Part 2 — APPENDIX.

APPENDIX.

(A.) SOME OCCASIONAL PECULIARITIES OF VERBS.

2300. In many cases where in English a verb like wish or try to have a thing done, can, must, or am allowed to, is used, the equivalent Latin verb is omitted. As this use generally extends through the entire system of the verb, examples of the nouns of the verb and of subordinate sentences thus used, are conveniently included here.

The Conative Use.

2301. A verb is sometimes used to denote action proposed, attempted, or begun, but not necessarily carried out. This is called the Conative Use of the verb: as,

ancillās dēdō, T. Hec. 773, I try to give, or I offer up the servant girls. sine ūllā dubitātiōne condemnant, Clu. 75, without a moment’s hesitation they vote to condemn. dum id inpetrant, Pl. Cap. 233, as long as they’re trying to get it. sī plācēs inlacrimābilem Plūtōna, H. 2, 14, 5, shouldst thou the stonyhearted Pluto strive to melt. sī discēdās, J. 7. 50, should you attempt to leave. in cūriam abiēcit, quam vīvus ēverterat, Mil. 90, he shoved the corpse into the senate house, which the man in his lifetime had done his best to overthrow. adsurgentem rēgem umbōne resupīnat, L. 4, 19, 5, with the boss of his shield he put the king flat on his back, when he tried to get up.

2302. This use is particularly common in the imperfect indicative: as,

nostrōs ingredī prohibēbant, 5, 9, 6, they tried to stop our people from getting in. Apellēs faciēbat, Plin. NH. praef. 26, Apelles undertook to do this, or an attempt of Apelles’s. sēdābant tumultūs, sēdandō interdum movēbant, L. 3, 15, 7, they tried to quell the riotings, but by trying they started them once in a while afresh. num dubitās id mē imperante facere, quod iam tuā sponte faciēbās? C. 1, 13, do you possibly hesitate to do at my command what you wanted to do, as it was, yourself? The conative use is not very common in old Latin, but more frequent from Cicero and Caesar on.

2303. When the conative use is to be expressed more distinctly, a form of volō or cōnor is used, or a frequentative, like vēnditō, try to sell, adventō, strive to come.

The Causative Use.

2304. A verb is sometimes used to denote not what the subject actually does himself, but what he has another do. This is called the Causative Use of the verb: as,

animī causā mihi nāvem faciam, Pl. R. 932, just for diversion I’ll build me a yacht. cum vellet sibī̆ ānulum facere, aurificem iussit vocārī, V. 4, 56, wanting to make him a ring, he ordered a goldsmith to be called. complūrēs pauperēs mortuōs suō sūmptū extulit, N. 5, 4, 3, he buried a good many poor dead people at his own expense, i.e. had them buried. Also in the passive: as, tondēmur, Quintil. 1, 6, 44, we get shaved. When greater exactness is required, having a thing done may be expressed more distinctly by faciō (1965), by cūrō (2250), or by iubeō.

The Potential Use.

2305. A verb is sometimes used to indicate action that can be done, and especially action that can be done at any time. This is called the Potential Use of the verb: as,

clārē oculīs videō, Pl. MG. 630, I can see distinctly. proptereā quod inter fīnēs Helvētiōrum et Allobrogum Rhodanus fluit isque nōnnūllīs locīs vadō trānsītur, 1, 6, 2, because the Rhone runs between the district of the Helvetians and Allobrogans, and the river in some places can be forded, or is fordable. Particularly with a negative: as, apertē adūlantem nēmō nōn videt, L. 99, an open flatterer anybody can see through. nōn facile dīiūdicātur amor vērus et fīctus, Fam. 9, 16, 2, real love and pretended love cannot easily be told apart. ubī̆ Crassus animadvertit, suās cōpiās nōn facile dīdūcī, nōn cunctandum exīstimāvit, 3, 23, 7, when Crassus saw that his forces could not easily be divided, he thought he ought to lose no time. quoniam prōpositum nōn tenuerat, Caes. C. 3, 65, 4, seeing that he had not succeeded in carrying out his plan. Sometimes this idea is expressed by the subjunctive (1554).

The Obligatory Use.

2306. A verb is sometimes used to denote obligatory action. This is called the Obligatory Use of the verb: as,

paulisper commorātus est, Mil. 28, he had to wait. aegra trahēbant corpora, V. 3, 140, they had to drag their sickly frames along. caruī patriā, Sest. 145, I had to keep away from the country of my birth. senātor populī Rōmānī pernoctāvit in pūblicō, V. 4, 25, a senator of Rome was fain to sleep in the streets. serēmus aliquid in dērelictō solō, Br. 16, we shall have to sow something in an abandoned field. erat summa inopia pābulī, adeō ut foliīs equōs alerent, Caes. C. 3, 58, 3, there was an utter lack of fodder, so that they were fain to feed their horses on leaves.

The Permissive Use.

2307. A verb is sometimes used to denote permitted action. This is called the Permissive Use of the verb: as,

Verrēsne habēbit domī suae candēlābrum Iovis? V. 4, 71, shall Verres be allowed to have at his house a candelabra of Jupiter? petit ut ipse dē eō statuat, 1, 19, 5, he asks to be allowed to sit in judgement himself on the man. Pīsō ōrāvit ut manēret, Ta. 2, 81, Piso asked to be allowed to stay.

(B.) INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

(Ōrātiō Oblīqua.)

2308. The speech or thought of another, quoted in his own words, is called Direct Discourse (1723).

2309. The speech or thought of another, dependent on a verb of saying or thinking, is called Indirect Discourse (1723).

One may, of course, quote his own words or thoughts indirectly, as well as those of another (1726).

2310. The verb of thinking or saying is often not distinctly expressed, but only implied in the context (1725).

2311. The principles which govern the change of direct discourse into indirect discourse have been already set forth in the foregoing pages; but, for the convenience of the learner, they are here put together.

MOOD.

(A.) Main Sentences.

2312. Declarative sentences of direct discourse are put in the accusative with the infinitive, and interrogative and imperative sentences of direct discourse are put in the subjunctive, in indirect discourse.

(a.) For examples of declarative sentences, see 2175-2184.

(b.) Interrogative (1773): quid vellet? cūr in suās possessiōnēs venīret? 1, 44, 7, what did he mean? why this movement into his property? from Ariovistus’s reply to Caesar. dictātor litterās ad senātum mīsit: deum benignitāte Vēiōs iam fore in potestāte populī Rōmānī; quid dē praedā faciendum cēnsērent? L. 5, 20, 1, the dictator sent this letter to the senate: through the bounty of the gods Vei would soon belong to the Roman nation; what did they think should be done about the booty?

(c.) Imperative (1547): Cicerō respondit: sī ab armīs discēdere velint, sē adiūtōre ūtantur lēgātōsque ad Caesarem mittant, 5, 41, 7, Cicero replied: if they wished to lay down their arms, let them take his advice and send envoys to Caesar. nūntius ē̆ī domō vēnit: bellum Athēniēnsēs et Boeōtōs indīxisse Lacedaemoniīs; quārē venīre nē dubitāret, N. 17, 4, 1, a message reached him from home: the Athenians and Boeotians had declared war on the Lacedaemonians; so he was to come without delay. See also 1707, 1708.

2313. Rhetorical questions (that is, declarations made for effect in the form of questions) in the first or third person in the direct discourse are put in the accusative with the infinitive in indirect discourse: as,

sī veteris contumēliae oblīvīscī vellet, num etiam recentium iniūriārum memoriam dēpōnere posse? 1, 14, 3, if he were inclined to disregard the old affront, could he also forget their fresh insults? from Caesar’s reply to the Helvetians. haud mīrum esse Superbō ē̆ī inditum Rōmae cōgnōmen: an quicquam superbius esse quam lūdificārī sīc omne nōmen Latīnum? cui nōn appārēre adfectāre eum imperium in Latīnōs? L. 1, 50, 3, no wonder Rome dubbed him ‘the Proud’: could there be a greater sign of pride than this mockery of the whole Latin nation? who did not see that he aspired to dominion over the Latins? This use is not found in old Latin. It occurs once or twice in Cicero’s letters and a few times in Caesar. In Livy and late writers, it is not uncommon. Such questions in the second person require the subjunctive (2312).

2314. Questions which are in the subjunctive in direct discourse retain the subjunctive in indirect discourse: as,

quod vērō ad amīcitiam populī Rōmānī attulissent, id iīs ēripī quis patī posset? 1, 43, 8, who could allow them to be stripped of what they had possessed when they became the friends of the Roman nation? (1565).

(B.) Subordinate Sentences.

2315. The verb of a subordinate sentence, introduced by a relative word or a conjunctive particle, stands in the subjunctive in indirect discourse (1722).

For the indicative with dum, in the time while, retained in indirect discourse, see 1995.

sapientissimum esse dīcunt eum, cui quod opus sit ipsī veniat in mentem; proximē accēdere illum quī alterīus bene inventīs obtemperet, Clu. 84, they say he is the wisest man who thinks out of himself what is expedient; and that the man who avails himself of the wise devices of another comes next. ad haec Ariovistus respondit: iūs esse bellī, ut quī vīcissent iīs quōs vīcissent, quemadmodum vellent imperārent, 1, 36, 1, to this Ariovistus answered: that it was the right of war for the conquerors to dictate to the conquered such terms as they pleased.

2316. Relative sentences equivalent to main sentences (1835) may be put in the accusative with the infinitive: as,

ūnum medium diem fuisse, quem tōtum Galbam in cōnsīderandā causā compōnendāque posuisse, Br. 87, that a single day intervened and that this whole day Galba employed in studying up and arranging the case. This use is found in Cicero, rarely in Caesar, in Livy, and a few times in other authors. Not in old Latin.

2317. So also sentences introduced by certain conjunctive particles are occasionally put in the accusative with the infinitive: as,

id quod saepe dictum est: ut mare ventōrum vī agitārī atque turbārī, sīc populum Rōmānum hominum sēditiōsōrum vōcibus concitārī, Clu. 138, the oft-repeated saying: as the sea is ruffled and tossed by the mighty winds, so the people of Rome are stirred up by the talk of agitators. honōrificum id mīlitibus fore, quōrum favōrem ut largitiōne et ambitū male adquīrī, ita per bonās artēs haud spernendum, Ta. H. 1, 17, that would be a mark of respect to the troops, and their good will, though usually won by bribery and corruption, was certainly no small gain if honourably come by. fugere senātum testēs tabulās pūblicās cēnsūs cuiusque, cum interim obaerātam plēbem obiectārī aliīs atque aliīs hostibus, L. 6, 27, 6, that the senate sought to avoid evidence of each man’s property through making public returns, while at the same time the commons lay bankrupt and at the mercy of one enemy after another. ut and quemadmodum are found with this infinitive in Cicero, Livy, and Tacitus; cum interim and sī nōn in Livy; quia in Livy and Seneca; quamquam in Livy and Tacitus; nisi forte in Tacitus. For quam with the infinitive, see 1898.

2318. Relative sentences which are not a part of the quotation, but an addition of the writer’s, or which are a circumlocution equivalent to a substantive, are marked by the indicative (1729): as,

Condrūsōs, Eburōnēs, Caeroesōs, Paemānōs, quī ūnō nōmine Germānī appellantur, arbitrārī ad XL mīlia, 2, 4, 10, that they reckoned the Condrusians, Eburonians, Caeroesians and Paemanians (who are all called by one name Germans) at forty thousand. For other examples of such sentences, see 1729.

2319. Sentences containing the thought of another, introduced by a relative pronoun or by causal, temporal, or other conjunctive particles, take the subjunctive, though not appended to the accusative with the infinitive (1725): as,

numquis, quod bonus vir esset, grātiās dīs ēgit umquam? DN. 3, 87, did anybody ever thank the gods ‘because he was a good man’? (1853). mihī̆ loquitur nec rēctē quia tibī̆ aurum reddidī et quia nōn tē dēfraudāverim, Pl. B. 735, he’s always pitching into me because I returned you the money and ‘because I didn’t do you out of it’ (1856, 1853). aedem Dīiovī vōvit, sī eō diē hostēs fūdisset, L. 31, 21, 12, he vowed a temple to infernal Jove, ‘if he should rout the enemy on that day.’ For other examples, see 1725, 1852, 1853, 1884, &c.

2320. Sometimes a verb of saying or thinking is added, and is itself irrationally put in the subjunctive. For examples, see 1727.

(2.) TENSE.

(A.) Of the Infinitive.

2321. The tenses of the infinitive follow their usual law (2218), representing the action as present, past, or future, from the speaker’s point of view.

nūntiātum est Ariovistum ad occupandum Vesontiōnem contendere trīduīque viam ā suīs fīnibus prōfēcisse, 1, 38, 1, it was reported that Ariovistus was pressing on (2219) to seize Vesontio, and that he had done a three days’ journey from his own borders (2226). fāma est āram esse in vestibulō templī, L. 24, 3, 7, rumour has it that there is an altar in the vestibule of the temple (2219). lēgāti haec sē ad suōs relātūrōs dīxērunt, 4, 9, 1, the envoys said they would report this to their countrymen (2232). For other examples, see 2175-2203; for the infinitive equivalent of the indicative imperfect and pluperfect, see 2226, 2227.

(B.) Of the Subjunctive.

2322. The tenses of the subjunctive follow the law of the sequence of tenses; see 1745.

The tenses are usually imperfect or pluperfect, as the verb introducing a quotation is usually past.

Sōcratēs dīcere solēbat, omnēs in eō quod scīrent, satis esse ēloquentēs, DO. 1, 63, Socrates used to maintain that all men were eloquent enough in a matter which they understood (1766). dīcēbam quoad metuerēs, omnia tē prōmissūrum, Ph. 2, 89, I said that as long as you were afraid, you would promise everything (1771). cōgnōvit Suēbōs posteā quam pontem fierī comperissent, nūntiōs in omnēs partēs dīmīsisse, 4, 19, 2, he ascertained that after the Suebans had learned of the building of the bridge, they had sent out messengers in every direction (1772). For other examples, see 1746-1772.

2323. But the present and perfect subjunctive are often used, especially when the main verb is present, or for vividness after a secondary tense.

Alexandrum Philippus accūsat quod largitiōne benevolentiam Macedonum cōnsectētur, Off. 2, 53, Philip accuses Alexander of courting the favour of the Macedonians by the use of money (1746, 1853). initium quod huic cum mātre fuerit simultātis audīstis, Clu. 17, you have heard the origin of the enmity which was between the defendant and his mother (1746). Ariovistus respondit: stīpendium capere iūre bellī quod victōrēs victīs imponere cōnsuerint, 1, 44, 1, Ariovistus answered that it was by the laws of war that he took the tribute which victors were wont to lay upon the vanquished (1755). For other examples, see 1746-1772.

2324. The future of direct discourse is represented in indirect discourse by the imperfect, and the future perfect by the pluperfect subjunctive.

sē quod ē rē pūblicā esset factūrum, L. 28, 45,3, that he would do what should be for the interests of the state (1766). sē nōn ante coeptūrum quam ignem in rēgiīs castrīs cōnspexisset, L. 30, 5, 5, that he would not begin before he saw fire in the royal camp (1766, 1921). The present or perfect subjunctive also is found when the main verb requires. For other examples, see 1746-1772.

(3.) Pronoun.

2325. ego and nōs, of direct discourse, are represented by sē in indirect discourse, and meus and noster by suus. tū and vōs, of direct discourse, are represented in indirect discourse by ille, or, when less emphatic, by is.

For the use of the reflexive pronoun, see 2338-2342.

sē prius in Galliam vēnisse quam populum Rōmānum, 1, 44, 7, that he came into Gaul before the Roman nation, said Ariovistus of himself. sē ā patribus maiōribusque suīs didicisse, 1, 13, 6, that they had learned from their fathers and ancestors, said the Helvetians of themselves. trānsīsse Rhēnum sēsē nōn suā sponte, 1, 44, 1, that he had crossed the Rhine not of his own accord, was the assertion of Ariovistus. quī nisi dēcēdat, sēsē illum nōn prō amīcō sed hoste habitūrum. quod sī eum interfēcerit, multīs sēsē prīncipibus populī Rōmānī grātum esse factūrum, 1, 44, 11, that unless he withdrew, he should consider him not a friend but a foe. Why, if he killed him, he should do a favour to numerous leading men in the Roman nation. Here Ariovistus is reported as speaking to Caesar.

CONDITIONAL PERIODS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

(A.) Protasis.

2326. The protasis of every kind (2023, 2024) has the verb in the subjunctive in indirect discourse (2315).

2327. The tense of the protasis is generally imperfect or pluperfect (2322): as,

Ariovistus respondit: sī ipse populō Rōmānō nōn praescrīberet, nōn oportēre sēsē ā populō Rōmānō impedīrī, 1, 36, 1, Ariovistus answered: if he did not dictate to the Roman nation, no more ought the Roman nation to interfere with him (2026). quae sī fēcisset, Pompēium in Hispāniās itūrum, Caes. C. 1, 10, 3, if he did that, Pompey would go to the Spains (2061).

2328. But indeterminate protases (2023) are sometimes put in the present or perfect subjunctive in indirect discourse, even with a main secondary tense: as,

Ariovistus respondit: sī iterum experīrī velint, sē parātum esse dēcertāre, 1, 44, 1, Ariovistus answered that if the Romans wanted to try again, he was ready to fight it out (2026). quī nisi dēcēdat, sēsē illum prō hoste habitūrum, 1, 44, 11, that unless he withdrew, he should consider him an enemy (2054).

2329. Protases of action non-occurrent (2024) remain in the imperfect or pluperfect, even with a main primary tense.

licet Varrō Mūsās, Aelī Stilōnis sententiā, Plautīnō dīcat sermōne locutūrās fuisse sī Latīnē loquī vellent, Quintil. 10, 1, 99, though Varro, following Stilo’s dictum, may say that the Muses would have spoken in the style of Plautus, if they had wanted to speak Latin (2095). quaeret ab accūsātōribus quid factūrī essent, sī in eō locō fuissent, Cornif. 2, 22, he will ask the accusers what they would have done if they had been in that predicament (2099).

(B.) Apodosis.

2330. In indeterminate conditional periods (2023), the apodosis simply follows the general rule (2312): as,

Iovem sīc aiunt philosophī, sī Graecē loquātur, loquī, Br. 121, the philosophers say that this is Jove’s style of speaking, if Jove speaks Greek (2026). sīn bellō persequī persevērāret, reminīscerētur prīstinae virtūtis Helvētiōrum, 1, 13, 4, if he persisted in following them up with war, let him call to mind the old time valour of the Helvetians (2056). in prōvinciīs intellegēbant sī is quī esset cum imperiō emere vellet, fore utī quod quisque vellet quantī vellet auferret, V. 4, 10, in the provinces they saw that if a man clothed in authority should wish to be a buyer, he would carry off every time whatever he wished at what he wished (2233; 2054 or 2076). futūrum esse, nisi prōvīsum esset, ut Rōma caperētur, Div. 1, 101, that unless precaution was taken, Rome would be captured (2233, 2061). For other examples, see 2327, 2328.

2331. In conditional periods of action non-occurrent (2024), the future participle with fuisse, is used in apodoses of the active voice: as,

an Cn. Pompēium cēnsēs maximārum rērum glōriā laetātūrum fuisse, sī scīret sē in sōlitūdine Aegyptiōrum trucīdātum īrī, Div. 2, 22, do you suppose that Pompey would have taken any pleasure in the fame which his peerless exploits brought him if he had known that he was going to be butchered in the wilds of Egypt?

In one instance, found in Caesar, the future participle with esse occurs, representing the imperfect subjunctive of present time (2091):

Caesarem arbitrārī profectum in Ītaliam; neque aliter Carnūtēs interficiundī Tasgetiī cōnsilium fuisse captūrōs, neque Eburōnēs, sī ille adesset, ad castra ventūrōs esse, 5, 29, 2, that he thought Caesar was gone into Italy; otherwise, the Carnutes would not have formed their design of killing Tasgetius, and the Eburones, if he were at hand, would not be assaulting the camp. Here the context shows that ventūrōs esse represents the imperfect subjunctive. But ordinarily it might seem to represent the future indicative. Hence, to avoid ambiguity, the Romans generally did not try to express present time in apodoses of this class in indirect discourse.

2332. The perfect infinitive is exceptionally used; this is based upon the indicative in apodosis (2104).

memoriā teneō solitum ipsum nārrāre sē studium philosophiae ācrius hausisse, nī prūdentia mātris incēnsum animum coërcuisset, Ta. Agr. 4, I remember that he used to say that he had drunk in the study of philosophy with too great eagerness, had not his discreet mother checked his ardent soul (2105 or 2107).

2333. possum, in the apodosis of a conditional period of action non-occurrent (2101), is regularly put in the perfect infinitive in indirect discourse: as,

Platōnem exīstimō, sī genus forēnse dīcendī trāctāre voluisset, gravissimē potuisse dīcere, Off. 1, 4, I think that if Plato had only chosen to cultivate forensic eloquence, he might have been a most impressive speaker (2103). cum dīcerent sē potuisse in amplissimum locum pervenīre, sī sua studia ad honōrēs petendōs cōnferre voluissent, Clu. 153, saying they might have risen to the proudest position, if they had only chosen to apply their energies to a political career (2103).

2334. futūrum fuisse ut with the imperfect subjunctive is rarely used in apodoses of the passive voice (2331): as,

Theophrastus accūsāsse nātūram dīcitur quod hominibus tam exiguam vītam dedisset: quōrum sī aetās potuisset esse longinquior, futūrum fuisse ut omnī doctrīnā hominum vīta ērudīrētur, TD. 3, 69, it is said that Theophrastus took nature to task ‘for giving man such a short life; if the period could have been longer man’s life would have been informed with knowledge of every sort’ (2099). See also Caes. C. 3, 101, 2.

(C.) PRONOUNS.

The Personal Pronoun.

2335. For the use of the nominatives ego tū, nōs vōs, see 1029. The genitive plurals nostrū̆m and vestrū̆m are used as partitive, nostrī and vestrī as objective genitives: as,

nēmō nostrūm, RA. 55, not one of us (1242). ab utrīsque vestrūm, Fam. 11, 21, 5, by each of you (1243). grāta mihī̆ vehementer est memoria nostrī tua, Fam. 12, 17, 1, your remembrance of me is exceedingly agreeable to me (1260). nostrī nōsmet paenitet, T. Ph. 172, we’re discontented with our lot (1283). For the adjective instead of the possessive or objective genitive, see 1234, 1262.

The Reflexive sē and suus.

2336. The reflexive regularly refers to the subject of the verb: as,

fugae sēsē mandābant, 2, 24, 2, they betook themselves to flight. animō servit, nōn sibī, Pl. Tri. 308, he serves his passions, not his better self. est amāns suī virtūs, L. 98, virtue is fond of itself. dūcit sēcum ūnā virginem, T. Eu. 229, he is leading a girl along with him. Caesar cōpiās suās dīvīsit, Caes. C. 3, 97, 3, Caesar divided his forces. For sē ipse, see 2376; for sē or suus quisque, 2397.

2337. The reflexive sometimes refers to a word not the subject, when that word is specially emphasized or easily made out from the context. This holds chiefly of suus, which is used with great freedom: as,

Alexandrum uxor sua occīdit, Inv. 2, 144, Alexander was murdered by his own wife. dēsinant īnsidiārī domī suae cōnsulī, C. 1, 32, let them cease to waylay the consul in his own house and home. suās rēs Syrācūsānīs restituit, L. 29, 1, 17, he restored their property to the Syracuse people.

2338. In the construction of the accusative with the infinitive (2175), the reflexive is regularly used when the subject of the infinitive refers to the subject of the verb: as,

Vārus imperium sē habēre dīxit, Lig. 22, Varus said that he had authority. id sēsē effectūrōs spērābant, 7, 26, 2, they hoped to accomplish it (2235).

2339. The reflexive, in this construction, sometimes refers to an emphasized word not the formal subject of the verb: as,

canum custōdia quid sīgnificat aliud nisi sē ad hominum commoditātēs esse generātōs? DN. 2, 158, the watchfulness of the dog—does not it show that he was created for the convenience of man?

2340. When the subject of the infinitive is different from that of the verb, the reflexive sometimes refers to the subject of the verb, sometimes to that of the infinitive: as,

Ariovistus respondit omnēs Galliae cīvitātēs ad sē oppugnandum vēnisse, 1, 44, 1, Ariovistus answered that all the states of Gaul had come to attack him, i.e. Ariovistus. nēminem sēcum sine suā perniciē contendisse, 1, 36, 6, that no man had contended with him without his own undoing; sēcum refers to Ariovistus, the subject of the main verb respondit, suā to nēminem.

2341. In subordinate subjunctive clauses of purpose, indirect discourse, or indirect question, the reflexive refers to the subject of the main sentence: as,

huic mandat, ut ad sē quam prīmum revertātur, 4, 21, 2, he instructs him to come back to himself as soon as possible. excruciābit mē erus, quia sibī nōn dīxerim, Pl. MG. 859, my master’ll torture me ‘because I have not told him.’ Paetus omnīs librōs, quōs frāter suus relīquisset, mihī̆ dōnāvit, Att. 2, 1, 12, Paetus made me a present of all the books ‘that his brother left.’ For the use of is for sē, see 2370.

2342. The reflexive, in such subordinate clauses, sometimes refers to an emphatic word not the main subject: as,

identidem fēlīcem Priamum vocābat, quod superstes omnium suōrum exstitisset, Suet. Tib. 62, he was for ever calling Priam ‘Fortune’s darling, because he outlived all his kith and kin.’

2343. The reflexive referring to the main subject is sometimes irregularly used in subordinate indicative clauses.

Epamīnōndās ē̆ī, quī sibī̆ successerat, exercitum nōn trādidit, Inv. 1, 55, Epaminondas did not deliver the army to his successor. centum bovēs mīlitibus dōnō dedit, quī sēcum fuerant, L. 7, 37, 3, he gave a hundred oxen to the soldiers who had been with him.

Equivalents for a Reciprocal Pronoun.

2344. The place of a reciprocal pronoun, each other, is supplied by inter nōs, inter vōs, inter sē, or by alter or alius followed by another case of the same word: as,

inter nōs nātūrā cōniūnctī sumus, Fin. 3, 66, we are united with each other by nature. Cicerōnēs puerī amant inter sē, Att. 6, 1, 12, the Cicero boys are fond of each other. cum alius aliī subsidium ferret, 2, 26, 2, when they were helping each other. For uterque, see 2400. The reciprocal idea is sometimes expressed by the form of the verb: as, fulvā lūctantur harēnā, V. 6, 643, they wrestle with each other on the yellow sand (1487).

2345. From Livy on, invicem inter sē, invicem sē, or invicem alone, is often used in the expression of reciprocal relations: as,

invicem inter sē grātantēs, L. 9, 43, 17, mutually congratulating each other. invicem sē antepōnendō, Ta. Agr. 6, mutually preferring one another. ut invicem ardentius dīligāmus, Plin. Ep. 7, 20, 7, that we may love each other more ardently.

The Possessive Pronoun.

2346. The possessive of the personal and reflexive pronoun is regularly omitted, unless it is required for emphasis or contrast: as,

ōra manūsque tuā lavimus, Fērōnia, lymphā, H. S. 1, 5, 24, our hands and faces in thy rill, Feronia, we bathe. The possessive sometimes has the meaning of proper, appropriate, favourable; as, suō locō dīcam, Quintil. 1, 1, 36, I shall tell in the proper place. For the possessive pronoun used instead of the possessive or objective genitive, see 1234, 1262.

The Demonstrative Pronoun.

hīc.

2347. hīc points out what is near the speaker in place, time, or thought: as,

hī domum mē ad sē auferent, Pl. Men. 847, these fellows will hale me off to their house. nōn mē exīstimāvī in hōc sermōne usque ad hanc aetātem esse ventūrum, Br. 232, I did not think that in this discourse I should get down to the present generation. reliquum omne tempus huius annī, V. 1, 30, all the rest of this year.

2348. hīc sometimes points out the speaker with pathos, or with emphasis, particularly in comedy.

haec arma et hunc mīlitem propitiō flūmine accipiās, L. 2, 10, 11, receive these arms and this soldier in thy gracious stream, the prayer of Horatius Cocles to Father Tiber. tibī̆ erunt parāta verba, huic hominī verbera, T. Hau. 356, you’ll get a chiding, this child a hiding. fēcisset nī haec praesēnsisset canēs, Pl. Tri. 172, and he’d have done it, unless this dog had got scent of it in time, where the speaker means himself.

2349. The neuter plural haec sometimes means the realm, our country, our state, the [Roman] world: as,

haec, quae iam prīdem vastāre studēs, C. 1, 21, the realm which you have long sought to lay in ruins. quī haec dēlēre cōnātī sunt, C. 4, 7, who have tried to destroy the state. servus est nēmō quī nōn haec stāre cupiat, C. 4, 16, there lives no slave that wills not our country should abide.

2350. hīc, as expressing a familiar, every-day thing, occasionally has a shade of contempt, either alone, or with volgāris, cottīdiānus or the like: as,

mittit hominī mūnera satis largē, haec ad ūsum domesticum, V. 4, 62, he sent him some presents—pretty liberal ones, commonish things for household use. mittō hāsce artīs volgārīs, coquōs, pistōrēs, RA. 134, I’ll skip your everyday common occupations—such as cooks, bakers, &c., &c. taedet cottīdiānārum hārum fōrmārum, T. Eu. 297, I’m sick of your everyday beauties.

2351. When hīc relates to the words of a sentence, it points out what has preceded or is to follow, or emphasizes a word referred to by a preceding relative.

For hīc used to introduce a new sentence, see 2129.

haec habuī dē senectūte quae dīcerem, CM. 85, this was what I had to say on Old Age. sed haec hāctenus; nunc ad ostenta veniāmus, Div. 2, 53, so much for this; let us now go on to portents. fēcit pācem hīs condiciōnibus, N. 8, 3, 1, he made peace on the following terms. dīcitur locūtus in hanc ferē sententiam esse, L. 6, 40, 2, it is said that he spoke to somewhat the following effect. quaesierat ex mē Scīpiō quidnam sentīrem dē hōc quod duo sōlēs vīsōs esse cōnstāret, RP. 1, 19, Scipio had asked me what I thought about this, that it was generally agreed that two suns had been seen.

2352. hīc and ille are often opposed, particularly in contrasts of classes: as,

laudātur ab hīs, culpātur ab illīs, H. S. 1, 2, 11, one side praises him, the other condemns. illud est album, hoc dulce, canōrum illud, hoc bene olēns, hoc asperum, Ac. 2, 21, that is white, this is sweet, that sonorous, this fragrant, this rough. ōrātor, nōn ille volgāris sed hīc excellēns, O. 45, an orator, not of the common sort, but the superior one of whom we are speaking.

2353. In transitions, ille introduces a new thing, hīc denotes the aforementioned: as,

sed haec vetera; illud vērō recēns, Caesarem meō cōnsiliō interfectum, Ph. 2, 25, but this is all ancient history; here, however, is something new, that Caesar was killed at my suggestion.

2354. When hīc and ille refer to two different persons or things named in the sentence, hīc commonly refers to the nearer word, ille to the remoter word; or hīc sometimes refers to what is nearer the mind of the speaker, even though it be remoter in the sentence.

(a.) Caesar beneficiīs ac mūnificentiā magnus habēbātur, integritāte vītae Catō. Ille mānsuētūdine et misericordiā clārus factus, huic sevēritās dignitātem addiderat, S. C. 54, 2, Caesar was esteemed great for his liberality and generosity, Cato for his unsullied life. The former became famous through his humanity and mercy, the latter’s dignity was heightened by his austerity. (b.) cavē Catōnī antepōnās nē istum quidem ipsum quem Apollō, ut ais, sapientissimum iūdicāvit: huius enim facta, illīus dicta laudantur, L. 10, suffer not Cato to find a rival even in your man himself, whom, as you say, Apollo declared wisest of mankind; for our Cato is renowned for deeds, the other for doctrines.

2355. hīc and ille are used together, chiefly in poetry, to explain something past by a present thing: as,

hunc illum poscere fāta reor, V. 7, 272, this I think is he whom the fates require. hunc illum fātīs externā ab sēde profectum portendī generum, V. 7, 255, this was the man whom destiny foretold should fare from foreign home to be his son-in-law.

iste.

2356. iste points out something near to, belonging to, or imputed to the person addressed: as,

cum istā sīs auctōritāte, nōn dēbēs adripere maledictum ex triviō, Mur. 13, carrying the influence that you do, you ought not to take to street-corner abuse. multae istārum arborum meā manū sunt satae, CM. 59, many of the trees you see there were planted by my own hand. salem istum quō caret vestra nātiō, inrīdendīs nōbīs nōlītōte cōnsūmere, ND. 2, 74, do not waste in ridiculing us that wit which your fraternity sadly needs. Often with tuus or vester: as, īsdem hīc sapiēns dē quō loquor oculīs quibus iste vester intuēbitur, Ac. 2, 105, the sage of whom I speak will look with the same eyes as the sage you boast of.

2357. From its use in addressing opponents or in talking at them, iste is common in contemptuous phrases: as,

tū istīs faucibus, istīs lateribus, istā gladiātōriā tōtīus corporis firmitāte, Ph. 2, 63, you with that gullet of yours, those swollen flanks, that prizefighter’s bulky make-up. nōn erit ista amīcitia, sed mercātūra quaedam, ND. 1, 122, such a thing will not be a friendship, but a sort of traffic.

ille.

2358. ille points to what is remote in place, time, or thought: as,

ergō illī intellegunt quid Epicūrus dīcat, ego nōn intellegō? Fin. 2, 13, do those gentlemen then understand what Epicurus means and I not? populus Rōmānus nihil aequē atque illam veterem iūdiciōrum vim gravitātemque requīrit, Caecil. 8, the Roman people miss nothing so much as the ancient vigour and firmness attaching to public trials. hīs autem dē rēbus sōl mē ille admonuit ut brevior essem, DO. 3, 209, but on these topics yonder sun has warned me to be pretty brief. For other examples, see 2352-2355.

2359. ille is used to point out a celebrity, often one of the past. So, particularly without a proper name, in allusive style, referring to what is famed in story.

(a.) hīc est ille Dēmosthenēs, TD. 5, 103, this is the famous Demosthenes. Athēniēnsis ille Themistoclēs, DO. 2, 299, Themistocles the great, of Athens. illud Solōnis, CM. 50, Solon’s memorable words. Mēdēa illa, IP. 22, Medea famed in story. (b.) vīribus ille cōnfīsus periīt, J. 10, 10, the man in the story lost his life through confidence in his strength. illae rēgiae lacrimae, Plin. Ep. 3, 7, 13, the monarch’s historic tears, of Xerxes.

2360. Indicating change of subject, ille is this other man. In such cases it is often best expressed in English by a proper name or a descriptive word.

ad sē adulēscentem iussit venīre. at ille, ut ingressus est, cōnfestim gladium dēstrīnxit, Off. 3, 112, he gave orders to admit the young man. But this other, the moment he entered, drew his sword. rūsticus expectat dum dēfluat amnis: at ille lābitur et lābētur, H. E. 1, 2, 42, he is a peasant waiting for the river to go down: but the river flows and will flow on.

2361. In concessions, ille often precedes quidem; in translation no pronoun is required.

librī scrīptī incōnsīderātē ab optimīs illīs quidem virīs, sed nōn satis ērudītīs, TD. 1, 6, books rashly written by men respectable enough but of insufficient education. est tarda illa medicīna, sed tamen magna, TD. 3, 35, it is a powerful remedy, though slow in its working. hīc, is, and iste are used rarely in this way.

2362. In poetry ille may serve: (1.) To repeat a thing with emphasis: as,

arma virumque canō Trōiae quī prīmus ab ōrīs Ītaliam vēnit, multum ille et terrīs iactātus et altō, V. 1, 1, arms and the man I sing, from Troja’s shore the first to come to Italy, much tossed that man by land and sea.

2363. (2.) To emphasize the second of two ideas: as,

nunc dextrā ingemināns ictūs, nunc ille sinistrā, V. 5, 457, now with his right redoubling blows, now mighty with his left. nōn tamen Euryalī, non ille oblītus amōrum, V. 5, 334, still not Euryalus forgetting, no, not he his love!

2364. (3.) As a provisional subject, to anticipate the real subject, and keep the attention in suspense till the real subject comes with emphasis: as,

ac velut ille canum morsū dē montibus altīs āctus aper substitit, V. 10, 707, and e’en as he, goaded by bite of hounds from mountains high, the boar hath paused.

The Determinative Pronoun.

is.

2365. is refers to something named in the context. When some feeling is to be expressed, such as admiration, or oftener contempt, homō is often put for is.

(a.) petit ā rēge et eum plūribus verbīs rogat ut id ad sē mittat, V. 4, 64, he solicits the king and begs him at considerable length to send it to him. nōndum mātūrus imperiō Ascanius erat, tamen id imperium ĕ̄ī ad pūberem aetātem incolume mānsit, L. 1, 3, 1, Ascanius was not yet old enough for the throne, but that throne was kept safe for him till he came of age. (b.) ego hominem callidiōrem vīdī nēminem quam Phormiōnem. veniō ad hominem, ut dīcerem argentum opus esse, T. Ph. 591, a shrewder man than Phormio I never saw, not I! I went to him to tell him that I needed money. nēquam esse hominem et levem sciēbam, Sest. 22, I knew the fellow was worthless and frivolous.

2366. (1.) is refers to something named before or after: as,

eius omnis ōrātiō versāta est in eō, ut scrīptum plūrimum valēre oportēre dēfenderet, DO. 1, 244, his whole speech turned on the contention that the written word should be paramount. Melitēnsis Diodōrus est; is Lilybaeī multōs iam annōs habitat, V. 4, 38, Diodorus is from Melita; he has lived many years at Lilybaeum. For other examples of is used to connect sentences, see 2129.

2367. With a connective, is denotes an important addition: as,

vincula et ea sempiterna, C. 4, 7, imprisonment and that too perpetual. annum iam audientem Cratippum idque Athēnīs, Off. 1, 1, after a year’s study under Cratippus, and that too in Athens. erant in eō plūrimae litterae nec eae volgārēs, Br. 265, he was a man of very deep reading and that of no common sort either.

2368. (2.) is indicates something explained or restricted by a relative or indefinite, quī, quīcumque, sī quis: as,

haec omnia is fēcī, quī sodālis Dolābellae eram, Fam. 12, 14, 7, all this I did, I that was Dolabella’s bosom friend (1807). ūnus ex eō numerō quī ad caedem parātī erant, S. I. 35, 6, one of the number that were ready to do murder (1804). neque is sum quī mortis perīculō terrear, 5, 30, 2, but I am not the man to be scared by danger of death, no, not I (1818). quīcumque is est, ē̆ī mē profiteor inimīcum, Fam. 10, 31, 3, whoever he may be, I proclaim myself his enemy (1814). cum ipse Aliēnus ex eā facultāte, sī quam habet, aliquantum dētrāctūrus sit, Caecil. 49, seeing that even Alienus is to suppress some part of that eloquence, if any he may have. See also 1795, 1798. For id quod, see 1811.

2369. For the use of is instead of a relative repeated in a different case, see 1833.

2370. is sometimes is loosely used for the reflexive sē (2341); here the point of view of the writer shows itself.

Mīlēsiōs nāvem poposcit, quae eum Myndum prōsequerētur, V. 1, 86, he asked the Milesians for a ship to escort him to Myndus. suōs omnēs castrīs continuit ignēsque fierī prohibuit, quō occultior esset eius adventus, Caes. C. 3, 30, 5, he confined his troops to camp and forbade the kindling of fires, in order to keep his coming a greater secret.

The Pronoun of Identity.

īdem.

2371. īdem, the same, often connects two different predicates to the same person or thing. In this case, it may be variously rendered by likewise, also, all the same, on the other hand, at once, very, nevertheless.

ūtēbātur eō cibō quī et suāvissimus esset et īdem facillimus ad concoquendum, Fin. 2, 64, he made use of such food as was both very dainty and likewise very easy to digest. ita fīet ut nōn omnēs quī Atticē, eīdem bene dīcant, Br. 291, so it will be found that not all who speak Attic are also good speakers. multī quī ut iūs suum et lībertātem tenērent volnera excēpērunt fortiter et tulērunt, īdem omissā contentiōne dolōrem morbī ferre nōn possunt, TD. 2, 65, many who have met heroically and endured wounds, to preserve their rights and their freedom, are nevertheless, when no contest is involved, unable to bear the pain of a disease.

2372. īdem is often used with other pronouns, hīc, iste, istūc, ille: as,

haec eadem centuriōnibus mandābant, 7, 17, 8, they confided these same sentiments to their centurions. multae aliae idem istuc cupiunt, Pl. MG. 1040, many other ladies want just what you want.

2373. The same as is expressed by īdem followed by quī, atque or ac, ut, quasi, cum, sometimes in poetry by the dative.

īdem sum quī semper fuī, Pl. Am. 447, I’m the same man I’ve always been. pōmārium sēminārium ad eundem modum atque oleāgineum facitō, Cato, RR. 48, make your fruit-tree nursery in the same way as your nursery for olive-trees (1653). eīsdem ferē verbīs ut disputātum est, TD. 2, 9, in pretty much the same words as were used in the actual argument (1937). ut eōdem locō rēs sit quasi ea pecūnia lēgāta nōn esset, Leg. 2, 53, so that the position is the same as if the money had not been bequeathed (2120). tibī̆ mēcum in eōdem est pistrīnō vīvendum, DO. 2, 144, you must live in the same mill as I. Homērus eādem aliīs sōpītu’ quiētest, Lucr. 3, 1037, Homer sleeps the same sleep as others.

The Intensive Pronoun.

ipse.

2374. ipse, self, is used in contrasts.

2375. ipse may contrast the chief person with subordinates, or a person with any thing belonging to him.

Catilīna ipse pertimuit, profūgit; hī quid exspectant? C. 2, 6, Catiline, their head, has fled in abject terror; his minions here, what wait they for? ē̆ī mūnītiōnī, quam fēcerat, T. Labiēnum lēgātum praefēcit; ipse in Ītaliam magnīs itineribus contendit, 1, 10, 3, he put Labienus, his lieutenant, in charge of the fortification he had made; he hurried, himself, to Italy with forced marches. tēmētī nihil adlātum intellegō :: at iam adferētur, sī ā forō ipsus redierit, Pl. Aul. 355, I see there’s no wine brought :: but it soon will be, if the governor comes back from down town. ‘ipse dīxit;’ “ipse” autem erat Pȳthagorās, DN. 1, 10, ‘the old man said so;’ now “the old man” was Pythagoras. nāvis tantum iactūrā factā, incolumēs ipsī ēvāsērunt, L. 30, 25, 8, the vessel only was lost, and the sailors escaped in safety.

2376. ipse is often used with personals and reflexives agreeing with the emphatic word. But the nominative is usually preferred, especially when ipse stands before the other pronoun, or when it stands after per mē, per sē. After mēmet, nōbīsmet, nōsmet, &c., it agrees with these words.

(a.) neque enim potest exercitum is continēre imperātor, quī sē ipsum nōn continet, IP. 38, for no commander can keep his army under control who does not keep his own self under control. mīles frātrem suum, dein sē ipsum interfēcit, Ta. H. 3, 51, a soldier slew his own brother, then himself. (b.) ipse sē quisque dīligit, L. 80, every man loves himself. bellum per sē ipse, iniussū populī ac senātūs, fēcit, L. 1, 49, 7, he made war on his own responsibility, without orders from the people and senate. Iūnius necem sibī̆ ipse cōnscīvit, DN. 2, 7, Junius killed himself. nōn egeō medicīnā, mē ipse cōnsōlor, L. 10, I need no medicine, I am my own comforter. (c.) ut nōbīsmet ipsīs imperēmus, TD. 2, 47, that we should govern ourselves.

2377. ipse alone sometimes stands for an emphatic sē or suus: as,

pertimuērunt nē ab ipsīs dēscīsceret et cum suīs in grātiam redīret, N. 7, 5, 1, they were much afraid that he would abandon them and come into favour with his compatriots again. ea molestissimē ferre hominēs dēbent, quae ipsōrum culpā contrācta sunt, QFr. 1, 1, 2, people should be most vexed at things which are brought about through fault of their own.

2378. ipse is used in many combinations where self is an inadequate translation. It may sometimes be translated by:

2379. (1.) Actual, positive, even.

habet certōs suī studiōsōs, quōs valētūdō modo bona sit, tenuitās ipsa dēlectat, Br. 64, he has a clique of admirers, who are charmed by positive scragginess, provided the health be good. hōc ipsum ēlegantius pōnī meliusque potuit, Fin. 2, 100, even this might have been put more logically and better.

2380. (2.) Regular, proper, real.

flagrantem invidiā propter interitum C. Gracchī ipse populus Rōmānus perīculō līberāvit, Sest. 140, though greatly detested in consequence of the death of Gracchus, he was acquitted by the Roman people proper. cīvēs Rōmānī permultī in illō oppidō cōniūnctissimō animō cum ipsīs Agrigentīnīs vīvunt, V. 4, 93, a great many Romans live in that town in most friendly relations with the natives of Agrigentum.

2381. (3.) As well, likewise, too, for which, from Livy on, et ipse is used.

hoc Rīpheus, hoc ipse Dymās, omnisque iuventūs laeta facit, V. 2, 394, this Ripheus doth, this Dymas too, and all the youth alert. cōgitātiō Locrōs urbem recipiendī, quae sub dēfectiōnem Ītaliae dēscīverat et ipsa ad Poenōs, L. 29, 6, 1, a project for recovering the city of Locri, which, on the revolt of Italy, had likewise gone over to the Carthaginians.

2382. (4.) Alone, mere.

nōn sōlum adventus malī, sed etiam metus ipse adfert calamitātem, IP. 15, not only the coming of misfortune, but even the mere dread of it brings disaster.

2383. (5.) Exactly, just, with numerals and dates, or right, of place.

annīs LXXXVI ipsīs ante mē cōnsulem, Br. 61, exactly 86 years before my consulship. Kalendīs ipsīs Novembribus, C. 1, 8, on the 1st of November precisely. in ipsō vadō dēprehēnsus Indutiomarus interficitur, 5, 58, 6, right at the ford Indutiomarus is caught and killed. suprā ipsum balneum habitō, Sen. Ep. 56, 1, I live right over a bath.

2384. (6.) Of oneself, voluntarily, of one’s own motion.

valvae subitō sē ipsae aperuērunt, Div. 1, 74, the temple-door suddenly opened of itself. Catilīnam vel ēiēcimus vel ēmīsimus vel ipsum ēgredientem verbīs prōsecūtī sumus, C. 2, 1, we have driven Catiline out, or let him out, or, when he was going out of his own motion, wished him godspeed.

The Interrogative Pronoun.

uter and quis.

2385. uter, whether? which? is used in questions about two things; quis and quī, who? what? in questions about more than two, though sometimes loosely of two things.

uter est īnsānior hōrum? H. S. 2, 3, 102, which of these is the greater crank? praeclārē apud eundem est Platōnem, similiter facere eōs quī inter sē contenderent uter potius rem pūblicam administrāret, ut sī nautae certārent quis eōrum potissimum gubernāret, Off. 1, 87, in the same Plato is the excellent saying that for people to fall out with one another about which of two men should manage a state, were just as if the crew of a ship should quarrel about which of them should be pilot. ut quem velīs, nesciās, Att. 16, 14, 1, so that you don’t know which to choose, as between Octavian and Antony.

2386. quis and quid ask to have a thing named; quī and quod to have it described. But see 685.

quis Diōnem Syrācosium doctrīnīs omnibus expolīvit? nōn Platō? DO. 3, 139, who refined Syracusan Dio with learning of every sort? was it not Plato? quid rīdēs, H. S. 2, 5, 3, why dost thou laugh? (1144). quis fuit igitur?:: iste Chaerea.:: quī Chaerea? T. Eu. 823, who was he then?:: your precious Chaerea.:: what Chaerea? quem frūctum petentēs scīre cupimus illa quō modō moveantur? Fin. 3, 37, with what practical end in view do we seek to know how yon bodies in the sky keep in motion?

The Relative Pronoun.

2387. The relative pronoun has already been treated; see 1792-1837.

The Indefinite Pronoun.

quis or quī; quispiam.

2388. quis or quī, a, some, somebody, always stands after one or more words of the sentence. quis or quī is used after sī (nisi, sīve), nē, num, utrum, an, quō, or quandō, in preference to aliquis, unless emphasis is intended.

dīxerit quis, Off. 3, 76, somebody may say. malum quod tibī dī dabunt, Pl. Am. 563, some curse the gods will bring upon thee. hī, sī quid erat dūrius, concurrēbant; sī quī equō dēciderat, circumsistēbant, 1, 48, 6, if there was ever any sharpish work, these men would rally; if a man fell from his horse, they would close round him. praecipit atque interdīcit ūnum omnēs peterent Indutiomarum, neu quis quem vulneret, 5, 58, 4, he charges them and forbids them; they were all to assail Indutiomarus alone; and nobody was to wound anybody (2402).

2389. quispiam, a, some, one or another.

forsitan quispiam dīxerit, Off. 3, 29, peradventure somebody may say. quispiam dīcet, V. 3, 111, somebody will say. cum quaepiam cohors impetum fēcerat, hostēs vēlōcissimē refugiēbant, 5, 35, 1, every time one or another cohort charged, the enemy fled back quick speed (2394).

aliquis.

2390. aliquis or aliquī some one, some one or other, has always some affirmative emphasis, and is opposed to the idea of all, much, none: as,

nōn enim dēclāmātōrem aliquem dē lūdō, sed perfectissimum quaerimus, O. 47, for it is not some spouter from school that we aim to find, but the ideal orator. omnēs ut aliquam perniciōsam bēstiam fugiēbant, Clu. 41, everybody avoided him, like some dangerous wild animal or other. audē aliquid Gyarīs dīgnum sī vīs esse aliquid, J. 1, 73, venture some deed that deserves transportation, if you care to be something grand. nōn sine aliquā spē, D. 7, not without some hope. quaerō sitne aliqua āctiō an nūlla, Caec. 33, I ask whether there is some ground for an action or none. num igitur aliquis dolor post mortem est? TD. 1, 82, is there, then, some sense of pain after death? With emphasis after sī (2388): sī aliquid dē summā gravitāte Pompēius, multum de cupiditāte Caesar remīsisset, aliquam rem pūblicam nōbīs habēre licuisset, Ph. 13, 2, if Pompey had sacrificed really something of his importance, and Caesar a good deal of his ambition, we might have had what would have been to some degree a commonwealth.

2391. aliquis is sometimes equivalent to aliquis alius: as,

cum M. Pīsōne et cum Q. Pompēiō aut cum aliquō, Br. 310, with Piso or Pompey or some other man. ea mihī cottīdiē aut tūre aut vīnō aut aliquī semper supplicat, Pl. Aul. prol. 23, she always offers me incense or wine or something else every day.

quīdam.

2392. quīdam, a, a certain, denotes a thing which we cannot describe or do not care to.

nōn inrīdiculē quīdam ex mīlitibus decimae legiōnis dīxit: plūs quam pollicitus esset, Caesarem facere, 1, 42, 6, one of the privates of the Tenth said a very dry thing: that ‘Caesar was doing more than he engaged to.’ accurrit quīdam nōtus mihi nōmine tantum, H. S. 1, 9, 3, up trots a man I knew by name alone. assimilis quīdam mūgituī sonus, Suet. Galb. 18, a mysterious sound like the lowing of a cow. vidēmus nātūram suō quōdam itinere ad ultimum pervenīre, DN. 2, 35, nature reaches perfection by a kind of road of her own. Often in translations from Greek: as, aliīs librīs ratiōnem quandam per omnem nātūram rērum pertinentem vī dīvīnā esse adfectam putat, DN. 1, 36, in other works he supposes ‘a kind of Reason pervading all nature and endowed with divine power, of Zeno’s doctrine.

2393. quīdam is often used to soften an exaggeration or a metaphor, sometimes to denote contempt.

ēloquentissimōs hominēs innumerābilīs quōsdam nōminābat, DO. 1, 91, great speakers he named, absolutely without number. ad omnīs enim meōs impetūs quasi mūrus quīdam bonī nōmen imperātōris oppōnitur, V. 5, 2, for against all assaults of mine the name of a good commander is set up, like a regular wall. sed aliud quoddam fīlum ōrātiōnis tuae, L. 25, but there is quite a different fibre to your speech. nōn est eōrum urbānitāte quādam quasi colōrāta ōrātiō, Br. 170, their language lacks the tinge of an indefinable metropolitan element. Theomnāstus quīdam, homo rīdiculē īnsānus, V. 4, 148, a person of the name of Theomnastus, an absurd, crack-brained creature.

quisque.

2394. quisque, each, each in particular, each by himself, applies what is stated of all to each several case, out of a number more than two.

laudātī prō cōntiōne omnēs sunt, dōnātīque prō meritō quisque, L. 38, 23, 11, they were collectively commended in assembly convened, and received presents, each in proportion to his deserts. quotiēns quaeque cohors prōcurrerat, magnus numerus hostium cadēbat, 5, 34, 2, as the cohorts successively charged, a great number of the enemy fell every time (2389). mēns cuiusque, is est quisque, nōn ea figūra quae digitō dēmōnstrārī potest, RP. 6, 26, the mind of a man is always the man, and not that shape which can be pointed out by the finger.

2395. quisque is sometimes used in a relative and demonstrative sentence both.

quod cuique obtigit, id quisque teneat, Off. 1, 21, let every man keep what he has got. id enim est cuiusque proprium, quō quisque fruitur atque ūtitur, Fam. 7, 30, 2, for that is always a man’s property which he has the enjoyment and use of.

2396. In a complex sentence, consisting of a main and a relative sentence, quisque is usually expressed but once, and then in the unemphatic relative sentence. In English, the equivalent of quisque goes with the main sentence.

nēmō fuit quī nōn surrēxerit, tēlumque quod cuique fors offerēbat, adripuerit, V. 4, 95, not a man but sprang from his bed, and seized in every instance such a weapon as chance threw in his way. theātrum cum commūne sit, rēctē tamen dīcī potest, eius esse eum locum, quem quisque occupārit, Fin. 3, 67, though the theatre is open to all, still it may be said with perfect propriety, that each spectator is entitled to the seat he has taken. Messānam ut quisque nostrūm vēnerat, haec vīsere solēbat, V. 4, 5, any Roman, who went to Messana, invariably went to see these statues (1939). eōrum ut quisque prīmus vēnerat, sub mūrō cōnsistēbat, 7, 48, 2, as they successively arrived, each man of them took his stand under the wall.

2397. quisque is often used with sē or suus, superlatives, and ordinals, holding an unemphatic place after these words: as,

ipse sē quisque dīligit, L. 80, a man always loves his own self. suos quoique mōs, T. Ph. 454, every man his own way. huic prō sē quisque nostrūm medērī velle dēbēmus, L. Agr. 1, 26, this evil we ought to wish to remedy, according to our several abilities. optimum quidque rārissimum est, Fin. 2, 81, ever the fairest is the rarest. nam in forō vix decumus quisquest, quī ipsus sēsē nōverit, Pl. Ps. 973, for in the marketplace there’s scarce one man in every ten that knows himself. quīntō quōque annō Sicilia tōta cēnsētur, V. 2, 139, at the end of every four years all Sicily is assessed. quamquam prīmum quidque explicēmus, Fam. 12, 1, 1, but stay—let me explain things successively; or, one thing after another. litterās mīsit, ut is ānulus ad sē prīmō quōque tempore adferrētur, V. 4, 58, he sent a letter directing said ring to be sent to him without delay.

2398. In old Latin quisque is sometimes equivalent to quīcumque or quisquis, whoever: as, quisque obviam huic occesserit īrātō, vāpulābit, Pl. As. 404, whoever meets him in his wrath will catch it. In cuiusque generis and cuiusque modī, it means any and every: as, tot hominēs cuiusque modī, V. 4, 7, so many people of every sort, i.e. cuicuimodī. The neuter quidquid for quidque is not uncommon: as, cum prōcessit paulum et quātenus quicquid sē attingat perspicere coepit, Fin. 5, 24, when it has progressed a little and has begun to discover how far each thing affects it. Masculine quisquis for quisque is doubtful (see Fam. 6, 1, 1).

uterque.

2399. uterque, each, is used of two individuals, and utrīque of two sets or parties. But sometimes utrīque is used of two individuals.

(a.) ut illa nātūra caelestis et terrā vacat et ūmōre, sīc utriusque hārum rērum hūmānus animus est expers, TD. 1, 65, even as the heavenly nature is free from the earthy and the humid, so the soul of man has no part in either of these qualities (1243). nūtū tremefactus uterque est polus, O. F. 2, 489, at his nod trembled each pole (1243). Aetōliōrum utraeque manūs Hēraclēam sēsē inclūsērunt, L. 36, 16, 5, both bands of the Aetolians shut themselves up in Heraclea. (b.) sex fīliī nōbīs, duae fīliae sunt, utraeque iam nūptae, L. 42, 34, 4, we have six sons and two daughters, both already married.

2400. Reciprocal relations (2344) are sometimes expressed by uterque followed by a different case of alter; rarely by uterque and a different case of the same word.

(a.) quōrum uterque contempsit alterum, Off. 1, 4, each of whom lightly esteemed the other. (b.) abdūcī nōn potest :: quī nōn potest? :: quia uterque utrīquest cordī, T. Ph. 799, she’s not to be taken from him :: why isn’t she? :: because they’re heart to heart. This doubling of uterque is found only half a dozen times; not in Cicero.

quīvīs and quīlibet; utervīs and uterlibet.

2401. quīvīs and quīlibet, any you please, are used either in affirmative or negative sentences. When two are spoken of, utervīs or uterlibet is used.

(a.) ut quīvīs intellegere posset, V. 5, 17, so that any fool might know. faciat quidlubet, T. Hau. 464, let him do anything he likes. (b.) quī utramvīs rēctē nōvit, ambās nōverit, T. Andr. prol. 10, who knows either well, knows both. utrumlibet ēlige, Quinct. 81, choose either you like.

quisquam and ūllus.

2402. quisquam (692), a single one, any one at all, and ūllus, any, are used chiefly in negative sentences or in interrogative, conditional, and comparative sentences implying negation, or with sine.

vēnī Athēnās, neque mē quisquam ibī̆ adgnōvit, TD. 5, 104, I came to Athens and not a person there knew me (1659). interdīcit omnibus, nē quemquam interficiant, 7, 40, 4, he warns them collectively against killing any man at all (2388). hunc suā quisquam sententiā ex hāc urbe expellet? Mil. 104, will anybody at all, by his vote, banish this man from Rome? quis hoc fēcit ūllā in Scythiā tyrannus? Pis. 18, what tyrant ever did this in any Scythia? sī quisquam est timidus, is ego sum, Fam. 6, 14, 1, if anybody is timid, I am the man. quī saepius cum hoste cōnflīxit quam quisquam cum inimīcō concertāvit, IP. 28, who has measured swords oftener with the enemy than anybody ever wrangled with an opponent in private life. sine ūllō metū in ipsum portum penetrāre coepērunt, V. 5, 96, without a bit of fear they began to make their way right into the harbour. nēmō quisquam and nihil quicquam are old and late: as, lepidiōrem uxōrem nēmō quisquam habet, Pl. Cas. 1008, nobody has a jollier wife. noster malī nīl quicquam prīmō, T. Ph. 80, our young master didn’t make any trouble at first.

2403. nēmō is generally used for nōn quisquam, nēmō umquam for numquam quisquam, nihil for nōn quicquam, and nūllus for nōn ūllus. If only two are spoken of, neuter is used. The plural neutrī is used of two parties.

nēmōst miserior mē, T. Hau. 263, no man’s unhappier than I. nēmō igitur vir magnus sine aliquō adflātū dīvīnō umquam fuit, DN. 2, 167, nobody who is a great man was ever without some divine inspiration. ab nūllō ille līberālius quam ā Cluentiō trāctātus est, Clu. 161, by no man has he been treated more generously than by Cluentius. neutrum eōrum contrā alterum iuvāre, Caes. C. 1, 35, 5, to help neither of them against the other. neutrī alterōs prīmō cernēbant, L. 21, 46, 4, neither party saw the others at first.

(D.) NUMERALS.

2404. Numerals are divided into Adjectives: Cardinal, ūnus, one, duo, two, &c.; Ordinal, prīmus, first, secundus, second, &c.; Distributive, singulī, one each, bīnī, two each, &c.; and Numeral Adverbs: semel, once, bis, twice, &c.

For the inflection of numerals, see 637-643.

2405.

List of Numerals.

Arabic. Cardinals. Ordinals. Distributives. Numeral Adverbs. Roman.

1 ūnus, one (638) prīmus, first (643) singulī, one each (643) semel, once I

2 duo, two (639) secundus, second bīnī, two each bis, twice II

3 trēs, three (639) tertius, third ternī, trīnī, three each ter, thrice III

4 quattuor, four quārtus, fourth quaternī, four each quater, four times IIII or IV

5 quīnque, five quīntus, fifth quīnī, five each quīnquiēns, five times V

6 sex, six sextus, sixth sēnī, six each sexiēns, six times VI

7 septem, seven septimus, seventh septēnī, seven each septiēns, seven times VII

8 octō, eight octāvus, eighth octōnī, eight each octiēns, eight times VIII

9 novem, nine nōnus, ninth novēnī, nine each noviēns, nine times VIIII or IX

10 decem, ten decimus, tenth dēnī, ten each deciēns, ten times X

11 ūndecim, eleven ūndecimus, eleventh ūndēnī, eleven each ūndeciēns, eleven times XI

12 duodecim duodecimus duodēnī duodeciēns XII

13 tredecim tertius decimus ternī dēnī terdeciēns XIII

14 quattuordecim quārtus decimus quaternī dēnī quater deciēns XIIII or XIV

15 quīndecim quīntus decimus quīnī dēnī quīndeciēns XV

16 sēdecim sextus decimus sēnī dēnī sēdeciēns XVI

17 septendecim septimus decimus septēni dēnī septiēns deciēns XVII

18 duodēvīgintī duodēvīcēsimus duodēvīcēnī octiēns deciēns XVIII

19 ūndēvīgintī ūndēvīcēsimus ūndēvīcēnī noviēns deciēns XVIIII or XIX

20 vīgintī, twenty vīcēsimus, twentieth vīcēnī, twenty each vīciēns, twenty times XX

21 vīgintī ūnus or ūnus et vīgintī vīcēsimus prīmus or ūnus et vīcēsimus vīcēnī singulī or singulī et vīcēnī vīciēns semel or semel et vīciēns XXI

22 vīgintī duo or duo et vīgintī vīcēsimus alter or alter et vīcēsimus vīcēnī bīnī or bīnī et vīcēnī vīciēns bis or bis et vīciēns XXII

28 duodētrīgintā duodētrīcēsimus duodētrīcēnī duodētrīciēns XXVIII

29 ūndētrīgintā ūndētrīcēsimus ūndētrīcēnī *ūndētrīciēns XXVIIII or XXIX

30 trīgintā trīcēsimus trīcēnī trīciēns XXX

40 quadrāgintā quadrāgēsimus quadrāgēnī quadrāgiēns XXXX or Xↆ

50 quīnquāgintā quīnquāgēsimus quīnquāgēnī quīnquāgiēns ↆ

60 sexāgintā sexāgēsimus sexāgēnī sexāgiēns ↆX

70 septuāgintā septuāgēsimus septuāgēnī septuāgiēns ↆXX

80 octōgintā octōgēsimus octōgēnī octōgiēns ↆXXX

90 nōnāgintā nōnāgēsimus nōnāgēnī nōnāgiēns ↆXXXX or XC

99 ūndēcentum ūndēcentēsimus ūndēcentēnī *ūndēcentiēns ↆXXXXVIIII or XCIX

100 centum, one hundred centēsimus, one hundredth centēnī, a hundred each centiēns, a hundred times C

101 centum ūnus or centum et ūnus centēsimus prīmus or centēsimus et prīmus centēnī singulī centiēns semel or centiēns et semel CI

200 ducentī (641) ducentēsimus ducēnī ducentiēns CC

300 trecentī trecentēsimus trecēnī trecentiēns CCC

400 quadringentī quadringentēsimus quadringēnī quadringentiēns CCCC

500 quīngentī quīngentēsimus quīngēnī quīngentiēns D

600 sescentī sescentēsimus sescēnī sescentiēns DC

700 septingentī septingentēsimus septingēnī septingentiēns DCC

800 octingentī octingentēsimus octingēnī octingentiēns DCCC

900 nōngentī nōngentēsimus nōngēnī nōngentiēns DCCCC

1,000 mīlle, thousand (642) mīllēsimus, thousandth singula mīllia, a thousand each mīlliēns, a thousand times ↀ

2,000 duo mīllia bis mīllēsimus bīna mīllia bis mīlliēns ↀↀ

5,000 quīnque mīllia quīnquiēns mīllēsimus quīna mīllia quīnquiēns mīlliēns ↁ

10,000 decem mīllia deciēns mīllēsimus dēna mīllia deciēns mīlliēns ↂ

50,000 quīnquāgintā mīllia quīnquāgiēns mīllēsimus quīnquāgēna mīllia quīnquāgiēns mīlliēns ↇ

100,000 centum mīllia centiēns mīllēsimus centēna mīllia centiēns mīlliēns ↈ

1,000,000 deciēns centēna mīllia deciēns centiēns mīllēsimus deciēns centēna mīllia deciēns centiēns mīlliēns

Notation.

2406. Numbers are noted by combinations of the characters I = 1; V = 5; X = 10; ↆ, later , , or L = 50; C = 100; D = 500; ↀ or , post-Augustan M = 1000.

2407. Of these signs, V seems to be the half of X, which may be Etruscan in origin. The original signs for 50 and 1000 were taken from the Chalcidian Greek alphabet (18, 19), in which they represented sounds unknown to early Latin. Thus, ↆ, in the Chalcidian alphabet representing ch (49), was used by the early Romans for 50, and became successively , , and L. The form ↆ, is found very rarely, oftener, in the Augustan period; is common during the last century of the republic and in the early empire; L, due to assimilation with the Roman letter, appears in the last century of the republic. The sign for 1000 was originally ↀ (Chalcidian ph); it became (the common classical form), , or ; the form M as a numeral appears in the second century A.D., although M is found much earlier as an abbreviation for mīllia in M · P, that is mīllia passuum. For 100, the sign (Chalcidian th) may have been used originally; but C (the abbreviation for centum) came into use at an early period. The sign D, = 500, is the half of ↀ.

2408. To denote 10,000 the sign for 1000 was doubled: thus, ↂ, written also , , . Another circle was added to denote 100,000: thus, ↈ, written also , , . The halves of these signs were used for 5000 and 50,000: thus, ↁ and ↇ; variations of these last two signs are found, corresponding to the variations of the signs of which they are the halves.

2409. From the last century of the republic on, thousands are sometimes indicated by a line drawn above a numeral, and hundreds of thousands by three lines enclosing a numeral: as, V̅ = 5000; = 1,000,000.

2410. To distinguish numerals from ordinary letters, a line is often drawn above them: as, V͞I = 6. This practice is common in the Augustan period; earlier, a line is sometimes drawn across the numeral, as, = 2; = 500.

2411. Of the two methods of writing the symbols for 4, 9, 14, 19, &c., the method by subtraction (IV, IX, XIV, XIX, &c.) is rarer, and is characteristic of private, not public inscriptions.

Some Forms of Numerals.

2412. quīnctus, the older form of quīntus (170, 4) is sometimes found in old and even in classical writers. Instead of septimus and decimus, the older septumus and decumus are not uncommon (28).

2413. In the ordinals from twentieth upwards, the older forms vīcēnsumus or vīcēnsimus, trīcēnsumus or trīcēnsimus, &c., &c., are not infrequently found instead of vīcēsimus, trīcēsimus, &c., &c. (63; 28).

2414. In the numeral adverbs from quīnquiēns upwards, later forms in -īēs (63) are often found: as, quīnquiēs, deciēs, &c., &c.

2415. In cardinals and ordinals from thirteen to seventeen inclusive, the larger number sometimes comes first, and in cardinals et is sometimes used, though rarely in Cicero.

decem trēs, L. 37, 30, 7, thirteen. fundōs decem et trēs relīquit, RA. 20, he left thirteen farms. Rarely the smaller number comes first with et: as, dē tribus et decem fundīs, RA. 99, of the thirteen farms.

2416. Numbers from 18 to 99 inclusive which end in 8 or 9 are usually expressed by subtraction, as in the list (2405); less frequently (not in Cicero, rarely in classical writers) by addition: as, decem et octō, 4, 19, 4; decem novem, Ta. H. 2, 58.

2417. In compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-seven inclusive, except those which end in eight or nine (2416), the smaller number with et usually comes first or the larger number without et, as in the list. But rarely the larger number comes first with et: as, vīgintī et septem, V. 4, 123, twenty and seven.

2418. In numbers from a hundred and one upwards, the larger number comes first, either with or without et; but with distributives et is not used. With cardinals and ordinals the smaller number sometimes comes first with et; as, iīs rēgiīs quadrāgintā annīs et ducentīs praeteritīs, RP. 2, 52, after these two hundred and forty years of monarchy were ended.

SOME USES OF NUMERALS.

Cardinals and Ordinals.

2419. Dates are expressed either by cardinals with a plural substantive or by ordinals with a singular substantive: as,

dictātor factus est annīs post Rōmam conditam CCCCXV, Fam. 9, 21, 2, he was made dictator 415 U. C. (1393). annō trecentēsimō quīnquāgēsimō post Rōmam conditam, Nōnīs Iūnīs, RP. 1, 25, on the 5th of June, 350 U. C. (1350). The ordinal is also used with a substantive not used in the singular: as, mancipia vēnībant Sāturnālibus tertiīs, Att. 5, 20, 5, the slaves were sold on the third day of the Saturnalia. As the Romans, however, had no fixed official era, they had no dates in the modern sense, and marked the year by the names of the consuls.

Distributives.

2420. Distributives are used to denote an equal division among several persons or things, and in expressions of multiplication: as,

bīnī senātōrēs singulīs cohortibus praepositī, L. 3, 69, 8, two senators were put over every cohort: sometimes when singulī is added, the cardinal is used, thus: singulīs cēnsōribus dēnāriī trecentī imperātī sunt, V. 2, 137, every censor was assessed 300 denars. bis bīna, DN. 2, 49, twice two. Poets use multiplication freely, partly for variety, but mainly from metrical necessity.

2421. Distributives are also used with substantives which have no singular, or which have a different meaning in the singular; but in this use one is always ūnī, not singulī, and three is often trīnī, not ternī: as,

ut ūna castra iam facta ex bīnīs vidērentur, Caes. C. 1, 74, 4, so that one camp seemed now to have been formed out of two. trīnīs catēnīs vinctus, 1, 53, 5, in triple irons. Similarly with things in pairs, as: bovēs bīnī, Pl. Pers. 317, a yoke of oxen.

2422. Poets sometimes use the singular of distributives: as, centēnāque arbore flūctum verberat, V. 10, 207, and with a hundred beams at every stroke the wave he smites. duplicī nātūrā et corpore bīnō, Lucr. 5, 879, twynatured and of body twain. The plural is sometimes used in verse for the cardinal: centum bracchia . . . centēnāsque manūs, V. 10, 565, a hundred arms . . . and hundred hands.

Other Numerals.

2423. Other numerical adjectives are multiplicatives, ending in -plex; they are: simplex, onefold, simple, sēscuplex, one and a half fold, duplex, triplex, quadruplex, quīncuplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex; and proportionals, used mostly in the neuter as substantives: duplus, twice as great, triplus, three times as great, quadruplus, septuplus, octuplus. Besides these there are other adjectives derived from numerals: as, prīmānus, soldier of the first: prīmārius, first rate: bīmus, twinter, two-year-old; &c., &c.

Expression of Fractions.

2424. One half may be expressed by dīmidium or dīmidia pars; other fractions with 1 as a numerator by ordinals, with or without pars: as, tertia pars or tertia, 1/3.

2425. If the numerator is greater than 1 it is usually expressed by the cardinal feminine, with the ordinal feminine for the denominator: as, duae septimae, 2/7. But besides these forms there are others, namely:

2426. (1.) Fractions with a numerator less by 1 than the denominator, except 1/2, may be expressed by cardinals with partēs, as, duae partēs, 2/3; trēs partēs, 3/4; quattuor partēs, 4/5.

2427. (2.) Fractions with 12 or its multiples as a denominator are expressed in business language by the parts of an ās: thus,

1/12, uncia

1/6, sextāns

1/4, quadrāns

1/3, triēns

5/12, quīncunx

1/2, sēmis

7/12, septunx

2/3, bēs

3/4, dōdrāns

5/6, dēxtāns

11/12, deūnx

12/12, ās

ex āsse hērēs, Quintil. 7, 1, 20, heir to the whole; relīquit hērēdēs ex bēsse nepōtem, ex tertiā parte neptem, Plin. Ep. 7, 24, 2, she left her grandson heir to 2/3, her granddaughter to 1/3. hērēdem ex dōdrante, N. 25, 5, 2, heir to 3/4.

2428. Sometimes fractions are expressed by addition: as, dīmidia et quarta, 3/4; pars tertia et septima, 10/21; sometimes by division of the denominator: as, dīmidia quīnta, 1/10.

(E.) PROSODY.

I. RULES OF QUANTITY.

(A.) In Classical Latin.

2429. The length of the vowel in some classes of syllables, as used in the classical period, may be conveniently fixed in the memory by the following rules. For the usage of older writers, see 126, 129, 132 and 2464-2472. For the general principles of length of vowels and syllables, see 33-41; 121-134; 177-178.

Monosyllables.

2430. Monosyllables ending in a vowel or a single consonant have the vowel long: as,

dōs, sōl; ā for ab; ē for ex or ec-, pēs for *peds; ablative quā, quī; quīn for *quīne; locative sei, commonly sī; sīc (708); dative and ablative plural quīs (688).

Exceptions.

2431. The vowel is short in:

2432. (a.) Monosyllables ending in b, d, m, and t: as, ab, ad, dum, dat.

2433. (b.) The indefinite qua, N. and Ac.; the enclitics -que (rarely -quē), -ne, -ve, -ce; and in the words cor, fel, mel; os, bone; ac, vir, is, pol, quis (N.); fac, fer, per, ter; an, bis, in, cis; nec, vel. N. hīc is rarely short (664). For the quantity of es, see 747.

Polysyllables.

Penults.

2434. Disyllabic perfects and perfect participles have the vowel of the penult long when it stands before a single consonant: as,

vēnī, vīdī, vīcī (862); fōvī (864), fōtus (917).

Exceptions.

2435. (a.) Nine perfects have the penult short (859-861):

bibī, -fidī

dedī, scidī

stetī, stitī

tulī, -tudī, per-culī.

2436. (b.) Ten perfect participles have the penult short (918; see also 919):

citus, datus

itum, ratus

-rutus, satus

situs, status

litus, quitus.

Final Syllables.

(1.) Ending in a Vowel.

2437. In words of more than one syllable, final a and e are short; final o, u, and i, are long: as,

(a.) N. aquila; Pl. N. and Ac. oppida, cētera, omnia.

(b.) N. ille; N. and Ac. rēte; impūne (701); V. bone; Ab. tempore; Inf. prōmere; Imperat. rege (826); Pres. Ind. and Imperat. querere; Perf. rēxēre.

(c.) N. sermō; D. and Ab. verbō; vērō (704). iō. regō, erō, amābō, rēxerō (826); estō.

(d.) N. and Ac. cornū (587); D. and Ab. metū (590, 425, 593); diū.

(e.) G. frūmentī; V. Vergilī (459); G. domī (594); D. nūllī, orbī; Ab. sitī (554). Imperat. vestī (845). Inf. querī, locārī; Ind. Perf. rēxī (856), rēxistī.

Exceptions in a.

2438. (a.) Final a is long in the ablative, in indeclinable words, and in the imperative: as,

(a.) Ab. mēnsā (426).

(b.) quadrāgintā; many indeclinable words are ablatives: as, contrā, iūxtā, (707). The indeclinable heia, ita, and quia (701), have short a.

(c.) Imperat. locā (845). But puta, for instance, has short a (130, 4).

2439. (b.) Final a is long in some Greek nominatives and vocatives: as, N. Ēlectrā; V. Aenēā, Pallā.

Exceptions in e.

2440. (a.) Final e is long in cases of nouns with stems in -ē- (596), in adverbs from stems in -o-, and in the imperative singular active of verbs in -ēre: as,

(a.) diē (G., D., or Ab.), hodiē, prīdiē; see also 603.

(b.) altē (705); also ferē, fermē and ohē or ōhē; but e is always short in bene and male; īnferne and superne.

(c.) docē (845); for cave, see 130, 4.

2441. (b.) Final e is long in the endings of some Greek nouns: as, N. crambē, Circē; V. Alcīdē; Ne. Pl. N. and Ac. cētē, melē, pelagē, tempē.

Exceptions in o.

2442. (a.) Final o is short in the nominatives ego, duo. It is sometimes shortened in homo (130, 3) and in the nominative of other stems in -n- (484, 485): as, mentio, Nāso, virgo. o is regularly short in endo, in the ablatives cito and modo, used as adverbs, and in many other words in late poetry: as, īlico, immo, ergo, quando, octo, &c.; very rarely in the ablative of the gerund.

2443. (b.) Before Ovid, o of the present indicative is regularly long. It is shortened only in the following words (130, 3): in

volo, six times (Cat., 4 times; Hor., Prop.).

scio, twice (Verg.).

nescio, six times (Verg., twice; Hor., twice; Tib., Prop.);

and once each in eo and veto (Hor.), dēsino (Tib.), and findo (Prop.). From Ovid on, short o is not uncommon.

Short o in other forms of the verb is rare: as, dīxero (Hor.); esto, ero, dabo (Ov.); but o is always short in the imperative cedo, give, tell.

Exceptions in u.

2444. Final u is short in indu and noenu.

Exceptions in i.

2445. (a.) Final i is short in nisi, quasi, and sīcuti; also in the endings of some Greek nouns: as N. and Ac. sināpi; V. Pari, Amarylli; D. Paridi, Minōidi; Pl. D. Trōasi.

2446. (b.) Final i is common in mihī̆, tibī̆, sibī̆; ibī̆, ubī̆ (129, 2).

(2.) Ending in a Single Consonant not s.

2447. A final syllable ending in a single consonant not s has its vowel short: as,

dōnec. illud. animal (536); semel. agmen. calcar (537); soror, stultior (132). moror, loquar, fatēbor (132); regitur, regimur, reguntur. regit (826); amat, sciat, pōnēbat; tinnit, possit; iacet, neget, esset (132).

Exceptions.

2448. (a.) The last vowel is long in allēc, and in compounds of pār; in the contracted genitive plural of stems in -u-: as currūm; in all cases of illic and istic except the nominative masculine, in the adverbs illūc and istūc, and sometimes in nihī̆l. Also in the endings of some Greek nouns: as, N. āēr, aethēr, sīrēn; Ac. Aenēān.

2449. (b.) In the short form of the genitive plural of stems in -o- and -ā-, the vowel was originally long, but afterwards short: as, dīvŏ̄m (462), caelicolū̆m (439).

2450. (c.) The last vowel is long in iīt and petiīt and their compounds.

(3.) Ending in s.

2451. Final syllables in is and us have the vowel short; those in as, es, and os, have the vowel long: as,

(a.) N. lapis, fīnis; G. lapidis, fīnis; magis. Indic. Pres. regis (826); Fut. eris (851, 826), eritis, locābis (853, 826), locābitis.

(b.) N. dominus; currus; N. and Ac. tempus; prius; rēgibus; īmus; regimus.

(c.) aetās; Pl. Ac. mēnsās (424). Indic. Pres. locās (840); Imp. erās (848); regēbās (847); Plup. rēxerās (880); Subj. Pres. regās, vestiās, doceās (842).

(d.) N. hērēs; sēdēs; nūbēs; Cerēs; fidēs; Pl. N. and Ac. rēgēs (424); Indic. Pres. docēs (840); Fut. regēs (852); Subj. Pres. siēs (841); locēs (843); Imp. essēs (850); regerēs (849); Plup. rēxissēs (881).

(e.) N. custōs; arbōs; Pl. Ac. ventōs (424).

Exceptions in is.

2452. (a.) Final is has ī in all plural cases: as,

N. and Ac. omnīs; D. and Ab. viīs, locīs (108, a), vōbīs. Also in the nominatives singular Quirīs and Samnīs, usually in sanguī̆s (486), and twice in pulvī̆s.

2453. (b.) Final is has ī in the second person singular of verbs in -īre, in māvīs, in compounds of sīs, and in all present subjunctives singular: as, duīs, edīs, velīs, mālīs, nōlīs. For -rī̆s of the perfect subjunctive and the future perfect, see 877, 878, 883, 884.

Exceptions in us.

2454. u is long in the nominative singular of consonant stems with ū before the final stem consonant: as, tellūs, stem tellūr-; palūs, once palus (Hor.), stem palūd-; in the genitive singular and nominative and accusative plural of nouns with stems in -u-: as, frūctūs; and in the ending of some Greek names: as, N. Panthūs; G. Sapphūs.

Exceptions in as.

2455. Final as has short a in anas and in the ending of some Greek nouns: as, N. Īlias; Pl. Ac. cratēras.

Exceptions in es.

2456. Final es has short e in the nominative singular of stems in -d- and -t- which have the genitive in -idis, -itis, and -etis (475, 476): as, praeses, teges, comes (but ē in abiēs, ariēs, and pariēs), also, in penes, in compounds of es, thou art, and in the endings of some Greek nouns: as, N. Cynosarges; Pl. N. Arcades, cratēres.

Exceptions in os.

2457. Final os has short o in the nominative of stems in -o-: as, servos, suos, Dēlos; also in compos, impos, and exos; and in the endings of some Greek nouns: as, N. and Ac. epos; G. chlamydos, Erīnyos.

Position.

2458. For the general rule of position, see 177, 178; but, except in the thesis of a foot, a final syllable ending with a short vowel generally remains short before a word beginning with two consonants or a double consonant: as, molliă strāta, nemorōsă Zacȳnthos, lūcĕ smaragdī.

In Horace such a final syllable is never lengthened before a word beginning with two consonants.

Hidden Quantity.

2459. A vowel which stands before two consonants, or a double consonant, belonging to the same word, so that its natural quantity cannot be determined from the scansion of the word, is said to possess Hidden Quantity.

2460. The natural quantity of such a vowel may sometimes be ascertained: (a.) from the statements of ancient writers; (b.) from the way in which the vowel is written in Latin inscriptions (see 24, 29); (c.) from the transliteration of the word into other languages, especially Greek; (d.) from the etymology of the word, or from a comparison of it with kindred words in other Indo-European languages; (e.) from comparison with derived words in the Romance languages. But all these kinds of evidence must be used with great caution.

2461. For the length of a vowel before ns, nf, and certain other groups of consonants, see 122.

2462. In inceptive verbs (834) the ending -scō is thought to be always preceded by a long vowel: as, crēscō, nāscor, proficīscor.

2463. In the perfect indicative active, perfect participle passive and kindred formations of verbs in -gō preceded by a short vowel, as agō, regō, the theme syllable shows a long vowel: as, lēxī, rēxī, tēxī; āctus, lēctus; rēctor; āctitō.

(B.) Some Peculiarities of Quantity in Old Latin.

2464. For the preservation of a long vowel in certain specific endings in old Latin, see 132.

2465. Final -āl is sometimes preserved long in the nominative singular: as, bacchānāl (Plaut.); also the syllable -es in the nominative singular of stems in -t- which have the genitive in -itis (477): as mīlēs (Plaut.) 171, 1.

2466. Hic, illic and istic, when adverbs, have a long final syllable; but when nominative singular masculine, have the final syllable regularly short.

2467. In Plautus frūstrā always where determinable (seven times) has the final syllable short. contrā sometimes has a short final syllable in old Latin.

2468. In Latin poetry down to the time of Cicero, final s often does not “make position” before a following consonant (66); as, tempŭs fert (Plaut.); magĭs stetisse (Ter.).

2469. The first syllable of ille, illic (the pronoun), quippe, immō, inde, unde, nempe, omnis, and perhaps iste, is sometimes shortened.

In ille, illic, quippe, and immō the shortening is, some hold, due to the fact that in common speech one of the double consonants was often pronounced faintly or not at all; while in inde, unde, nempe, and omnis the nasal was very faintly sounded before the following consonant. But some authorities hold that always in nempe, and sometimes in ille, quippe, inde, unde, and perhaps iste, before an initial consonant final e disappears, and the word becomes a monosyllable.

Law of Iambic Shortening.

2470. A long syllable, preceded by a short monosyllable or by a short initial syllable, and immediately preceded or followed by the verse-ictus, may be shortened: as, ét hŭnc, dómŏ mē, ad ŭxṓrem, volŭntā́te.

The short monosyllable may be a word which has become monosyllabic by elision: as, ég(o) hănc.

2471. If the syllable to be shortened is the first of a word of more than one syllable, or the second of a polysyllable, it must be one which is long by position, not by nature. There are some possible exceptions to this rule, such as verĕbā́minī (T. Ph. 902); but these are few and doubtful.

2472. Iambic shortening took place not only in verse, but also to a considerable extent in common speech, particularly in iambic words (see 130), in which the accent coöperated with the verse-ictus to produce the shortening.

II. FIGURES OF PROSODY.

Hiatus.

2473. For hiatus within a word, and the means by which it is avoided, see 114-120.

2474. Hiatus between two words is much more common in old Latin than in writers of the classical period. The precise extent to which it is allowed by the early dramatists is matter of dispute. The following cases may be mentioned in which the Latin poets admit hiatus:

2475. (1.) After interjections: as, hahahae homo, T. Ph. 411; ō et praesidium, H. 1, 1, 2.

2476. (2.) After proper names, and words of Greek origin: as, ancillam ferre Venerī aut Cupīdinī, Pl. As. 804; Thrēiciō Aquilōne, H. Epod. 13, 3.

2477. (3.) In the principal caesura of a verse. So especially in Plautus and Terence after the fourth foot of the iambic septenarius, and in Plautus in the principal break in the iambic octonarius, trochaic septenarius and trochaic octonarius.

2478. (4.) Often in the dramatists where there is a change of speakers: as, quī potuit vidēre? :: oculīs :: quō pactō? :: hiantibus, Pl. Merc. 182.

2479. (5.) Probably sometimes in cases of repetition, enumeration, or sharp antithesis, and where there is an important pause in the sense: as, eam volt meretrīcem facere: ea mē dēperit, Pl. Cur. 46; sī pereō, hominum manibus periisse iuvābit, V. 3, 606.

2480. Vergil sometimes admits hiatus when the final syllable ending in a vowel is preceded or followed (or both) by two short syllables: as, lāmentīs gemitūque et fēmĭnĕō ŭlŭlātū, V. 4, 667.

Elision.

2481. For elision within a word, see 119.

2482. In verse a final vowel is generally elided before a vowel or h: as,

quidve moror, s(ī) omnīs ūn(ō) ōrdin(e) habētis Achīvōs, V. 2, 102. Such a vowel was probably faintly sounded, not dropped altogether.

2483. Elision is frequent in most of the early poets; but writers of the Augustan and succeeding ages regarded it with increasing disfavour. The elision of a long vowel before a short was in general avoided; but there are numerous exceptions.

2484. Monosyllabic interjections do not suffer elision.

2485. Monosyllables ending in a diphthong seldom suffer elision before a short vowel.

2486. Diphthongs arising from Synizesis (2499) are sometimes elided in early Latin verse, but not in verse of the classical period.

2487. The monosyllables quī (plural), dō, stō, rē, spē, are thought never to suffer elision before a short vowel.

2488. The dactylic poets very rarely elide the final syllable of an iambic (⏑ –) or Cretic (– ⏑ –) word before a short vowel.

2489. Elision seldom occurs if the syllable to be elided is immediately preceded by a vowel: as in de(am) et.

2490. The final syllable of a Greek word is rarely elided.

2491. Elision is more common toward the beginning of a verse than toward the end.

2492. Elision rarely occurs in the first syllable or last syllable of a verse; but see under Synapheia (2510), and for the elision of the enclitic -que or -ve at the end of a dactylic hexameter, see 2568.

2493. Ecthlipsis (Gr. ἔκθλιψις, a squeezing out). Final m and a preceding short vowel are usually elided before a vowel or h: as,

In such cases the ending was probably not cut off altogether, but was given a faint nasal sound.

2494. Sometimes a monosyllable ending in a short vowel and m is not elided before a vowel: as quắm ego (Ter.); súnt cŭm odōre (Lucr.).

Such unelided monosyllables are most frequent in the early dramatists, and in them usually fall under the verse-ictus. See 61.

2495. The monosyllables dem, stem, rem, spem, sim, are thought never to be elided before a short vowel.

2496. After a word ending with a vowel, -m, or -us, the verb est often loses its e: as, bonast, bonumst, bonust, vīsust. So, too, es sometimes loses its vowel: as homo’s, adeptus’. This usage reflects the actual pronunciation of common speech.

2497. Semi-hiatus or Semi-elision. A long final vowel is sometimes shortened before a vowel. This may occur either in the arsis (2520), or in a resolved thesis: as, án quĭ amant (Verg.); léctulŏ ērudītulī (Cat.); nam quĭ́ aget (Ter.).

This kind of shortening is not frequent except in the early dramatists, who often shorten under the verse-ictus a monosyllable ending in a long vowel and followed by an initial vowel (as in the third example above).

2498. Synaloepha (Greek συναλοιφή, a smearing together) is a general term used to denote the means of avoiding hiatus. It includes elision and synizesis, though some grammarians use it in the same sense as synizesis.

2499. Synizesis (Greek συνίζεσις, a settling together). Two vowels (or a vowel and a diphthong) which belong to different syllables sometimes coalesce so as to form one syllable. This is called Synizesis, and is especially common in the early dramatists. Examples are: me͡o, e͡adem, cu͡ius, aure͡i. See 117.

Some grammarians would include under Synizesis only cases in which a short vowel is subordinated to a following long; as tu͡o.

2500. The term Synaeresis (Greek συναίρεσις, a taking together) is sometimes used as a synonym for Synizesis. The ancient grammarians, however, used it in the sense of Contraction (118).

2501. Dialysis (Greek διάλυσις, a breaking up). Conversely, two vowels which usually form a diphthong are sometimes separated so as to form two syllables: as coëpī (Lucr.) for coepī.

This, however, is really the survival of the original forms (120).

2502. The name Diaeresis (Greek διαίρεσις, a separating) is sometimes used as a synonym for Dialysis; but it is better to restrict it to the meaning defined in 2542.

2503. Hardening. A vocalic i or u is sometimes made consonantal before another vowel: as, abi͡ete, ari͡ete (Verg.); cōnsili͡um (Hor.); omni͡a (Lucr.). See 117 and 83.

This usage is sometimes included under Synizesis (2499), while some grammarians term it Synaeresis (2500).

2504. Softening. Conversely, a consonantal i or u sometimes becomes vocalized before a vowel, thus giving an additional syllable: as, silüae for silvae (Hor.); ēvolüisse for ēvolvisse (Ov.). See 52.

This usage is sometimes included under the name Dialysis (2501).

2505. Diastolé (Greek διαστολή, a drawing asunder). A syllable which in verse of the classical period is generally short is sometimes used as long for metrical convenience. The syllable so employed generally falls under the verse-ictus, and in most cases is immediately followed by the principal caesura, or by a pause in the sense. Examples are:

In many such cases this lengthening is not arbitrary, but the “lengthened” syllable is one that was originally long (see 132).

2506. The enclitic -que is sometimes lengthened under the ictus when another -que precedes or follows in the arsis: as, cālōnēs famulīque metallīquḗ caculaeque (Accius).

2507. Systolé (Greek συστολή, a drawing together). Conversely a syllable which in verse is regularly long is sometimes shortened for metrical convenience: as, dedĕrunt (Hor.), nūllĭus (Hor.), imperat. commodă (Cat.).

In most cases this shortening is not arbitrary, but represents a pronunciation which was in actual use, especially among the common people.

2508. Syncopé (Greek συγκοπή, a cutting short). A short vowel is often dropped between two consonants: as, surpite for surripite (Hor.), repostum for repositum (Verg.).

This usage doubtless reflects the common pronunciation; see 110, 111.

2509. Tmesis (Greek τμῆσις, a cutting) is the separation of the parts of a word: as, septem subiecta triōnī = septemtriōnī subiecta (Verg.).

This usually occurs only in compounds; but early poets sometimes divided other words: as, saxō cere comminuit brum for saxō cerebrum comminuit (Ennius).

2510. Synapheia (Greek συνάφεια, a joining together) is the linking together of two verses belonging to the same system. Here elision or word division may occur at the end of the first verse: as,

III. VERSIFICATION.

By Herman W. Hayley, Ph.D.

2511. Rhythm (Gr. ῥυθμός, from ῥεῖν, to flow) is the effect of regularity produced by the discrimination of a movement or sound into uniform intervals of time. It is often marked by a stress or ictus recurring at fixed intervals.

Rhythm is by no means confined to verse. Music, dancing, and even the regular beat of a trip-hammer, have rhythm. Particular kinds of movement are often called rhythms, as anapaestic rhythms, dactylic rhythms, &c.

2512. Metre (Gr. μέτρον, a measure) is the definite measurement of verse by feet, lines, strophes, systems, &c.

2513. Latin verse is quantitative, the rhythm depending upon the quantity of the syllables (but see 2548). The ictus naturally falls upon a long syllable (or its equivalent). English verse, on the other hand, is accentual, its rhythm depending upon the accent of words.

Quantity.

2514. Signs of Quantity. A long syllable is indicated by –, a short one by ⏑. A syllable which varies in quantity, being sometimes long, sometimes short, is indicated by ⏓ or ⏒.

In the following metrical schemes, ⏓ indicates that the long is more usual or more strictly in accordance with the rhythm than the short. The reverse is indicated by ⏒.

2515. The Unit of Measure is the duration of a short syllable and is called a Time, Tempus, or Mora. The mora did not have an absolute length, but varied with the nature of the rhythm. For greater convenience, however, it is assumed that its length was uniform, and equalled that of an eighth note ♪ A long syllable, being equal to two shorts, has a length of two morae, which is assumed to be the same as that of our quarter-note ♩ Hence in notation ⏑ = ♪ and – = ♩

2516. Protraction. A long syllable may be prolonged (Protraction) so as to have a length of three morae, in which case it is called a triseme (marked ⏗), or of four morae, when it is termed a tetraseme (marked ⏘). See 2537 and 2541.

2517. Correption. A long or short syllable may be shortened so as to occupy less than its normal time. This is called Correption (Lat. correptiō, a shortening). See 2523 and 2524.

2518. Resolution and Contraction. In some kinds of verse a long syllable may be, as it were, broken up (Resolution) into the equivalent two shorts; and conversely two short syllables may in some cases be united (Contraction) into the equivalent long.

Feet.

2519. Feet. Latin verse (like English) is measured by groups of syllables called Feet. Each of these groups has a definite length of so many morae (2515).

It is theoretically more accurate to make the foot purely a time-division, as some authorities do; but the definition given above is sanctioned by established usage.

2520. Arsis and Thesis. Every complete foot consists of two parts, an accented and an unaccented. The part on which the rhythmical accent or ictus falls is called the Thesis (Gr. θέσις, a setting down). The unaccented part of the foot is termed the Arsis (Gr. ἄρσις, a raising).