Part 2 — The Accusative of the Part Concerned. (continued 2)

1334. In Plautus, singular town names with stems in -ā- or -o- are put in the locative ten or twelve times, in the ablative with in some fifteen times. Three such have only in, never the locative: in Anactoriō, Poen. 896, in Seleuciā, Tri. 901, in Spartā, Poen. 663; furthermore, in Epidamnō, Men. 267, 380 twice, in Ephesō, B. 309, MG. 441, 778, and in Epidaurō, Cur. 341, 429, E. 540, 541, 554, but also Epidamnī, Men. prol. 51, Ephesī, B. 336, 1047, MG. 648, and Epidaurī, E. 636. Terence, who has only -o- stems, uses the locative six times, the ablative with in four times: only with in: in Andrō, Andr. 931, in Imbrō, Hec. 171. Furthermore in Lēmnō, Ph. 873, 1004 but also Lēmnī, Ph. 680, 942, 1013. Also Mīlētī, Ad. 654, Rhodī, Eu. 107, Sūniī, Eu. 519.

1335. A town name is sometimes put in the ablative with in by assimilation with a parallel in: as, in Illyricō, in ipsā Alexandrēā, Att. 11, 16, 1, in Illyricum, and at Alexandrea itself. Antiochum in Syriā, Ptolemaeum in Alexandrīā esse, L. 42, 26, 7. that Antiochus was in Syria, Ptolemy at Alexandria. in mōnte Albānō Lāvīniōque, L. 5, 52, 8, on the Alban mount and at Lavinium. Also without assimilation: as, nāvis et in Caiētā est parāta nōbīs et Brundusiī, Att. 8, 3, 6, we have a vessel all chartered, one in Cajeta and one at Brundusium. in Hispalī, Caes. C. 2, 18, 1, in Hispalis.

1336. With country names, the locative is very exceptional: as, Chersonēsī, N. 1, 2, 4, at the Peninsula. Aegyptī, Val. M. 4, 1, 15, in Egypt. Similarly Accheruntī, Pl. Cap. 689, 998, Mer. 606, Tru. 749, in Acheron; Accherunte however once: Accheruntest, Pl. Poen. 431. In Sallust, Rōmae Numidiaeque, I. 33, 4, with assimilation of Numidiae to Rōmae.

1337. (2.) The locatives domī, rūrī, humī, and rarely orbī, are used like proper names of towns: as,

(a.) cēnābō domī, Pl. St. 482, I shall dine at home. Metaphorically, domī est, nāscitur, or habeō, I can get at home, I need not go abroad for, or I have in plenty: as, id quidem domī est, Att. 10, 14, 2, as for that, I have it myself. With a possessive pronoun or aliēnus in agreement, either the locative is used, or the ablative with in; for domuī, as, Off. 3, 99, see 594; with other adjectives the ablative with in. (b.) rūrī, T. Ph. 363, up in the country; for rūre, see 1344 and 1345. (c.) humī, on the ground, or to the ground, in Terence first: as, hunc ante nostram iānuam appōne :: obsecrō, humīne? T. Andr. 724, set down this baby at our door :: good gracious; on the ground? iacēre humī, C. 1, 26, sleeping on bare ground. (d.) orbī with terrae or terrārum: as, amplissimum orbī terrārum monumentum, V. 4, 82, the grandest monument in the wide wide world.

1338. The locatives bellī, older du͡ellī, and mīlitiae are sometimes used in contrast with domī: as, domī du͡ellīque, Pl. Cap. prol. 68, domī bellīque, L. 2, 50, 11, domī mīlitiaeque, TD. 5, 55, mīlitiae et domī, T. Ad. 495, at home and in the field. Rarely without domī: as, bellī, RP. 2, 56, mīlitiae, S. I. 84, 2.

1339. (3.) Other appellatives rarely have the locative: as, proxumae vīcīniae, Pl. B. 205, MG. 273, in the next neighbourhood. terrae, L. 5, 51, 9, in the earth. With verbs of suspense, doubt, and distress, and with many adjectives, animī, in soul, is not infrequent; and animī being mistaken for a genitive, mentis is also used: as, dēsipiēbam mentis, Pl. E. 138, I was beside myself. Oftener animō (1344).

1340. Many original locatives have become set as adverbs: as, peregrī, abroad. Particularly of pronouns: as, illī, Pl. Am. 249, off there, oftener illīc; istī or istīc, hīc; sometimes further defined by an added expression: as, hīc vīcīniae, T. Ph. 95, here in the neighbourhood. hīc proxumae vīcīniae, MG. 273, here in the house next door. hīc in Veneris fānō me͡a͡e vīcīniae, Pl. R. 613, here, in the shrine of Venus, in my neighbourhood. hīc Rōmae, Arch. 5, here in Rome.

1341. The locative proper sometimes denotes time when: as, lūcī, by light, temperī, betimes, herī or here, yesterday, vesperī, at evening, herī vesperī, DO. 2, 13, last evening. In Plautus, diē septimī, Men. 1156, Per. 260, on the seventh day, māne sānē septimī, Men. 1157, bright and early on the seventh, diē crāstinī, Most. 881, tomorrow. Often with an adjective juxtaposed: as, postrīdiē, the day after, postrīdiē māne, Fam. 11, 6, 1, early next day, cōtīdiē, each day, daily, prīdiē, the day before.

(B.) THE ABLATIVE USED AS LOCATIVE.

Place in, on, or at which.

1342. (1.) Plural proper names of towns and of little islands are put in the locative ablative to denote the place in or at which action occurs: as,

mortuus Cūmīs, L. 2, 21, 5, he died at Cumae. Athēnīs tenue caelum, crassum Thēbīs, Fat. 7, in Athens the air is thin, at Thebes it is thick. locus ostenditur Capreīs, Suet. Tib. 62, the place is pointed out at Capreae. Rarely with substantives of action (1301): as, mānsiō Formiīs, Att. 9, 5, 1, the stay at Formiae. With an attribute: Athēnīs tuīs, Att. 16, 6, 2, in your darling Athens. Curibus Sabīnīs, L. 1, 18, 1, at the Sabine Cures.

1343. (2.) Singular proper names of towns with consonant stems are oftener put in the locative ablative than in the locative proper: as,

adulēscentium gregēs Lacedaemone vīdimus, TD. 5, 77, we have seen the companies of young men in Lacedaemon. Karthāgine, Att. 16, 4, 2, at Carthage. Tībure, H. E. 1, 8, 12, at Tibur. Nārbōne, Ph. 2, 76, at Narbo. See 1331. So also Acherunte, Lucr. 3, 984, in Acheron. Calydōne et Naupāctō, Caes. C. 3, 35, 1, at Calydon and Naupactus, with Naupāctō attracted by Calydōne. With an attribute: Carthāgine Novā, L. 28, 17, 11, at New Carthage. Acherunte profundō, Lucr. 3, 978, in vasty Acheron.

1344. (3.) A few general appellatives are used in the locative ablative without an attribute, especially in set expressions, to denote the place where: as,

terrā marīque, IP. 48, by land and sea; less commonly marī atque terrā, S. C. 53, 2, by sea and land. dextrā Pīraeus, sinistrā Corinthus, Cael. in Fam. 4, 5, 4, Piraeus on the right, Corinth on the left. Rarely, rūre, Pl. Cas. 110, H. E. 1, 7, 1, in the country, for rūrī (1337). So animō, animīs, with verbs of feeling: as, angor animō, Br. 7, I am distressed in soul, or I am heart-broken. Metaphorically: locō, (a.) in the right place, also suō locō, or in locō. (b.) locō, instead; numerō, in the category, both with a genitive. prīncipiō, initiō, in the beginning.

1345. Certain appellatives, with an attribute, often denote the place where by the locative ablative; so especially locō, locīs, rūre, librō, librīs, parte, partibus: as, remōtō, salūbrī, amoenō locō, Fam. 7, 20, 2, in a sequestered, healthy, and picturesque nook. idōneō locō, 3, 17, 5, in an advantageous spot. inīquō locō, 5, 51, 1, on unsuitable ground. campestribus ac dēmissīs locīs, 7, 72, 3, in level and sunken places. rūre meō, H. E. 1, 15, 17, at my own country box. rūre paternō, H. E. 1, 18, 60, J. 6, 55, on the ancestral farm. aliō librō, Off. 2, 31, in another book.

1346. Substantives are often used in the locative ablative with tōtus in agreement, less often with cūnctus, omnis, or medius, to denote the place where: as, tōtā Galliā, 5, 55, 3, all over Gaul. tōtīs trepidātur castrīs, 6, 37, 6, there is a panic all over the camp. omnibus oppidīs, V. 2, 136, in all the towns. omnibus oppidīs maritimīs, Caes. C. 3, 5, 1, in all the seaports. mediā urbe, L. 1, 33, 8, in the heart of Rome. But sometimes in is used, or the accusative with per.

1347. (4.) With country names and most appellatives, the place where is generally expressed by the ablative with in. But even without an attribute, the ablative alone is sometimes used, especially in poetry: as,

Ītaliā, V. 1, 263, in Italy, lītore, V. 1, 184, upon the beach, corde, V. 1, 209, in heart, pectore, V. 1, 657, in breast, thalamō, H. 1, 15, 16, in bower, umerō, V. 1, 501, on shoulder, Ēsquiliīs, DN. 3, 63, on the Esquiline. Once in Plautus Ālide, Cap. 330, in Elis, but eight times in Ālide.

1348. The locative ablative is sometimes used with such verbs as teneō and recipiō: as, (a.) Ariovistus exercitum castrīs continuit, 1, 48, 4, Ariovistus kept his infantry in camp. oppidō sēsē continēbant, 2, 30, 2, they kept inside the town. (b.) oppidīs recipere, 2, 3, 3, to receive inside their towns. rēx ecquis est, qui senātōrem tēctō ac domō nōn invītet? V. 4, 25, is there a monarch in the wide world that would not welcome a senator to house and home?

1349. The locative ablative is used with fīdō and cōnfīdō, glōrior, laetor, nītor, stō, and with frētus: as, barbarī cōnfīsī locī nātūrā in aciē permānsērunt, 8, 15, 1, the natives, trusting in the nature of their position, kept their stand in battle array. superiōribus vīctōriis frētī, 3, 21, 1, relying on their former victories. For other constructions with these words, see the dictionary.

Time at which or Time within which.

1350. (1.) The locative ablative is used to denote the point of time at which action occurs.

So particularly of substantives denoting periods or points of time, thus: hieme, 5, 1, 1, in the winter. Kalendīs, H. Epod. 2, 70, upon the first, i.e. of the month. Generally with an attribute: as, prīmō vēre, 6, 3, 4, in the first month of spring. Mārtiīs Kalendīs, H. 3, 8, 1, upon the first of March. With a parallel locative (1341): vesperī eōdem diē, Att. 8, 5, 1, the evening of the same day.

1351. Words not in themselves denoting periods or points of time, are in the same way put in the ablative: as,

patrum nostrōrum memoriā, 1, 12, 5, in the memory of our fathers. nōn modo illīs Pūnicīs bellīs, sed etiam hāc praedōnum multitūdine, V. 4, 103, not only in the Punic wars of yore, but also in the present swarm of pirates. proxumīs comitiīs, 7, 67, 7, at the last election. spectāculīs, Att. 2, 19, 3, at the shows. Especially substantives of action in -tus or -sus (235): as, sōlis occāsū, 1, 50, 3, at sunset. adventū in Galliam Caesaris, 5, 54, 2, at Caesar’s arrival in Gaul. eōrum adventū, 7, 65, 5, after these people came. discessū cēterōrum, C. 1, 7, when the rest went away.

1352. (2.) The locative ablative is used to denote the space of time within which action occurs: as,

paucīs diēbus opus efficitur, 6, 9, 4, the job is finished up in a few days. tribus hōris Aduātucam venīre potestis, 6, 35, 8, in three hours you can get to Aduatuca. quae hīc mōnstra fīunt, annō vix possum ēloquī, Pl. Most. 505, what ghost-transactions take place here I scarce could tell you in a year. cum ad oppidum Senonum Vellaunodūnum vēnisset, id bīduō circumvāllāvit, 7, 11, 1, arriving at Vellaunodunum, a town of the Senons, in two days time he invested it. quicquid est, bīduō sciēmus, Att. 9, 14, 2, whatever it may be, we shall know in a couple of days.

1353. The ablative of the time at or within which action occurs is sometimes accompanied by in: as, in bellō, 6, 1, 3, in the war. in tempore, T. Hau. 364, in the nick of time. in adulēscentiā, Pl. B. 410, in my young days. in tālī tempore, Lucr. 1, 93, L. 22, 35, 7, in such a stress, at such an hour. in hōc trīduō, Pl. Ps. 316, within the next three days. Especially of repeated action, in the sense of a or every, with numerals: as, ter in annō, Pl. B. 1127, RA. 132, three times a year. in hōrā saepe ducentōs versūs dictābat, H. S. 1, 4, 9, two hundred verses in an hour he’d often dictate off. But occasionally without in: as, mē deciēns diē ūnō extrūdit aedibus, Pl. Aul. 70, ten times a day he thrusts me from the house. septiēns diē, L. 28, 6, 10, seven times a day.

1354. An ablative of the time within which action occurs is sometimes followed by a relative pronoun sentence, with the relative pronoun likewise in the ablative: as, quadrīduō, quō haec gesta sunt, rēs ad Chrȳsogonum dēfertur, RA. 20, within the four days space in which this occurred, the incident is reported to Chrysogonus, i.e. four days after this occurred. diēbus decem, quibus māteria coepta erat conportārī, omnī opere effectō, 4, 18, 1, the job being all done ten days after the carting of the stuff had begun.

1355. The ablative is exceptionally used to denote duration of time: as,

tōtā nocte continenter iērunt, 1, 26, 5, they went on and on all night without interruption. Regularly, however, the accusative (1151); but the ablative is common in inscriptions.

III. THE INSTRUMENTAL ABLATIVE.

(A.) THE ABLATIVE OF ATTENDANCE.

The Ablative of Accompaniment.

1356. A few indefinite designations of military forces denote accompaniment by the ablative alone, or oftener with cum: as,

(a.) ad castra Caesaris omnibus cōpiīs contendērunt, 2, 7, 3, they marched upon Caesar’s camp with all their forces. omnibus cōpiīs ad Ilerdam proficīscitur, Caes. C. 1, 41, 2, he marches before Ilerda, horse, foot, and dragoons. (b.) is cīvitātī persuāsit, ut cum omnibus cōpiīs exīrent, 1, 2, 1, well, this man induced the community to emigrate in a body, bag and baggage.

1357. The participles iūnctus and coniūnctus take the ablative of the thing joined with: as, dēfēnsiōne iūncta laudātiō, Br. 162, a eulogy combined with a defence. But sometimes the ablative with cum is used, or the dative (1186).

The Ablative of Manner.

1358. (1.) Certain substantives without an attribute are put in the ablative alone to denote manner; but usually substantives without an attribute have cum.

(a.) Such adverbial ablatives are iūre and iniūriā, ratiōne et viā, silentiō, vitiō, ōrdine, sponte, cōnsuētūdine, &c.: as, Arātus iūre laudātur, Off. 2, 81, Aratus is justly admired. iniūriā suspectum, C. 1, 17, wrongfully suspected. in omnibus, quae ratiōne docentur et viā, O. 116, in everything that is taught with philosophic method. silentiō ēgressus, 7, 58, 2, going out in silence. cēnsōrēs vitiō creātī, L. 6, 27, 5, censors irregularly appointed. ōrdine cūncta exposuit, L. 3, 50, 4, he told the whole story from beginning to end, i.e. with all the particulars. (b.) With cum: face rem hanc cum cūrā gerās, Pl. Per. 198, see that this job with care thou dost. cum virtūte vīvere, Fin. 3, 29, to live virtuously.

1359. (2.) The ablative of a substantive with an attribute is often used to denote manner, sometimes with cum: as,

(a.) ī pede faustō, H. E. 2, 2, 37, go with a blessing on thy foot. dat sonitū magnō strāgem, Lucr. 1, 288, it deals destruction with a mighty roar. ferārum rītū sternuntur, L. 5, 44, 6, they throw themselves down beast-fashion. apis Matīnae mōre modōque operōsa carmina fingō, H. 4, 2, 27, in way and wise of Matin bee laborious lays I mould. ‘indoctus’ dīcimus brevī prīmā litterā, ‘īnsānus’ prōductā, ‘inhūmānus’ brevī, ‘īnfēlīx’ longā. O. 159, we pronounce indoctus with the first letter short, īnsānus with it long, inhūmānus with it short, īnfēlīx with it long (167). ternō cōnsurgunt ōrdine rēmī, V. 5, 120, with triple bank each time in concert rise the oars. (b.) Allobroges magnā cum cūrā suōs fīnēs tuentur, 7, 65, 3, the Allobrogans guard their own territory with great care.

1360. With a substantive meaning way or manner, as modō, rītū, &c., feeling or intention, as hāc mente, aequō animō, condition, as eā condiciōne, or a part of the body, as in nūdō capite, bareheaded, cum is not used.

1361. Other expressions denoting manner, particularly prepositional expressions with per, may be found in the dictionary: as, per dolum, 4, 13, 1, by deceit, per iocum, Agr. 2, 96, in fun, per litterās, Att. 5, 21, 13, by letter, in writing, per vim, RA. 32, violently, per praestigiās, V. 4, 53, by some hocus pocus or other, &c., &c. Sometimes the ablative with ex.

The Ablative Absolute.

1362. (1.) The ablative of a substantive, with a predicate participle in agreement, is used to denote an attendant circumstance of an action.

In this construction, which is called the Ablative Absolute, (a.) the present participle is sometimes used: as, nūllō hoste prohibente incolumem legiōnem in Nantuātīs perdūxit, 3, 6, 5, with no enemy hindering, he conducted the legion in safety to the Nantuates. Much oftener, however, (b.) the perfect participle: as, hōc respōnsō datō discessit, 1, 14, 7, this answer given he went away. (c.) The future participle is also used in the ablative absolute from Livy on: as, hospite ventūrō, cessābit nēmo tuōrum, J. 14, 59, a visitor to come, your slaves will bustle each and all.

1363. A predicate ablative with a participle meaning made, kept, chosen, or the like, occurs in Cicero, Caesar, Nepos, and Livy, but is rare (1167): as, Dolābellā hoste dēcrētō, Ph. 11, 16, Dolabella having been voted an enemy of the state.

1364. The perfect participles of deponents used actively in the ablative absolute, are chiefly those of intransitive use, such as nātus, mortuus, ortus, profectus. From Sallust on, other perfect deponent participles also are used actively with an accusative. Cicero and Caesar use a few deponent participles, such as ēmeritus, pactus, partītus, dēpopulātus, as passives, and later authors use many other participles so.

1365. (2.) The ablative of a substantive, with a predicate noun in agreement, is often used to denote an attendant circumstance of an action: as,

brevitātem secūtus sum tē magistrō, Fam. 11, 25, 1, I aimed at brevity with you as a teacher. nātus dīs inimīcīs, Pl. Most. 563, born under wrath of gods. M. Messālā et M. Pīsōne cōnsulibus, 1, 2, 1, in the consulship of Messala and Piso. istō praetōre vēnit Syrācūsās, V. 4, 61, in the defendant’s praetorship he came to Syracuse.

1366. The nominative quisque, plerīque, or ipse, sometimes accompanies the ablative absolute: as, causā ipse prō sē dictā, damnātur, L. 4, 44, 10, he is condemned after pleading his case in person.

1367. The ablative absolute may denote in a loose way various relations which might be more distinctly expressed by subordinate sentences.

So particularly: (a.) Time: as, tertiā initā vigiliā exercitum ēdūcit, Caes. C. 3, 54, 2, at the beginning of the third watch he leads the army out. (b.) Cause or means: as, C. Flāminium Caelius religiōne neglēctā cecidisse apud Trāsumēnum scrībit, DN. 2, 8, Caelius writes that Flaminius fell at Trasumene in consequence of his neglect of religious observances. (c.) Concession: as, id paucīs dēfendentibus expugnāre nōn potuit, 2, 12, 2, though the defenders were few, he could not take it by storm. (d.) Hypothesis: as, quae potest esse vītae iūcunditās sublātīs amīcitiīs? Pl. 80, what pleasure can there be in life, if you take friendships away? (e.) Description: as, domum vēnit capite obvolūtō, Ph. 2, 77, he came home with his head all muffled up.

1368. It may be seen from the examples above that a change of construction is often desirable in translating the ablative absolute. Particularly so in many set idiomatic expressions: as, nūllā interpositā morā, Caes. C. 3, 75, 1, without a moment’s delay, instantly. equō admissō, 1, 22, 2, equō citātō, Caes. C. 3, 96, 3, full gallop. clāmōre sublātō, 7, 12, 5, with a round of cheers. bene rē gestā salvos redeō, Pl. Tri. 1182, crowned with success I come back safe and sound.

1369. The substantive of the ablative absolute usually denotes a different person or thing from any in the main sentence. But exceptions to this usage sometimes occur: as,

quibus audītīs, eōs domum remittit, 4, 21, 6, after listening to these men, he sends them home again. sī ego mē sciente paterer, Pl. MG. 559, if I should wittingly myself allow, more emphatic than sciēns. sē iūdice nēmo nocēns absolvitur, J. 13, 2, himself the judge, no criminal gets free.

1370. Two ablatives absolute often occur together, of which the first indicates the time, circumstances, or cause of the second: as, exaudītō clāmōre perturbātīs ōrdinibus, 2, 11, 5, the ranks being demoralized from hearing the shouts. cōnsūmptīs omnibus tēlīs gladiīs dēstrictīs, Caes. C. 1, 46, 1, drawing their swords after expending all their missiles.

1371. The substantive is sometimes omitted in the ablative absolute, particularly when it is a general word for a person or a thing which is explained by a relative: as, praemissīs, quī repūrgārent iter, L. 44, 4, 11, sending sappers and miners ahead to clear a way. relātīs ōrdine, quae vīdissent, L. 42, 25, 2, telling circumstantially all they had seen.

1372. The ablative neuter of some perfect participles is used impersonally (1034). This use is rare in old Latin, in classical Latin commonest in Cicero, and afterwards in Livy: as, auspicātō, DN. 2, 11, with auspices taken. sortītō, V. 2, 126, lots being drawn, or by lot. Such ablatives readily become adverbs (704). Substantives are also sometimes used alone: as, austrō, Div. 2, 58, when the wind is south. tranquillitāte, Plin. Ep. 8, 20, 6, when it is calm. serēnō, L. 37, 3, 3, the day being clear.

1373. The ablative neuter of some perfect participles is occasionally used in agreement with a sentence or an infinitive: as, cōgnitō vīvere Ptolomaeum, L. 33, 41, 5, it being known that Ptolomy was alive. This construction is not used in old Latin, and is rare in classical Latin, but common in Livy and Tacitus. So adjectives also: as, incertō quid vītārent, L. 28, 36, 12, it not being obvious what they were to steer clear of.

1374. The ablative absolute is sometimes attended, especially in Livy and Tacitus, by an explanatory word, such as etsī, tamen, nisi, quasi, quamquam, or quamvīs: as, etsī aliquō acceptō dētrīmentō, tamen summā exercitūs salvā, Caes. C. 1, 67, 5, though with some loss, yet with the safety of the army as a whole.

The Ablative of Quality.

1375. The ablative with an adjective in agreement or with a limiting genitive is used to denote quality, either predicatively or attributively: as,

(a.) Predicatively: capillō sunt prōmissō, 5, 14, 3, they have long hair, or let their hair grow long. singulārī fuit industriā, N. 24, 3, 1, he had unparalleled activity. animō bonō’s, Pl. Aul. 732, be of good cheer. ad flūmen Genusum, quod rīpīs erat impedītīs, Caes. C. 3, 75, 4, to the river Genusus, which had impracticable banks. (b.) Attributively: difficilī trānsitū flūmen rīpīsque praeruptīs, 6, 7, 5, a river hard to cross and with steep banks. interfectus est C. Gracchus, clārissimō patre, avō, maiōribus, C. 1, 4, Gracchus was done to death, a man with an illustrious father, grandfather, and ancestors in general (1044). bōs cervī figūrā, 6, 26, 1, an ox with the shape of a stag. Compare the genitive of quality (1239).

The Ablative of the Route taken.

1376. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of motion to denote the route taken: as,

Aurēliā viā profectus est, C. 2, 6, he has gone off by the Aurelia Road. omnibus viīs sēmitīsque essedāriōs ex silvīs ēmittēbat, 5, 19, 2, he kept sending his chariot men out by all possible highways and byways. hīs pontibus pābulātum mittēbat, Caes. C. 1, 40, 1, by these bridges he sent foraging. frūmentum Tiberī vēnit, L. 2, 34, 5, some grain came by the Tiber. lupus Ēsquilīna portā ingressus per portam Capēnam prope intāctus ēvāserat, L. 33, 26, 9, a wolf that came in town by the Esquiline gate had got out through the Capene gate, almost unscathed. This construction gives rise to some adverbs: see 707. The ablative of the route is sometimes used with a substantive of action (1301): as, nāvigātiō īnferō, Att. 9, 5, 1, the cruise by the lower sea. eōdem flūmine invectiō, Fin. 5, 70, entrance by the same river.

(B.) THE INSTRUMENTAL PROPER.

The Ablative of Instrument or Means.

1377. The ablative is used to denote the instrument or means: as,

pugnābant armīs, H. S. 1, 3, 103, they fought with arms. clārē oculīs videō, sum pernīx pedibus, manibus mōbilis, Pl. MG. 630, I can see distinctly with my eyes, I’m nimble with my legs, and active with my arms. iuvābō aut rē tē aut operā aut cōnsiliō bonō, Pl. Ps. 19, I’ll help thee either with my purse or hand or good advice. lacte et carne vīvunt, pellibusque sunt vestītī, 5, 14, 2, they live on milk and meat, and they are clad in skins. contentus paucīs lēctōribus, H. S. 1, 10, 74, content with readers few. centēnāque arbore flūctum verberat, V. 10, 207, and with an hundred beams at every stroke the wave he smites. Rarely with substantives denoting action (1301): as, gestōrēs linguīs, audītōrēs auribus, Pl. Ps. 429, reporters with their tongues and listeners with their ears. tenerīs labellīs mollēs morsiunculae, Pl. Ps. 67^a, caressing bites with velvet lips.

1378. When the instrument is a person, the accusative with per is used: as, haec quoque per explōrātōrēs ad hostēs dēferuntur, 6, 7, 9, this too is reported to the enemy through the medium of scouts. Or a circumlocution, such as virtūte, beneficiō, benignitāte, or especially operā, with a genitive or possessive; as, deūm virtūte multa bona bene parta habēmus, Pl. Tri. 346, thanks to the gods, we’ve many a pretty penny prettily put by. meā operā Tarentum recēpistī, CM. 11, It was through me you got Tarentum back. Rarely the ablative of a person, the person being then regarded as a thing: as, iacent suīs testibus, Mil. 47, they are cast by their own witnesses.

1379. The instrumental ablative is used with the five deponents fruor, fungor, potior, ūtor, vēscor, and several of their compounds, and with ūsus est and opus est: as,

pāce numquam fruēmur, Ph. 7, 19, we never shall enjoy ourselves with peace, i.e. we never shall enjoy peace. fungar vice cōtis, H. AP. 304, I’ll play the whetstone’s part. castrīs nostrī potītī sunt, 1, 26, 4, our people made themselves masters of the camp. vestrā operā ūtar, L. 3, 46, 8, I will avail myself of your services. carne vēscor, TD. 5, 90, I live on meat. opust chlamyde, Pl. Ps. 734, there is a job with a cloak, i.e. we need a cloak.

1380. Instead of the instrumental ablative, some of the above verbs take the accusative occasionally in old and post-Augustan Latin: thus, in Plautus, Terence, Cato, always abūtor, also fungor, except once in Terence; fruor in Cato and Terence, and perfungor in Lucretius, once each; potior twice in Plautus and three times in Terence, often also the genitive (1292). The gerundive of these verbs is commonly used personally in the passive, as if the verbs were regularly used transitively (2244).

1381. ūtor often has a second predicative ablative: as, administrīs druidibus ūtuntur, 6, 16, 2, they use the druids as assistants. facilī mē ūtētur patre, T. Hau. 217, an easy-going father he will find in me.

1382. ūsus est and opus est sometimes take a neuter participle, especially in old Latin: as, vīsō opust cautōst opus, Pl. Cap. 225, there’s need of sight, there’s need of care. Sometimes the ablative with a predicate participle: as, celeriter mī eō homine conventōst opus, Pl. Cur. 302, I needs must see that man at once.

1383. With opus est, the thing wanted is often made the subject nominative or subject accusative, with opus in the predicate: as, dux nōbīs et auctor opus est, Fam. 2, 6, 4, we need a leader and adviser. Usually so when the thing needed is a neuter adjective or neuter pronoun: as, multa sibī̆ opus esse, V. 1, 126, that he needed much. A genitive dependent on opus is found once or twice in late Latin (1227).

1384. ūsus est is employed chiefly in comedy, but also once or twice in Cicero, Lucretius, Vergil, and Livy. Once with the accusative: ūsust hominem astūtum, Pl. Ps. 385, there’s need of a sharp man.

The Ablative of Specification.

1385. The instrumental ablative is used to denote that in respect of which an assertion or a term is to be taken: as,

temporibus errāstī, Ph. 2, 23, you have slipped up in your chronology. excellēbat āctiōne, Br. 215, his forte lay in delivery. Helvētiī reliquōs Gallōs virtūte praecēdunt, 1, 1, 4, the Helvetians outdo the rest of the Kelts in bravery. hī omnēs linguā, īnstitūtīs, lēgibus inter sē differunt, 1, 1, 2, these people all differ from each other in language, usages, and laws. sunt quīdam hominēs nōn rē sed nōmine, Off. 1, 105, some people are human beings not in reality but in name. ūna Suēba nātiōne, altera Nōrica, 1, 53, 4, one woman a Suebe by birth, the other Noric. vīcistis cochleam tarditūdine, Pl. Poen. 532, you’ve beaten snail in slowness. dēmēns iūdiciō volgī, H. S. 1, 6, 97, mad in the judgement of the world. sapiunt me͡ā sententiā, T. Ph. 335, in my opinion they are wise. meā quidem sententiā, CM. 56, in my humble opinion. quis iūre perītior commemorārī potest? Clu. 107, who can be named that is better versed in the law?

The Ablative of Fulness.

1386. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of abounding, filling, and furnishing: as,

vīlla abundat porcō, haedō, āgnō, CM. 56, the country place is running over with swine, kid, and lamb. tōtum montem hominibus complērī iussit, 1, 24, 3, he gave orders for the whole mountain to be covered over with men. Māgōnem poenā adfēcērunt, N. 23, 8, 2, they visited Mago with punishment. legiōnēs nimis pulcrīs armīs praeditās, Pl. Am. 218, brigades in goodliest arms arrayed. cōnsulārī imperiō praeditus, Pis. 55, vested with the authority of consul. For the genitive with compleō and impleō, see 1293.

1387. The ablative is sometimes used with adjectives of fulness, instead of the regular genitive (1263). Thus, in later Latin, rarely with plēnus: as, maxima quaeque domus servīs est plēna superbīs, J. 5, 66, a grand establishment is always full of stuck-up slaves. et ille quidem plēnus annīs abiīt, plēnus honōribus, Plin. Ep. 2, 1, 7, well, as for him, he has passed away, full of years and full of honours. So in Cicero and Caesar, once each. Also with dīves in poetry, and, from Livy on, in prose. With refertus, the ablative of things is common, while persons are usually in the genitive (1263). With onustus, the ablative is generally used, rarely the genitive.

The Ablative of Measure, Exchange, and Price.

1388. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of measuring and of exchanging, and in expressions of value and price: as,

(a.) quod magnōs hominēs virtūte mētīmur, N. 18, 1, 1, because we gauge great men by their merit. (b.) nēmō nisi vīctor pāce bellum mūtāvit, S. C. 58, 15, nobody except a conqueror has ever exchanged war for peace. (c.) haec sīgna sēstertiūm sex mīllibus quīngentīs esse vēndita, V. 4, 12, that these statues were sold for sixty-five hundred sesterces. aestimāvit dēnāriīs III, V. 3, 214, he valued it at three denars. trīgintā mīllibus dīxistis eum habitāre, Cael. 17, you have said he pays thirty thousand rent. quod nōn opus est, āsse cārum est, Cato in Sen. Ep. 94, 28, what you don’t need, at a penny is dear. hem, istūc verbum, mea voluptās, vīlest vīgintī minīs, Pl. Most. 297, bless me, that compliment, my charmer, were at twenty minas cheap.

1389. With mūtō and commūtō, the ablative usually denotes the thing received. But sometimes in Plautus, and especially in Horace, Livy, and late prose, it denotes the thing parted with: as, cūr valle permūtem Sabīnā dīvitiās operōsiōrēs? H. 3, 1, 47, why change my Sabine dale for wealth that brings more care? Similarly with cum in the prose of Cicero’s age: as, mortem cum vītā commūtāre, Sulp. in Fam. 4, 5, 3, to exchange life for death.

1390. The ablative of price or value is thus used chiefly with verbs or verbal expressions of bargaining, buying or selling, hiring or letting, costing, being cheap or dear. Also with aestimō, of a definite price, and sometimes magnō, permagnō (1273).

1391. The ablatives thus used, are (a.) those of general substantives of value and price, such as pretium, (b.) numerical designations of money, or (c.) neuter adjectives of quantity, magnō, permagnō, quam plūrimō, parvō, minimō, nihilō, nōnnihilō: as, magnō decumās vēndidī, V. 3, 40, I sold the tithes at a high figure. For tantī and quantī, plūris and minōris, see 1274.

1392. The ablative is also used with dignus and indignus: as,

dignī maiōrum locō, Agr. 2, 1, well worthy of the high standing of their ancestors. nūlla vōx est audīta populī Rōmānī maiestāte indigna, 7, 17, 3, not a word was heard out of keeping with the grandeur of Rome. See also dignor in the dictionary. Similarly in Plautus with condignē, decōrus, decet, aequē, aequos. For the genitive with dignus, see 1269; for the accusative with dignus and a form of sum, 1144.

The Ablative of the Amount of Difference.

1393. The instrumental ablative is used to denote the amount of difference.

This ablative is used with any words whatever of comparative or of superlative meaning: as, ūnō diē longiōrem mēnsem faciunt aut bīduō, V. 2, 129, they make the month longer by a day, or even by two days. ubī̆ adbibit plūs paulō, T. Hau. 220, when he has drunk a drop too much. nummō dīvitior, Pl. Ps. 1323, a penny richer. bīduō post, 1, 47, 1, two days after. multīs ante diēbus, 7, 9, 4, many days before. paucīs ante diēbus, C. 3, 3, a few days ago. nimiō praestat, Pl. B. 396, ‘t is ever so much better. multō mālim, Br. 184, I would much rather. multō maxima pars, C. 4, 17, the largest part by far.

1394. In expressions of time, the accusative is sometimes used with post, less frequently with ante, as prepositions, instead of the ablative of difference: as, post paucōs diēs, L. 21, 51, 2, post diēs paucōs, L. 37, 13, 6, paucōs post diēs, L. 33, 39, 2, after a few days. paucōs ante diēs, L. 39, 28, 4, diēs ante paucōs, L. 31, 24, 5, a few days before. With this prepositional construction, ordinals are common: as, post diem tertium, 4, 9, 1, after the third day, according to the Roman way of reckoning, i.e. the next day but one.

1395. (1.) When the time before or after which anything occurs is denoted by a substantive, the substantive is put in the accusative with ante or post: as,

paulō ante tertiam vigiliam, 7, 24, 2, a little before the third watch. bīduō ante vīctōriam, Fam. 10, 14, 1, the day but one before the victory. paucīs diēbus post mortem Āfricānī, L. 3, a few days after the death of Africanus.

1396. Sometimes in late writers, as Tacitus, Pliny the younger, and Suetonius, a genitive is loosely used: as, sextum post clādis annum, Ta. 1, 62, i.e. sextō post clādem annō, six years after the humiliating defeat. post decimum mortis annum, Plin. Ep. 6, 10, 3, ten years after his death. Similarly intrā sextum adoptiōnis diem, Suet. Galb. 17, not longer than six days after the adoption-day.

1397. (2.) When the time before or after which anything occurs is denoted by a sentence, the sentence may be introduced:

(a.) By quam: as, post diem tertium gesta rēs est quam dīxerat, Mil. 44, it took place two days after he said it. With quam, post is sometimes omitted. Or (b.) less frequently by cum: as, quem trīduō, cum hās dabam litterās, exspectābam, Planc. in Fam. 10, 23, 3, I am looking for him three days after this writing (1601). For a relative pronoun sentence, see 1354.

1398. Verbs of surpassing sometimes have an accusative of extent (1151): as, mīrāmur hunc hominem tantum excellere cēterīs? IP. 39, are we surprised that this man so far outshines everybody else? With comparatives, the accusative is rare: as, aliquantum inīquior, T. Hau. 201, somewhat too hard. Similarly permultum ante, Fam. 3, 11, 1, long long before.

1399. In numerical designations of distance, the words intervāllum and spatium are regularly put in the ablative: as, rēx VI mīlium passuum intervāllō ā Saburrā cōnsēderat, Caes. C. 2, 38, 3, the king had pitched six miles away from Saburra. So sometimes mīlle: as, mīlibus passuum VI a Caesaris castrīs sub monte cōnsēdit, 1, 48, 1. See 1152.

TWO OR MORE ABLATIVES COMBINED.

1400. Two or more ablatives denoting different relations are often combined in the same sentence: as,

Menippus, meō iūdiciō (1385) tōtā Asiā (1346) illīs temporibus (1350) disertissimus, Br. 315, Menippus, in my opinion the most gifted speaker of that day in all Asia. hāc habitā ōrātiōne (1362) mīlitibus studiō (1316) pugnae ardentibus (1370) tubā (1377) sīgnum dedit, Caes. C. 3, 90, 4, seeing that his soldiers were hot for battle after this speech, he gave the signal by trumpet.

USE OF CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.

1401. Two cases, the accusative and the ablative, are used with prepositions.

1402. Prepositions were originally adverbs which served to define more exactly the meaning of a verb.

Thus, endo, in, on, the older form of in, is an adverb, in an injunction occurring in a law of the Twelve Tables, 451 B.C., manum endo iacitō, let him lay hand on. Similarly, trāns, over, in trānsque datō, and he must hand over, i.e. trāditōque.

1403. In the course of time such adverbs became verbal prefixes; the verbs compounded with them may take the case, accusative or ablative, required by the meaning of the compound. Thus, amīcōs adeō, I go to my friends (1137); urbe exeō, I go out of town (1302).

1404. For distinctness or emphasis, the prefix of the verb may be repeated before the case: as, ad amīcōs adeō; ex urbe exeō. And when it is thus separately expressed before the case, it may be dropped from the verb: as, ad amīcōs eō; ex urbe eō.

1405. The preposition thus detached from the verb becomes an attendant on a substantive, and serves to show the relation of the substantive in a sentence more distinctly than the case alone could.

1406. A great many adverbs which are never used in composition with a verb likewise become prepositions: as, apud, circiter, īnfrā, iūxtā, pōne, propter, &c., &c. The inflected forms of substantives, prīdiē, postrīdiē (1413), tenus (1420), and fīnī (1419), are also sometimes used as prepositions. And vicem (1145), causā, grātiā, nōmine, ergō (1257), resemble prepositions closely in meaning.

1407. A trace of the original adverbial use of prepositions is sometimes retained, chiefly in poetry, when the prefix is separated from its word by what is called Tmesis: as, īre inque gredī, i.e. ingredīque, Lucr. 4, 887, to walk and to step off. per mihī̆ mīrum vīsum est, DO. 1, 214, passing strange it seemed to me.

1408. Even such words as are used almost exclusively as prepositions sometimes retain their original adverbial meaning also: as, adque adque, E. in Gell. 10, 29, 2, and up and up, and on and on, or and nearer still and still more near. occīsīs ad hominum mīlibus quattuor, 2, 33, 5, about four thousand men being killed. susque dēque, Att. 14, 6, 1, up and down, topsy turvy, no matter how.

1409. On the other hand, some verbal prefixes are never used as separate prepositions with a substantive. These are called Inseparable Prepositions; they are: amb-, round, an-, up, dis-, in two, por-, towards, rē̆d-, back. Usually also sēd-, apart (1417).

Prepositions used with the Accusative.

1410. The accusative is accompanied by the following prepositions:

ad, to, adversus or adversum, towards, against, ante, in composition also antid-, before, apud, near, at, circā, circum, circiter, round, about, cis, citrā, this side of, contrā, opposite to, ergā, towards, extrā, outside, īnfrā, below, inter, between, intrā, within, iūxtā, near, ob, against, penes, in the possession of, per, through, pōne, post, in Plautus postid, poste, pos, behind, praeter, past, prope (propius, proximē), propter, near, secundum, after, subter, under, suprā, above, trāns, across, uls, ultrā, beyond. For the various shades of meaning and applications of these prepositions, see the dictionary.

1411. Prepositions which accompany the accusative may be easily remembered in this order:

ante, apud, ad, adversum,

circum, cis, ob, trāns, secundum,

penes, pōne, prope, per,

post, and all in -ā and -ter.

1412. Of the above named words some are not used as prepositions till a relatively late period.

Thus, īnfrā is first used as a preposition by Terence and once only; circā somewhat before and citrā about Cicero’s time; ultrā first by Cato; iūxtā by Varro. In Cicero iūxtā is still used only as an adverb, in Caesar and Nepos as a preposition.

1413. The substantive forms prīdiē, the day before, and postrīdiē, the day after, are sometimes used with an accusative like prepositions, mostly in Cicero, to denote dates: as, prīdiē nōnās Māiās, Att. 2, 11, 2, the day before the nones of May, i.e. 6 May. postrīdiē lūdōs Apollinārīs, Att. 16, 4, 1, the day after the games of Apollo, i.e. 6 July. For the genitive with these words, see 1232.

1414. The adverb vorsus or versus, wards, occurs as a post positive (1434) preposition rarely: once in Sallust, Aegyptum vorsus, J. 19, 3, Egyptwards, in Cicero a few times, twice in Pliny the elder. usque, even to, occurs with names of towns in Terence (once), Cicero, and later; with appellatives in Cato (once) and late writers.

1415. clam, secretly, is ordinarily an adverb. But in old Latin it is used often as a preposition, unknown to, with an accusative of a person. Terence has once the diminutive form clanculum, Ad. 52. With the ablative only in the MSS. of Caesar, once, clam vōbīs, C. 2, 32, 8, without your knowledge, and in Bell. Afr. 11, 4.

1416. subter, under, is used in poetry, once by Catullus and once by Vergil, with the locative ablative: as, Rhoetēō subter lītore, Cat. 65, 7, beneath Rhoeteum’s strand.

Prepositions used with the Ablative.

1417. The ablative is accompanied by the following prepositions:

abs, ab, or ā, from, cōram, face to face, dē, down from, from, of, ex or ē, out of, prae, at the fore, in front of, prō, before, quom or cum, with, sine, without. In official or legal language, also sēd or sē, without. For the different classes of ablatives with these prepositions, see 1297-1300; for the various shades of meanings and applications, see the dictionary.

1418. Prepositions which accompany the ablative may be easily remembered in this order:

abs (ab, ā), cum, cōram, dē,

prae, prō, sine, ex (or ē).

1419. The ablative fīnī, as far as, is used in old Latin as a preposition with the ablative: as, osse fīnī, Pl. Men. 859, down to the bone. operītō terrā rādīcibus fīnī, Cato, RR. 28, 2, cover with loam the length of the roots. Also, as a real substantive, with a genitive (1255): as, ānsārum īnfimārum fīnī, Cato, RR. 113, 2, up to the bottom of the handles. Rarely fīne, and before the genitive: as, fīne genūs, O. 10, 537, as far as the knee.

1420. tenus, the length, was originally a substantive accusative (1151). From Cicero on, it is used as a preposition with the ablative, and standing after its case: as, Taurō tenus, D. 36, not further than Taurus. pectoribus tenus, L. 21, 54, 9, quite up to the breast. hāctenus, thus far, only thus far. Also, as a real substantive, with a genitive, usually a plural, mostly in verse (1232): as, labrōrum tenus, Lucr. 1, 940, the length of the lips, up to the lips. Cūmārum tenus, Cael. in Fam. 8, 1, 2, as far as Cumae.

1421. The adverbs palam, in presence of, procul, apart from, either near or far, simul, with, are rarely used in poetry and late prose as prepositions with the ablative. coram occurs but once as a preposition (inscriptional) before Cicero’s time. absque with the ablative occurs once each in Cicero and Quintilian; in Plautus and Terence only in a coordinate protasis (1701; 2110).

Prepositions used with the Accusative or the Ablative.

1422. Two cases, the accusative and the ablative, are accompanied by the prepositions in, older endo, indu, into, in, sub, under, and super, over, on.

1423. (1.) in and sub accompany the accusative of the end of motion, the locative ablative of rest: as,

(a.) in cūriam vēnimus, V. 4, 138, we went to the senate-house. in vincla coniectus est, V. 5, 17, he was put in irons. hīc pāgus eius exercitum sub iugum mīserat, 1, 12, 5, this canton had sent his army under the yoke. (b.) erimus in castrīs, Ph. 12, 28, we shall be in camp. viridī membra sub arbutō strātus, H. 1, 1, 21, stretched out—his limbs—all under an arbute green.

1424. Verbs of rest sometimes have in with the accusative, because of an implied idea of motion. And, conversely, verbs of motion sometimes have in with the ablative, because of an implied idea of rest: as,

(a.) mihi in mentem fuit, Pl. Am. 180, it popped into my head, i.e. came in and is in (compare venithoc mī in mentem, Pl. Aul. 226. in eius potestātem venīre nōlēbant, V. 1, 150. in eōrum potestātem portum futūrum intellegēbant, V. 5, 98, they knew full well the haven would get under the control of these people). (b.) Caesar exercitum in hībernīs conlocāvit, 3, 29, 3, Caesar put the army away in winter quarters, i.e. put them into and left them in. eam in lectō conlocārunt, T. Eu. 593, they laid the lady on her couch. So commonly with locō, conlocō, statuō, cōnstituō, pōnō, and its compounds. For expōnō and impōnō, see the dictionary.

1425. (2.) super accompanies the ablative when it has colloquially the sense of dē, about, in reference to: as, hāc super rē scrībam ad tē Rēgiō, Att. 16, 6, 1, I’ll write you about this from Regium. In other senses, the accusative, but sometimes in poetry the ablative, chiefly in the sense of on: as, ligna super focō largē repōnēns, H. 1, 9, 5, piling on hearth the faggots high. nocte super mediā, V. 9, 61, at dead of night. paulum silvae super hīs, H. S. 2, 6, 3, a bit of wood to crown the whole.

Combination of Substantives by a Preposition.

1426. (1.) Two substantives are sometimes connected by a preposition, to indicate certain attributive relations (1043); such are particularly:

(a.) Place: as, illam pugnam nāvālem ad Tenedum, Mur. 33, the sea-fight off Tenedus. excessum ē vītā, Fin. 3, 60, the departure from life. (b.) Source, origin, material: as, ex Aethiopiā ancillulam, T. Eu. 165, a lady’s maid from Aethiopia. pōcula ex aurō, V. 4, 62, bowls of gold (1314). (c.) Direction of action, connection, separation: as, amor in patriam, Fl. 103, love of country. vestra ergā mē voluntās, C. 4, 1, your good will towards me. proelium cum Tūscīs ad Iāniculum, L. 2, 52, 7, the battle with the Tuscans at Janiculum. vir sine metū, TD. 5, 48, a man devoid of fear (1043).

1427. (2.) Very commonly, however, other constructions are used, even to indicate the relations above: as,

bellum Venetōrum, 3, 16, 1, war with the Venetans (1231). bellō Cassiānō, 1, 13, 2, in the war with Cassius (1233). in aureīs pōculīs, V. 4, 54, in golden bowls (1233). scūtīs ex cortice factīs, 2, 33, 2, with long shields made out of bark (1314). post vīctōriam eius bellī, quod cum Persīs fuit, Off. 3, 49, after the victory in the war with the Persians.

1428. Prepositional expressions are sometimes used predicatively: as, sunt omnēs sine maculā, Pl. 6, 14, they are all without spot or blemish. And sometimes they are equivalent to adjectives: as, contrā nātūram, TD. 4, 11, unnatural, suprā hominem, DN. 2, 34, superhuman. Or to substantives: as, sine pondere, O. 1, 20, things without weight. Or to adverbs: as, sine labōre, Pl. R. 461, easily.

Repetition or Omission of a Preposition with several Substantives.

1429. (1.) A preposition is often repeated with emphasis before two or more substantives: as,

in labōre atque in dolōre, Pl. Ps. 685, in toil and in trouble. Particularly so with et . . . et, aut . . . aut, nōn sōlum . . . sed etiam, nōn minus ... quam, &c., &c.: as, et ex urbe et ex agrīs, C. 2, 21, from Rome and from the country too.

1430. (2.) A preposition is often used with the first only of two or more substantives: as, in labōre ac dolōre, TD. 5, 41, in toil and trouble. incidit in eandem invidiam quam pater suus, N. 5, 3, 1, he fell under the selfsame ban as his father. Particularly when the second is in apposition: as, cum duōbus ducibus, Pyrrhō et Hannibale, L. 28, with two commanders, Pyrrhus and Hannibal.

Two Prepositions with one Substantive.

1431. (1.) When two prepositions belong to one and the same substantive, the substantive is expressed with the first. With the second, the substantive is repeated, or its place is taken by a pronoun: as,

contrā lēgem prōque lēge, L. 34, 8, 1, against the law and for the law. partim contrā Avītum, partim prō hōc, Clu. 88, partly against Avitus, partly for him. If, however, the two prepositions accompany the same case, the substantive need not be repeated: as, intrā extrāque mūnītiōnēs, Caes. C. 3, 72, 2, inside and outside the works.

1432. (2.) The second preposition is often used adverbially, without any substantive: as, et in corpore et extrā, Fin. 2, 68, both in the body and outside.

Position of Prepositions.

1433. In general a preposition precedes its case: see 178.

1434. Disyllabic prepositions sometimes follow their substantives. Thus, in Cicero, contrā, ultrā, and sine, sometimes stand after a relative; so likewise inter in Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust; occasionally also penes and propter. For versus, see 1414; for fīnī, 1419; for tenus, 1420.

1435. Of monosyllables, ad and dē often follow a relative. Also cum often in Cicero and Sallust, and regularly in Caesar. With a personal or a reflexive pronoun, cum regularly follows, as mēcum, nōbīscum, sēcum.

1436. In poetry and late prose, prepositions are freely put after their cases.

1437. In oaths and adjurations, per is often separated from its proper accusative by the accusative of the object: as, per tē de͡ōs ōrō, T. Andr. 538, I beg thee by the gods, in the gods’ name.

USE OF ADVERBS.

1438. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

(a.) With verbs, all sorts of adverbs are used: as, of Place: quis istīc habet? Pl. B. 114, who lives in there? Time: tum dentēs mihi cadēbant prīmulum, Pl. Men. 1116, my teeth were just beginning then to go. Number: bis cōnsul fuerat P. Āfricānus, Mur. 58, Africanus had twice been consul. Degree, Amount: Ubiī magnopere ōrābant, 4, 16, 5, the Ubians earnestly entreated. Dumnorīx plūrimum poterat, 1, 9, 3, Dumnorix was all-powerful. Manner: bene quiēvit, libenter cibum sūmpsit, Plin. Ep. 3, 16, 4, he has slept beautifully, he has relished his food. (b.) With adjectives and adverbs, oftenest adverbs of degree or amount only, or their equivalents, such as bene, ēgregiē, &c.: as, valdē dīligēns, Ac. 2, 98, very particular. ēgregiē fortis, DO. 2, 268, exceptionally brave. Adverbs of manner, however, are also used, especially in poetry: as, turpiter hīrtum, H. E. 1, 3, 22, disreputably rough, i.e. disreputable and rough.

1439. An adverb is sometimes used with the meaning of an adjective: as,

reliquīs deincēps diēbus, 3, 29, 1, the remaining successive days. dē suīs prīvātim rēbus, 5, 3, 5, in relation to their personal interests. undique silvae, Plin. Ep. 1, 6, 2, the surrounding woods. Particularly when the substantive expresses character, like an adjective: as, vērē Metellus, Sest. 130, a trueblooded Metellus. rūsticānus vir, sed plānē vir, TD. 2, 53, a country man, but every inch a man.

1440. Perfect participles used as substantives are commonly qualified by an adverb, and not by an adjective. Particularly so dictum, factum, inventum, respōnsum, with bene and male, and their synonymes: as, rēctē ac turpiter factum, 7, 80, 5, heroism and cowardice. bene facta male locāta male facta arbitror, E. in Off. 2, 62, good deeds ill put, bad deeds I count. In superlative qualifications, however, the adjective is preferred.

1441. Other substantives also may be qualified by an adverb, when a verb construction or a participle is implied: as, C. Flāminius cōnsul iterum, Div. 1, 77, Flaminius in his second consulship. ō totiēns servos, H. S. 2, 7, 70, time and again a slave. ictū comminus, Caecin. 43, by a hand-to-hand blow. pūblicē testem, V. 2, 156, a government witness. populum lātē rēgem, V. 1, 21, a nation regnant wide. lātē tyrannus, H. 3, 17, 9, lord paramount far and near.

1442. An adverb sometimes takes the place of a substantive: as, cum amīcī partim dēseruerint mē, partim etiam prōdiderint, QFr. 1, 3, 5, since my friends have some of them abandoned me, and others again have actually betrayed me, i.e. aliī . . . aliī. postquam satis tūta circā vidēbantur, L. 1, 58, 2, finding every thing round about looked pretty safe, i.e. quae circā erant. palam laudārēs, sēcrēta male audiēbant, Ta. H. 1, 10, his outward walk you would have admired; his private life was in bad odour, i.e. quae palam fīēbant.

Negative Adverbs.

1443. (1.) The negative oftenest used in declaration or interrogation is nōn, not: as,

nōn metuō mihi, Pl. B. 225, I fear not for myself. nōn semper imbrēs nūbibus hīspidōs mānant in agrōs, H. 2, 9, 1, not always from the clouds do showers on stubbly fields come dripping dropping down. nōn dīcēs hodiē? H. S. 2, 7, 21, will you not say without delay?

1444. nōn is a modification of noenum or noenu, compounded of ne, no, and the accusative oinom or oenum, the older form of ūnum, one thing. noenum occurs in Plautus twice, in Ennius, Lucilius, Afranius, and Varro, once each, and noenu occurs twice in Lucretius (99).

1445. Negation is often expressed by other compounds of ne. In such cases the Latin idiom frequently differs from the English, and a transfer of the negative is required in translation.

Such compounds are: (a.) Verbs, such as negō, nequeō, nesciō, nōlō: as, negat vērum esse, Mur. 74, he maintains it is not true. (b.) Nouns, such as nēmō, neuter, nūllus, nihil: as, nēminī meus adventus labōrī fuit, V. 1, 16, my visit did not trouble anybody. (c.) Adverbs, such as numquam, nusquam. (d.) Similarly, the conjunction neque is used for and not, but not, unless a single word is to be emphasized or contrasted: as, nec frūstrā, 8, 5, 3, and not in vain.

1446. A form nec is used rarely in old Latin in the sense of nōn: as, tū dīs nec rēctē dīcis, Pl. B. 119, thou dost abuse the gods, i.e. nōn rēctē or male dīcis. After Plautus’s time, nec for nōn occurs in a few set combinations, such as nec opīnāns, not expecting, and, from Livy on, necdum, not yet, i.e. nōndum.

1447. The form nē usually introduces an imperative or a subjunctive, as will be explained further on. But nē is also used in the combination nē . . . quidem, not even, not . . . either, with the emphatic word between nē and quidem: as, nē tum quidem, 1, 50, 2, not even then. nē Vorēnus quidem sēsē vāllō continet, 5, 44, 6, Vorenus did not keep inside the palisade either.

1448. The adjective nūllus is sometimes used, chiefly in colloquial language, for nōn or nē (1051): as, Philotīmus nūllus vēnit, Att. 11, 24, 4, no Philotimus has shown himself. nūllus crēduās, Pl. Tri. 606, you needn’t believe it at all.

1449. (2.) The negative haut or haud, not, is used principally with adjectives and adverbs, less frequently with verbs: as,

(a.) haud mediocris vir, RP. 2, 55, no ordinary man. rem haud sānē difficilem, CM. 4, a thing not particularly hard. haud procul, CM. 15, not far. In all periods of the language often combined with quisquam, ūllus, umquam, usquam. (b.) In old Latin haud is freely used with all sorts of verbs, especially with possum. In Cicero, it occurs here and there with a few verbs, such as adsentior, errō, īgnōrō, nītor, amō, but is principally confined to sciō, in the combination haud sciō an, I don’t know but (1782). Caesar uses haud once only, and then in this combination.

1450. A shorter form, hau, occurs often in old Latin, and a few times in the classical period: as, heic est sepulcrum hau pulcrum pulcrai fēminae, CIL. I, 1007, 2, on the burial site of a woman, here is the site not sightly of a sightly dame. In Plautus it is juxtaposed with sciō, making hausciō, i.e. nesciō.

1451. (3.) Negation may also be intimated by such words as vix, hardly, parum, not . . . enough, not quite, minus, less, not, minimē, least of all, male, &c.

1452. Two negatives in the same sentence are usually equivalent to an affirmative.

Thus, with nōn first, an indefinite affirmative: as, nōn nēmō, somebody, a certain gentleman, one or another. nōn nūllus, some. nōn nihil, something, somewhat. nōn numquam, sometimes. With nōn second, a universal affirmative: as, nēmō nōn, everybody, every human being. nūllus nōn, every. nihil nōn, every thing. numquam nōn, always. nōn possum nōn cōnfitērī, Fam. 9, 14, 1, I must confess. nēmō īgnōrat, V. 2, 111, everybody knows.

1453. Sometimes, however, in old Latin, a second negation is used merely to emphasize the negative idea: as, lapideō sunt corde multī, quōs nōn miseret nēminis, E. in Fest. p. 162, there’s many a man with heart of stone, that feels for nobody. For doubled negatives in compound sentences, see 1660.

USE OF DEGREES OF COMPARISON.

The Positive.

1454. The positive sometimes expresses an idea of disproportion: as,

prō multitūdine hominum angustōs sē fīnīs habēre arbitrābantur, 1, 2, 5, in view of their large numbers they thought they had a cramped place to live in. Generally, however, disproportion is expressed as in 1460 or 1461.

The Comparative.

1455. When two things only are compared, the comparative is used: as,

uter igitur melior? Div. 2, 133, which of the two then is the better? uter est īnsānior hōrum? H. S. 2, 3, 102, which of these two is crazier? uter erātis, tūn an ille, maior? Pl. Men. 1119, you were—which of the two the bigger, thou or he?

1456. The superlative is sometimes loosely used when only two things are meant: as, Numitōrī, quī stirpis maximus erat, rēgnum lēgat, L. 1, 3, 10, to Numitor, who was the eldest of the family, he bequeaths the crown, of two brothers, Numitor and Amulius. id me͡ā minumē rēfert, quī sum nātū maxumus, T. Ad. 881, that is of small concern to me, who am the eldest son, says Demea, who has only one brother.

1457. From Cicero on, an adjective or adverb is sometimes compared with another adjective or adverb. In such comparisons quam is always used.

In this case: (a.) Both members may have the positive form, the first with magis: as, Celer disertus magis est quam sapiēns, Att. 10, 1, 4, Celer is more eloquent than wise. magis audācter quam parātē, Br. 241, with more assurance than preparation. Or (b.) Both members may have the comparative suffix: as, lubentius quam vērius, Mil. 78, with greater satisfaction than truth. pestilentia minācior quam perniciōsior, L. 4, 52, 3, a plague more alarming than destructive.

1458. But sometimes the second member is put in the positive, even when the first has the comparative suffix: as, ācrius quam cōnsīderātē, Ta. H. 1, 83, with more spirit than deliberation. And sometimes both members: as, clārīs maiōribus quam vetustīs, Ta. 4, 61, of a house famous rather than ancient.

1459. The comparative may be modified by ablatives of difference, such as multō, far, aliquantō, considerably, paullō or paulō, a little, nimiō, too much, ever so much (1393). Also by etiam, even, still, and in Catullus, Sallust, Vergil, and later Latin by longē, far, adhūc, still.

1460. The comparative of an adjective or adverb often denotes that which is more than usual or more than is right: as,

solēre aiunt rēgēs Persārum plūrēs uxōrēs habēre, V. 3, 76, they say the Persian kings generally have several wives. senectūs est nātūrā loquācior, CM. 55, age is naturally rather garrulous. stomachābātur senex, sī quid asperius dīxeram, DN. 1, 93, the old gentleman always got provoked if I said anything a bit rough.

1461. The comparative of disproportion is often defined by some added expression: as,

prīvātīs maiōra focīs, J. 4, 66, something too great for private hearths (1321). flāgrantior aequō nōn dēbet dolor esse virī, J. 13, 11, the indignation of a man must not be over hot (1330). In Livy and Tacitus by quam prō with the ablative: see the dictionary. Sometimes a new sentence is added: as, sum avidior, quam satis est, glōriae, Fam. 9, 14, 2, I am over greedy of glory. For quam ut or quam quī, see 1896.

1462. The comparative with a sentence of negative import is often preferred to the superlative with a positive sentence: as,

elephantō bēluārum nūlla prūdentior, DN. 1, 97, of the larger beasts not one is more sagacious than the elephant, or the elephant is the most sagacious of beasts. sequāmur Polybium, quō nēmō fuit dīligentior, RP. 2, 27, let us follow Polybius, the most scrupulous of men. For nēmō or quis, the more emphatic nihil or quid is often used: as, Phaedrō nihil ēlegantius, nihil hūmānius, DN. 1, 93, Phaedrus was the most refined and sympathetic of men.

1463. In colloquial language, a comparative suffix is sometimes emphasized by the addition of magis: as, mollior magis, Pl. Aul. 422, more tenderer. And sometimes by a mixture of construction, the comparative is modified by aequē, like the positive: as, homo mē miserior nūllus est aequē, Pl. Mer. 335, there’s not a man so woebegone as I, for miserior alone, or aequē miser.

1464. The comparative with the ablative is particularly common, when a thing is illustrated by some striking typical object, usually an object of nature. In such illustrations, the positive with as is commonly used in English: as, lūce clārius, V. 2, 186, plain as day. ō fōns Bandusiae, splendidior vitrō, H. 3, 13, 1, ye waters of Bandusia, as glittering as glass. melle dulcior ōrātiō, E. in CM. 31, words sweet as honey. ventīs ōcior, V. 5, 319, quick as the winds. vacca candidior nivibus, O. Am. 3, 5, 10, a cow as white as driven snow. caelum pice nigrius, O. H. 17, 7, a sky as black as pitch. dūrior ferrō et saxō, O. 14, 712, as hard as steel and stone.

The Superlative.

1465. When more than two things are compared, the superlative is used to represent a quality as belonging in the highest degree to an individual or to a number of a class: as,

proximī sunt Germānīs, 1, 1, 3, they live the nearest to the Germans. hōrum omnium fortissimī, 1, 1, 3, the bravest of these all.

1466. The superlative may be strengthened by the addition of such words as ūnus, preeminently, usually with a genitive, maximē, quam, with or without a form of possum, as possible, &c., &c. (1892). In old Latin by multō; from Cicero on, by longē, far, and vel, perhaps, even: as,

cōnfirmāverim rem ūnam esse omnium difficillimam, Br. 25, I am not afraid to avouch it is the one hardest thing in the world. longē nōbilissimus, 1, 2, 1, the man of highest birth by far. quam maximīs potest itineribus in Galliam contendit, 1, 7, 1, he pushes into Gaul by the quickest marches he can. quam mātūrrimē, 1, 33, 4, as early as possible.

1467. The superlative is also used to denote a very high degree of the quality.

This superlative, called the Absolute Superlative, or the Superlative of Eminence, may be translated by the positive with some such word as most, very: as, homo turpissimus, V. 4, 16, an utterly unprincipled man. Often best by the positive alone: as, vir fortissimus, Pīsō Aquītānus, 4, 12, 4, the heroic Piso of Aquitain (1044).

1468. In exaggerated style, the superlative of eminence may be capped by a comparative: as, stultior stultissumō, Pl. Am. 907, a greater than the greatest fool. ego miserior sum quam tū, quae es miserrima, Fam. 14, 3, 1, I am myself more unhappy than you, who are a most unhappy woman.

(B.) USE OF THE VERB.

VOICE.

The Active Voice.

1469. In the active voice, the subject is represented as performing the action of the verb.

1470. By action is meant the operation of any verb, whether active or passive, and whether used intransitively or transitively.

1471. The active of one verb sometimes serves as the passive of another: thus, pereō, go to destruction, die, serves as the passive of perdō, destroy, and vēneō, go to sale, am sold, as the passive of vēndō, put for sale, sell. Similarly fīō, become, get to be, am made, is used in the present system as the passive of faciō, make (788).

The Passive Voice.

1472. In the passive voice, the subject is represented as acted upon.

1473. The object accusative of the active voice becomes the subject of the passive voice (1125); and the predicate accusative of the active voice becomes a predicate nominative with the passive voice (1167).

Thus (a.) in the active construction: illum laudābunt bonī, hunc etiam ipsī culpābunt malī, Pl. B. 397, the one the good will praise, the other e’en the bad themselves will blame. In the passive: laudātur ab hīs, culpātur ab illīs, H. S. 1, 2, 11, he’s praised by some, by others blamed. Active: cīvēs Rōmānōs interficiunt, 7, 3, 1, they slay some citizens of Rome. Passive: Indutiomarus interficitur, 5, 58, 6, Indutiomarus is slain. (b.) Active: mīlitēs certiōrēs facit, 3, 5, 3, he informs the soldiers. Passive: certior factus est, 2, 34, he was informed.

1474. Verbs which have two accusatives, one of the person and one of the thing in the active voice, generally have the person as subject in the passive, less frequently the thing: see 1171.

1475. An emphasizing or defining accusative, or an accusative of extent or duration, is occasionally made the subject of a passive: as,

haec illīc est pugnāta pugna, Pl. Am. 253, this fight was fought off there (1140). tōta mihī dormītur hiems, Mart. 13, 59, 1, all winter long by me is slept, i.e. tōtam dormiō hiemem (1151).

1476. The person by whom the action is done is put in the ablative with ab or ā (1318); the thing by which it is done is put in the instrumental ablative (1377); as,

(a.) nōn numquam latrō ā viātōre occīditur, Mil. 55, once in a while the robber gets killed by the wayfarer. respondit, ā cīve sē spoliārī mālle quam ab hoste vēnīre, Quintil. 12, 1, 43, he said in reply that he would rather be plundered by a Roman than sold by an enemy (1471). (b.) ūnīus virī prūdentiā Graecia līberāta est, N. 2, 5, 3, Greece was saved from slavery by the sagacity of a single man, i.e. Themistocles. Very often, however, the person or thing is not expressed, particularly with impersonals.

1477. When the person is represented as a mere instrument, the ablative is used without ab (1378); and when collectives, animals, or things without life are personified, the ablative takes ab (1318): as,

(a.) neque vērō minus Platō dēlectātus est Diōne, N. 10, 2, 3, and Plato on his part was just as much bewitched with Dion. (b.) eius ōrātiō ā multitūdine et ā forō dēvorābātur, Br. 283, his oratory was swallowed whole by the untutored many and by the bar.

1478. Sometimes the person by whom the action is done is indicated by the dative of the possessor: see 1216. And regularly with the gerund and gerundive construction (2243).

1479. Only verbs of transitive use have ordinarily a complete passive. Verbs of intransitive use have only the impersonal forms of the passive (1034): as,

diū atque ācriter pugnātum est, 1, 26, 1, there was long and sharp fighting. tōtīs trepidātur castrīs, 6, 37, 6, all through the camp there was tumult and affright. mihī̆ quidem persuādērī numquam potuit, animōs ēmorī, CM. 80, for my part, I never could be convinced that the soul becomes extinct at death (1181). Similarly verbs which have a transitive use may also be used impersonally: as, di͡ēs noctīsque ēstur, bibitur, Pl. Most. 235, there is eating and drinking all day and all night (1133).

1480. The complementary dative of a verb in the active voice is in poetry very rarely made the subject of a passive verb: as, invideor, H. AP. 56, I am envied. imperor, H. E. 1, 5, 21, I charge myself.

1481. The passive had originally a reflexive meaning, which is still to be seen in the passive of many verbs: as,

exercēbātur plūrimum currendō et lūctandō, N. 15, 2, 4, he took a great deal of exercise in running and wrestling. dēnsōs fertur in hostīs, V. 2, 511, he tries to charge upon the serried foes. quod semper movētur, aeternum est, TD. 1, 53, anything that is always moving, is eternal.

1482. The present participle of reflexives is sometimes used in a reflexive sense: as, exercēns, exercising oneself, exercising, ferēns, tearing along, vehēns, riding, and invehēns, mounted on, pāscēns, browsing, versāns, playing, being, volvēns, rolling. Also the gerund: as, iūs vehendī, the privilege of riding.

1483. Passive forms of coepī and dēsinō are commonly used in the perfect system, when a dependent infinitive is passive: as,

litterīs ōrātiō est coepta mandārī, Br. 26, oratory began to be put in black and white. veterēs ōrātiōnēs legī sunt dēsitae, Br. 123, the old speeches ceased to be read. But the active forms are sometimes used by Cornificius, Sallust, and Livy, and regularly by Tacitus. The active forms are used with fierī also, which is not passive (789); but even with fierī, Livy uses the passive forms.

1484. Similar attractions with a passive infinitive occur in potestur, &c., quītur and quitus sum, nequītur, &c., rarely, and mostly in old Latin: as, fōrma in tenebrīs nōscī nōn quitast, T. Hec. 572, her shape could hardly be distinguished in the dark.

1485. Some perfect participles have an active meaning: as, adultus, grown up. See 907, and also in the dictionary cautus, cōnsultus, concrētus, dēflāgrātus, incōnsīderātus, occāsus, nūpta.

Deponents.

1486. Many verbs have only passive inflections, but with the meaning of active inflections. Such verbs are called Deponents.

1487. In many deponents, a reflexive, passive, or reciprocal action is still clearly to be seen: as,

nāscor, am born; moror, delay myself, get delayed; ūtor, avail myself; amplectimur, hug each other; fābulāmur, talk together; partīmur, share with one another.

1488. Some verbs have both active and deponent inflections: as, adsentiō, agree, more commonly adsentior. mereō, earn, and mereor, deserve. See also in the dictionary altercor, auguror, comitor, cōnflīctor, fabricor, faeneror, mūneror, ōscitor, palpor, populor, revertor. The following have active inflections in the present system and deponent inflections in the perfect system: audeō, cōnfīdō and diffīdō, gaudeō, soleō: see also 801.

1489. In old Latin especially, many verbs which afterwards became fixed as deponents occur with active inflections also: as, adūlō, arbitrō, aucupō, auspicō, lūctō, lūdificō, morō, partiō, venerō, &c., &c.

1490. Verbs which are usually deponent are rarely found with a passive meaning: as, Sūllānās rēs dēfendere crīminor, LAgr. 3, 13, I am charged with defending Sulla’s policy.

1491. When it is desirable to express the passive of a deponent, a synonyme is sometimes used: thus, the passive of mīror, admire, may sometimes be represented by laudor, am praised. Or some circumlocution: as, habet venerātiōnem quidquid excellit, DN. 1, 45, anything best in its kind is looked on with respect, as passive of veneror. familia in suspīciōnem est vocāta, V. 5, 10, the household was suspected, as passive of suspicor.

1492. The perfect participle of deponents is sometimes used with a passive meaning. Some of the commonest of these participles are: adeptus, commentus, complexus, cōnfessus, ēmentītus, expertus, meditātus, opīnātus, pactus, partītus, testātus, &c., &c.

MOOD.

THE INDICATIVE MOOD.

Declarations.

1493. The indicative mood is used in simple, absolute declarations: as,

arma virumque canō, V. 1, 1, arms and the man I sing. leve fit quod bene fertur onus, O. A. 4, 2, 10, light gets the load that’s bravely borne.

1494. The negative used with the indicative is commonly nōn, not (1443). For other negative expressions, see 1445-1451.

1495. Certain verbs and verbal expressions denoting ability, duty, propriety, necessity, and the like, mostly with an infinitive, are regularly put in the indicative, even when the action of the infinitive is not performed.

This applies to declarations, questions, or exclamations: as, (a.) possum dē ichneumonum ūtilitāte dīcere, sed nōlō esse longus, DN. 1, 101, I might expatiate on the usefulness of the ichneumon, but I do not care to be long-winded. inter ferās satius est aetātem dēgere quam in hāc tantā immānitāte versārī, RA. 150, it would be better to pass your days in the midst of howling beasts than to live and move among such brutish men. (b.) stultī erat sperāre, Ph. 2. 23, it would have been folly to hope. quid enim facere poterāmus? Pis. 13, for what else could we have done? (c.) licuit uxōrem genere summō dūcere, Pl. MG. 680, I might have married a wife of high degree. nōn potuit pīctor rēctius dēscrībere eius fōrmam, Pl. As. 402, no painter could have hit his likeness more exactly. (d.) quantō melius fuerat prōmissum patris nōn esse servātum, Off. 3, 94, how much better it would have been, for the father’s word not to have been kept.

1496. The principal verbs and verbal expressions thus used are: (a.) possum, licet, dēbeō, oportet, convenit, decet. (b.) aequum, aequius, iūstum, fās, necesse est; cōnsentāneum, satis, satius, optābile, optābilius est; ūtilius, melius, optimum, pār, rēctum est; facile, difficile, grave, īnfīnītum, longum, magnum est; est with the predicative genitive, or a possessive pronoun (1237). (c.) Similarly, but without an infinitive, forms of sum with a gerund, a gerundive, or a future participle.

1497. The imperfect of most of the above verbs and verbal expressions often relates to action not performed at the present time: as,

hīs aliās poteram subnectere causās; sed eundum est, J. 3, 315, to these I might add other grounds; but I must go. The context must determine whether the imperfect relates (a.) to action not performed either in the present as here, or in the past as in 1495, or (b.) to action performed in the past: as, sollicitāre poterat, audēbat, C. 3, 16, he had at once the assurance and the ability to play the tempter’s part.

1498. Forms of possum are sometimes put in the subjunctive (1554). Thus, possim, &c., often (1556), also possem, &c., usually of present time (1560), less frequently of past time (1559), potuissem, &c., particularly in sentences of negative import (1561), rarely potuerim, &c. (1558). Sometimes also dēbērem, &c., of present time (1560), dēbuissem, &c., chiefly in apodosis.

Questions.

1499. The indicative is the mood ordinarily used in enquiries and in exclamations: as,

(a.) huic ego ‘studēs?’ inquam. respondit ‘etiam.’ ‘ubī̆?’ ‘Mediōlānī.’ ‘cūr nōn hīc?’ ‘quia nūllōs hīc praeceptōrēs habēmus,’ Plin. Ep. 4, 13, 3, said I to the boy, ‘do you go to school?’ ‘yes, sir,’ said he; ‘where?’ ‘at Mediolanum;’ ‘why not here?’ ‘oh because we haven’t any teachers here.’ (b.) ut ego tuum amōrem et dolōrem dēsīderō, Att. 3, 11, 12, how I always feel the absence of your affectionate sympathy.

1500. Questions and exclamations are used much more freely in Latin than in English. Particularly common are two questions, of which the first is short and general, leading up to the real question: as,

sed quid ais? ubi nunc adulēscēns habet? Pl. Tri. 156, but tell me, where is the youngster living now? estne? vīcī? et tibī̆ saepe litterās dō? Cael. in Fam. 8, 3, 1, is it true? have I beaten? and do I write to you often? The real question is often preceded by quid est, quid dīcis, or by quid, quid vērō, quid tum, quid posteā, quid igitur, quid ergō, &c., &c.: as, quid? canis nōnne similis lupō? DN. 1, 97, why, is not the dog like the wolf?

1501. There are two kinds of questions: (1.) Such questions as call for the answer yes or no in English: as, is he gone? These may conveniently be called Yes or No Questions. (2.) Questions introduced by an interrogative pronoun, or by a word derived from an interrogative pronoun: as, who is gone? where is he? These are called Pronoun Questions.

Yes or No Questions.

1502. (1.) Yes or No questions are sometimes put without any interrogative particle: as,

Thraex est Gallīna Syrō pār? H. S. 2, 5, 44, of two gladiators, is Thracian Bantam for the Syrian a match? Often intimating censure: as, rogās? Pl. Aul. 634, dost ask? or what an absurd question. prōmpsistī tū illī vīnum? :: nōn prōmpsī, Pl. MG. 830, thou hast been broaching wine for him? :: not I. Especially with nōn: as, patēre tua cōnsilia nōn sentīs? C. 1, 1, you don’t see that your schemes are out? It is often doubtful whether such sentences are questions, exclamations, or declarations.

1503. (2.) Yes or No questions are usually introduced by one of the interrogative particles -ne or -n, nōnne, num, an, anne.

1504. A question with -ne or -n may enquire simply, without any implication as to the character of the answer, or it may either expect an affirmative answer like nōnne, or less frequently a negative answer like num: as,

(a.) valen? Pl. Tri. 50, art well? habētin aurum? Pl. B. 269, have you got the gold? (b.) iussīn in splendōrem darī bullās hās foribus? Pl. As. 426, didn’t I give orders to polish up the bosses of the door? facitne ut dixī? Pl. Am. 526, isn’t he acting as I said? (c.) istō immēnsō spatiō quaerō, Balbe, cūr Pronoea vestra cessāverit. labōremne fugiēbat? DN. 1, 22, I want to know, Balbus, why your people’s Providence lay idle all that immeasurable time; it was work she was shirking, was it? quid, mundum praeter hunc umquamne vīdistī? negābis, DN. 1, 96, tell me, did you ever see any universe except this one? you will say no.

1505. Sometimes the -ne of an interrogative sentence is transferred to a following relative, chiefly in Plautus and Terence: as, rogās? quīne arrabōnem ā mē accēpistī ob mulierem? Pl. R. 860, how can you ask, when you have got the hansel for the girl from me? Similarly, ō sērī studiōrum, quīne putētis difficile, H. S. 1, 10, 21, what laggards at your books, to think it hard, i.e. nōnne estis sērī studiōrum, quī putētis difficile? Compare 1569.

1506. To a question with nōnne, a positive answer is usually expected, seldom a negative: as,

(a.) nōnne meministī? :: meminī vērō, TD. 2, 10, don’t you remember? :: oh yes. Sometimes a second or third question also has nōnne, but oftener nōn: as, nōnne ad tē L. Lentulus, nōn Q. Sanga, nōn L. Torquātus vēnit? Pis. 77, did not Lentulus and Sanga and Torquatus come to see you? (b.) nōnne cōgitās? RA. 80, do you bear in mind? nōnne is rare in Plautus, comparatively so in Terence, but very common in classical Latin.

1507. To a question with num a negative answer is generally expected. Less frequently either a positive or a negative answer indifferently: as,

(a.) num negāre audēs? C. 1, 8, do you undertake to deny it? num, tibi cum faucēs ūrit sitis, aurea quaeris pōcula? H. S. 1, 2, 114, when thirst thy throat consumes, dost call for cups of gold? Rarely numne: as, quid, deum ipsum numne vīdistī? DN. 1, 88, tell me, did you ever see god in person? (b.) sed quid ais? num obdormīvistī dūdum? Pl. Am. 620, but harkee, wert asleep a while ago? numquīd vīs? Pl. Tri. 192, hast any further wish?

1508. A question with an, less often anne, or if negative, with an nōn, usually challenges or comments emphatically on something previously expressed or implied: as,

an habent quās gallīnae manūs? Pl. Ps. 29, what, what, do hens have hands? an is also particularly common in argumentative language, in anticipating, criticising, or refuting an opponent: as, quid dīcis? an bellō Siciliam virtūte tuā līberātam? V. 1, 5, what do you say? possibly that it was by your prowess that Sicily was rid of the war? at vērō Cn. Pompēī voluntātem ā mē aliēnābat ōrātiō mea. an ille quemquam plūs dīlēxit? Ph. 2, 38, but it may be urged that my way of speaking estranged Pompey from me. why, was there anybody the man loved more? In old Latin, an is oftener used in a single than in an alternative question, while in classical Latin it is rather the reverse.

1509. (3.) Yes or No questions are sometimes introduced by ecquis, ecquō, ecquandō, or ēn umquam: as,

heus, ecquis hīc est? Pl. Am. 420, hollo, is e’er a person here? ecquid animadvertis hōrum silentium? C. 1, 20, do you possibly observe the silence of this audience? (1144). ō pater, ēn umquam aspiciam tē? Pl. Tri. 588, O father, shall I ever set mine eyes on thee?

1510. (4.) In Plautus, satin or satin ut, really, actually, sometimes becomes a mere interrogative or exclamatory particle: as, satin abiīt ille? Pl. MG. 481, has that man really gone his way?

Positive and Negative Answers.

1511. There are no two current Latin words corresponding exactly with yes and no in answers.

1512. (1.) A positive answer is expressed by some emphatic word of the question, repeated with such change as the context may require: as,

an nōn dīxī esse hoc futūrum? :: dīxtī, T. Andr. 621, didn’t I say that this would be? :: you did. hūc abiīt Clītiphō :: sōlus? :: sōlus, T. Hau. 904, here Clitipho repaired :: alone? :: alone. The repeated word may be emphasized by sānē, vērō: as, dāsne manēre animōs post mortem? :: dō vērō, TD. 1, 25, do you grant that the soul lives on after death? :: oh yes. Often, however, adverbs are used, without the repetition, such as certē, certō, etiam, factum, ita, ita enimvērō, ita vērō, sānē, sānē quidem, scīlicet, oh of course, vērō, rarely vērum.

1513. (2.) A negative answer is expressed by a similar repetition, with nōn or some other negative added: as,

estne frāter intus? :: nōn est, T. Ad. 569. is brother in? :: he’s not. Or, without repetition, by such words as nōn, nōn ita, nōn quidem, nōn hercle vērō, minimē, minimē quidem, minimē vērō, nihil minus.

1514. immō introduces a sentence rectifying a mistake, implied doubt, or understatement in a question: as, nūllane habēs vitia? :: immō alia, et fortasse minōra, H. S. 1, 3, 20, have you no faults? :: I beg your pardon, other faults, and peradventure lesser ones. causa igitur nōn bona est? immō optima, Att. 9, 7, 4, isn’t the cause a good one then? good? yes, more than good, very good.

Alternative Questions.

1515. The alternative question belongs properly under the head of the compound sentence. But as the interrogative particles employed in the single question are also used in the alternative question, the alternative question is most conveniently considered here.

1516. In old English, the first of two alternative questions is often introduced by the interrogative particle whether, and the second by or: as, whether is it easier to say, Thy sins be forgiven thee, or to say Arise? In modern English, whether is not used thus.

1517. The history of the Latin alternative question is just the reverse of the English. In old Latin, the first question is very often put without any interrogative particle. Later, in the classical period, the use of -ne, or oftener of utrum, etymologically the same as whether, is overwhelmingly predominant.

1518. In the simplest form of the alternative sentence, neither question is introduced by an interrogative particle: as,

quid agō? adeō, maneō? T. Ph. 736, what shall I do? go up and speak, or wait? (1531).

1519. Of two alternative questions, the first either has no interrogative particle at all, or is more commonly introduced by utrum, -ne, or -n. The second is introduced by an, rarely by anne, or if it is negative, by an nōn: as,

(a.) album an ātrum vīnum pōtās? Pl. Men. 915, do you take light wine or dark? Tacitus es an Plīnius? Plin. Ep. 9, 23, 3, are you Tacitus or Pliny? sortiētur an nōn? PC. 37, will he draw lots or not? (b.) iam id porrō utrum libentēs an invītī dabant? V. 3, 118, then furthermore did they offer it voluntarily or did they consent to give it under stress? utrum cētera nōmina in cōdicem acceptī et expēnsī dīgesta habēs an nōn? RC. 9, have you all other items methodically posted in your ledger or not? (c.) servosne es an līber? Pl. Am. 343, art bond or free? esne tū an nōn es ab illō mīlitī Macedoniō? Pl. Ps. 616, art thou or art thou not the Macedonian captain’s man? videōn Clīniam an nōn? T. Hau. 405, do I see Clinia or not?

1520. necne for an nōn is rare: as, sēmina praetereā linquontur necne animāī corpore in exanimō? Lucr. 3, 713, are seeds moreover left or not of soul within the lifeless frame? Twice in Cicero: as, sunt haec tua verba necne? TD. 3, 41, are these your words or not? But necne is common in indirect questions.

1521. Instead of a single second question with an, several questions may be used if the thought requires it, each introduced by an.

1522. Sometimes an introductory utrum precedes two alternative questions with -ne and an: as, utrum tū māsne an fēmina ’s? Pl. R. 104, which is it, art thou man or maid? This construction has its origin in questions in which utrum is used as a live pronoun: as, utrum māvīs? statimne nōs vēla facere an paululum rēmigāre? TD. 4, 9, which would you rather do, have us make sail at once, or row just a little bit? In Horace and late prose, utrumne . . . an is found a few times.

1523. Sometimes a second alternative question is not put at all: as, utrum hōc bellum nōn est? Ph. 8, 7, in old English, whether is not this war?

1524. Two or more separate questions asked with -ne . . . -ne, or with num ... num, must not be mistaken for alternative questions: as, num Homērum, num Hēsiodum coēgit obmūtēscere senectūs? CM. 23, did length of days compel either Homer or Hesiod to hush his voice? (1692).

1525. An alternative question is answered by repeating one member or some part of it, with such changes as the context may require.

Pronoun Questions.

1526. Pronoun questions or exclamations are introduced by interrogative pronouns, or words of pronoun origin.

Such words are: (a.) quis, quī, quoius, uter, quālis, quantus, quotus: as, quid rīdēs? H. S. 2, 5, 3, why dost thou laugh? (1144). uter est īnsānior hōrum? H. S. 2, 3, 102, which of these is the greater crank? hōra quota est? H. S. 2, 6, 44, what’s o’clock? (b.) Or unde, ubī̆, quō, quōr or cūr, quī ablative, how, quīn, why not, quam, how, quandō, quotiēns: as, unde venīs et quō tendis? H. S. 1, 9, 62, whence dost thou come, and whither art thou bound? deus fallī quī potuit? DN. 3, 76, how could a god have been taken in? (1495). quam bellum erat cōnfitērī nescīre, DN. 1, 84, how pretty it would have been to own up that you did not know (1495).

1527. Sometimes quīn loses its interrogative force, and introduces an impatient imperative, particularly in Plautus and Terence, or an indicative of sudden declaration of something obvious or startling: as,

(a.) quīn mē aspice, Pl. Most. 172, why look me over, won’t you? i.e. mē aspice, quīn aspicis? So twice in Cicero’s orations. (b.) quīn discupiō dīcere, Pl. Tri. 932, why I am bursting with desire to tell.

1528. In Plautus, Terence, Horace, and Livy, ut, how, also is used in questions: as, ut valēs? Pl. R. 1304, how do you do? ut sēsē in Samniō rēs habent? L. 10, 18, 11, how is every thing in Samnium? Very commonly, and in Cicero only so, in exclamations also: as, ut fortūnātī sunt fabrī ferrāriī, quī apud carbōnēs adsident; semper calent, Pl. R. 531, what lucky dogs the blacksmiths be, that sit by redhot coals; they’re always warm.

1529. In poetry, quis, uter, and quantus are found a few times with -ne attached; as, uterne ad cāsūs dubiōs fīdet sibi certius? H. S. 2, 2, 107, which of the two in doubtful straits will better in himself confide?

1530. Two or more questions or exclamations are sometimes united with one and the same verb: as,

unde quō vēnī? H. 3, 27, 37, whence whither am I come? quot diēs quam frīgidīs rēbus absūmpsī, Plin. Ep. 1, 9, 3, how many days have I frittered away in utter vapidities. quantae quotiēns occāsiōnēs quam praeclārae fuērunt, Mil. 38, what great chances there were, time and again, splendid ones too.

Some Applications of Questions.

1531. A question in the indicative present or future may be used to intimate command or exhortation, deliberation, or appeal: as,

(a.) abin hinc? T. Eu. 861, will you get out of this? abin an nōn? :: abeō, Pl. Aul. 660, will you begone or not? :: I’ll go. quīn abīs? Pl. MG. 1087, why won’t you begone? or get you gone, begone. nōn tacēs? T. Ph. 987, won’t you just hold your tongue? ecquis currit pollinctōrem arcēssere? Pl. As. 910, won’t some one run to fetch the undertaker man? quīn cōnscendimus equōs? L. 1, 57, 7, why not mount? or to horse, to horse. (b.) quid est, Crasse, īmusne sessum? DO. 3, 17, what say you, Crassus, shall we go and take a seat? quoi dōnō lepidum novum libellum? Cat. 1, 1, unto whom shall I give the neat new booklet? quid agō? adeō, maneō? T. Ph. 736, what shall I do? go up and speak, or wait? (c.) eōn? vocō hūc hominem? :: ī, vocā, Pl. Most. 774, shall I go, and shall I call him here? :: go call him. See also 1623. Such indicative questions occur particularly in old Latin, in Catullus, in Cicero’s early works and letters, and in Vergil.

1532. Some set forms occur repeatedly, especially in questions of curiosity, surprise, incredulity, wrath, or captiousness: as,

sed quid ais? T. Andr. 575, but apropos, or but by the way (1500). quid istīc? T. Andr. 572, well, well, have it your way: compare quid istīc verba facimus? Pl. E. 141. ain tū? Br. 152, no, not seriously? itane? T. Eu. 1058, not really? Frequently egone: as, quid nunc facere cōgitās? :: egone? T. Hau. 608, what do you think of doing now? :: what, I? In Plautus, threats are sometimes introduced by scīn quō modō? do you know how? i.e. at your peril.

1533. A question is sometimes united with a participle, or an ablative absolute, or thrown into a subordinate sentence: as,

quem frūctum petentēs scīre cupimus illa quō modō moveantur? Fin. 3, 37, with what practical end in view do we seek to know how yon bodies in the sky keep in motion? quā frequentiā prōsequente crēditis nōs illinc profectōs? L. 7, 30, 21, by what multitudes do you think we were seen off when we left that town? ‘hominēs’ inquit ‘ēmistī.’ quid utī faceret? Sest. 84, ‘you bought up men’ says he; with what purpose?

THE INFINITIVE OF INTIMATION.

1534. The infinitive is principally used in subordination, and will be spoken of under that head. One use, however, of the present infinitive in main sentences, as a kind of substitute for a past indicative, requires mention here.

1535. In animated narration, the present infinitive with a subject in the nominative sometimes takes the place of the imperfect or perfect indicative: as,

interim cōtīdiē Caesar Aeduōs frūmentum flāgitāre, 1, 16, 1, there was Caesar meantime every day dunning and dunning the Aeduans for the grain. Diodōrus sordidātus circum hospitēs cursāre, rem omnibus nārrāre, V. 4, 41, Diodorus kept running round in sackcloth and ashes from friend to friend, telling his tale to everybody. intereā Catilīna in prīmā aciē versārī, labōrantibus succurrere, S. C. 60, 4, Catiline meantime bustling round in the forefront of battle, helping them that were sore bestead. tum vērō ingentī sonō caelum strepere, et micāre ignēs, metū omnēs torpēre, L. 21, 58, 5, at this crisis the welkin ringing with a dreadful roar, fires flashing, everybody paralyzed with fear. This infinitive occurs in almost all writers, for instance, Plautus, Terence, Cicero, Horace, and particularly Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus. Less commonly in Caesar. Usually two or more infinitives are combined, and infinitives are freely mixed with indicatives. The subject is never in the second person.

1536. This infinitive is used to sketch or outline persistent, striking, or portentous action, where description fails; and as it merely intimates the action, without distinct declaration, and without notation of time, number, or person, it is called the Infinitive of Intimation. It cannot be adequately represented in English.

1537. The infinitive of intimation is sometimes used without a subject, when emphasis centres in the action alone; as,

ubī̆ turrim procul cōnstituī vīdērunt, inrīdēre ex mūrō, 2, 30, 3, when they saw the tower planted some way off, jeer after jeer from the wall. tum spectāculum horribile in campīs patentibus: sequī fugere, occīdī capī, S. I. 101, 11, then a heartrending spectacle in the open fields: chasing and racing, killing and catching.

1538. Terence and Petronius have it in questions: as, rēx tē ergō in oculīs :: scīlicet :: gestāre? :: vērō, T. Eu. 401, your king then always bearing you :: of course, of course :: in eye? :: oh yes. quī morī timōre nisi ego? Petr. 62.

1539. It may be mentioned here, that the infinitive of intimation is sometimes used from Sallust on in relative clauses and with cum, when. Also by Tacitus in a temporal protasis with ubī̆, ut, dōnec, or postquam, co-ordinated with a present or imperfect indicative protasis: as,

(a.) cingēbātur interim mīlite domus, cum Libō vocāre percussōrem, Ta. 2, 31, the house meantime was encompassed with soldiers, when Libo called for somebody to kill him (1869). (b.) ubī̆ crūdēscere sēditiō et ā convīciīs ad tēla trānsībant, inicī catēnās Flāviānō iubet, Ta. H. 3, 10, when the riot was waxing hot, and they were proceeding from invectives to open violence, he orders Flavian to be clapped in irons (1933).

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Declarations.

I. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF DESIRE.

(A.) Wish.

1540. The subjunctive may be used to express a wish.

Wishes are often introduced by utinam, in old and poetical Latin also by utī, ut, and curses in old Latin by quī; these words were originally interrogative, how. Sometimes the wish is limited by modo, only. In negative wishes nē is used, either alone, or preceded by utinam or modo; rarely nōn, or the old-fashioned nec, not (1446).

1541. (1.) The present and perfect represent a wish as practicable; although a hopeless wish may, of course, if the speaker chooses, be represented as practicable: as,

(a.) tē spectem, suprēma mihī cum vēnerit hōra, Tib. 1, 1, 59, on thee I’d gaze, when my last hour shall come. utinam illum diem videam, Att. 3, 3, I hope I may see the day. (b.) utinam cōnēre, Ph. 2, 101, I hope you may make the effort. (c.) dī vortant bene quod agās, T. Hec. 196, may gods speed well whate’er you undertake. quī illum dī omnēs perduint, T. Ph. 123, him may all gods fordo. ō utinam hībernae duplicentur tempora brūmae, Prop. 1, 8, 9, oh that the winter’s time may doubled be. utinam revīvīscat frāter, Gell. 10, 6, 2, I hope my brother may rise from his grave. nē istūc Iuppiter sīrit, L. 28, 28, 11, now Jupiter forefend. The perfect is found principally in old Latin.