Part 2 — The Accusative of the Part Concerned. (continued 7)

2155. The originally asseverative meaning of nam appears, even in the classical period, in colloquial language: as, tibī̆ ā mē nūlla ortast iniūria :: nam hercle etiam hoc restat, T. Ad. 189, I’ve ne’er done you a wanton wrong :: aye verily that’s still to come. In old Latin, it sometimes introduces a question: as, nam quae haec anus est? T. Ph. 732, why, who’s this old woman? Frequently it introduces an explanation or illustration, and, from Cicero on, a remark or question made in passing: as, sīc enim sēsē rēs habet: nam Odyssīa Latīna est sīc tamquam opus Daedalī, Br. 71, the case stands thus: the Odyssey in Latin is, you may say, a regular work of Daedalus (1908). vīvō Catōne multī ōrātōrēs flōruērunt: nam A. Albīnus, Br. 81, many orators flourished in Cato’s lifetime: for example, Albinus. nam quid dē aedīle loquar? Sest. 95, for why speak of the aedile? enim does not differ essentially in use from nam; for its meaning in old Latin, see 1688. namque is rare until Livy, and usually (always in old Latin) stands before a vowel. etenim is common only in classical Latin.

2156. For quippe, why, often used as a coordinating word, see 1690.

2157. proinde or proin, therefore, so, introduces a command or direction based upon the foregoing: as,

ōrātiōnem spērat invēnisse sē, quī differat tē: proin tū fac apud tē ut siēs, T. Andr. 407, he trusts he’s found some phrase wherewith he may confound you: so see you have your wits about you. frūstrā meae vītae subvenīre cōnāminī. proinde abīte, dum est facultās, 7, 50, 6, in vain ye try to save my life. So away, while ye have the power. iam undique silvae et sōlitūdō magna cōgitātiōnis incitāmenta sunt. proinde cum vēnābere, licēbit pugillārēs ferās, Plin. Ep. 1, 6, 2, then again the surrounding woods and the loneliness are powerful stimulants to meditation. So when you go hunting, you can take a note book with you.

2158. A conclusion is denoted by ergō, itaque or igitur, therefore, so, introducing a new period: as,

nihil est praestantius deō; ab eō igitur mundum necesse est regī. nūllī igitur est nātūrae subiectus deus. omnem ergō regit ipse nātūram, DN. 2, 77, nothing is more excellent than god. Therefore the universe must be governed by him. Therefore god is in no respect subject to nature. Consequently he rules all nature himself. For the position of these words in their clauses, see 1688; for ergō igitur and itaque ergō, 1689. For hinc, inde, eō, ideō, idcircō, proptereā, as coordinating words, see 1691.

Affirmative Coordination.

2159. A new sentence affirmative of a foregoing is often introduced by an emphatic sīc or ita.

These words often introduce a general truth which is deduced from the first statement.

vīsne igitur tē īnspiciāmus ā puerō? sīc opīnor; ā prīncipiō ōrdiāmur, Ph. 2, 44, would you like to have us look into your record from boyhood? Yes, I think it would be well; let us begin at the beginning. quī dīligēbant hunc, illī favēbant. sīc est volgus: ex vēritāte pauca, ex opīniōne multa aestimat, RC. 29, everybody who loved him, smiled on the other man. Yes, that is always the way of the world: it seldom judges by truth, often by hearsay.

NOUNS OF THE VERB.

THE INFINITIVE.

2160. The infinitive is in its origin a verbal substantive.

2161. The present infinitive active is an ancient dative, closely resembling in meaning and use the English infinitive with to. It originally marked action merely in a general way, without indication of voice or tense. In virtue of this original timeless character, the present often represents action which is really past or future; in such cases the time must be inferred from the context.

2162. The present infinitive active gradually approached the character of a verb, and the original substantive nature being forgotten, it was supplemented by a passive, and by forms for completed and for future action, active and passive.

2163. The infinitive has furthermore two other properties of the verb: (a.) it is modified by an adverb, not by an adjective; and (b.) it is followed by the construction of its verb.

Old and Poetical Use of the Infinitive.

THE INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE.

2164. The infinitive denotes purpose: (a.) when loosely added to a substantive in old Latin, (b.) with verbs of motion, eō, veniō, currō, mittō, in old or poetical Latin, and (c.) in the combination dō bibere, give to drink, in old, colloquial, or poetical Latin: as,

(a.) occāsiō benefacta cumulāre, Pl. Cap. 423, a chance to pile up kindnesses. Parallel with a gerund: summa ēlūdendī occāsiōst mihi nunc senēs et Phaedriae cūram adimere argentāriam, T. Ph. 885, I’ve now a splendid chance the greybeards of eluding and Phaedria to rescue from his money cares. (b.) recurre petere rē recentī, Pl. Tri. 1015, run back to get it ere it is too late. voltisne eāmus vīsere? T. Ph. 102, do you think we’d better go to call? parasītum mīsī nudiusquārtus Cāriam petere argentum, Pl. Cur. 206, my parasite I sent four days ago to Caria, to fetch the cash. nec dulcēs occurrent ōscula nātī praeripere, Lucr. 3, 895, nor shall thy children dear come running kiss on kiss to snatch. nōn nōs ferrō Libycōs populāre penātīs vēnimus, V. 1, 527, we are not come with steel to harry Libya’s hearths. (c.) bibere dā usque plēnīs cantharīs, Pl. Per. 821, keep giving on to drink with brimming bowls. bibere is thus used by Plautus, Terence, Cato, and Livy, and by Cicero once with ministrō. In classical prose, purpose is expressed by the subjunctive with ut or a relative pronoun, or by a gerund or gerundive with ad or causā.

2165. In poetry, the infinitive of purpose is used with synonymes of dō also, and with verbs of leaving, taking away, taking up, &c.

huic lōrīcam dōnat habēre, V. 5, 259, on him a corselet he bestows to wear. trīstitiam et metūs trādam protervīs in mare Crēticum portāre ventīs, H. 1, 26, 1, sadness and fears I’ll to the wanton winds consign, to sweep into the Cretic sea. quis sibi rēs gestās Augustī scrībere sūmit? H. E. 1, 3, 7, who takes it on himself Augustus’ deeds to pen? quem virum aut hērōa lyrā vel ācrī tībiā sūmis celebrāre? H. 1, 12, 1, what hero or what demigod dost thou take up, to ring his praises on the rebec or the piercing pipe?

THE INFINITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.

2166. The infinitive is sometimes used with adjectives, chiefly by poets of the Augustan age, and late prose writers, often in imitation of a Greek idiom: as,

indoctum iuga ferre nostra, H. 2, 6, 2, not taught our yoke to bear. avidī committere pugnam, O. 5, 75, hot to engage in fight. sōlī cantāre perītī Arcades, V. E. 10, 32, Arcadians alone in minstrelsy are skilled. vitulus niveus vidērī, H. 4, 2, 59, a bullock snow-white to behold, i.e. vīsū (2274). These infinitives are of different kinds, some of them resembling a complementary infinitive, others a gerund or gerundive construction, the supine in -tū (-sū), &c., &c.

The Ordinary Use of the Infinitive.

2167. The infinitive is ordinarily used either as object or as subject of a verb.

(A.) The Infinitive as Object.

THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE.

2168. The present infinitive is often used to complete the meaning of certain kinds of verbs which imply another action of the same subject: as,

prō Pompēiō ēmorī possum, Fam. 2, 15, 3, I could die the death for Pompey (1495). quid habēs dīcere? Balb. 33, what have you to say? scīre volēbat, V. 1, 131, he wanted to know. hoc facere dēbēs, RabP. 7, you ought to do this. Caesar Rhēnum trānsīre dēcrēverat, 4, 17, 1, Caesar had resolved to cross the Rhine. fugā salūtem petere contendērunt, 3, 15, 2, they tried to save themselves by flight. num negāre audēs? C. 1, 8, do you dare deny it? vereor dīcere, T. Andr. 323, I am afraid to tell. num dubitās id facere? C. 1, 13, do you hesitate to do that? mātūrat ab urbe proficīscī, 1, 7, 1, he makes haste to leave Rome. Dīviciācus Caesarem obsecrāre coepit, 1, 20, 1, Diviciacus began to entreat Caesar. Dolābella iniūriam facere persevērat, Quint. 31, Dolabella persists in doing wrong. illī pecūniam pollicērī nōn dēsistunt, 6, 2, 1, these people did not stop offering money. diem ēdictī obīre neglēxit, Ph. 3, 20, he failed to keep the day named in the edict. īrāscī amīcīs nōn temere soleō, Ph. 8, 16, I am not apt to get provoked with friends without just cause. illī rēgibus pārēre didicerant, Ph. 3, 9, the men of old were trained to bow the knee to kings (1615). dextram cohibēre mementō, J. 5, 71, remember that you keep hands off.

2169. The verbs or verbal expressions which are supplemented by an infinitive are chiefly such as mean can, will or wish, ought, resolve, endeavour, dare, fear, hesitate, hasten, begin, continue, cease, neglect, am wont, learn, know how, remember, forget, seem. The infinitive in this combination contains the leading idea. For the occasional use of the perfect infinitive with some of these verbs, see 2223.

Some of the commonest of these verbs are possum, queō, nequeō; volō, nōlō, mālō, cupiō, studeō; dēbeō; cōgitō, meditor, statuō, cōnstituō, dēcernō, parō; cōnor, nītor, contendō; audeō; vereor; cunctor, dubitō, festīnō, mātūrō, īnstituō, coepī, incipiō, pergō, persevērō, dēsinō, dēsistō, omittō, supersedeō, neglegō, nōn cūrō; soleō, adsuēscō, cōnsuēscō; discō, sciō, nesciō, recordor, meminī, oblīvīscor; videor.

2170. The infinitive is also used with many verbal expressions equivalent to the above verbs, such as habeō in animō, cōnsilium est, certum est, parātus sum, &c., &c., or with parātus alone, adsuēfactus, &c., &c. Furthermore, in poetry and late prose, the place of many of the above verbs is often taken by livelier or fresher synonymes, such as valeō for possum, from Lucretius on, ardeō, burn, for volō, cupiō, or absiste, fuge, parce, &c., for nōlī (1584), &c., &c.

2171. A predicate noun used in the construction of the complementary infinitive, is put in the nominative: as,

Aelius Stōicus esse voluit, Br. 206, Aelius wanted to be a Stoic. esse quam vidērī bonus mālēbat, S. C. 54, 6, he chose to be good rather than seem good.

THE ACCUSATIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE.

2172. A very common form of a dependent sentence is that known as the Accusative with the Infinitive.

Thus, of the two coordinate sentences sciō: iocāris tū nunc, Pl. Most. 1081, I know: you are jesting now, the second may be put in a dependent form, the two sentences blending into one: sciō iocārī tē nunc, I know you to be jesting now.

2173. The subject of an infinitive is put in the accusative.

Thus, in eum vident, they see him, eum is the object of vident (1134). If sedēre is added, eum vident sedēre, V. 5, 107, they see him sit, or they see that he is sitting, eum is at the same time the object of vident and the subject of sedēre. But the accusative by degrees becoming detached from the main verb, and closely interlocked with the infinitive, the combination is extended to cases where the main verb is intransitive or passive.

2174. A predicate noun referring to a subject accusative is itself put in the accusative: as,

tē esse arbitror puerum probum, Pl. Most. 949, I think you are a good boy. nēminem vīvum capī patiuntur, 8, 35, 5, they do not allow anybody to be made prisoner alive (2198).

Verbs of Perceiving, Knowing, Thinking, and Saying.

2175. The accusative with the infinitive is used with active verbs or verbal expressions of perceiving, knowing, thinking, and saying: as,

patēre tua cōnsilia nōn sentīs? C. 1, 1, you don’t feel that your plots are all out? huic fīlium scīs esse? T. Hau. 181, you are aware that this man has a son? Pompēiōs cōnsēdisse terrae mōtū audīvimus, Sen. NQ. 6, 1, 1, we have heard that Pompei has been swallowed up by an earthquake, 63 A.D., 17 years before its utter destruction. saepe audīvī inter ōs atque offam multa intervenīre posse, Cato in Gell. 13, 18 (17), 1, I have often heard ‘’twixt cup and lip there’s many a slip.’ dīcit montem ab hostibus tenērī, 1, 22, 2, he says the hill is held by the enemy. dīxtin dūdum illam dīxisse, sē expectāre fīlium? T. Hec. 451, didn’t you say a while ago the woman said that she was looking for her son?

Some of the commonest of these verbs are: (a.) audiō, animadvertō, sentiō, videō. (b.) accipiō, intellegō, sciō, nesciō. (c.) arbitror, cēnseō, cōgitō, crēdō, exīstimō, meminī, opīnor, putō, recordor, suspicor. (d.) adfirmō, āiō, dēmōnstrō, dīcō, disputō, doceō, fateor, nārrō, negō, nūntiō, ostendō, prōmittō, scrībō, sīgnificō, spērō, trādō. (e.) rūmor est, nōn mē fugit, certus sum, nōn nescius sum, &c., &c. Also occasionally verbs used in the sense of think or say, as mittō, send word, and substantives or pronouns expressing a thought or judgement.

2176. The accusative with the infinitive is sometimes introduced by a neuter pronoun, or by sīc or ita: as, illud negābis, tē dē rē iūdicātā iūdicāvisse? V. 2, 81, will you deny this, that you sate in judgement on a matter that was already decided? sīc accēpimus, nūllum bellum fuisse, V. 5, 5, we have been told this, that there was not any war. Sometimes by an ablative with dē: as, dē hōc Verrī dīcitur, habēre eum perbona toreumata, V. 4, 38, about this man report is made to Verres that he had some choice bits of embossed work.

2177. (1.) Passive verbs of this class are commonly used personally in the third person of the present system, with the subject, and the predicate noun, if used, in the nominative: as,

hī centum pāgōs habēre dīcuntur, 4, 1, 4, these people are said to have a hundred cantons. nūlla iam exīstimantur esse iūdicia, V. a. pr. 43, there are thought to be no courts of law any longer. pōns prope effectus nūntiābātur, Caes. C. 1, 62, 3, the bridge was reported to be well-nigh done.

2178. Such personal passives are much more common in the writers of Cicero’s day than in old Latin. Particularly so arguō, audiō, cōgnōscō, comperiō, concēdō, dēfendō, dēmōnstrō, dīcō, doceō, excūsō, exīstimō, inveniō, iūdicō, līberō, memorō, negō, nūntiō, ostendō, postulō, putō, reperiō, trādō.

2179. (2.) With the first or second person the personal construction is rare: as, quod nōs bene ēmisse iūdicātī sumus, Att. 1, 13, 6, that we are thought to have made a good bargain. cum inveniāre improbissimā ratiōne esse praedātus, V. 4, 3, when you prove to have been robbing most abominably. But with videor, seem, the personal construction is the rule in all three persons, and in the perfect system as well as the present.

2180. (3.) In the perfect system, and also usually in the gerundive construction (2246), verbs of this class are commonly impersonal: as,

trāditum est Homērum caecum fuisse, TD. 5, 114, the tradition is that Homer was blind. ubī̆ tyrannus est, ibī̆ dīcendum est nūllam esse rem pūblicam, RP. 3, 43, wherever there is an absolute ruler, there we must maintain there is no commonwealth.

2181. (4.) With some verbs of this class, the impersonal construction is preferred even in the present system. Thus, commonly intellegitur, it is understood, as impersonal; regularly in classical Latin crēditur; with a dative in Cicero and Caesar dīcitur, nūntiātur. The impersonals cernitur, fertur, memorātur, prōditur, vidētur, are rare.

2182. The personal construction is sometimes extended to other verbs or verbal expressions, especially in poetry: as, colligor, O. A. 2, 6, 61, I am inferred, for colligitur. nōnnūllīs magistrātūs veniēbant in suspīciōnem nōs dēmorātī esse, Lentulus in Fam. 12, 15, 5, the magistrates were suspected by some of having delayed us (1491).

2183. With verbs of thinking and saying the subject accusative is sometimes omitted.

(a.) Oftenest thus mē nōs, tē vōs, or sē: as, stultē fēcisse fateor, i.e. mē, Pl. B. 1013, I own I’ve acted like a fool. cōnfitēre vēnisse, i.e. tē, RA. 61, confess you came. quae imperārentur facere dīxērunt, i.e. sē, 2, 32, 3, they said they would do as ordered (2221). Often the future without esse: as, refrāctūrōs carcerem minābantur, i.e. sē, L. 6, 17, 6, they threatened to break the jail open, (b.) Less frequently an accusative of is: as, oblītum crēdidī, i.e. eum, Fam. 9, 2, 1, I imagined he had forgotten. Such omissions are common in old Latin, Cicero, Caesar, Livy, and in poetry.

2184. When the accusative is not expressed, a predicate noun is sometimes put in the nominative, chiefly in poetry, in imitation of a Greek idiom: as,

phasēlus ille quem vidētis, hospitēs, ait fuisse nāvium celerrimus, Cat. 4, 1, the clipper you see yonder, friends, says she was once the fleetest of the fleet. uxor invictī Iovis esse nescīs, H. 3, 27, 73, thou knowest not thou art the bride of the unconquerable Jove. Similarly with verbs of emotion (2187): as, gaudent esse rogātae, O. AA. 1, 345, they are glad to have been asked. gaudent perfūsī sanguine frātrum, V. G. 2, 510, they’re glad to have been imbued with brothers’ blood.

Verbs of Accusing.

2185. The verbs of accusing, arguō and īnsimulō, take the accusative with the infinitive like verbs of saying: as,

cīvīs Rōmānōs necātōs esse arguō, V. 5, 149, my accusation is that Romans have been slain. occīdisse patrem Sex. Rōscius arguitur, RA. 37, Roscius is charged with the murder of his father. īnsimulāre coepērunt Epicratem litterās pūblicās corrūpisse, V. 2, 60, they began to accuse Epicrates of having falsified records of state.

Verbs of Hoping, Promising, and Threatening.

2186. The accusative with the future infinitive is used with verbs of hoping, promising, and threatening: as,

id sēsē effectūrōs spērābant, 7, 26, 2, they hoped to carry it out. pollicentur sēsē ē̆ī dēditūrōs, 5, 20, 2, they volunteer to surrender to him. But sometimes the present infinitive alone: see 2236.

Verbs of Emotion.

2187. The accusative with the infinitive is sometimes used with verbs of joy, grief, surprise, or wonder: as,

venīre tū mē gaudēs, Pl. B. 184, thou art glad I’m come. doluī pācem repudiārī, Marc. 14, I felt sorry peace was rejected. These verbs often have the construction with quod, or in old Latin with quia (1851).

2188. Some of the commonest of these verbs are doleō, gaudeō, laetor, mīror, &c., &c.; and from Cicero on, angor, indignor, lūgeō, sollicitō.

Verbs of Desire.

2189. (1.) The accusative with the infinitive is commonly used with volō (mālō, nōlō), and cupiō, when the subject of the infinitive is not the same as that of the verb: as,

Catilīnam perīre voluī, Ph. 8, 15, I wished Catiline to die. māluit hominēs peccāre quam deōs, V. 2, 22, he wanted men to sin rather than gods. tē tuā fruī virtūte cupimus, Br. 331, we wish you to reap the benefit of your high character.

2190. (2.) Even when the subjects denote the same person, the accusative is sometimes used with the infinitive: as,

ēmorī mē mālim, Pl. As. 810, morī mē mālim, T. Eu. 66, I’d rather die. magnuficē volō mē virōs summōs accipere, Pl. Ps. 167, I’m going to entertain some highborn gentlemen in style. Oftenest when the infinitive is esse, vidērī, putārī, or dīcī: as, cupiō mē esse clēmentem, cupiō mē nōn dissolūtum vidērī, C. 1, 4, I wish to play the man of mercy, and yet I do not wish to seem over lax. Rarely thus with dēsīderō, nōlō, optō, and studeō, and in Sallust with properō.

2191. For the perfect active with these verbs, see 2228; for the perfect passive, 2229.

2192. volō, mālō, and cupiō are often coordinated with the subjunctive of desire (1707). volō and mālō often have the subjunctive with ut, particularly in old Latin (1950).

2193. Verbs of resolving sometimes take the accusative with the infinitive: as, certum offirmāre est viam mē, T. Hec. 454, I am resolved to hold the way. So, from Cicero on, sometimes cēnseō, dēcernō, and sentiō, in the exceptional sense of volō or iubeō, think it best: as, velle et cēnsēre eōs ab armīs discēdere, S. I. 21, 4, that they wished and thought it best for those people to give up fighting.

2194. The accusative with the infinitive is sometimes used with verbs of demanding: as, hau postulō equidem mēd in lectō accumbere, Pl. St. 488, I can’t expect, not I, to sprawl upon a couch. hīc postulat sē absolvī? V. 3, 138, does this man ask to be acquitted? Similarly with ōrō and praecipiō in late writers.

2195. The accusative with the infinitive is sometimes found with suādeō and persuādeō in Terence, Lucretius, and Vergil, and with precor in Ovid and late prose.

Verbs of Accomplishing.

2196. Verbs of accomplishing rarely have the accusative with the infinitive: as, tālīs ōrātōrēs vidērī facit, quālīs ipsī sē vidērī volunt, Br. 142, of delivery, it makes orators appear just as they wish to appear themselves. Oftenest in poetry. In prose usually the subjunctive with ut (1951).

Verbs of Teaching and Training.

2197. The verbs of teaching and training, doceō and adsuēfaciō, may take an accusative of a substantive and an infinitive expressing the thing taught: as,

quīn etiam tondēre fīliās suās docuit, TD. 5, 58, why more than that, he actually taught his own daughters to shave, of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse. equōs eōdem remanēre vestīgiō adsuēfēcērunt, 4, 2, 3, they have their horses trained to stand stock-still (1608). Compare 1169.

Verbs of Bidding and Forbidding and of Allowing.

2198. The accusative with the infinitive is used with iubeō and vetō, sinō and patior: as,

mīlitēs ex oppidō exīre iussit, 2, 33, 1, he ordered the soldiers to go out of the town. pontem iubet rescindī, 1, 7, 2, he orders the bridge torn up. lēx peregrīnum vetat in mūrum ascendere, DO. 2, 100, it is against the law for a foreigner to get up on the wall. castra vāllō mūnīrī vetuit, Caes. C. 1, 41, 4, he gave orders that the camp should not be fortified with a palisade. vīnum ad sē inportārī nōn sinunt, 4, 2, 6, wine they will not allow to be brought into their country. Cicero is the first to use vetō thus. Other constructions also occur with these words: see 1708, 1950, 1953, &c.

2199. The person ordered or forbidden is often omitted, when stress is laid on the action merely, or when the person is obvious from the context: as, castra mūnīre iubet, i.e. mīlitēs, 2, 5, 6, he gives orders to construct a camp. iussērunt prōnūntiāre, i.e. tribūnōs et centuriōnēs, 5, 33, 3, they gave orders to proclaim. īdemque iussērunt simulācrum Iovis facere maius, i.e. cōnsulēs, C. 3, 20, and they furthermore gave directions to make a statue of Jupiter, a bigger one.

2200. iubeō is sometimes coordinated with the subjunctive, especially in old Latin (1708). Sometimes it has the subjunctive with ut, especially in resolves of the people.

2201. In the passive, iubeō, vetō, and sinō are used personally, the accusative of the person ordered or forbidden becoming nominative: as, iubentur scrībere exercitum, L. 3, 30, 3, they are ordered to raise an army. Nōlānī mūrōs adīre vetitī, L. 23, 16, 9, the men of Nola were not allowed to go to the walls. hīc accūsāre eum nōn est situs, Sest. 95, this man was not allowed to accuse him.

2202. imperō often has the accusative with a passive or deponent infinitive, or with fierī: as, praesentem pecūniam solvī imperāvī, Att. 2, 4, 1, I have given orders for ready money to be paid. Rarely with an active infinitive parallel with a passive: as, eō partem nāvium convenīre commeātumque comportārī imperat, Caes. C. 3, 42, 2, he orders part of the vessels to rendezvous there, and grain to be brought. In the passive, a personal imperor occurs, like iubeor (2201): as, in lautumiās dēdūcī imperantur, V. 5, 68, orders are given for them to be taken to the quarries. See also 1950. permittō has sometimes the accusative with the infinitive from Tacitus on, usually the subjunctive with ut (1950).

2203. The verbs of hindering, prohibeō and impediō, sometimes have the accusative with the infinitive: as, barbarī nostrōs nāvibus ēgredī prohibēbant, 4, 24, 1, the savages undertook to prevent our people from disembarking. The infinitive used with prohibeō is usually passive or deponent. quid est igitur quod mē impediat ea quae probābilia mihī̆ videantur sequī? Off. 2, 8, what is there then to hinder me from following what seems to me to be probable? See also 1960 and 1977.

The Infinitive as a Substantive Accusative.

2204. The accusative with the infinitive, or the infinitive alone, regarded as a neuter substantive, may be used as the object of a verb, or in apposition with the object: as,

(a.) leporem gustāre fās nōn putant, 5, 12, 6, tasting hare they count a sin. errāre malum dūcimus, Off. 1, 18, going astray we hold a bad thing. (b.) ad id quod īnstituistī, ōrātōrum genera distinguere aetātibus, istam dīligentiam esse accommodātam putō, Br. 74, I think your accurate scholarship is just the thing for your projected task—classifying public speakers chronologically.

2205. The infinitive as a substantive is rarely preceded by the preposition inter in late prose: as, multum interest inter dare et accipere, Sen. Ben. 5, 10, 2, there is a vast difference between ‘give’ and ‘take.’ Cicero has it thus once in a translation (Fin. 2, 43). In poetry praeter is thus used rarely.

2206. In poetry, the infinitive is used as a substantive object with such verbs as dō, reddō, adimō, perdō: as, hīc verērī perdidit, Pl. B. 158, this youth has lost his sense of shame.

(B.) The Infinitive as Subject.

2207. The accusative with the infinitive, or the infinitive alone, present or perfect, may be used as the subject of a verb, in apposition with the subject, or as a predicate nominative: as,

(a.) mendācem memorem esse oportēre, Quintil. 4, 2, 91, that a liar should have a good memory. (b.) sequitur illud, caedem senātum iūdicāsse contrā rem pūblicam esse factam, Mil. 12, next comes this point, that the senate adjudged the homicide an offence against the state. (c.) exitus fuit ōrātiōnis, sibī̆ nūllam cum hīs amīcitiam esse posse, 4, 8, 1, the end of the speech was that he could not have any friendship with these people.

2208. The infinitive is used as the subject (a.) with impersonal verbs, (b.) with est, putātur, habētur, &c., and an abstract substantive, a genitive, or a neuter adjective in the predicate.

2209. (a.) Some of the commonest impersonal verbs are appāret, decet, expedit, licet, lubet, oportet, praestat, pudet, rēfert. Also in classical Latin, attinet, condūcit, cōnstat, dēdecet, exsistit, fallit, interest, iuvat, liquet, obest, paenitet, patet, pertinet, placet, displicet, prōdest, which are used as live verbs by Lucretius and Sallust also. Similarly in Plautus and Terence fortasse.

2210. The infinitive is occasionally used as a subject with verbs other than the above (2209): as, nōn cadit invidēre in sapientem, TD. 3, 21, envy does not square with our ideas of a sage. carēre hoc sīgnificat, egēre eō quod habēre velīs, TD. 1, 88, careō means not having what you would like to have.

2211. (b.) Some of the commonest abstracts used thus with est are fāma, fās and nefās, fidēs, iūs, laus, opus, mōs, tempus. From Cicero on, opīniō and prōverbium. In Plautus, audācia, cōnfīdentia, miseria, negōtium, scelus, &c. For genitives, see 1237. Neuter adjectives are such as aequum, inīquum, cōnsentāneum, crēdibile, incrēdibile, manifestum, necesse, pār, rēctum, &c., &c.

2212. The accusative is not expressed when it is indefinite, you, a man, a person, anybody, frequently also when it is implied in some other case in the sentence: as,

nōn tam praeclārum est scīre Latīnē quam turpe nescīre, Br. 140, it is not so creditable to be a Latin scholar as it is disreputable not to be. mihī̆ inter virtūtēs grammaticī habēbitur aliqua nescīre, Quintil. 1, 8, 21, in my eyes it will be one merit in a classical scholar not to be omniscient. temporī cēdere semper sapientis est habitum, Fam. 4, 9, 2, bowing to the inevitable has always passed as a mark of wisdom. peccāre licet nēminī, Par. 20, no man is at liberty to sin. An indefinite hominem, aliquem, or tē, is rare: as, illa laus est, līberōs hominem ēducāre, Pl. MG. 703, it is a crown of glory for a man a family to rear.

2213. (1.) A predicate noun referring to the unexpressed indefinite subject of the infinitive is put in the accusative: as,

nōn esse cupidum pecūnia est, nōn esse emācem vectīgal est, contentum vērō suīs rēbus esse maximae sunt dīvitiae, Par. 51, for a man not to have desires, is money down, not to be eager to buy is an income; but to be satisfied with what you have is the greatest possible wealth. A plural predicate is rare: as, esset ēgregium domesticīs esse contentōs, O. 22, it would be a grand thing for people to be satisfied with home examples.

2214. (2.) When the subject of the infinitive is implied in a dative, a predicate noun may also be in the dative: as,

mihī̆ neglegentī esse nōn licet, Att. 1, 17, 6, it will not do for me to be careless. With a dative and licet, however, the predicate is sometimes in the accusative: as, quod sī cīvī Rōmānō licet esse Gādītānum, Balb. 29, now if a Roman is allowed to be a Gaditanian. Regularly so, when the subject is indefinite and not expressed (2212): as, haec praescrīpta servantem licet magnificē vīvere, Off. 1, 92, a man who holds to these rules may live a noble life.

2215. The infinitive, used as a substantive in the nominative or accusative, sometimes has a neuter attribute.

Chiefly thus ipsum, hoc ipsum, tōtum hoc: as, ipsum Latīnē loquī est in magnā laude pōnendum, Br. 140, just the mere ability of talking good Latin is to be accounted highly creditable. Rarely a possessive, meum, tuum: as, ita tuom cōnfertō amāre nē tibi sit probrō, Pl. Cur. 28, so shape thy wooing that it be to thee no shame.

THE INFINITIVE OF EXCLAMATION.

2216. The infinitive alone, or the accusative with the infinitive, is sometimes used in exclamations of surprise, incredulity, disapproval, or lamentation: as,

nōn pudēre, T. Ph. 233, not be ashamed. sedēre tōtōs diēs in vīllā, Att. 12, 44, 2, sitting round whole days and days at the country place. at tē Rōmae nōn fore, Att. 5, 20, 7, only to think you won’t be in Rome. hoc posterīs memoriae trāditum īrī, L. 3, 67, 1, to think this will be passed down to generations yet unborn. Often with a -ne, transferred from the unexpressed verb on which the infinitive depends (1503): as, tēne hoc, Accī, dīcere, tālī prūdentiā praeditum, Clu. 84, what? you to say this, Accius, with your sound sense. The exclamatory infinitive is chiefly confined to Plautus, Terence, and Cicero.

THE INFINITIVE OF INTIMATION.

2217. This infinitive has already been spoken of; see 1535-1539.

THE TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.

2218. The present infinitive represents action as going on, the perfect as completed, and the future as not yet begun, at the time of the action of the verb to which the infinitive is attached.

The forms of the infinitive are commonly and conveniently called tenses, though this designation is not strictly applicable.

The Present Tense.

2219. In itself, the present infinitive denotes action merely as going on, without any reference to time. With some verbs, however, which look to the future, the present relates to action in the immediate future. With verbs of perceiving, knowing, thinking, and saying, it denotes action as going on at the time of the verb: as,

(a.) facinus est vincīre cīvem Rōmānum, V. 5, 170, it is a crime to put a Roman in irons. (b.) audīre cupiō, Caec. 33, I am eager to hear. Antium mē recipere cōgitō a. d. V Nōn. Māi., Att. 2, 9, 4, I am meditating going back to Antium the third of May. (c.) errāre eōs dīcunt, 5, 41, 5, they say those people are mistaken. tempus dīxī esse, T. Hec. 687, I said it was time. dīcēs tibī̆ Siculōs esse amīcōs? V. 2, 155, will you say the Sicilians are friends of yours?

2220. The present infinitive is sometimes used with meminī, recordor, memoriā teneō, and with some analogous expressions, such as accēpimus, fertur, &c., to represent merely the occurrence of action really completed, without indicating its completion: as,

meminī ad mē tē scrībere, D. 38, I remember your writing to me. meministis fierī senātūs cōnsultum, Mur. 51, you remember a decree of the senate being passed. sed ego īdem recordor longē omnibus anteferre Dēmosthenem, O. 23, and yet I remember putting Demosthenes far above everybody else. hanc accēpimus agrōs et nemora peragrāre, HR. 24, we have heard of this goddess’s scouring fields and groves. Q. Maximum accēpimus facile cēlāre, tacēre, Off. 1, 108, we have heard of Fabius’s ready cleverness in keeping dark and holding his tongue. But the perfect is used when the action is to be distinctly marked as completed: as, meministis mē ita distribuisse causam, RA. 122, you remember that I arranged the case thus. Sometimes present and perfect are united: as, Helenē capere arma fertur, nec frātrēs ērubuisse deōs, Prop. 3, 14, 19 (4, 13, 19), Helen is said to fly to arms, and not to have blushed in presence of her brother gods. Here capere relates to the same completed action as the more exact ērubuisse.

2221. With verbs of saying, used in the narrower sense of promising, the present infinitive sometimes stands for the future (2236): as,

crās māne argentum mihī̆ mīles dare sē dīxit, T. Ph. 531, the soldier spoke of paying me the money early in the morning. mē a͡ibat accersere, Pl. Ps. 1118, he said he’d fetch me (2186). quae imperārentur facere dīxērunt, 2, 32, 3, they agreed to do what was commanded.

2222. The present infinitive dependent on a past tense of dēbeō, oportet, possum, often requires the English perfect infinitive in translation: as, quid enim facere poterāmus? Pis. 13, for what else could we have done? See, however, 1495. For the infinitive perfect, see 2230.

The Perfect Tense.

2223. (1.) The perfect active infinitive sometimes serves as a complement of dēbeō, volō, possum, &c. (2168): as,

tametsī statim vīcisse dēbeō, tamen dē meō iūre dēcēdam, RA. 73, though I am entitled to come off victorious at once, yet I will waive my right; compare vīcī, I am victorious, 1608. nīl vetitum fēcisse volet, J. 14, 185, nothing forbidden will he wish to have done; compare fēcī, I am guilty. unde illa potuit didicisse? Div. 2, 51, from what source could he have all that information acquired? bellum quod possumus ante hiemem perfēcisse, L. 37, 19, 5, the war which we can have ended up before winter.

2224. (2.) In prohibitions, the perfect active infinitive often serves as a complement of nōlō or volō (2168).

Thus, in old Latin, nōlītō dēvellisse, Pl. Poen. 872, do not have had it plucked. Particularly so when dependent on nē velit or nē vellet, in legal style: as, nē quis convēnisse sacrōrum causā velit, L. 39, 14, 8, that nobody may presume to have banded with others for the observance of the mysteries. BACAS · VIR · NEQVIS · ADIESE · VELET, CIL. I, 196, 7, inscription of 186 B.C., that no male should presume to have had resort to the Bacchants (765; 48). nē quid ēmisse velit īnsciente dominō, Cato, RR. 5, 4, he must not venture to have bought anything without his master’s knowledge, of a head farm-steward.

2225. In poetry of the Augustan age, the complementary perfect infinitive active is sometimes dependent on a verb of will or effort, such as cūrō, labōrō, tendō: as, tendentēs opācō Pēlion inposuisse Olympō, H. 3, 4, 51, on shadowy Olympus striving Pelion to have piled.

2226. Any past tense of the indicative, when made dependent on a verb of perceiving, knowing, thinking, or saying, is represented by the perfect infinitive.

Thus, in Theophrastus scrībit Cīmōnem hospitālem fuisse: ita enim vīlicīs imperāvisse, ut omnia praebērentur, Off. 2, 64, Theophrastus says in his book that Cimon was the soul of hospitality: he had directed his stewards to furnish everything required; the fuisse represents erat or fuit, and the imperāvisse may represent imperābat, imperāvit, or perhaps imperāverat, of direct discourse. praecō dīxisse prōnūntiat, V. 2, 75, the crier proclaims ‘speaking finished’ (1605).

2227. The perfect infinitive passive with fuisse denotes a past resulting state: as,

dīcō Mithridātī cōpiās omnibus rēbus ōrnātās atque īnstrūctās fuisse, urbemque obsessam esse, IP. 20, I must tell you that Mithridates’s troops were completely armed and equipped, and that the town was under siege. Here ōrnātās fuisse represents ōrnātae erant (1615), and obsessam esse represents obsidēbātur (1595).

2228. (1.) The perfect active infinitive is sometimes used with nōlō or volō, especially in poetry, when the subject of the infinitive is not the same as that of the verb (2189): as,

hanc tē ad cēterās virtūtēs adiēcisse velim, L. 30, 14, 6, I only wish you had this good quality added to the rest.

2229. (2.) volō often has an emphatic perfect passive infinitive, usually without esse (2230); less frequently cupiō and rarely nōlō: as,

factum volō, Pl. B. 495, As. 685, I want it done, i.e. I will. illōs monitōs etiam atque etiam volō, C. 2, 27, I want those people cautioned over and over. Particularly common in Cicero, not in Caesar or Sallust. Also with impersonal infinitives (1479): as oblīvīscere illum adversāriō tuō voluisse cōnsultum, Att. 16, 16^c, 10, you must forget that the man wanted your enemy provided for.

2230. The perfect infinitive passive or deponent, commonly without esse, is often used in Plautus, Terence, and Cicero, by assimilation with past tenses of verbs of propriety, such as aequum est, convenit, decet, and oportet: as, nōn oportuit relīctās, T. Hau. 247, they shouldn’t have been left. tē Iovī comprecātam oportuit, Pl. Am. 739, you should have said your prayers to Jove. The perfect active is less common: as, cāvisse oportuit, Pl. Am. 944, you should have been upon your guard. For volō, cupiō, nōlō, see 2229.

2231. The perfect infinitive of completed action is very common with such expressions as satis est, satis habeō, iuvat, melius est, paenitet, &c., also with verbs of emotion, such as gaudeō, &c.: as, mē quoque iuvat ad fīnem bellī Pūnicī pervēnisse, L. 31, 1, 1, I am delighted myself to have reached the end of the Punic war. Oftentimes, however, in verse, the use of the perfect is partly due to the metre.

The Future Tense.

2232. The future infinitive is only used as a representative of the indicative, and not as a substantive.

2233. For the future infinitive active or passive, a circumlocution with fore or futūrum esse with ut and the subjunctive present or imperfect is often used. This construction is necessary when the verb has no future participle or supine: as,

spērō fore ut contingat id nōbīs, TD. 1, 82, I hope we may be so fortunate. clāmābant fore ut ipsī sē dī ulcīscerentur, V. 4, 87, they cried out that the gods would avenge themselves.

2234. fore with the perfect participle of a passive or deponent, represents the future perfect of direct discourse: as, dēbellātum mox fore rēbantur, L. 23, 13, 6, they thought the war would soon be over.

2235. (1.) The future infinitive is commonly used with iūrō, minor, polliceor, prōmittō, and spērō, especially when the leading verb and the infinitive have the same subject: as,

iūrāvit sē nisi victōrem in castra nōn reversūrum, Caes. C. 3, 87, 5, he swore he would not come back to camp except as a victor. quod sē factūrōs minābantur, Caes. C. 2, 13, 4, which they threatened they would do. obsidēs datūrōs pollicitī sunt, 4, 27, 1, they volunteered to give hostages.

2236. (2.) A looser present infinitive is sometimes used with the above verbs, especially in old Latin, generally without a subject accusative. Thus with iūrō by Cato and Plautus, and with minor, proclaim with threats, by Lucretius. Similarly dare pollicentur, 6, 9, 7, they offer to give. reliquōs dēterrērī spērāns, Caes. C. 3, 8, 3, hoping that the rest were scared. spērō nostram amīcitiam nōn egēre testibus, Fam. 2, 2, I trust our friendship needs no witnesses. As possum has no future infinitive, the present of this verb is necessarily used: as, tōtīus Galliae sēsē potīrī posse spērant, 1, 3, 8, they hope to be able to get the control of the whole of Gaul.

THE GERUNDIVE AND GERUND.

2237. The gerundive is a verbal adjective (899). The gerund is a neuter verbal substantive, used only in the oblique cases of the singular. Both gerundives and gerunds express, in a noun form, the uncompleted action of the verb.

2238. Gerundives and gerunds, like the English verbal in -ing, were originally neither active nor passive (288), but might stand for either an active or a passive. In time a prevailing passive meaning grew up in the gerundive, and a prevailing active meaning in the gerund.

A gerund may be followed by the same case as its verb; but for the gerund of verbs of transitive use, see 2242, 2255, 2259, 2265.

2239. Both gerundives and gerunds are modified like verbs, by adverbs, not by adjectives.

(1.) The Gerundive Construction.

2240. The gerundive expresses, in an adjective form, the uncompleted action of a verb of transitive use exerted on a substantive object, the substantive standing in the case required by the context, and the gerundive agreeing with it.

In this construction, which is called the gerundive construction, the substantive and gerundive blend together in sense like the parts of a compound.

male gerendō negōtiō in aere aliēnō vacillant, C. 2, 21, owing to bad business-managing they are staggering under debts. studium agrī colendī, CM. 59, the occupation of land-tilling. vir regendae rē̆ī pūblicae scientissimus, DO. 1, 214, a man of great experience in state-managing.

(2.) The Gerund.

2241. The gerund expresses, in a substantive form, the uncompleted action of a verb which has no direct object.

ars vīvendī, Fin. 1, 42, the art of living. nōn est locus ad tergiversandum, Att. 7, 1, 4, ’tis no time for shill-I-shall-I-ing. sum dēfessus quaeritandō, Pl. Am. 1014, I’m all worn out with hunting. sē experiendō didicisse, Ta. 1, 11, he had learned by experience.

2242. Gerunds of verbs of transitive use are exceptionally found with a substantive object (2255, 2259, 2265), and regularly with neuter pronouns and neuter plural adjectives to avoid ambiguity (1106). See also 2247.

agendī aliquid discendīque causā, Fin. 5, 54, for the sake of doing or learning something. faciendī aliquid vel nōn faciendī vēra ratiō, Plin. Ep. 6, 27, 4, the true ground for doing or not doing a thing. artem sē trādere vēra ac falsa dīiūdicandī, DO. 2, 157, that he passed along the art of distinguishing between the true and the false. regendī cūncta onus, Ta. 1, 11, the burden of governing the world.

Cases of Gerunds and Gerundives.

Nominative.

2243. The nominative of the gerundive construction, as the subject of sum, denotes action which is to be done.

The combination acquires the meaning of obligation or propriety, and this meaning also passes over to the accusative with esse. The person who has the action to do is put in the dative of the possessor (1215). Instead of the dative, the ablative with ab is sometimes used, particularly where the dative would be ambiguous.

tibī̆ haec cūra suscipienda est, V. 4, 69, the undertaking of this care exists for you, i.e., you must undertake this charge. Caesarī omnia ūnō tempore erant agenda: vēxillum prōpōnendum, sīgnum tubā dandum, ab opere revocandī mīlitēs, aciēs īnstruenda, mīlitēs cohortandī, sīgnum dandum, 2, 20, 1, for Caesar there was everything to be done at the same moment: the standard to be raised, bugle call given, soldiers summoned in from their work, line of battle to be formed, soldiers harangued, signal given for engagement. quaerenda pecūnia prīmum est; virtūs post nummōs, H. E. 1, 1, 53, there is money-making to be the first aim: character second to dollars. adeundus mihī̆ illic est homō, Pl. R. 1298, I must draw near this fellow. Caesar statuit sibī̆ Rhēnum esse trānseundum, 4, 16, 1, Caesar made up his mind that he must cross the Rhine. ego istum iuvenem domī tenendum cēnseō, L. 21, 3, 6, for my part, I think that young man ought to be kept at home. ē̆ī ego ā mē referendam grātiam nōn putem? Planc. 78, should I not think that I ought to show my gratitude to him? quid ā mē amplius dīcendum putātis? V. 3, 60, what more do you think that I need say?

2244. fruendus, fungendus, potiundus, ūtendus, vēscendus, are also used in this construction, chiefly in the oblique cases; in the nominative the impersonal construction (2246) is usual. These verbs sometimes have a transitive use in old Latin (1380).

nōn paranda nōbīs sōlum ea, sed fruenda etiam est, Fin. 1, 3, that is a thing which we must not only obtain, but enjoy as well, of wisdom. nec tamen est potiunda tibī, O. 9, 754, she is not to be won by thee. Examples of the oblique cases in this use are cited below.

2245. habeō with the gerundive, as an equivalent of est mihī̆, est tibī̆, &c. (2243), is sometimes found, chiefly in late writers and particularly in Tacitus: as,

multī habent in praediīs, quibus frūmentum aut vīnum aliudve quid dēsit, inportandum, Varro, RR. 1, 16, 2, many on whose estates corn or wine or something else is lacking, have to bring it in. multum interest utrumne dē fūrtō dīcendum habeās an dē cīvibus trucīdātīs, Ta. D. 37, it makes a great difference whether you have to speak about a theft or about the murder of Romans. sī nunc prīmum statuendum habērēmus, Ta. 14, 44, if we had to decide the point to-day for the first time.

2246. The neuter of verbs of intransitive use takes the impersonal construction with est. Verbs ordinarily transitive also take the impersonal construction when used without an object.

nunc est bibendum, H. 1, 37, 1, now drinking exists, i.e. now we must drink. inambulandumst, Pl. As. 682, I must be moving on. ego amplius dēlīberandum cēnseō, T. Ph. 457, I opine there must be more pondering. linguae moderandumst mihī̆, Pl. Cu. 486, I must check my tongue. omne animal cōnfitendum est esse mortāle, DN. 3, 32, it must be admitted that every living thing is destined to die. nēmō umquam sapiēns prōditōrī crēdendum putāvit, V. 1, 38, no wise man ever held that a traitor was to be trusted.

2247. The impersonal construction with an object in the accusative, is old-fashioned and rare.

canēs paucōs habendum, Varro, RR. 1, 21, one should keep but few dogs. aeternās quoniam poenās in morte timendumst, Lucr. 1, 111, since punishment eterne they have in death to fear. This construction occurs oftenest in Lucretius and Varro; once in Plautus, a few times in Cicero for special reasons, and here and there in later writers. Not in Caesar or Horace.

2248. The gerundive sometimes acquires, in itself, the meaning of obligation or propriety, which it properly has only when combined with sum, and becomes a mere adjective, used in any case.

fōrmā expetendā līberālem virginem, Pl. Per. 521, a freeborn maid of shape delectable. L. Brūtō, prīncipe huius maximē cōnservandī generis et nōminis, Ph. 3, 11, Brutus, the first of this most highly cherished house and name. huic timendō hostī obvius fuī, L. 21, 41, 4, I met this dreadful foe. Athēnās, multa vīsenda habentīs, L. 45, 27, 11, Athens, which contains many sights worth a visit. For volvendus &c., see 288.

2249. The attributive gerundive (2248), particularly with a negative, in- privative, or vix, may denote possibility, like the verbal in -bilis: as,

labōrēs nōn fugiendōs, Fin. 2, 118, inevitable labours. Polybius, haudquāquam spernendus auctor, L. 30, 45, 5, Polybius, an authority by no means despicable. īnfandum, rēgīna, iubēs renovāre dolōrem, V. 2, 3, thou bidst me, queen, rehearse that woe unspeakable. vix erat crēdendum, 5, 28, 1, it was hardly credible. praedicābile aliquid et glōriandum ac prae sē ferendum, TD. 5, 49, something laudable and vauntable and displayable as well.

Accusative.

2250. (1.) The accusative of the gerundive construction is used with locō and condūcō, with suscipiō, habeō, and cūrō, and with verbs of giving or assigning.

With the verbs of giving or assigning (such as dō, trādō, committō, attribuō, dīvidō, relinquō, permittō, dēnotō), the emphasis often gravitates towards the substantive, and the gerundive, as an explanatory appendage, acquires the meaning of purpose. So in Plautus with the verbs of asking (rogō and petō); in Cicero with posco.

(a.) caedundum condūxī ego illum :: tum optumumst locēs efferendum, Pl. Aul. 567, I engaged him for killing :: then you’d better contract for his funeral (1709). sīgnum conlocandum cōnsulēs locāvērunt, Cat. 3, 20, the consuls let out the erecting of the statue. redemptor quī columnam illam condūxerat faciendam, Div. 2, 47, the contractor who had undertaken the making of that pillar. vellem suscēpissēs iuvenem regendum, Att. 10, 6, 2, I wish you had undertaken training the young man. aedem habuit tuendam, V. 1, 130, he had the looking after the temple. agrum dē nostrō patre colendum habēbat, T. Ph. 364, he had the tilling of a farm from my father.

(b.) COIRAVIT · BASILICAM · CALECANDAM, CIL. I, 1166, he superintended the town hall plastering. pontem faciendum cūrat, 1, 13, 1, he attends to a bridge’s being made, i.e. has it made. cōnsulibus senātus rem pūblicam dēfendendam dedit, Ph. 8, 15, the senate entrusted the defence of the state to the consuls. agrōs plēbī colendōs dedit, RP. 3, 16, he gave lands to the common people to till. Antigonus Eumenem propīnquīs sepeliendum trādidit, N. 18, 13, 4, Antigonus delivered Eumenes to his kinsfolk to be buried. attribuit nōs trucīdandōs, C. 4, 13, us he handed over to be slaughtered. sauciōs mīlitēs cūrandōs dīvidit patribus, L. 2, 47, 12, he apportioned the wounded soldiers among the senators to cure. haec porcīs comedenda relinquēs, H. E. 1, 7, 19, you’ll leave them to the pigs to eat. cīvīs Rōmānōs trucīdandōs dēnotāvit, IP. 7, he specified Romans for slaughter.

(c.) quae ūtenda vāsa semper vīcīnī rogant, Pl. Aul. 96, traps that the neighbours are always asking the use of. artoptam ex proxumō ūtendam petō, Pl. Aul. 400, I’m going for the use of a breadpan from next door.

2251. When such a verb is passive, the accusative becomes nominative.

simulācrum Dī̆ānae tollendum locātur, V. 4, 76, the moving of the statue of Diana is let out. dīlaceranda ferīs dabor ālitibusque praeda, Cat. 64, 152, I shall be given a prey for beasts and birds to tear. trāditīque fētiālibus Caudium dūcendī, L. 9, 10, 2, and they were delivered to the fetials to be taken to Caudium.

2252. (2.) The accusative of the gerundive construction or gerund is used with a preposition, usually ad. If the verb is of transitive use, the gerundive is proper, not the gerund (2240).

This construction is used with verbs (including verbs of hindering), with substantives generally to denote purpose, and with adjectives which have the meaning of capable, fit, easy, useful, &c., &c.

(a.) hic in noxiāst, ille ad dīcendam causam adest, T. Ph. 266, when A’s in trouble, B turns up to make excuses for him. ad pācem petendam ad Hannibalem vēnit, L. 21, 13, 1, he is come to Hannibal to sue for peace. ad eās rēs cōnficiendās Orgetorīx dēligitur, 1, 3, 3, Orgetorix is chosen to do this. dant sē ad lūdendum, Fin. 5, 42, they devote themselves to playing. palūs Rōmānōs ad īnsequendum tardābat, 7, 26, 2, a morass hindered the Romans from pursuit. ut peditēs ad trānseundum impedīrentur, Caes. C. 1, 62, 2, so that the infantry were hampered in crossing. (b.) causa ad obiūrgandum, T. Andr. 150, a reason for finding fault. spatium sūmāmus ad cōgitandum, Fin. 4, 1, let us take time for thought. alter occāsiōnem sibī̆ ad occupandam Asiam oblātam esse arbitrātur, IP. 4, the other thinks a chance is given him for seizing all Asia. (c.) homo nōn aptissimus ad iocandum, DN. 2, 46, a man not very well fitted to be a joker. nimis doctus illest ad male faciendum, Pl. E. 378, too well the fellow’s trained at playing tricks. ūtēbātur eō cibō quī esset facillimus ad concoquendum, Fin. 2, 64, he made use of the sort of food which was easiest to digest.

2253. Other prepositions are sometimes used: as, inter, in old Latin, Vergil, Livy, and later writers; ob, once in Ennius, rarely in Cicero and Sallust; in very rarely, but even in Cicero; ante (Vergil, Livy), circā (post-Augustan), propter (Varro, Val. Max.), all rare.

mōrēs sē inter lūdendum dētegunt, Quintil. 1, 3, 12, character discovers itself during play. ob rem iūdicandam pecūniam accipere, V. 2, 78, to take money for passing judgement on a case.

Dative.

2254. The dative of the gerundive construction is used with adjectives, verbs, and phrases of ability, attention, and adaptation, with titles of office, and with comitia, election.

This construction is not very common in classical Latin, where few verbs and substantives take it instead of the usual ad and the accusative (2252). In old Latin, it is also joined to adjectives and participles; in Cicero it is thus used only with accommodātus. From Livy on, the construction becomes a very favourite one. Caesar has it only as below and 3, 4, 1.

tālīs iactandīs tuae sunt cōnsuētae manūs, Pl. Vid. your hands are used to throwing dice. optumum operī faciundō, Pl. R. 757, most suitable for carrying on his trade. praeesse agrō colendō, RA. 50, to superintend farm managing. cum diēs vēnisset rogātiōnī ferendae, Att. 1, 14, 5, when the day came for proposing the bill. hībernīs oppugnandīs hunc esse dictum diem, 5, 27, 5, that this was the day set for attacking the winter quarters. cōnsul plācandīs dīs habendōque dīlēctū dat operam, L. 22, 2, 1, the consul devotes himself to propitiating the gods and raising troops. Dēmosthenēs cūrātor mūrīs reficiendīs fuit, OG. 19, Demosthenes was commissioner for repairing the walls. IIIvirī rē̆ī pūblicae cōnstituendae, L. Epit. 120, a commission of three for reorganizing the state. comitia collēgae subrogandō habuit, L. 2, 8, 3, he held an election for appointing a colleague.

2255. In the dative, a transitive gerund with an object in the accusative is found four times in Plautus; in Ovid, Livy, and Vitruvius once each.

2256. Late writers sometimes use the dative of the gerundive construction instead of a final clause (1961): as,

subdūcit ex aciē legiōnem faciendīs castrīs, Ta. 2, 21, he withdraws a legion from the field to build a camp. nīdum mollibus plūmīs cōnsternunt tepē̆faciendīs ōvīs, simul nē dūrus sit īnfantibus pullīs, Plin. NH. 10, 92, they line the nest with soft feathers to warm the eggs, and also to prevent it from being uncomfortable to their young brood.

2257. The dative of the gerund is used chiefly by old and late writers, and is confined in the best prose to a few special phrases.

ōsculandō meliust pausam fierī, Pl. R. 1205, ’tis better that a stop be put to kissing. tū nec solvendō erās, Ph. 2, 4, you were neither solvent. SC · ARF, i.e. scrībendō arfuērunt, CIL. I, 196, 2, there were present when the document was put in writing. quod scrībendō adfuistī, Fam. 15, 6, 2, because you were present at the writing.

Genitive.

2258. (1.) The genitive of the gerundive construction or gerund is used with substantives or adjectives.

(a.) tacendī tempus est, Pl. Poen. 741, it’s time to be still. spēs potiundī oppidī, 2, 7, 2, the hope of overpowering the town (2244). summa difficultās nāvigandī, 3, 12, 5, the greatest difficulty in sailing. proeliī committendī sīgnum dedit, 2, 21, 3, he gave the signal for beginning the battle. exemplō eōrum clādēs fuit ut Mārsī mitterent ōrātōrēs pācis petendae, L. 9, 45, 18, their downfall was a warning to the Marsians to send envoys to sue for peace. sīve nāvēs dēiciendī operis essent missae, 4, 17, 10, or if vessels for breaking down the works had been sent. Particularly with causā, grātiā, or rarely ergō (1257), to denote purpose: as, frūmentandī causā, 4, 12, 1, for foraging. vītandae suspīciōnis causā, C. 1, 19, to avoid suspicion. mūneris fungendī grātiā, RP. 1, 27, for the sake of doing one’s duty. illīusce sacrī coercendī ergō, Cato, RR. 139, because of thinning out yon hallowed grove.

(b.) quam cupida eram hūc redeundī, T. Hec. 91, how eager I was to return here. homine perītō dēfīniendī, Off. 3, 60, a man accomplished in drawing distinctions. perpessus est omnia potius quam cōnsciōs dēlendae tyrannidis indicāret, TD. 2, 52, he stood out against the worst sooner than betray his confederates in the overthrow of the tyranny. īnsuētus nāvigandī, 5, 6, 3, unused to sailing. studiōsus audiendī, N. 15, 3, 2, an eager listener. nescia tolerandī, Ta. 3, 1, ignorant what patience was. nandī pavidus, Ta. H. 5, 14, afraid to swim. With adjectives, the gerundive construction is not found in Plautus and Terence, and the gerund not in Plautus. Terence has the gerund with cupidus, Cato with studiōsus. The construction is of slow growth before Tacitus, who greatly developed it.

2259. In the genitive, a transitive gerund with an object in the accusative is rare except in Plautus; ordinarily the gerundive is used (2240).

tē dēfrūdandī causā, Pl. Men. 687, for the purpose of cheating you. cupidus tē audiendī, DO. 2, 16, eager to hear you. summa ēlūdendī occāsiōst mihi nunc senēs, T. Ph. 885, I’ve now a splendid chance the graybeards of eluding. nē suī līberandī (2260) atque ulcīscendī Rōmānōs occāsiōnem dīmittant, 5, 38, 2, that they should not let slip the chance of freeing themselves and taking vengeance on the Romans. sīgnum colligendī vāsa dedit, L. 24, 16, 14, he gave the signal to pack their things.

2260. nostrī, vostrī (or vestrī), and suī, being singular in form (649) have often a singular gerundive.

nōn tam suī cōnservandī quam tuōrum cōnsiliōrum reprimendōrum causā profūgērunt, C. 1, 7, they fled, not so much to protect themselves as to crush your plans. vēnisse tempus ulcīscendī suī, Sest. 28, that the time was come for them to revenge themselves. vestrī adhortandī causā, L. 21, 41, 1, for the purpose of encouraging you.

2261. Sometimes another genitive appears beside the genitive of the gerund, each perhaps dependent on the main word. This use is found in old Latin, Lucretius, Varro, and here and there in Cicero, as well as in late Latin.

nōminandī istōrum tibī̆ erit cōpia, Pl. Cap. 852, you will have a chance to name them. poenārum solvendī tempus, Lucr. 5, 1225, the time of paying penalties. exemplōrum ēligendī potestās, Inv. 2, 5, a chance of picking out examples. lūcis tuendī cōpiam, Pl. Cap. 1008, a chance to look upon the light.

2262. (2.) The genitive of the gerundive construction is used predicatively with sum.

rēgium imperium, quod initiō cōnservandae libertātis fuerat, S. C. 6, 7, the authority of the king, which had originally served to uphold freedom. cētera in XII minuendī sūmptūs sunt lāmentātiōnisque fūnebris, Leg. 2, 59, the rest of the contents of the Twelve Tables are conducive to the abating of extravagance and keening at funerals. concordiam ōrdinum, quam dissolvendae tribūnīciae potestātis rentur esse, L. 5, 3, 5, the union of the classes, which they believe serves to break down the power of the tribunes. This use is not common. It is found rarely in Sallust and Cicero; chiefly in Livy.

2263. The genitive of the gerundive construction, without a substantive or adjective (2258) or the verb sum (2262), is occasionally used to denote purpose: as,

quae ille cēpit lēgum ac lībertātis subvortundae, S. Fr. Phil. 10, which he began in order to overthrow freedom and the laws, of civil war. ūnum vincīrī iubet, magis ūsurpandī iūris quam quia ūnīus culpa foret, Ta. H. 4, 25, he ordered one into irons, more to vindicate his authority than because an individual was to blame. This use occurs very rarely in Sallust, chiefly in Tacitus and late Latin. Once in Terence with the gerund.

2264. Tacitus has the genitive of the gerundive construction two or three times with a judicial verb (1280) to denote the charge: as, occupandae rē̆ī pūblicae arguī nōn poterant, Ta. 6, 10, they could not be charged with an attempt on the throne.

Ablative.

2265. In the ablative a transitive gerund with a substantive object is not uncommon.

frātrem laudandō, Leg. 1, 1, in quoting your brother. largē partiendō praedam, L. 21, 5, 5, by a lavish distribution of the spoil. This use is particularly common in Livy. Not in Caesar.

2266. (1.) The ablative of the gerundive construction or gerund denotes means, less often cause, rarely manner and circumstances, or time, or respect.

Means: Caesar dandō sublevandō īgnōscundō, Catō nihil largiundō glōriam adeptus est, S. C. 54, 3, Caesar gained reputation by giving, helping, and pardoning, Cato by lavishing no gifts. opprimī sustentandō ac prōlātandō nūllō pactō potest, C. 4, 6, it cannot be crushed by patience and procrastination. Livy has this ablative with the adjective contentus (1377): nec iam possidendīs pūblicīs agrīs contentōs esse, 6, 14, 11, that they were no longer satisfied with the occupation of the public lands. Cause: aggerundā curvom aquā, Pl. Cas. 124, bowed with water carrying. flendō turgidulī rubent ocellī, Cat. 3, 18, with weeping red and swollen are her eyne. Manner and circumstances: rare in old Latin and Cicero: not in Caesar: bellum ambulandō cōnfēcērunt, Caelius in Fam. 8, 15, 1, they strolled through the war. senex vincendō factus, L. 30, 28, 5, maturing in victories. Time: cum plausum meō nōmine recitandō dedissent, Att. 4, 1, 6, when they had applauded on the reading of my name. partibus dīvidendīs ipsī regiō ēvēnit, L. 25, 30, 6, at the distribution, the district fell to him. Respect: Latīnē loquendō cuivīs erat pār, Br. 128, in his use of Latin he was a match for anybody.

2267. (2.) The ablative of the gerundive construction or gerund is also accompanied by a preposition, ab, dē, in, or ex; rarely by prō.

nūllum tempus illī umquam vacābat aut ā scrībendō aut ā cōgitandō, Br. 272, he never had any time free from writing or from thinking. quod verbum ductum est ā nimis intuendō fortūnam alterīus, TD. 3, 20, a word which is derived from ‘looking too closely at’ another’s prosperity, of the word invidia. cōnsilium illud dē occlūdendīs aedibus, T. Eu. 784, that idea about barring up the house. nihil dē causā discendā praecipiunt, DO. 2, 100, they give no instruction about studying up a case. vostra ōrātiō in rē incipiundā, T. Ph. 224, your remarks when we started in with this affair. Āfricānī in rē gerundā celeritātem, V. 5, 25, Africanus’s swiftness in execution. vix ex grātulandō ēminēbam, Pl. Cap. 504, I barely got my head above their congratulations. quae virtūs ex prōvidendō est appellāta prūdentia, Leg. 1, 60, a virtue which from ‘foreseeing’ is called foresight. prō līberandā amīcā, Pl. Per. 426, for setting free a leman. prō ope ferendā, L. 23, 28, 11, instead of going to the rescue. In this use ab is not found in Plautus or Terence, nor prō in Terence. cum is found in Quintilian, super once in Horace, then in Tacitus, sine once in Varro.

2268. With a comparative expression, the ablative of the gerundive is found once: nūllum officium referendā grātiā magis necessārium est, Off. 1, 47, no obligation is more binding than the returning of a favour. The gerundive construction in the ablative of separation (1302) is found rarely in Livy and Pliny the younger; Livy has also the gerund: as, Verminam absistere sequendō coēgit, L. 29, 33, 8, he forced Vermina to abandon his pursuit.

THE SUPINE.

2269. The supine is a verbal substantive. The form in -um is an accusative. The form in -ū is used sometimes as a dative, sometimes as an ablative.

The Supine in -um.

2270. The supine in -um denotes purpose with verbs of motion (1166): as,

abiīt piscātum, Pl. R. 898, he’s gone a fishing. neu noctū īrem obambulātum, Pl. Tri. 315, not to go a prowling by night. legiōne ūnā frūmentātum missā, 4, 32, 1, one legion being sent a foraging. sessum it praetor, DN. 3, 74, the praetor is going to take his seat. spectātum veniunt, veniunt spectentur ut ipsae, O. AA. 1, 99, they come to see and eke for to be seen. This use is very common in Plautus and Terence, less common in Cicero and Caesar. It is found not infrequently in Sallust and particularly in Livy; sporadically in the Augustan poets. In late prose it is almost confined to archaistic writing. In classical Latin, purpose is more commonly expressed by the subjunctive with ut or a relative pronoun, or by a gerundive or gerund with ad or causā. See also 2164.

2271. The most common supines in -um are cubitum, dormītum, ēreptum, frūmentātum, grātulātum, nūntiātum, oppugnātum, ōrātum, pāstum, perditum, petītum, salūtātum, sessum, supplicātum. They are found chiefly with eō and veniō. nūptum is also common with dō, collocō, &c., and supines are occasionally found with other verbs implying motion.

2272. The supine in -um may be followed by the same construction as its verb: as,

(a.) Accusative: deōs salūtātum atque uxōrem modo intrō dēvortor domum, Pl. St. 534, I’ll just turn in home to greet my gods and my wife. lēgātōs ad Caesarem mittunt rogātum auxilium, 1, 11, 2, they send envoys to Caesar to beg aid. oppugnātum patriam nostram veniunt, L. 21, 41, 13, they come to assail our country. Classical writers generally avoid this use of the accusative. (b.) Dative: servītum tibi mē abdūcitō, Pl. Ps. 520, take me away to slave for you. nōn ego Grāīs servītum mātribus ībō, V. 2, 786, not I shall go to be the serf of Grecian dames. (c.) Subordinate clause: lēgātī veniēbant: Aeduī questum quod Harūdēs fīnēs eōrum populārentur, 1, 37, 1, envoys came: the Aeduans to complain ‘because the Harudians were laying their country waste’ (1853). lēgātōs ad Caesarem mīsērunt ōrātum nē sē in hostium numerō dūceret, 6, 32, 1, they sent envoys to Caesar to beg that he would not regard them in the light of enemies.

2273. The supine in -um followed by īrī forms the future passive infinitive: as,

eum exceptum īrī putō, Att. 7, 22, 1, I think that there is a going to capture him, i.e. that he is going to be captured. Here īrī is used impersonally and eum is the object of exceptum. This infinitive is found half a dozen times in old Latin, often in Cicero, rarely in other writers; not in the Augustan poets. For the common periphrasis, see 2233.

The Supine in -ū.

2274. The supine in -ū is used with fās, nefās, and adjectives, chiefly of such meaning as easy, good, pleasant, strange, or their opposites.

Only a few supines in -ū are found; the commonest are audītū, cōgnitū, dictū, factū, inventū, memorātū, nātū, vīsū.

sī hoc fās est dictū, TD. 5, 38, if heaven allows us to say so. difficile dictū est dē singulīs, Fam. 1, 7, 2, it is hard to say in the case of individuals. quaerunt quod optimum factū sit, V. 1, 68, they ask what the best thing is to do. quid est tam iocundum cōgnitū atque audītū? DO. 1, 31, what pleasure is greater to mind and ear? palpebrae mollissimae tāctū, DN. 2, 142, the eyelids are very soft to the touch. With such adjectives the dative is commonly used (1200); or, particularly with facilis or difficilis, the gerundive construction with ad (2252); for the infinitive, see 2166. The supine in -ū is found chiefly in Cicero and Livy. Very rare in old Latin, Sallust, Caesar (who has only factū and nātū), and the poets. From the elder Pliny and Tacitus on, it gets commoner.

2275. The supine in -ū sometimes introduces a subordinate sentence, but it is never used with an object in the accusative.

quoivīs facile scītū est quam fuerim miser, T. Hec. 296, anybody can easily understand how unhappy I was. incrēdibile memorātū est quam facile coaluerint, S. C. 6, 2, it is an incredible tale how readily they grew into one. vidētis nefās esse dictū miseram fuisse tālem senectūtem, CM. 13, you see that it were a sin to say that an old age like his was unhappy.

2276. The supine in -ū is found rarely with opus est (1379), dīgnus and indīgnus (1392): as,

ita dictū opus est, T. Hau. 941, thus thou must needs say. nihil dignum dictū āctum hīs cōnsulibus, L. 4, 30, 4, nothing worth mentioning was done this year. For dignus with quī and the subjunctive, see 1819; for opus est with the infinitive, 2211.

2277. In Plautus and Cato, the supine in -ū is very rarely used like an ablative of separation (1302): as, nunc opsonātū redeō, Pl. Men. 288, I’m only just back from catering. prīmus cubitū surgat, postrēmus cubitum eat, Cato, RR. 5, 5, let him be first to get up from bed and last to go to bed. Statius imitates this use in Ach. 1, 119.

THE PARTICIPLE.

2278. The participle is a verbal adjective. Like the adjective, it is inflected to agree with its substantive. Like the verb, it may be modified by an adverb, it is active or passive, and it expresses action as continuing, completed, or future. It may also be followed by the same case as its verb.

Time of the Participle.

2279. (1.) The time to which the participle refers is indicated by the verb of the sentence.

āēr effluēns hūc et illūc ventōs efficit, DN. 2, 101, the air by streaming to and fro produces winds. convēnī hodiē adveniēns quendam, T. Eu. 234, I met a man as I was coming to-day. manūs tendentēs vītam ōrābant, L. 44, 42, 4, with hands outstretched they begged their lives. Croesus Halyn penetrāns magnam pervertet opum vim, oracle in Div. 2, 115, Croesus, when Halys he shall cross, will overthrow a mighty realm. benignitātem tu͡am mihī̆ expertō praedicās, Pl. Merc. 289, thou vauntest to me who’ve proved thy courtesy. cōnsecūtus id quod animō prōposuerat, receptuī canī iussit, 7, 47, 1, having accomplished what he had designed, he gave orders to sound the retreat. Dionȳsius Syrācūsīs expulsus Corinthī puerōs docēbat, TD. 3, 27, after his expulsion from Syracuse, Dionysius kept school at Corinth. lēgātī dīxērunt sē rē dēlīberātā ad Caesarem reversūrōs, 4, 9, 1, the envoys said that they would come back to Caesar after they had thought the matter over.

2280. (2.) The perfect participle of deponents is sometimes used with past tenses or their equivalents to denote incomplete contemporaneous action. So occasionally a perfect passive.

(a.) Metellum esse ratī portās clausēre, S. I. 69, 1, supposing that it was Metellus, they closed their gates. gāvīsus illōs retinērī iussit, 4, 13, 6, with pleasure he gave orders for their detention. persuādent Rauracīs utī eōdem ūsī cōnsiliō proficīscantur, 1, 5, 4, they coaxed the Rauraci to adopt the same plan and go. sōlātus iussit sapientem pāscere barbam, H. S. 2, 3, 35, consoling me he bade me grow a philosophic beard. This use is found in old Latin and in Cicero very rarely. Sallust and Caesar use a few verbs thus. It is not uncommon in the Augustan poets and Livy. In late writers, especially Tacitus, it is frequent. (b.) servum sub furcā caesum mediō ēgerat circō, L. 2, 36, 1, he had driven a slave round, flogged under the fork, right in the circus. With this compare servus per circum, cum virgīs caederētur, furcam ferēns ductus est, Div. 1, 55, a slave with the fork on his neck was driven through the circus, flogged with rods the while (1872). But the perfect passive has its ordinary force (2279) in verberibus caesum tē in pistrīnum dēdam, T. Andr. 199, I’ll give you a flogging and then put you in the mill.

2281. For the perfect participle with forms of sum and fuī, see 1608, 1609; for the conative present participle, 2301; reflexive, 1482.

The Attributive Participle.

2282. The present or perfect participle is often used as an adjective to express a permanent condition: as,

ācrem ōrātōrem, incēnsum et agentem et canōrum forī strepitus dēsīderat, Br. 317, the noisy forum requires an impetuous speaker, inspired and dramatic and sonorous. L. Abuccius, homo adprīmē doctus, Varro, RR. 3, 2, 17, Abuccius, an eminently learned man. aliī facētī, flōrentēs etiam et ōrnātī, O. 20, others are brilliant, even bright and elegant. id tibī̆ renūntiō futūrum ut sīs sciēns, T. Andr. 508, I give you notice this will happen, that you may be prepared.

2283. The future participle is found as an adjective in the Augustan poets and in late writers. Cicero, however, has futūrus in this use with rēs and a few other words, and has ventūrus once.

dā mānsūram urbem, V. 3, 85, grant a city that shall abide. firmus pariēs et dūrātūrus, Ta. D. 22, a strong and durable wall. sīgna ostenduntur ā dīs rērum futūrārum, DN. 2, 12, signs of future events are disclosed by the gods. For the future participle with forms of sum, see 1633.

2284. Many participles have become complete adjectives, and as such are capable of composition or comparison, or take the case required by an adjective.

(a.) nōmen invictī imperātōris, V. 4, 82, the invincible general’s name. pūrus et īnsōns sī vīvō, H. S. 1, 6, 69, pure and guiltless if I live (749). (b.) solūtus venēficae scientiōris carmine, H. Epod. 5, 71, freed by some craftier witch’s charm. homo ērudītissimus, Verrēs, V. 4, 126, Verres, most accomplished of men. (c.) tibi sum oboediēns, Pl. MG. 806, I’m your obedient (1200). tē cōnfīdō ea factūrum quae mihī̆ intellegēs maximē esse accommodāta, Fam. 3, 3, 2, I feel confident that you will do what you shall feel most appropriate to my interests (1201). For the genitive with such participles, see 1266.

2285. A perfect participle in agreement with a substantive often contains the leading idea, and may be translated like an abstract substantive with a genitive dependent. The nominative is rarely thus used. The present participle in this use is rare, the future late.

This construction expresses the completed action of the verb in precisely the same way that the gerundive construction (2240) expresses uncompleted action.

(a.) Joined with substantives: iniūriae retentōrum equitum Rōmānōrum, 3, 10, 2, the outrages of Roman knights detained, i.e. in the detention of Roman knights. servātī cōnsulis decus, L. 21, 46, 10, the credit of saving the consul. male administrātae prōvinciae urgēbātur, Ta. 6, 29, he was charged with maladministration of his province. ō quid solūtīs est beātius cūrīs? Cat. 31, 7, oh what is sweeter than the putting off of care?

(b.) Joined with prepositions: ab conditā urbe ad līberātam, L. 1, 60, 3, from the foundation of the city to the liberation thereof. post nātōs hominēs improbissimus, Br. 224, the greatest reprobate since the creation of man. ante cīvitātem datam, Arch. 9, before the gift of the citizenship.

(c.) In the nominative: very rare before Livy: dēpressa hostium classis, Arch. 21, the sinking of the enemy’s fleet. angēbant ingentis spīritūs virum Sicilia Sardiniaque āmissae, L. 21, 1, 5, what tortured the high-souled hero was the loss of Sicily and Sardinia. cuius turbāvit nitidōs exstīnctus passer ocellōs, J. 6, 7, whose sparkling eyne the sparrow’s death bedimmed.

2286. This use of the participle, though old, is not common before Livy, who, like Tacitus, has it frequently, both with substantives and with prepositions. Very rare in Caesar, rare in Cicero, who, however, uses it both with substantives and with a few prepositions. In old Latin (not in Terence), it is found with the substantives opus and ūsus, in Cato with post, in Varro with propter: as, mī homine conventōst opus, Pl. Cur. 302, I needs must see the man. propter mare congelātum, Varro, RR. 1, 2, 4, by reason of the freezing of the sea water. For the participle alone with ūsus est and opus est, see 1382.

The Substantive Participle.

2287. Participles sometimes become substantives, especially the perfect participle: as,

vīvit gnāta, T. Ph. 749, your daughter’s alive. dē dēmēnsō suō, T. Ph. 43, out of his allowance. īnstitūtum tenēbimus, TD. 4,7, we will hold to our fundamental idea. Adverbs, not adjectives, are commonly used to qualify perfect participles used as substantives; for examples, see 1440. The masculine singular is rarely used as a substantive; the neuter, both singular and plural, is common, particularly with prepositions.

2288. The masculine plural of the perfect participle, when used as a substantive, generally denotes a definite class of persons: as,

ut damnātī in integrum restituantur, vīnctī solvantur, V. 5, 12, that the condemned go scot-free, the imprisoned are set at liberty. Catilīna cum expedītīs in prīmā aciē vorsārī, S. C. 60, 4, Catiline bustling round in the van with the light infantry. ēvocātīs equōs sūmit, 7, 65, 5, he took away the veterans’ horses. Rarely not denoting a definite class: as, missī intercipiuntur, 5, 40, 1, the men who had been sent (i.e. on a particular occasion) are cut off.

2289. The perfect participle alone sometimes serves as the subject of a sentence instead of an abstract substantive (2285): as,

nōtum furēns quid fēmina possit, V. 5, 6, the knowledge of what a woman in her wrath can do. prōnūntiātum repente nē quis violārētur, multitūdinem exuit armīs, L. 4, 59, 7, the sudden proclamation that nobody was to be harmed, deprived the people of their weapons. This use is found chiefly in Livy, once or twice in Cicero; not in Caesar or Sallust. See 1382.

2290. The present participle is rarely a substantive in the nominative and ablative singular, but often in the other cases.

in cōnstituentibus rem pūblicam, Br. 45, among the founders of a state. multae īnsectantēs dēpellunt, DN. 2, 127, many drive off their pursuers. nec praeterita nec praesentia abs tē, sed futūra exspectō, Fam. 2, 8, 1, I do not expect from you the past or the present, but the future.

2291. The genitive plural of the present participle is often best translated by an English abstract: as,

cachinnōs inrīdentium commovēbat, Br. 216, he provoked guffaws of derision. mixtōs terrentium paventiumque clāmōrēs, L. 22, 5, 4, mingled cries of exultation and terror. prīmō gaudentium impetū, Ta. H. 1, 4, in the first outburst of joy.

2292. The future participle is very rarely used as a substantive.

audītūrum dictūrī cūra dēlectat, Quintil. 11, 3, 157, deliberation on the part of one who is on the point of speaking attracts his prospective hearer. havē̆, imperātor, moritūrī tē salūtant, Suet. Claud. 21, emperor, all hail! the doomed give thee greeting. This use is found in late writers, as in Tacitus and Curtius once each, and half a dozen times in Pliny the younger. Cicero and Sallust have futūrus thus (2283): as, abs tē futūra exspectō, Fam. 2, 8, 1, from you I expect the future. supplicia in post futūrōs composuit, S. Fr. Lep. 6, he invented penalties for men unborn.

The Appositive Participle.

2293. The appositive participle is a loose substitute for a subordinate sentence introduced by a relative or by a conjunctive particle.

2294. (1.) The appositive participle may represent a relative sentence: as,

nōvī ego Epicūrēōs omnia sigilla venerantēs, DN. 1, 85, why, I know Epicureans who bow the knee to all sorts of graven images. Conōn mūrōs dīrutōs ā Lȳsandrō reficiendōs cūrat, N. 9, 4, 5, Conon superintended the rebuilding of the walls which had been destroyed by Lysander. The future participle is poetic and late (2283): as, servēs itūrum Caesarem in Britannōs, H. 1, 35, 29, guard Caesar who against the Britons is to march.

2295. (2.) The appositive participle, representing other sentences, may express various relations: as, (a.) time, (b.) cause or means, (c.) purpose, (d.) concession, (e.) hypothesis, (f.) description or the manner of an action, like an adverb.

For the ablative absolute in such relations, see 1362-1374, particularly 1367.

(a.) Time: vehemēns sum exoriēns, quom occidō vehementior, Pl. R. 71, furious am I at my rising, when I set more furious still. occīsus est ā cēnā rediēns, RA. 97, he was murdered on his way home from a dinner-party. ūnam noctem sōlam praedōnēs commorātī, accedēre incipiunt Syrācūsās, V. 5, 95, the freebooters, after tarrying but one night, began to draw near Syracuse. The future is late (2283): as, prīmum omnium virōrum fortium itūrī in proelia canunt, Ta. G. 3, as the chief of all brave heroes, they sing of him when they are on the point of going to battle, of Hercules.

(b.) Cause or means: mōtum exspectāns dīlectum habēre īnstituit, 6, 1, 1, since he anticipated a rising, he determined on recruiting troops. moveor tālī amīcō orbātus, L. 10, I am certainly affected at being bereaved of such a friend. dextrā datā fidem futūrae amīcitiae sanxisse, L. 1, 1, 8, by giving his right hand he gave a pledge of future friendship. quae contuēns animus accēdit ad cōgnitiōnem deōrum, DN. 2, 153, through the contemplation of these, the mind arrives at a knowledge of the gods. The future participle is late: as, neque illīs iūdicium aut vēritās, quippe eōdem diē dīversa parī certāmine postulātūrīs, Ta. H. 1, 32, they had neither sound judgement nor sincerity, since on the same day they were to make conflicting demands with equal vehemence.

(c.) Purpose: the future participle, commonly with a verb of motion: ad Clūsium vēnērunt, legiōnem Rōmānam castraque oppugnātūrī, L. 10, 26, 7, they came to the neighbourhood of Clusium, to assail the Roman legion and camp. ascendit ipse, lātūrus auxilium, Plin. Ep. 6, 16, 9, he went aboard in person to go to the rescue. laetō complērant lītora coetū vīsūrī Aeneadas, V. 5, 107, in happy company they’d filled the strand to see Aeneas’ men. rediēre omnēs Bonōniam, rursus cōnsiliātūrī, Ta. H. 2, 53, they all went back to Bologna for a second consultation. This use appears first in C. Gracchus as cited by Gellius, then once in Cicero and Sallust each, and a few times in the poets. From Livy on, it grows commoner. In the poets, Livy, and Tacitus, it is sometimes joined with a conditional idea or protasis: as, ēgreditur castrīs Rōmānus, vāllum invāsūrus nī cōpia pugnae fieret, L. 3, 60, 8, the Roman marches out of camp, proposing to assault the stockade unless battle were offered.

(d.) Concession: quī mortālis nātus condiciōnem postulēs immortālium, TD. 3, 36, thou who, though born to die, layest claim to the state of the deathless. bēstiīs, quibus ipsa terra fundit pāstūs abundantīs nihil labōrantibus, Fin. 2, 111, the beasts, on which, though they toil not, earth lavishes sustenance in profusion. Often with tamen or the like accompanying the verb: as, ibī̆ vehementissimē perturbātus Lentulus tamen et sīgnum et manum suam cōgnōvit, C. 3, 12, thereupon Lentulus, though thrown into the most extreme confusion, did yet recognize his own hand and seal. For quamquam and quamvīs, see 1900, 1907. Ovid and Propertius sometimes have licet (1710): as, isque, licet caelī regiōne remōtōs, mente deōs adiīt, O. 15, 62, he in the spirit to the gods drew nigh, though they are far away in heaven’s domain. The future participle is rare and late.

(e.) Hypothesis: quid igitur mihī̆ ferārum laniātus oberit nihil sentientī? TD. 1, 104, what hurt will the clawing of wild beasts do me if I have no feeling? appārēbat nōn admissōs prōtinus Carthāginem itūrōs, L. 21, 9, 4, it grew obvious that, if not given audience, they would go to Carthage forthwith. For other examples, see 2110. For the participle with quasi or ut, and in late writers with tamquam or velut, see 2121. The future participle is rare and late.

(f.) Description or manner: haec properantēs scrīpsimus, Att. 4, 4^a, I have written this hastily, i.e. in haste yours truly. dictātor et magister equitum triumphantēs in urbem rediēre, L. 2, 20, 13, the dictator and his master of the horse returned to the city in triumph. incendēbat haec flētū et pectus verberāns, Ta. 1, 23, he lent passion to his words with tears and beating of his breast. vīnctōs aspiciunt catēnīs līberōs suōs, V. 5, 108, they behold their own children held in bondage.

2296. The participle with a negative may be translated by without: as,

id illa ūnivorsum abripiet haud existumāns quantō labōre partum, T. Ph. 45, my lady’ll grab it all without a thought of all the toil it cost to get. nōn rogātōs ultrō offerre auxilium, L. 34, 23, 3, that without being asked, they offer assistance of their own accord.

The Predicative Participle.

2297. habeō is sometimes used with certain perfect participles to express an action continuing in its consequences, faciō, dō, and in old Latin reddō and cūrō, with a perfect participle, are emphatic substitutes for the verb to which the participle belongs.

(a.) quae nōs nostramque adulēscentiam habent dēspicātam et quae nōs semper omnibus cruciant modīs, T. Eu. 383, who hold us and our youth in scorn and torment us in every way. in eā prōvinciā pecūniās magnās collocātās habent, IP. 18, they have invested large funds in that province. Clōdiī animum perspectum habeō, cōgnitum, iūdicātum, ad Br. 1, 1, 1, Clodius’s mind I have looked into thoroughly, probed, formed a judgement on. clausum lacū ac montibus et circumfūsum suīs cōpiīs habuit hostem, L. 22, 4, 5, his enemy he had shut in by lake and mountains and surrounded by his troops. See also 1606.

(b.) missa haec face, T. Ad. 906, let this pass. vērum haec missa faciō, RA. 76, but I let this pass. Mānlium missum fēcit, Off. 3, 112, he let Manlius go. factum et cūrātum dabō, Pl. Cas. 439, I’ll have it done and seen to. strātās legiōnēs Latīnōrum dabō, L. 8, 6, 6, I will lay the Latin legions low. ego iam tē commōtum reddam, T. Andr. 864, I’ll soon have you worked up. inventum tibī cūrābō tu͡om Pamphilum, T. Andr. 684, I’ll have your Pamphilus looked up for you. In classical writers, faciō only is found in this use and only with the participle of mittō; dō occurs in late writers; reddō and cūrō only in old Latin. All these verbs are usually in the future tense or its equivalent. For volō, cupiō, and nōlō with the infinitive passive without esse, see 2229.

2298. The present participle is used predicatively with verbs signifying represent, and with verbs denoting the exercise of the senses or mind: as,

facit Sōcratem disputantem, DN. 1, 31, he represents Socrates discussing. quasi ipsōs indūxī loquentēs, L. 3, I have brought on the men themselves as speaking. nōn illum miserum, īgnārum cāsūs suī, redeuntem ā cēnā vidētis? RA. 98, do you not see the poor man, little dreaming of his fate, returning from the dinner? nōn audīvit dracōnem loquentem, Div. 2, 141, he did not hear the serpent speaking. This use is found in Plautus, Terence, Cicero, Sallust, Horace, Nepos, Vitruvius, and Livy. Once in Piso (consul 133 B.C.), as cited by Gellius, 7, 9, 6. Verbs denoting the exercise of the senses or mind take the accusative with the infinitive to denote the fact or action; see 2175. For audiō with cum, see 1870. For the infinitive without esse with verbs of emotion, see 2184.

2299. A passive with a verb meaning represent is expressed, for lack of a present passive participle, by the infinitive (2175). The infinitive active is rare.

(a.) cōnstruī ā deō atque aedificārī mundum facit, DN. 1, 19, he represents the world being put together and built by the gods. (b.) poētae impendēre saxum Tantalō faciunt, TD. 4, 35, the poets represent a rock hanging over Tantalus. Rarely the participle (2298) and the infinitive are united: as, Polyphēmum Homērus cum ariete conloquentem facit eiusque laudāre fortūnās, TD. 5, 115, Homer represents Polyphemus chatting with the ram and his envy of the ram’s estate. But the perfect infinitive active must be used when the action is to be distinctly marked as completed, for lack of a perfect active participle: as, fēcit Dolābella Verrem accēpisse, V. 1, 100, Dolabella represented Verres as having received.