used. Yet how rarely do we find not only all, but not even one of these conditions fulfilled in the arrangement of the ordinary privy; but instead an untrapped, immovable pan (and in some cases even this is wanting) covered with filth, and no contrivance of any kind for a constant water supply.

No wonder, therefore, that the atmosphere of an ordinary privy should be so foul and noisome as it invariably is.

The following specification for a useful description of privy is published by Messrs Knight & Co., 90, Fleet Street, London:—

Specification.—The privy and dust-bin to be built of 4¹⁄₂-inch brickwork, in well-ground mortar of approved quality. Two rows of 4¹⁄₂ and 3-inch bond timber to be built in at back of privy for securing ventilating-shafts. The ventilating-shafts to be 7 by 4¹⁄₂ inches, inside measurement, of best red deal boards 1 inch thick, closely put together with strong white lead paint, and well nailed and carefully seamed to the 4¹⁄₂ inch and 3 inch bond timber. These shafts to have coats of boiled tar both inside and out.

The lid of refuse-bin to be of best 1-inch red deal boards, with two strong ledges or battens across them; to be hung with three strong band-hinges to the sides of the ventilating-shafts, and the making-up piece between the same. A circular orifice to be made in centre of lid, between the battens 10 inches wide. The lid to have two coats of boiled tar both inside and out. A 4¹⁄₂-inch and 3-inch frame of red deal to be securely fixed on top of the dust-bin, as a seat for the lid. A lid over the privy seat to be hinged on at the back, with a child’s seat over centre of large one. The larger seat to be provided with an earthenware circular rim beneath. The earth-compartment to be without lid, and provided with a pint scoop for each occupant to throw in a pint of the stored dry earth or dry ashes through the seat into the galvanised iron pail, the contents of which must be scattered over the garden or put in the dust-bin before the pail becomes full. A loose foot-block may be furnished where there are young children.[263]

The dust-bin may be placed at side of the privy if required. The floor of dust-bin to be at the ground level, slightly inclined outwards, and paved with brick. See Sewage, Removal and Disposal of, Drains, Tanks, Cesspools.

WATER-COLOUR CAKES. These are prepared from any of the ordinary pigments that work well in water, made into a stiff and perfectly smooth paste with gum water, or isinglass size, or a mixture of the two, and then compressed in polished steel moulds, and dried. See Painting, and the respective pigments.

WATERCRESS. The Nasturtium officinale, a well-known plant of the natural order Cruciferæ. It is alterative and antiscorbutic, and was formerly used in medicine, but now

WATER-GAS. By forcing steam through fireclay, or iron retorts filled with red-hot charcoal or coke, the steam is decomposed into a mixture of hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and carbonic anhydride.[264]

To this mixture, after it has been purified, the name of “water-gas,” owing to the source from whence it has been derived, has been given.

According to some chemists the purified gas (obtained by passing the crude gaseous product sometimes over lime, sometimes over crystallised carbonate of soda) consists solely of hydrogen gas. Langlois’ analysis, however, has led to the conclusion that it is a compound of hydrogen and carbonic oxide gases. Water gas, obtained as above, possesses no illuminating power. This is imparted to it, by impregnating the gas with the vapour of certain hydrocarbons, a plan suggested by Jobbard, of Brussels, in 1832. Another, but less usual method, originating with Gengembre and Gillard, is to place on the burners which consume the gas small platinum cylinders. When these become white hot a strong and brilliant light is produced. See Platinum gas.

WATER-POX. See (Pox). Chicken-pox.

WATERPROOF′ING. Cloth is ‘waterproofed’ as follows:—

1. Moisten the cloth, on the wrong side, first with a weak solution of isinglass, and, when dry, with an infusion of nut-galls.

2. As the last, but substitute a solution of soap for isinglass, and another of alum for galls.

3. (Hancock’s Patent.) By spreading the liquid juice of the caoutchouc tree upon the inner surface of the goods, and allowing them to dry in the air. Absolutely chimerical.

4. (Potter’s Patent.) The cloth is first imbued on the wrong side with a solution of isinglass, alum, and soap, by means of a brush; when dry, it is brushed on the same side against the grain, and then gone over with a brush dipped in water. Impervious to water, but not to air.

5. (Sievier’s Patent.) By applying first a solution of India rubber in oil of turpentine, and afterwards another india rubber varnish, rendered very dry by the use of driers. On this, wool or other material of which the fabric is made, cut into proper lengths, is spread, and the whole passed through a press, whereby the surface acquires a nap or pile.

6. A simple method of rendering cloth waterproof, without being airproof, is to spread it on any smooth surface, and to rub the wrong side with a lump of bees wax (perfectly pure and free from grease), until it presents a light, but even, white or greyish appearance; a hot iron is then to be passed over it, and the cloth being brushed whilst warm, the process is complete. When the operation has been skilfully performed, a candle may be blown out through the cloth, if coarse, and yet a piece of the same, placed across an inverted hat, may have several glassfuls of water poured into the hollow formed by it, without any of the liquid passing through. Pressure or friction will alone make it do so. “We have shown this to numerous cloth-manufacturers, waterproofers, tailors, and others, several of whom have adopted the method very extensively, and with perfect success.” (Cooley.)

7. About the year 1862 a patent was taken out by Dr Stenhouse for employing paraffin as a means of rendering leather waterproof, as well as the various textile and felted fabrics; and in August, 1864, an additional patent was granted to him for an extension of and improvement on the previous one, which consisted chiefly in combining the paraffin with various proportions of drying oils, it having been found that paraffin alone, especially when applied to fabrics, became to a considerable extent detached from the fibre of the cloth after a short time, owing to its great tendency to crystallise. The presence, however, of even a small quantity of drying oil causes the paraffin to adhere much more firmly to the texture of the cloth, from the oil gradually becoming converted into a tenacious resin by absorption of oxygen.

In the application of paraffin for waterproofing purposes it is first melted along with the requisite quantity of drying oil and cast into blocks. This composition can then be applied to fabrics by rubbing them over with a block of it, either cold or gently warmed, or the mixture may be melted and laid on with a brush, the complete impregnation being effected by subsequently passing it between hot rollers. When this paraffin mixture has been applied to cloth such as that employed for blinds or tents, it renders it very repellant to water, although still pervious to air.

Cloth paraffined in this manner forms an excellent basis for such articles as capes, tarpaulins, &c., which require to be rendered quite impervious by subsequently coating them with drying oil, the paraffin in a great measure preventing the well-known injurious effect of drying oil on the fibre of the cloth. The paraffin mixture can also be advantageously applied to the various kinds of leather. One of the most convenient ways of effecting this is to coat the skins or manufactured articles, such as boots, shoes, harness, pump-buckets, &c., with the melted composition, and then to gently heat the articles until it is entirely absorbed. When leather is impregnated with the mixture, it is not only rendered perfectly waterproof, but also stronger and more durable. The beneficial effects of this process are peculiarly observable in the case of boots and shoes, which it renders very firm without

The superiority of paraffin over most other materials for some kinds of waterproofing consists in its comparative cheapness, in being easily applied, and in not materially altering the colour of fabrics, which in the case of light shades and white cloth is of very considerable importance.

8. A waterproof packing cloth which does not break may be made by covering the fabric with the following varnish:—2 lbs. of soft (potash) soap is dissolved in water and mixed with an aqueous solution of sulphate of iron. The washed and dried soap is dissolved in 3 lbs. of linseed oil, in which ¹⁄₅ lb. of caoutchouc has been previously dissolved.

WATERPROOF LIQUID. Prep. 1. India rubber, in fragments, 1 oz.; boiled oil, 1 pint; dissolve by heat, carefully applied, then stir in of hot boiled oil, 1 pint, and remove the vessel from the fire.

2. Boiled oil, 1 pint; beeswax and yellow resin, of each 2 oz.; melt them together.

3. Salad oil, 1 pint; mutton suet, ¹⁄₄ lb.; white wax and spermaceti, of each 1 oz.; as the last. For ‘ladies’ work.’

4. Bisulphide of carbon, 2 oz.; gutta percha, ¹⁄₂ oz.; asphaltum, 2 oz.; brown amber, ¹⁄₂ oz.; linseed oil, 1 oz. Mix. Dissolve the gutta percha in the bisulphide of carbon, the asphalte and amber in the oil, and mix well.

Obs. The above are used for boots, shoes, harness, leather straps, leather trunks, &c., applied warm before the fire.

WAX. Syn. Beeswax, Yellow w.; Cera (Ph. L.), Cera flava (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. The substance which forms the cells of bees; obtained by melting the comb in water, after the honey has been removed, straining the liquid mass, remelting the defecated portion, and casting it into cakes.

Pure beeswax has a pleasant ceraceous odour, a pale yellowish-brown colour, and the sp. gr. ·960 to ·965. It is brittle at 32°, softens and becomes plastic at 88 or 90°, and melts at 154 to 155° Fahr. “It becomes kneadable at about 85°, and its behaviour while worked between finger and thumb is characteristic. A piece the size of a pea being worked in the hand till tough with the warmth, then placed upon the thumb, and forcibly stroked down with the forefinger, curls up, following the finger, and is marked by it with longitudinal streaks.” (B. S. Proctor.) It is very frequently adulterated with farina, resin, and mutton suet or stearin. Dr Normandy met with a sample containing 23% of effloresced sulphate of soda. The first may be detected by oil of turpentine, which dissolves only the wax,—the second, by its solubility in cold alcohol, and by its terebinthinate taste,—the third and fourth, even when forming less than 2% of the wax, may be detected by it affording sebacic acid on distillation. When greasy matter is present in any considerable quantity, it may also be detected by the suspected sample having an unctuous feel and a disagreeable taste. A spurious beeswax met with in the American markets, is described in ‘New Remedies’ for 1877, and is said to have been a very clever imitation externally of the genuine substance, which it closely resembled in appearance, colour, fracture, bitterness, pliability, and odour. Upon analysis it was found to be composed of 60 parts of paraffin and 40 parts of yellow resin covered with a thin coating of true beeswax. The specific quantity of the counterfeit article was identical with that of many samples of genuine beeswax. Saline matter may be detected by the loss of weight, when a weighed quantity of the wax is boiled in water. Heavy substances, as chalk, plaster of Paris, white lead, oxide of zinc, &c., may also be thus separated, since they subside, owing to their superior gravity, to the bottom of the vessel. The rough mealy fracture of pure wax is rendered finer grained, smoother, and duller, by the addition of lard or spermaceti, and becomes sparkling and more granular by the addition of resin. (Proctor.)

[Note: ‘Chem. Central,’, 1872, No. 29.]

[Transcriber’s Note: The publisher omitted the corresponding tag in the text.]

Wax, Bleached. See Wax, White (below).

Wax, Carnauba.[265] The leaves of the Carnauba tree (Copernicia cerifera), a South American palm, have lately become a very important source for the supply of large quantities of vegetable wax. Carnauba wax is extensively used in the manufacture of candles. Mr Consul Morgan, in a paper laid before Parliament in 1876, on the trade and commerce of Brazil, states “that the exportation of this wax is calculated at 871,400 kilos; exceeding in value reis 1,500,000, or £162,500.”

Wax, Etching. See Etching Ground and Varnish.

Wax, Facti′′tious. Syn. Cera flava factitia, L. A spurious compound, sold by the farriers’ druggists for veterinary purposes.

Prep. 1. From yellow resin, 16 lbs.; hard mutton suet or stearin, 8 lbs.; palm oil, 2¹⁄₂ lbs.; melted together.

2. As last, but substituting turmeric, 1 lb., for the palm oil.

3. Best annotta, 6 oz., or q. s.; water, 1 gal.; boil; add, of hard mutton suet or stearin, 35 lbs.; yellow resin, 70 lbs.; again boil, with constant agitation, until perfectly mixed and of a proper colour, and, as soon as it begins to thicken, pour it out into basins to cool. When cold, rub each cake over with a little potato starch.

Wax, Gilder’s. See Gilding.

Wax, Mod′eling. Prep. Take of beeswax, lead plaster, olive oil, and yellow resin, equal parts; whiting, q. s. to form a paste; mix well, and roll it into sticks. Colours may be added at will.

Wax, Refined. Crude wax, especially that imported, is generally loaded with dirt, bees, and other foreign matter. To free it from these substances, it undergoes the operation of ‘refining.’ This is done by melting the wax along with about 4 or 5% of water in a bright copper or stone-ware boiler, preferably heated by steam, and, after the whole is perfectly liquid, and has boiled for some minutes, withdrawing the heat, and sprinkling over its surface a little oil of vitriol, in the proportion of about 5 or 6 fl. oz. to every cwt. of wax. This operation should be conducted with great care and circumspection; as, when done carelessly, the melted wax froths up, and boils over the sides of the pan. The acid should also be well scattered over the whole surface. The melted wax is next covered over, and left for some hours to settle, or until it becomes sufficiently cool to be drawn off for ‘moulding.’ It is then very gently skimmed with a hot ladle, baled or decanted into hot tin ‘jacks,’ and by means of these poured into basins, where it is left to cool. Great care must be taken not to disturb the sediment. When no more clear wax can be drawn off, the remainder in the melting-pan is allowed to cool, and the cake, or ‘foot,’ as it called, is taken out, and the impurities (mostly bees) scraped from its under surface. The scraped cake is usually reserved for a second operation; but if required, it may be at once remelted, and strained through canvas into a mould.

Much of the foreign wax has a pale, dirty colour, which renders it, no matter however pure, objectionable to the retail purchaser. Such wax undergoes the operation of ‘colouring’ as well as ‘refining.’ A small quantity of the best roll annotta, cut into slices (¹⁄₄ lb., more or less, to wax, 1 cwt., depending on the paleness of the latter), is put into a clean boiler with about a gallon of water, and boiled for some time, or until it is perfectly dissolved, when a few ladlefuls of the melted wax are added, and the boiling continued until the wax has taken up all the colour, or until the water is mostly evaporated. The portion of wax thus treated has now a deep orange colour, and is added, in quantity as required, to the remainder of the melted wax in the larger boiler until the proper shade of colour is produced when cold; the whole being well mixed, and a sample of it cooled now and then, to ascertain when enough has been added. The copper is next brought to a boil, and treated with oil of vitriol, &c., as before. Some persons add palm oil (bright) to the wax, until it gets sufficient colour, but this plan is objectionable from the quantity required for the purpose being often so large as to injure the quality of the product; besides which the colour produced is inferior, and less transparent and permanent than that given by annotta.

Another method of refining crude wax, and which produces a very bright article, is to melt it in a large earthen or stoneware vessel, heated by steam or a salt-water bath, then to cautiously add to it about 1% of concentrated nitric acid, and to continue the boiling until nitrous fumes cease to be evolved, after which the whole is allowed to settle, and is treated as before.

Obs. The great art in the above process is to produce a wax which shall at once be ‘bright,’ or semi-translucent in thin places, and good coloured. The former is best ensured by allowing the melted mass to settle well, and by carefully skimming and decanting the clear portion without disturbing the sediment. It should not be poured into the moulds too warm, as, in that case, it is apt to ‘separate,’ and the resulting cakes to be ‘streaky,’ or of different shades of colour. Again, it should be allowed to cool very slowly. When cooled rapidly, especially if a current of air fall upon its surface, it is apt to crack, and to form cakes full of fissures. Some persons, who are very nice about their wax, have the cakes polished with a stiff brush when quite cold and hard. It is absolutely necessary that the ‘jacks’ or cans, ladles, and skimmers, used in the above process, be kept pretty hot, as without this precaution the wax cools, and accumulates upon them in such quantity as to render them inconvenient, and often quite useless, without being constantly scraped out.

Wax, Seal′ing. Prep. 1. (Red.)—a. Take of shell-lac (very pale), 4 oz.; cautiously melt it in a bright copper pan over a clear charcoal fire, and when fused, add of Venice turpentine, 1¹⁄₄ oz.; mix, and further add of vermilion, 3 oz.; remove the pan from the fire, cool a little, weigh it into pieces, and roll them into circular sticks on a warm marble slab by means of a polished wooden block; or it may be poured into moulds whilst in a state of fusion. Some persons polish the sticks with a rag until quite cold.—b. From shell-lac, 3 lbs.; Venice turpentine, 1¹⁄₄ lb.; finest cinnabar, 2 lbs.; mix as before Both the above are ‘fine,’—c. As the last, but using ¹⁄₂ less of vermillion. Inferior.—d. Resin, 4 lbs.; shell-lac, 2 lbs.; Venice turpentine and red lead, of each 1¹⁄₂ lb.; as before. Common.

2. (Black.)—a. From shell-lac, 60 parts; finest ivory black, reduced to an impalpable powder, 30 parts; Venice turpentine, 20 parts. Fine.—b. Resin, 6 lbs.; shell-lac and Venice turpentine, of each 2 lbs.; lampblack, q. s. Inferior.

3. (Gold-coloured.) By stirring gold-coloured mica spangles or talc, or aurum

4. (Marbled.) By mixing 2 or 3 different coloured kinds just as they begin to grow solid.

5. (Soft.)—a. (Red.) Take of beeswax, 8 parts; olive oil, 5 parts; melt, and add, of Venice turpentine, 15 parts; red lead, to colour.—b. (Green.) As the last, but substituting powdered verdigris for red lead. Both are used for sealing official documents kept in tin boxes; also as a cement.

6. (Bottle wax.)—a. (Black.) From black resin, 6¹⁄₂ lbs.; beeswax, ¹⁄₂ lb.; finely powdered ivory black, 1¹⁄₂ lb.; melted together.—b. (Red.) As the last, but substitute Venetian red or red lead for ivory black.

Obs. All the above forms for ‘fine’ wax produce ‘superfine’ by employing the best qualities of the ingredients; and ‘extra superfine,’ or ‘scented,’ by adding 1% of balsam of Peru or liquid storax to the ingredients when considerably cooled. The ‘variegated’ and ‘fancy coloured kinds,’ are commonly scented with a little essence of musk or ambergris, or any of the more fragrant essential oils. The addition of a little camphor, or spirit of wine, makes sealing-wax burn easier. Sealing-wax containing resin, or too much turpentine, runs into thin drops at the flame of a candle.

Wax, White. Syn. Bleached wax; Cera alba (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. From pure beeswax, by exposing it in thin flakes to the action of the sun, wind, and rain, frequently changing the surface thus exposed, by remelting it, and reducing it again to thin flakes. Used in making candles, and in white ointments, pommades, &c., for the sake of its colour. Block white wax (CERA ALBA IN MASSIS) is the above when cast into blocks; the best foreign is always in this form. Virgin wax (CAKE WHITE WAX; CERA ALBA IN OFFIS) should be the last made into round flat cakes; but this is seldom the case, the mixture sold under the name generally containing from 1-3rd to 1-2nd its weight of spermaceti. The ‘white wax’ supplied by certain wholesale druggists to their customers is often totally unfit for the purposes to which it is applied. Spermaceti is constantly added to the white wax of commerce, to improve its colour. Mr B. S. Proctor states that wholesale houses of the highest reputation supply an article, as white cake wax, which is in many cases half spermaceti, and in some as much as two thirds spermaceti to one of wax.[266]

WEATHER, Effects of, on Health. The ‘Medical Press and Circular’ says:—“We are in the midst of a severe winter (1878), and as hygiene is the order of the day, we cannot be too particular in impressing upon the public certain facts which are too often disregarded. Few are aware of the killing powers of intense cold and great heat, even in this comparatively temperate climate. Those who have been in the habit, as we have, of watching the returns of the Registrar-General, well know how quickly the death-rate rises during even a short continuance of cold weather. Now that the increase in the mortality affects chiefly the young and the old, as well as those who are either suffering from, or are predisposed to, affections of the chest and throat, indicates the class of people who should be especially careful to protect themselves against the inclemency of the weather. With regard to children, the system of ‘hardening’ them, by allowing them to go thinly clad, and exposing them to all sorts of weather, is a delusion from which the minds of some parents are even now not altogether free. It is thought that if their chest is kept warm, there is no need of caring about their arms and legs. But that is a great mistake. In proportion as the upper and lower extremities are well clothed will the circulation be kept up and determined to the surface of those parts, and in proportion to the quickness and equable distribution of the circulation will be the protection against those internal congestions which are but the first stage of the most fatal diseases of infancy and childhood. The same observation holds good with respect to grown-up people who are predisposed to pulmonary complaints. There is no exaggeration in saying that the mortality from these and other affections would be considerably diminished were people to avoid that ‘catching cold,’ of which they so often and so lightly speak; and it is a matter of surprise to us that this fact, of which most of us are aware, does not lead to more precautions being taken by those who are anxious about either their own health or that of others. To take care that the body is thoroughly warm and well-clothed just before going out in very wet or very cold weather—to keep up the circulation and warmth of the body rather by exercise of some kind than by sitting over great fires or in overheated rooms—to be sure that the temperature of the sleeping apartments is not ever so many degrees below that of the sitting-room—these are three golden maxims, attention to which would prevent thousands from catching that ‘chill’ or ‘cold’ to the results of which so many valuable lives have been prematurely sacrificed.”

WEIGHT. The quantity of a body determined

For the purpose of weighing, a balance or lever is required, which, when accurately suspended in a state of equilibrium, will be affected, in precisely an equal manner, by like weights applied to its extremities. Hence, the construction of such an instrument is not more difficult than its application is important in chemical and philosophical research. Oertling, the most celebrated maker of the chemical balance, constructs this important instrument in seven different varieties, more or less elaborate. The largest of these, with a 16-inch beam, will carry 2 lbs. in each pan, and yet turn with ¹⁄₁₀₀th of a grain. A balance with arms of unequal length or weight will weigh as accurately as another of the same workmanship with equal arms, provided the substance weighed be removed and standard weights placed in the same scale until the equilibrium be again restored, when the weights so employed, being exactly in the same condition as the substance previously occupying the scale, will, of course, indicate its proper weight. A knowledge of this fact is useful, as it enables any one to weigh correctly with unequal scales, or with any suspended lever.

Small weights may be made of thin leaf brass, or, preferably, of platinum foil. Quantities below the 100th of a grain may be either estimated by the position of the index, or shown by actually counting rings of wire, the value of which has been previously determined. The readiest way to subdivide small weights consists in weighing a certain quantity of very fine wire, and afterwards cutting it into such parts, by measure, as are desired; or the wire may be wrapped close round two pins, and then cut asunder with a knife. By this means it will be divided into a great number of equal lengths, or small rings.[267]

The following tables represent the values of the weights legally employed in this country for the sale of gold, silver, and articles made thereof, as well as platinum, diamonds, and other precious metals and stones; also for drugs when sold by retail (See Weights and Measures Act, 1879; and Measures).

1. Troy Weight.

Grains. gr. Pennyweights. dwt. Ounces. oz. Pound. lb. or ℔

24 1

480 20 1

5760 240 12 1

⁂ The standard of the above measure is 1 cubic inch of distilled water, which, at 62° Fahr. and 30 inches of the barometer, weighs 252·458 troy grains.

The carat used in weighing diamonds is 3¹⁄₆ grains (nearly). Troy weight is employed in weighing gold, jewelry, &c., and, under a somewhat modified form, in prescribing and dispensing medicines. (See below.)

2. Apothecaries’ Weight.

(Modified Troy Weight.)

Grains (Troy). ℈ gr. Scruples. [scruples] Drachms. ʒ Ounces. ℥ Pounds. ℔

1· ·05 ·01666 ·002083 ·0001736

20· 1· ·3333 ·0416 ·003472

60· 3· 1· ·1250 ·0104166

480· 24· 8· 1· ·0833333

5760· 288· 96· 12· 1·

Grains (Troy). gr. Eqiv. in French grammes. Equiv. in Minims or measured drops. Equiv. in cubic inches. Equiv. in Avoirdupois. weight.

1· ·06475 1·09 ·003961055 1· gr.

20· 1·295 21·94 ·07922109 20· gr.

60· 3·885 65·82 ·23766329 60· gr.

480· 31·08 526·62 1·90130635 1 oz 42·5 gr.

5760· 372·96 6319·54 22·81567609 13 oz 72·5 gr.

⁂ Apothecaries’ weight is employed in prescribing and dispensing medicines according to the Ph. L., E., and U. S. But in the last Ph. D. and the new Brit. Ph. it has been superseded by avoirdupois weight.

Troy Avoirdupois.

1 ℔ is equivalent to 0·822857 lb.

1 oz. ” 1·097143 oz.

WEIGHTS, FOREIGN.

Binary Weights. (Système usuel.) French.

French Grain. Scruple. Gros. Once. Livre. Kilo- gramme.

1· ... ... ... ... ...

24· 1· ... ... ... ...

72· 3· 1· ... ... ...

576· 24· 8· 1· ... ...

9216· 384· 128· 16· 1· ...

18432· 768· 256· 32· 2· 1·

French Grain. Equiv. in grammes metrique. Round number of the Codex in grammes. Equiv. in Avoirdupois weight.

lb. oz. gr.

1· ·0542 ·05 ... ... 0·837

24· 1·30 1·30 ... ... 20·1

72· 3·906 4· ... ... 60·284

576· 81·25 32· ... 1 45·

9216· 500· 500· 1 1¹⁄₂ 61·

18432· 1000· 1000· 2 3¹⁄₄ 13·

⁂ The old French grain is equal to ·820 of an imperial troy grain; hence 1 troy grain is equal to 1·21 old French grains. The gros, once, and other multiples of the grain, are, of course, proportionate. The new French grain (of 1812) is equal to ·0542 gramme, or ·8365228 gr. troy. It is said, in some works, to be equal to ·878 gr. troy, or, in round numbers, ·9, but this is much too high.

Continental Medicinal Weights, in Troy Grains. (From Dr Christison’s ‘Dispensatory.’)

Country. Pound. Ounce. Drachm. Scruple consisting of Grain.

24 med. grs. 20 med. grs.

French 5670·5 470·50 59·10 19·7 ... 0·820

Spanish 5326·3 443·49 55·14 18·47 ... 0·769

Tuscan 5240·3 436·67 54·58 18·19 ... 0·758

Roman 5235·0 436·25 54·58 18·17 ... 0·757

Austrian 6495·1 541·25 67·65 ... 22·5 1·127

German 5524·8 460·40 57·55 ... 19·18 0·960

Russian 5524·8 460·40 57·55 ... 19·18 0·960

Prussian 5415·1 451·26 56·40 ... 18·80 0·940

Dutch 5695·8 474·64 59·33 ... 19·78 0·988

Belgian 5695·8 474·64 59·33 ... 19·78 0·988

Swedish 5500·2 458·34 57·29 ... 19·09 0·954

Piedmontese 4744·7 395·39 49·45 ... 16·48 0·824

Venetian 4661·4 388·45 48·55 ... 16·18 0·809

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT, 1878. On the 1st of January, 1879, there came into force an act to consolidate throughout the United Kingdom the law relating to weights and measures. Legislation on this subject had been long rendered necessary from the extreme inconvenience and friction to commerce of all kinds arising from the adherence to local standards of weight or measurements; and from the divergent values in different parts of the kingdom, and in places more or less contiguous to each other, of weights and measures often bearing the same name. Thus, previous to the passing of the above Act, there were twelve different markets in this country in which when corn was sold by the bushel, the weight of the bushel varied in each; and six different localities in which the same thing occurred when vended by the quarter and the load. In some places a score of grain would imply 20 lbs. but often less, whilst in others it was not an infrequent transaction for wheat to be sold by one measure, delivered by another, and eventually paid for by weight. And the same perplexing and arbitrary conditions attached to the sale of numberless other commodities.

We give below the most important sections of the Weights and Measures Act of 1878:

Law of Weights and Measures.

Uniformity of Weights and Measures.

The same weights and measures shall be used throughout the United Kingdom.

Standards of Measure and Weight.

The bronze bar and the platinum weight, more particularly described in the first part of the First Schedule of this Act, and at the passing of this Act, deposited in the Standards Departments of the Board of Trade, in the custody of the Warden of the Standards, shall continue to be the imperial standard of measure and weight, and the said bronze bar shall continue to be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard yard for the

Imperial Measures of Length.

The straight line or distance between the centres of the two gold plugs or pins (as mentioned in the First Schedule to this Act),[268] in the bronze bar by this Act declared to be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard yard, measured when the bar is at the temperature of sixty-two degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and when it is supported on bronze rollers placed under it in such a manner as best to avoid flexure of the bar, and to facilitate its free expansion and contraction from variations of temperature, shall be the legal standard measure of length, and shall be called the imperial standard yard, and shall be the only unit or standard measure of extension from which all measures of extension, whether linear, superficial, or solid shall be ascertained.

One third part of the imperial standard yard shall be a foot, and the twelfth part of such foot shall be an inch, and the rod, pole, or perch in length shall contain five such yards and a half, and the chain shall contain twenty-two such yards, and the furlong two hundred and twenty such yards, and the mile one thousand seven hundred and sixty such yards.

The rood of land shall contain one thousand two hundred and ten square yards according to the imperial standard yard, and the acre of land shall contain four thousand eight hundred and forty such square yards, being one hundred and sixty square rods, poles or perches.

Imperial Measures of Weight and Capacity.

The weight in vacuo of the platinum weight (mentioned in the First Schedule to this Act), and by this Act declared to be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard pound, shall be the legal standard measure of weight, and of measure having reference to weight, and shall be called the imperial standard pound, and shall be the only unit or standard measure of weight from which all other weights and all measures having reference to weight shall be ascertained.

One sixteenth part of the imperial standard pound shall be an ounce, and one-sixteenth part of such ounce shall be a dram, and one seven thousandth part of the imperial standard pound shall be a grain.

A stone shall consist of fourteen imperial standard pounds, and a hundred weight shall consist of eight such stones, and a ton shall consist of twenty such hundredweights.

Four hundred and eighty grains shall be an ounce troy.

All the foregoing weights except the ounce troy shall be deemed to be avoirdupois weights.

The unit or standard measure of capacity from which all other measures of capacity, as well as for liquids as for dry goods, shall be derived, shall be the gallon containing ten imperial standard pounds weight of distilled water weighed in air against brass weights, with the water and air at the temperature of sixty-two degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and with the barometer at thirty inches.

The quart shall be one fourth part of the gallon, and the pint shall be one-eighth part of the gallon.

Two gallons shall be a peck, and eight gallons shall be a bushel, and eight such bushels shall be a quarter, and thirty-six such bushels shall be a chaldron.

A bushel for the sale of any of the following articles, namely, lime, fish, potatoes, fruit, or any other goods and things which before (the passing of the Weights and Measures Act, 1835, that is to say) the ninth day of September, one thousand eight hundred and thirty five, were commonly sold by heaped measure, shall be a hollow cylinder having a plane base, the internal diameter of which shall be double the internal depth, and every measure used for the sale of any of the above-mentioned articles which is a multiple of a bushel, or is a half bushel or a peck, shall be made of the same shape and proportion as the above-mentioned bushel.

In using an imperial measure of capacity, the same shall not be heaped, but either shall be stricken with a round stick or roller, straight, and of the same diameter from end to end, or if the article sold cannot from its size or shape be conveniently stricken, shall be filled in all parts as nearly to the level of the brim as the size and shape of the article will admit.

Metric Equivalents of Imperial Weights and Measures.

The table in the Third Schedule to this Act shall be deemed to set forth the equivalents of imperial weights and measures

Use of Imperial Weights and Measures.

Every contract, bargain, sale, or dealing, made or had in the United Kingdom for any work, goods, wares, or merchandise, or other thing which has been or is to be done, sold, delivered, carried, or agreed for by weight or measure, shall be deemed to be made and had according to one of the imperial weights or measures ascertained by this Act, or to some multiple or part thereof, and if not so made or had shall be void; and all tolls and duties charged or collected according to weight or measure shall be charged and collected according to one of the imperial weights or measures ascertained by this Act, or to some multiple or part thereof.

Such contract, bargain, sale, dealing, and collection of tolls and duties as is in this section mentioned is in this Act referred to under the term ‘trade.’

No local or customary measures, nor the use of the heaped measure, shall be lawful.

Any person who sells by any denomination of weight or measure other than one of the imperial weights or measures, or some multiple or part thereof, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding forty shillings for every such sale.

All articles sold by weight shall be sold by avoirdupois weight; except that—

(1) Gold and silver, and articles made thereof, including gold and silver thread, lace, or fringe, also platinum, diamonds, and other precious metals or stones, may be sold by the ounce troy or by any decimal parts of such ounce; and all contracts, bargains, sales, and dealings in relation thereto shall be deemed to be made and had by such weight, and when so made or had shall be valid; and