PART SECOND ❧ SENTENCES

PART SECOND ❧ SENTENCES

The Simple Sentence and its Parts.

1023. A Sentence is a thought expressed by means of a verb. The Subject is that which is spoken of. The Predicate is that which is said of the subject.

1024. A Simple Sentence is one which has only one subject and one predicate.

Thus, Rhodanus fluit, the Rhone flows, is a simple sentence: the subject is Rhodanus and the predicate is fluit.

1025. The sentence may be declarative, stating a fact, exclamatory, crying out about something, interrogative, asking a question, or imperative, giving a command.

The Subject.

1026. The subject is a substantive, or any word or words having the value of a substantive.

1027. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.

1028. The subject may be expressed, or may be merely indicated by the person ending.

1029. (1.) With the first or the second person, the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun (ego tū, nōs vōs) only when somewhat emphatic, or in an indignant question. Otherwise the verb of the first or second person is not attended by a personal pronoun: as, eram, I was, erās, thou wert.

1030. The subject is regularly omitted when it is general and indefinite, in the first person plural; as, intellegimus, we understand; and second person singular, as: putārēs, you, or anybody would have thought.

1031. The subject of the first or second person is sometimes a substantive, contrary to the English idiom: as, Hannibal petō pācem, I Hannibal am suing for peace. pars spectātōrum scīs, a part of you spectators knows. exoriāre aliquis nostrīs ex ossibus ultor, from out our bones mayst some avenger spring. trecentī coniūrāvimus, three hundred of us have sworn an oath together.

1032. (2.) With the third person the subject is regularly expressed, unless the general ‘he she it,’ or ‘they’ implied in the person ending is definite enough.

1033. The third person plural often refers to people in general, particularly of verbs meaning say, name or call, think, and, with volgō added, of other verbs also: as, ferunt, they say, people say, or the world says. The singular verb inquit, is rarely used in the sense of says somebody, it will be said, or quotha.

1034. Some verbs have no subject at all in the third person singular; these are called Impersonal. Such are: a few verbs expressing ‘operations of nature,’ five verbs of ‘mental distress,’ and any verb used to denote merely the occurrence of action, without reference to any doer: as,

(a.) lūcet, it is light, lūcēscit, it is getting light; pluit, it rains, fulget, it lightens, tonat, it thunders. (b.) miseret, it moves to pity, paenitet, it repents, piget, it grieves, pudet, it puts to shame, taedet, it bores. (c.) bene erat, it went well; pugnātur, there is fighting, pugnātum est, there was fighting. See also 816.

The Predicate.

1035. The predicate is either a verb alone, or a verb of indeterminate meaning with a predicate nominative added to complete the sense.

Verbs of indeterminate meaning are such as mean am (something), become, remain, seem, am thought, am called or named, am chosen.

1036. The verb is sometimes omitted, when it is easily understood. So particularly such everyday verbs as mean am, do, say, come, and go, in proverbs and maxims, in short questions, and in emphatic or lively assertion or description: as,

quot hominēs, tot sententiae, sc. sunt, as many men, so many minds. omnia praeclāra rāra, sc. sunt, all that’s very fair is rare. mortuus Cūmīs, sc. est, he died at Cumae. bene mihī̆, sc. sit, be it well with me, i.e. a health to me. haec hāctenus, sc. dīcam, thus much only, or no more of this.

Enlargement of the Simple Sentence.

1037. The parts of the simple sentence may be enlarged by additions. The commonest enlargements of the subject and of the predicate are the following.

1038. I. The subject may be enlarged by the addition of attributes, appositives, or objects.

1039. (1.) An Attribute is an essential addition to a substantive, uniting with it as one idea. The attribute may be:

1040. (a.) Genitive of a substantive of different meaning, denoting the agent, possessor, or the like: as, metus hostium, fear of the enemy, i.e. which they feel. hostium castra, camp of the enemy.

1041. (b.) Genitive or ablative of a substantive with an adjective in agreement: as, puer sēdecim annōrum, a boy of sixteen years; bovēs mīrā speciē, kine of wondrous beauty.

1042. (c.) A noun in the same case, either an adjective or participle, or else a substantive used adjectively: as, pugna Cannēnsis, the battle of Cannae; cīvitātēs victae, the conquered communities; victor Rōmulus rēx, victorious king Romulus.

1043. (d.) A substantive in the accusative or ablative with a preposition: as, pugna ad Cannās, the battle near Cannae. vir sine metū, a man without fear (1427).

1044. An attribute is rarely attached immediately to a proper name: as, fortem Gyān, Gyas the brave. Q. Lūcānius, eiusdem ōrdinis, Lucanius, of the same rank. It is much oftener attached to a general word in apposition with the proper name: as, vir clārissimus, M. Crassus, the illustrious Crassus.

1045. (2.) An Appositive is a separate substantive added as an explanation to another substantive, and in the same case, but not like the attribute uniting with it as one idea: as,

avītum malum, rēgnī cupīdō, the ancestral curse, ambition for a crown. Hamilcar, Mārs alter, Hamilcar, a second Mars. Cornēlia, māter Gracchōrum, Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi. Teutomatus, Ollivicōnis fīlius, rēx Nitiobrogum, Teutomatus, the son of Ollivico, the king of the Nitiobroges.

1046. (3.) The Object of a substantive is another substantive of different meaning in the genitive, denoting that on which action is exerted: as,

metus hostium, fear of the enemy, i.e. which is felt towards them. vēnditiō bonōrum, sale of the goods.

1047. A substantive in any case may be modified like the subject.

1048. II. The predicate may be enlarged by the addition of accusatives, datives, predicate nouns, or adverbial adjuncts.

1049. (1.) The Accusative denotes the object of the verb; also extent, duration, and aim of motion. See 1124.

1050. (2.) The Dative denotes that for or to which something is or is done. See 1175.

1051. (3.) A predicate noun, either substantive or adjective, denoting ‘office, time, age, order, condition,’ or the like, is often added to other verbs besides those of indeterminate meaning (1035): as,

Iūnius aedem dictātor dēdicāvit, Junius dedicated a temple in his capacity as dictator, not Junius the dictator. litterās Graecās senex didicī, I learned Greek when I was an old man. prīnceps in proelium ībat, ultimus excēdēbat, he was always the first to go into battle, the last to come out. For the predicative dative of the substantive, see 1219.

1052. In like manner a noun may be added as a predicate in agreement with a substantive in any oblique case: as,

sē incolumēs recipiunt, they come back safe. ante mē cōnsulem, before my consulship. Dolābellā hoste dēcrētō, Dolabella having been voted an enemy. nātūrā duce, with nature as a guide.

1053. (4.) An Adverbial Adjunct is either an oblique case of a noun, often with a preposition, or an adverb denoting ‘place, time, extent, degree, manner, cause,’ or ‘circumstances’ generally: as,

silentiō proficīscitur, he marches in silence. in eō flūmine pōns erat, over that river there was a bridge.

1054. A predicate substantive may be modified like the subject. An adjective either of the subject or of the predicate, may be modified by an oblique case or by an adverb.

Combination of Sentences.

1055. Simple sentences may be combined in two different ways. The added sentence may be I. Coordinate; or II. Subordinate.

Thus, in he died and we lived, the two sentences are coordinate, that is, of equal rank. But in he died that we might live, the sentence beginning with that is subordinate. In either combination the separate sentences are often called Clauses or Members, in contradistinction to the more comprehensive sentence of which they are parts.

I. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.

1056. A Compound Sentence is one which consists of two or more coordinate simple sentences: as,

tū mē amās, ego tē amō, Pl. Most. 305, thou art in love with me, I’m in love with thee. nox erat et caelō fulgēbat lūna serēnō inter minōra sīdera, H. Epod. 15, 1, ’twas night, and in a cloudless sky, bright rode the moon amid the lesser lights. ā tē petō, mē dēfendās, Fam. 15, 8, I ask it of you, protect me.

1057. A compound sentence is usually abridged when the members have parts in common: as,

valēbant precēs et lacrimae, Mil. 34, prayers and tears had weight, compound subject, for valēbant precēs et valēbant lacrimae. rogat ōratque tē, RA. 144, he begs and entreats you, compound predicate, for rogat tē ōratque tē. arma virumque canō, V. 1, 1, arms and the man I sing, compound object, for arma canō virumque canō. diū atque ācriter pugnātum est, 1, 26, 1, there was long and sharp fighting, for diū pugnātum est atque ācriter pugnātum est.

II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.

1058. A Complex Sentence is one which consists of a main and a subordinate sentence: as,

centuriōnēs praemittit (main sentence), quī locum idōneum castrīs dēligant (subordinate sentence), 2, 17, 1, he sends some officers ahead to select a suitable spot for the camp, nunc scio (main sentence), quid sit Amor (subordinate sentence), V. E. 8, 43, now, now I know what Eros is. ā tē petō (main sentence), ut mē dēfendās (subordinate sentence), Fam. 15, 7, I ask it of you that you protect me.

1059. Several sentences are often subordinate to one and the same main sentence, and subordinate sentences may in their turn be main sentences to other subordinate sentences.

Thus, in the following sentence b is subordinate to A, and c to Ab: (c.) quālis esset nātūra montis, (b.) quī cōgnōscerent, (A.) mīsit, 1, 21, 1, he sent some people to see what the character of the hill was.

1060. Subordinate sentences may be coordinated with each other, as well as main sentences.

Thus, in the following sentence, b and b are both subordinate to A, but coordinate with each other: (A.) hīs rēbus fiēbat, (b.) ut et minus lātē vagārentur (b.) et minus facile fīnitimīs bellum īnferre possent, 1, 2, 4, so it came to pass that, in the first place, they did not roam round much, and secondly, they could not so easily make aggressive war on their neighbours.

1061. A subordinate sentence introductory in thought to the main sentence, though not necessarily first in the order of the words, is called a Protasis; the main sentence which completes the thought is called an Apodosis: as,

quom vidēbis (protasis), tum sciēs (apodosis), Pl. B. 145, when thou see’st, then thou’lt know. ut sēmentem fēceris (protasis), ita metēs (apodosis), DO. 2, 261, as a man soweth, so shall he reap. sī sunt dī (protasis), beneficī in hominēs sunt (apodosis), Div. 2, 104, if there are gods, they are kind to men.

AGREEMENT.

(A.) OF THE VERB.

1062. A verb agrees with its subject in number and person: as,

praedia mea tū possidēs, ego aliēnā misericordiā vīvō, RA. 145, you, sir, hold my estates, it is by the compassion of other people that I am supported. Rhodanus fluit, 1, 6, 2, the Rhone flows. nōs, nōs, dīcō apertē, cōnsulēs dēsumus, C. 1, 3, it is ourselves, yes, ourselves, I will speak without reserve, the consuls, who fail in our duty. vōs vōbīs cōnsulite, 7, 50, 4, do you look out for yourselves. diffūgēre nivēs, H. 4, 7, 1, scattered and gone are snows.

1063. With a compound subject, two constructions are admissible, as follows.

1064. (1.) With two or more singular subjects, the verb is often in the plural: as,

(a.) Without connectives: persons: iīsdem ferē temporibus fuērunt C. Cotta, P. Sulpicius, Q. Varius, Cn. Pompōnius, Br. 182, in about the same times lived Cotta, Sulpicius, Varius, and Pomponius. Things: fidēs Rōmāna, iūstitia imperātōris in forō et cūriā celebrantur, L. 5, 27, 11, the chivalrous principle of Rome and the square dealing of her captain are trumpeted in market place and council hall. (b.) With atque, et, or -que: persons: ex hīs Cotta et Sulpicius facile prīmās tulērunt, Br. 182, of these Cotta and Sulpicius indisputably bore the palm. Things: nox et amor vīnumque nihil moderābile suādent, O. Am. 1, 6, 59, darkness and love and wine to nothing governable tempt. cum senātus populusque Rōmānus pācem comprobāverint, L. 37, 45, 14, when the senate and the people of Rome sanction peace. (c.) With et . . . et: persons: et Q. Maximus et L. Paullus iīs temporibus fuērunt, Fam. 4, 6, 1, both Maximus and Paullus lived in such times. Things: utrōsque et laudis cupiditās et timor īgnōminiae excitābant, 7, 80, 5, both of these eagerness for glory in the first place and secondly fear of disgrace spurred on.

1065. The plural is sometimes demanded by the meaning of the verb: as, iūs et iniūria nātūrā dīiūdicantur, Leg. 1, 44, right and wrong are naturally distinguished from each other.

1066. (2.) Often, however, with two or more singular subjects, the verb is put in the singular: as,

(a.) Without connectives: persons: tum Gorgiās, Thrasymachus, Prodicus, Hippiās in magnō honōre fuit, Br. 30, at that time Gorgias, Thrasymachus, Prodicus, and Hippias were in high renown. Things: persuāsit nox, amor, vīnum, adulēscentia, T. Ad. 470, the witchery was night, flirtation, wine, and youth. (b.) With atque, et, or -que: persons: cūr Lȳsiās et Hyperīdēs amātur? Br. 68, why is a Lysias and a Hyperides idolized? Things: Gallōs ā Belgīs Matrona et Sēquana dīvidit, 1, 2, 1, the Matrona and Sequana cut off the Gauls from the Belgians. senātus populusque Rōmānus voluit, L. 21, 40, 3, senate and people of Rome ordained. (c.) With et . . . et: persons: illam ratiōnem et Pompēius et Flaccus secūtus est, Flacc. 32, that rule both Pompey and Flaccus followed. Things: tālis senātōrum et dignitās et multitūdō fuit, Ph. 13, 13, both the position and number of the senators was such.

1067. With two or more singular subjects denoting things, and making a compound idea, a singular verb is very common, agreeing either with the subjects taken as a unit, or with the nearest: as,

(a.) cum tempus necessitāsque postulat, dēcertandum manū est, Off. 1, 81, when the emergency requires, we must fight it out by hand. tanta laetitia ac grātulātiō fuit, L. 10, 26, 4, so great was the demonstration of joy. (b.) Cingetorīgī prīncipātus atque imperium est trāditum, 6, 8, 9, the headship and command was assigned to Cingetorix.

1068. (3.) With mixed subjects, singular and plural, the verb may likewise be either plural or singular: as,

(a.) vīta mors, dīvitiae paupertās omnīs hominēs permovent, Off. 2, 37, life and death, riches and poverty, tell much on everybody. (b.) quantō in perīculō et castra et legiōnēs et imperātor versārētur, 2, 26, 5, in what imminent peril camp and legions and commander were involved. hōc mihī̆ et Peripatēticī et Acadēmīa concēdit, Ac. 2, 113, this point both Peripatetics and Academy grant me.

1069. The plural is sometimes used with a singular subject limited by an ablative with cum, with: as, Syrus cum illō vostrō cōnsusurrant, T. Hau. 473, Syrus and yon man of yours are whispering together. Bocchus cum peditibus postrēmam Rōmānōrum aciem invādunt, S. I. 101, 5, Bocchus with the infantry falls on the rereward line of the Romans. Cicero commonly uses a singular verb in this combination, Caesar has the plural once only.

1070. (4.) When the subjects are connected by nec . . . nec, aut, or aut . . . aut, the verb is likewise either plural or singular: as,

(a.) neque multitūdō hostium neque tēlōrum vīs arcēre impetum eius virī potuērunt, L. 26, 5, 17, neither the numbers of the enemy nor the shower of missiles could arrest the onslaught of that intrepid soul. sī quid Sōcratēs aut Aristippus fēcerint, Off. 1, 148, if a Socrates or an Aristippus had done anything. (b.) neque pēs neque mēns satis suom officium facit, T. Eu. 729, nor foot nor mind its duty doth aright. sī Sōcratēs aut Antisthenēs dīceret, TD. 5, 26, if a Socrates or an Antisthenes should say it.

1071. Collectives have usually a singular verb. But the plural is sometimes used, especially when the subject is separated from its verb, or is to be supplied from a preceding clause: as,

cum tanta multitūdō lapidēs conicerent, 2, 6, 3, when such a throng were throwing stones. is cīvitātī persuāsit, ut dē fīnibus suīs exīrent, 1, 2, 1, this person succeeded in inducing the community to leave their territory.

1072. The verb sometimes agrees with an appositive explaining the subject, or with a substantive in the predicate: as,

(a.) flammae lātē fūsae, certiōris clādis indicium, prōgredī longius prohibuit, L. 10, 43, 11, wide-spread flames, sign of a surer disaster, prevented a further advance. When urbs, oppidum, cīvitās, or the like, is added to plural names of places, the predicate usually agrees with the appellative: as, Coriolī oppidum captum, L. 2, 33, 9, Corioli town was taken. (b.) amantium īrae amōris integrātiōst, T. Andr. 555, lovers’ tiffs are love’s renewal. summa omnium fuērunt ad mīlia CCCLXVIII, 1, 29, 3, the grand total was about three hundred and sixty-eight thousand. The verb regularly agrees with the predicate substantive when the subject is an infinitive: as, contentum suīs rēbus esse maximae sunt dīvitiae, Par. 51, for a man to be content with his own estate is the greatest possible riches.

1073. The verb sometimes agrees with a substantive introduced by such words as quam, quantum, nisi, or praeterquam: as, quis illum cōnsulem nisi latrōnēs putant? Ph. 4, 9, who but brigands think that man a consul? So also a predicate adjective or participle: as, mihī̆ nōn tam cōpia quam modus quaerendus est, IP. 3, I must aim not so much at comprehensiveness as at moderation.

1074. A speaker in referring to himself sometimes uses the first person plural, as a more modest form of expression: as, Molōnī dedimus operam, Br. 307, we attended Molo’s instruction, i.e. I. Similarly nōs in all its cases for ego, &c., and noster, &c., for meus, &c.

1075. The singular imperative age is sometimes used in addressing more than one, particularly in old Latin: as, age licēminī, Pl. St. 221, come, people, give a bid. age igitur intrō abīte, Pl. MG. 928, come then go in. Similarly, cave dīrumpātis, Pl. Poen. 117, mind you don’t break it off. Similarly ain.

1076. If the subjects are of different persons, the first person is preferred to the second or the third, and the second to the third: as,

sī tū et Tullia, lūx nostra, valētis, ego et suāvissimus Cicerō valēmus, Fam. 14, 5, 1, if you and Tullia, our sunbeam, are well, darling Cicero and I are well. But sometimes in contrasts the verb agrees with the nearest person: as, quid indicat aut ipse Cornēlius aut vōs? Sull. 54, what information does Cornelius himself give, or you people?

(B.) OF THE NOUN.

(1.) THE SUBSTANTIVE.

1077. A substantive which explains another substantive referring to the same thing is put in the same case.

This applies to the substantive used as attribute, appositive, or predicate. The two substantives often differ in gender or number, or both. (a.) Attribute: tīrōne exercitū, Fam. 7, 3, 2, with a raw army. ā mīmā uxōre, Ph. 2, 20, from an actress-wife. mendīcōs hominēs, Pl. St. 135, beggar-men. oculī hominis histriōnis, DO. 2, 193, the eyes of an actor man. nēminī hominī, Pl. As. 466, to no human being. servom hominem, T. Ph. 292, a servant man. hominēs sīcāriōs, RA. 8, professional bravoes. (b.) Appositive: quid dīcam dē thēsaurō rērum omnium, memoriā? DO. 1, 18, what shall I say of that universal storehouse, the memory? duo fulmina nostrī imperī, Cn. et P. Scīpiōnēs, Balb. 34, the two thunderbolts of our realm, the Scipios, Gnaeus and Publius. (c.) Predicate: īra furor brevis est, H. E. 1, 2, 62, wrath is a madness brief. Dolābellā hoste dēcrētō, Ph. 11, 16, Dolabella having been voted a public enemy. Some apparent exceptions will be noticed from time to time hereafter.

1078. Mobile substantives take also the gender and number of the masculines or feminines they explain: as,

stilus optimus dīcendī magister, DO. 1, 150, pen is the best professor of rhetoric. vīta rūstica parsimōniae magistra est, RA. 75, country life is a teacher of thrift. fluviōrum rēx Ēridanus, V. G. 1, 482, Eridanus, of rivers king. et genus et fōrmam rēgīna pecūnia dōnat, H. E. 1, 6, 37, both birth and shape the almighty dollar gives. ut omittam illās omnium doctrīnārum inventrīcēs Athēnās, DO. 1, 13, to say nothing of the great originator of all intellectual pursuits, Athens.

1079. A substantive explaining two or more substantives, is put in the plural: as,

foedus inter Rōmam Lāvīniumque urbēs renovātum est, L. 1, 14, 3, the treaty between the cities of Rome and Lavinium was renewed. Cn. et P. Scīpiōnēs, Balb. 34, the Scipios, Gnaeus and Publius.

1080. A plural subject, expressed or implied, is sometimes defined by a singular word, which is generally a collective or distributive: as,

ut ambō exercitūs suās quisque abīrent domōs, L. 2, 7, 1, so that both armies went back to their respective homes. uterque eōrum ex castrīs exercitum ēdūcunt, Caes. C. 3, 30, 3, they bring their army out of camp, each of them. heus forās exīte hūc aliquis, Pl. E. 398, hallo, you boys, come out of doors here, somebody. alius alium percontāmur, Pl. St. 370, we ask of one another. cum accidisset ut alter alterum vidērēmus, Fin. 3, 8, when it came to pass that we each saw the other. The verb sometimes agrees with the defining singular: as, quandō duo cōnsulēs, alter morbō, alter ferrō periisset, L. 41, 18, 16, since the two consuls had died, one a natural death, the other by the sword.

1081. A substantive in the accusative or nominative is sometimes in apposition to a thought or clause: as,

manūs intentantēs, causam discordiae, Ta. 1, 27, shaking their fists, a provocation to quarrel. pars ingentī subiēre feretrō, trīste ministerium, V. 6, 222, a part put shoulder to the mighty bier, a service sad. nec Homērum audiō, quī Ganymēdēn ab dīs raptum ait propter fōrmam; nōn iūsta causa cūr Lāomedontī tanta fieret iniūria, TD. 1, 65, nor will I lend an ear to Homer, who asserts that Ganymede was carried off by the gods for his beauty; no just reason for doing Laomedon such injustice.

(2.) THE ADJECTIVE.

1082. An adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, agrees with its substantive in number, gender, and case: as,

vir bonus, H. Ep. 1, 16, 40, a good man, bona uxor, Pl. MG. 684, a good wife, oleum bonum, Cato, RR. 3, good oil. Gallia est omnis dīvīsa in partēs trēs, 1, 1, 1, Gaul, including everything under the name, is divided into three parts. et variae volucrēs nemora āvia pervolitantēs āera per tenerum liquidīs loca vōcibus opplent, Lucr. 2, 145, and motley birds, in pathless woods that flit through lither sky, fill space with carols clear.

1083. An adjective or participle, either attributive or predicate, sometimes takes the number and gender of the persons or things implied in the substantive: as,

(a.) concursus populī mīrantium quid rē̆ī esset, L. 1, 41, 1, a gathering of the public, wondering what was the matter. (b.) pars subeuntium obrutī, pars cōnfīxī, Ta. H. 2, 22, a part of those who came up were crushed, a part were run through. Samnītium caesī tria mīlia ducentī, L. 10, 34, 3, of the Samnites were slain three thousand two hundred.

1084. (1.) An attributive adjective referring to several substantives is commonly expressed with one only, generally with the first or the last: as,

rēs erat multae operae et labōris, 5, 11, 5, it was a job that required much work and trouble. semper amāvī ingenium, studia, mōrēs tuōs, O. 33, I have always admired your ability, your scholarly tastes, and your character. In lively style, the adjective is often used with every substantive.

1085. Two or more attributive adjectives in the singular connected by a conjunction may belong to a plural substantive: as,

circā portās Collīnam Ēsquilīnamque, L. 26, 10, 2, about the gates, the Colline and the Esquiline. But the substantive may also be in the singular: as, inter Ēsquilīnam Collīnamque portam, L. 26, 10, 1, between the Esquiline and the Colline gate.

1086. The combined idea of a substantive with an attributive adjective may be qualified by one or more adjectives: as,

nāvīs longās trīgintā veterēs, L. 27, 22, 12, thirty old men-of-war. prīvāta nāvis onerāria māxima, V. 5, 136, a very large private freighting vessel. āter aliēnus canis, T. Ph. 706, a strange black dog.

1087. (2.) A predicate adjective or participle referring to two or more substantives is usually in the plural; its gender is determined as follows:

1088. (a.) If the substantives denote persons of the same gender, that gender is used; if they denote persons of different gender, the masculine is used: as,

venēnō absūmptī Hannibal et Philopoemēn, L. 39, 52, 8, it was by poison that Hannibal and Philopoemen were taken off. quam prīdem pater mihī̆ et māter mortuī essent, T. Eu. 517, how long my father and my mother had been dead.

1089. (b.) If the substantives denote things, and are of different genders, the neuter plural is used; also commonly when they are feminines denoting things: as,

mūrus et porta dē caelō tācta erant, L. 32, 29, 1, the wall and town-gate had been struck by lightning. īra et avāritia imperiō potentiōra erant, L. 37, 32, 13, hot blood and greed proved stronger than authority.

1090. (c.) If the substantives denote both persons and things, either the gender of the substantives denoting persons is used, or the neuter. The gender of the substantives denoting things is very rarely used: as,

et rēx rēgiaque classis ūnā profectī, L. 21, 50, 11, the king too and the king’s fleet set sail in his company. inimīca inter sē līberam cīvitātem et rēgem, L. 44, 24, 2, that a free state and a monarch were irreconcilable things. Dolopas et Athamāniam ēreptās sibī̆ querēns, L. 38, 10, 3, complaining that the Dolopians and Athamania were wrested from him.

1091. When the verb is attached to the nearest only of two or more subjects, a predicate participle or adjective naturally takes the gender of that substantive: as, ibī̆ Orgetorīgis fīlia atque ūnus ē fīliīs captus est, 1, 26, 5, there the daughter of Orgetorix and one of the sons too was made prisoner. ut brāchia atque umerī līberī esse possent, 7, 56, 4, so that their arms and shoulders might be unhampered.

1092. The ablative singular absente is used once each by Terence and Afranius with a plural substantive: absente nōbīs, T. Eu. 649, while we were out.

1093. A neuter adjective or pronoun is sometimes used as a substantive in the predicate (1101): as,

trīste lupus stabulīs, V. E. 3, 80, a baleful thing the wolf for folds. quod ego fuī ad Trāsumennum, id tū hodiē, L. 30, 30, 12, what I was myself at Trasumene, that you are today.

1094. A demonstrative, determinative, or relative pronoun used substantively takes the number and gender of the substantive it represents; the case depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands: as,

erant peditēs, quōs dēlēgerant; cum hīs in proeliīs versābantur; ad eōs sē recipiēbant; hī concurrēbant, 1, 48, 5, there were foot-soldiers whom they had picked out; with these men they kept company in action; upon them they would fall back; these people would always rally. Hippiās glōriātus est ānulum quem habēret, pallium quō amictus, soccōs quibus indūtus esset, sē suā manū cōnfēcisse, DO. 3, 127, Hippias bragged he had made with his own hand the ring which he wore, the cloak in which he was wrapped; and the slippers which he had on.

1095. Sometimes, however, the number and gender of these pronouns are determined by the sense, and not by the form of the substantive represented: as,

equitātum omnem praemittit, quī videant, 1, 15, 1, he sends all the horse ahead, for them to see. hīc sunt quīnque minae. hoc tībī̆ erus mē iussit ferre, Pl. Ps. 1149, here are five minae; this my master bade me bring for thee. Domitius Massiliam pervenit atque ab iīs receptus urbī praeficitur, Caes. C. 1, 36, 1, Domitius arrived at Massilia, and was received by the people and put in charge of the town. ad hirundinīnum nīdum vīsast sīmia adscēnsiōnem ut faceret admōlīrier; neque eās ēripere quībat inde, Pl. R. 598, up to a swallow-nest methought an ape did strive to climb; nor could she snatch the nestlings thence; the eās refers to hirundinēs, implied in hirundinīnum.

1096. A pronoun representing two or more substantives sometimes takes the number and gender of the nearest. But usually it is plural, and its gender is determined like that of an adjective (1087).

1097. A demonstrative, determinative, or relative pronoun used substantively is generally attracted to the number and gender of a predicate substantive in its own clause: as,

haec est nōbilis ad Trāsumennum pūgna, L. 22, 7, 1, such is the far-famed fight at Trasumene, 217 B.C. ista quidem vīs est, Suet. Iul. 82, now that I call an outrage, Caesar’s dying words, 44 B.C. But with a negative, sometimes the neuter: as, nec sopor illud erat, V. 3, 173, nor was that sleep.

1098. A demonstrative, determinative, or relative pronoun in agreement with a substantive is often equivalent to a genitive limiting the substantive: as,

hōc metū vagārī prohibēbat, 5, 19, 2, by fear of this he stopped the prowling round. is pavor perculit Rōmānōs, L. 21, 46, 7, the panic occasioned by this demoralized the Romans. quā spē adductī, 4, 6, 4, impelled by the hope of this.

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

(A.) USE OF THE NOUN.

NUMBER AND GENDER.

1099. The singular of a word denoting a person is sometimes used in a collective sense.

This singular is generally a military designation: as, mīles, eques, pedes, hostis, Rōmānus, Poenus. But other substantives and adjectives are occasionally thus used.

1100. A substantive or adjective denoting a person is often used in the singular as representative of a class, particularly when two persons are contrasted: as,

sī tabulam dē naufrāgiō stultus adripuerit, extorquēbitne eam sapiēns? Off. 3, 89, if a fool has seized a plank from a wreck, will the sage twitch it away?

1101. The neuter singular of certain adjectives is used as an abstract substantive.

These adjectives have commonly stems in -o-, and are often used in the partitive genitive (1250). The nominative is rare, also the accusative and ablative, except in prepositional constructions. Such are: bonum, malum; rēctum, prāvum; decōrum, indecōrum; honestum; vērum, falsum; iūstum, iniūstum; aequum; ambiguum; rīdiculum. ūtile, ināne, commūne, īnsīgne, simile, &c.

1102. Certain adjectives, which originally agreed with an appellative denoting a thing, have dropped the appellative and become substantives.

Such are: Āfricus, sc. ventus; Āfrica, sc. terra; calda, sc. aqua; cānī sc. capillī; circēnsēs, sc. lūdī; decuma, sc. pars; fera, sc. bēstia; hīberna, sc. castra; merum, sc. vīnum; nātālis, sc. diēs; patria, sc. terra; praetexta, sc. toga; summa, sc. rēs; trirēmis, sc. nāvis, and many others.

1103. Certain adjectives denoting relationship, friendship, hostility, connection, or age, may be used in both numbers as substantives.

Such are: (a.) adfīnis, cōgnātus, cōnsanguineus, gentīlis, necessārius, propīnquus; (b.) adversārius, amīcus, inimīcus, familiāris, hostis, intimus, invidus, socius, sodālis; (c.) contubernālis, manipulāris, vīcīnus; (d.) adulēscēns, aequālis, iuvenis, senex.

1104. The masculine plural of many adjectives is used substantively to denote a class.

Such are: bonī, the good, the well-disposed, conservatives, patriots, our party; improbī, the wicked, the dangerous classes, revolutionists, anarchists, the opposite party; doctī, indoctī; piī, impiī, and the like.

1105. Proper names of men are used in the plural to denote different persons of the same name, or as appellatives to express character, oftenest good character: as,

duo Metellī, Celer et Nepōs, Br. 247, the two Metelluses, Celer and Nepos. quid Crassōs, quid Pompēiōs ēvertit? J. 10, 108, what overthrew a Crassus, Pompey what? i.e. men like Crassus and Pompey.

1106. The neuter plural of adjectives of all degrees of comparison is very often used as a substantive.

Such adjectives are usually in the nominative or accusative, and may have a pronoun, a numeral, or an adjective, agreeing with them. In English the singular is often preferred. Such are: bona, mala; vēra, falsa; haec, this; omnia, everything; haec omnia, all this, &c., &c.

1107. Names of countries are sometimes used in the plural when the country consists of several parts which are called by the same name as the whole country: as, Galliae, the Gauls; Germāniae, the Germanies.

1108. Material substantives are often used in the plural to denote different sorts of the substance designated, its constituent parts, or objects made of it: as,

aera, lumps of bronze, bronzes, coppers. aquae, water in different places, medicinal springs. cērae, pieces of wax, tablets, wax masks, waxworks. marmora, kinds of marble, blocks of marble, works of marble. nivēs, snowflakes, snowdrifts, snowstorms, repeated snows. spūmae, masses of foam. sulpura, lumps of sulphur. vīna, wines, different kinds of wine.

1109. Abstract substantives are often used in the plural to denote different kinds or instances of the abstract idea, or an abstract idea pertaining to several persons or things: as,

sunt domesticae fortitūdinēs nōn īnferiōrēs mīlitāribus, Off. 1, 78, there are cases of heroism in civil life fully equal to those in war. tē cōnscientiae stimulant maleficiōrum tuōrum, Par. 18, you are tormented by pricks of conscience for your sins. propter siccitātēs palūdum, 4, 38, 2, because the swamps were dry everywhere.

1110. The plural is sometimes used in generalizations, and in poetry to magnify a single thing, to give mystery to the statement, or often merely for metrical convenience: as, advēnisse familiārēs dīcitō, Pl. Am. 353, say that the people of the house are come, the plural familiārēs denoting one person. Priamī dum rēgna manēbant, V. 2, 22, while Priam’s realms still stood. externōs optāte ducēs, V. 8, 503, choose captains from a foreign strand, i.e. Aeneas.

CASE.

1111. There are two groups of cases, the principal and the secondary.

1112. The principal cases are the nominative and the accusative. The principal cases, which have more complete inflections than the secondary, express the two chief relations of the noun in the sentence, those of the subject and of the object. The secondary cases are used to express subordinate or supplementary relations.

THE NOMINATIVE.

1113. The nominative is principally used as the subject or predicate noun of a verb or of an infinitive. Besides this use, the nominative occurs in titles, exclamations, and addresses (1114-1123).

The Nominative of Title.

1114. The nominative is used in inscriptions, notices, titles, or headings: as,

L · CORNELIVS · CN · F · CN · N · SCIPIO, CIL. I, 34, on a tomb, Lucius Cornelius Scipio, son (fīlius) of Gnaeus, grandson (nepōs) of Gnaeus. LABYRINTHVS HIC HABITAT MINOTAVRVS, CIL. IV, 2331, on a plan of the Labyrinth scratched by a Pompei schoolboy, The Maze. Here lives Minotaur. PRIVATVM PRECARIO ADEITVR, CIL. I, 1215, Private Grounds. No Admittance without leave. Themistoclēs, Neoclī fīlius, Athēniēnsis, N. 2, 1, Themistocles, son of Neocles, of Athens.

1115. The title proper of a book is often put in the genitive, dependent on līber or librī: as, Cornēlī Tacitī Historiārum Liber Prīmus, Tacitus’s Histories, Book First. Or prepositional expressions are used: as, M. Tullī Cicerōnis dē Fātō Liber, Cicero, Fate, in One Book. Cornēlī Tacitī ab Excessū dīvī Augustī Liber Prīmus, Tacitus’s Roman History from the Demise of the sainted Augustus, Book First.

1116. Sometimes the nominative of a title or exclamation is retained in a sentence for some other case: as, Gabīniō cōgnōmen ‘Cauchius’ ūsurpāre concessit, Suet. Cl. 24, he allowed Gabinius to take the surname ‘Cauchius;’ (compare Catō quasi cōgnōmen habēbat Sapientis, L. 6, Cato had the virtual surname of the Wise). ‘Marsya’ nōmen habet, O. 6, 400, it has the name of ‘Marsyas;’ (compare nōmen Dānuvium habet, S. Fr. 3, 55, it has the name Danube), resonent mihi ‘Cynthia’ silvae, Prop. 1, 18, 31, let woods reecho ‘Cynthia’ for me; (compare tū, Tītyre, fōrmōsam resonāre docēs Amaryllida silvas, V. E. 1, 4, thou, Tityrus, dost teach the woods to echo Amaryllis Fair).

The Nominative of Exclamation.

1117. The nominative is sometimes used in exclamations: as,

fortūnae fīlius, omnēs, H. S. 2, 6, 49, ‘the child of Fortune,’ all exclaim. This nominative is often accompanied by an interjection, such as ecce, ēn, heu, ō, prō, vāh: as, ēn Priamus, V. 1, 461, lo, Priam here. ō fēstus diēs, T. Eu. 560, oh day of cheer. For eccilla, see 667.

The Vocative Nominative and Vocative Proper.

1118. The vocative nominative is used when a person or thing is addressed: as,

quō usque tandem abūtēre, Catilīna, patientiā nostrā? C. 1, 1, in heaven’s name, how long, Catiline, wilt trifle with our patience? valēte, dēsīderia mea, valēte, Fam. 14, 2, 4, good bye, my absent loves, good bye. Instead of a proper name, an emphatic tū is often used: as, advorte animum sīs tū, Pl. Cap. 110, just pay attention, sirrah, please.

1119. Masculine stems in -o- commonly use the special form for the second person singular called the vocative: as,

urbem, urbem, mī Rūfe, cole, Fam. 2, 12, 2, stick to town, dear Rufus, yes, to town. But the vocative nominative is sometimes used even of -o- stems: as, audī tū, populus Albānus, L. 1, 24, 7, hear thou, the people of Alba.

1120. Poets use the vocative nominative or vocative proper very freely, sometimes for liveliness, but often simply in place of other cases not allowed by the metre: as,

ōra manūsque tuā lavimus, Fērōnia, lymphā, H. S. 1, 5, 24, our faces and our hands, Feronia, in thy stream we wash. occiderat Tatius, populīsque aequāta duōbus, Rōmule, iūra dabās, O. 14, 805, now dead was Tatius, and to peoples twain thou gavest, Romulus, impartial laws. longum tibi, Daedale, crīmen, O. 8, 240, a lasting stigma, Daedalus, to thee. In these three examples, Fērōniae, Rōmulus, and Daedalō would be impossible. In poetry, the vocative is particularly common in questions.

1121. Nominative forms and vocative forms are often combined: as, dulcis amīce, H. E. 1, 7, 12, sweet friend. mī vir, Pl. Am. 716, my husband. Iāne pater, J. 6, 394, thou father Janus.

1122. In verse the vocative is occasionally used even in the predicate: as, quō moritūre ruis? V. 10, 811, whither, on death intent, fliest thou? quibus, Hector, ab ōrīs exspectāte venīs? V. 2, 282, out of what limboes, Hector, dost thou gladly welcomed come?

1123. The vocative nominative or vocative proper is sometimes accompanied by ō, but only in impassioned addresses: as, ō fortūnāte adulēscēns, Arch. 24, oh thou thrice blest youth; also by prō in addresses to gods, by eho and heus in calls on men. Rarely by au, ehem, hem, ē̆heu, eia or heia, iō.

THE ACCUSATIVE.

1124. The accusative is used primarily with verbs, or with expressions equivalent to verbs. The relations expressed by the accusative are all of one general kind; but they vary somewhat, according to the nature of the verb.

1125. I. With most verbs, the accusative either (a.) denotes that which is affected or apprehended, or is produced by the action of the verb (1132); or, less frequently (b.) it repeats the meaning of the verb in the form of a substantive (1140).

Such accusatives, called accusatives of the Object, are never attended by a preposition, and become nominative in the passive construction.

1126. II. With some verbs, the accusative denotes (a.) extent or duration (1151); with others it denotes (b.) aim of motion (1157).

Both these accusatives sometimes have their places taken by a prepositional expression, or by an adverb; in the passive construction, they are not convertible into a nominative, but remain accusative.

1127. Two or even three accusatives are sometimes used with one and the same verb: see 1167-1174.

1128. The accusative is sometimes disengaged from the verb, with which it originally stood, and used with a noun or a preposition.

1129. (1.) With substantives, the accusative is rare; it is used (a.) in a few attributive expressions, chiefly old set forms, and rarely to denote (b.) aim of motion.

Thus (a.) the predicative id aetātis, in id aetātis iam sumus, we are now of that age, becomes attributive in hominēs id aetātis, people of that age. And (b.) as domum, home, is used with the verb redeō, go back, so also rarely with the substantive reditiō, a return.

1130. With adjectives, the accusative is commonly that of extent: so with altus, high, lātus, wide, and longus, long, sometimes with crassus, thick.

Thus, in eōs surculōs facitō sint longī pedēs bīnōs, see that the scions be two feet long, the accusative pedēs, which belongs with the predicate sint longī, may be used with the attributive adjective longus alone, thus: surculī longī pedēs bīnōs, scions two feet long.

1131. (2.) The accusative is used with many prepositions: see 1410.

I. THE ACCUSATIVE OF THE OBJECT.

1132. The object of a verb is put in the accusative: as,

(a.) oppida sua omnia incendunt, 1, 5, 3, they set all their towns afire. cōnspexit adrāsum quendam, H. E. 1, 7, 49, he spied a man all shaven and shorn. (b.) duās fossās perdūxit, 7, 72, 3, he made two trenches. This accusative, is, as may be seen above, either (a.) receptive, i.e. existing independently of the action of the verb, and only affected or apprehended by it; or (b.) of product, i.e. produced by the action of the verb.

1133. Verbs thus used with an object are said to be used transitively. Such verbs may also be used intransitively, that is without an object, when stress is put on the action merely: thus,

(a.) Transitively: tū mē amās, ego tē amō, Pl. Most. 305, thou lovest me, and I love thee. nova dīruunt, alia aedificant, S. C. 20, 12, they pull down new structures, and build up others. (b.) Intransitively: amō, Pl. B. 511, I’m in love. dīruit, aedificat, H. E. 1, 1, 100, it pulleth down, it buildeth up.

1134. Some verbs, in addition to the accusative, often take an infinitive also: thus, eum vident sedēre, V. 5, 107, they see him sit, they see that he is sitting. Here the accusative eum, originally the object, they see him, becomes at the same time the subject of the new statement appended, sedēre, sit, thus giving rise to the construction known as the accusative with the infinitive.

1135. Instead of the proper accusative of the object, another accusative is sometimes substituted, denoting the ultimate result: as,

rūpēre viam, L. 2, 50, 10, they broke a path, i.e. they broke through the obstacles, and so made a path. foedusque ferī, E. 33, and strike a covenant, i.e. strike a victim, and so make a covenant.

1136. In Plautus, quid tibī̆ with a substantive of action in -tiō and est, has an accusative like a verb used transitively: as, quid tibī̆ hanc cūrātiōst rem? Pl. Am. 519, what business hast thou with this?

1137. Many verbs ordinarily used intransitively, particularly verbs of motion, have a transitive use when compounded with a preposition.

Such prepositions are, ad, circum, ex, in, ob, per, prae, praeter, trāns, and some others: as, plūrēs paucōs circumsistēbant, 4, 26, 2, a good many took their stand round a few. Caesar omnem agrum Pīcēnum percurrit, Caes. C. 1, 15, 1, Caesar runs over the whole Picene territory. praeterīre nēmō pristrīnum potest, Pl. Cap. 808, no man can pass the mill. flūmen trānsiērunt, 4, 4, 7, they crossed the river.

1138. A few verbs with a transitive use, have, when compounded with circum and trāns, besides the accusative of the object, a second accusative of the thing to which the preposition refers: as, istum circumdūce hāsce aedīs, Pl. Most. 843, take that man round this house. Caesar funditōrēs pontem trādūcit, 2, 10, 1, Caesar takes the slingers over the bridge. trānsfer līmen aureolōs pedēs, Cat. 61, 166, over the threshold put thy little golden foot. In the passive, the accusative connected with the preposition is sometimes retained: as, Apollōniam praetervehuntur, Caes. C. 3, 26, 1, they sail by Apollonia.

1139. Verbs of weeping and wailing, and some other verbs of feeling, which commonly have an intransitive use, sometimes have a transitive use with an accusative: as,

(a.) lūget senātus, maeret equester ōrdō, Mil. 20, the senate is in mourning, the equestrian order betrays its sadness. (b.) mātrōnae eum lūxērunt, L. 2, 7, 4, the married women wore mourning for him. maereō cāsum eius modī, Fam. 14, 2, 2, I cannot help showing my grief over a misfortune of such a kind. quid mortem congemis ac flēs, Lucr. 3, 934, why dost thou death bewail and weep? Such verbs are fleō, weep, gemō, wail, lāmentor, queror, bewail, doleō, am distressed, lūgeō, mourn, maereō, betray sadness. Similarly, horreō, shudder, reformīdō, am in dread, fastīdiō, feel disdain, rīdeō, laugh, &c., &c. The object is oftener a thing than a person, and passive constructions are rare, and mostly confined to poetry.

The Emphasizing Or Defining Accusative.

1140. The meaning of a verb, even of one ordinarily intransitive, may be emphasized or more exactly defined by an accusative of kindred derivation added.

(a.) Seldom without an adjective: as, dum vītam vīvās, Pl. Per. 494, as long as life thou liv’st, i.e. as long as you ever live and breathe. quōrum maiōrum nēmō servitūtem servīvit, T. 29, of whose ancestors not one has served servitude, i.e. been a regular slave. vidē nē facinus faciās, Fin. 2, 95, mind you don’t do a deed, i.e. a misdeed. (b.) Commonly with an adjective: as, scelestam servitūtem serviunt, Pl. Cu. 40, a wicked servitude they serve. facinus memorābile fēcistis, L. 24, 22, 16, you have done a deed well worth mentioning. mīrum atque īnscītum somniāvī somnium, Pl. R. 597, a strange and silly dream dreamed I.

1141. The verb sometimes has an accusative of kindred meaning, but of different derivation: as,

ut vīvās aetātem miser, Pl. Am. 1023, that thou mayst live thy days in woe. nōn pugnāvit ingēns Īdomeneus Sthenelusve sōlus dīcenda Mūsīs proelia, H. 4, 9, 19, not towering Idomeneus nor Sthenelus alone has battles fought for Muses to rehearse.

1142. The neuter singular accusative of a descriptive adjective is used, particularly by the poets, to denote manner: as,

magnum clāmat, Pl. MG. 823, he’s bellowing big. suāve locus vōcī resonat conclūsus, H. S. 1, 4, 76, sweet to the voice the pent-up place rings back. suāve rubēns hyacinthus, V. E. 3, 63, sweet-blushing hyacinth. cūr tam cernis acūtum? H. S. 1, 3, 26, why dost thou see so sharp? The plural is not so common: as, asper, acerba tuēns, Lucr. 5, 33, V. 9, 794, rough, staring savageness.

1143. Some verbs of smell and of taste have an accusative defining what the smell or the taste is: as, pāstillōs Rūfillus olet, Gargōnius hīrcum, H. S. 1, 2, 27, of lozenges Rufillus smells, Gargonius of the goat. doctrīnam redolet puerīlem, DO. 2, 109, it smacks of A B C studies. nōn omnēs possunt olere unguenta exōtica, Pl. Most. 42, not every man can of imported ointments reek. meliōra unguenta sunt quae terram quam quae crocum sapiunt, Cic. in Plin. NH. 17, 5, 3, 38, essences that smell of earth are better than those that smell of saffron.

1144. Any verb or verbal expression may be defined in a general way by the neuter accusative of a pronoun or of an enumerative word: as,

id gaudeō, T. Andr. 362, I’m glad of that. id maestast, Pl. R. 397, she’s mournful over this. id prōdeō, T. Eu. 1005, I’m coming out for this. cētera adsentior Crassō, DO. 1, 35, on all the other points I agree with Crassus. So also quod, for which, on account of which, aliquid, quicquam, nihil, &c., &c., and particularly quid, why, in what respect, wherein, what, or what ... for: as, quid vēnistī, Pl. Am. 377, why art thou come? quid tibī̆ obstō, RA. 145, wherein do I stand in your way?

1145. The accusative of an appellative is rarely used adverbially: as, magnam partem ex iambīs nostra cōnstat ōrātiō, O. 189, our own speech is made up a great deal of iambs. maximam partem lacte vīvunt, 4, 1, 8, they live on milk the most part, i.e. chiefly. Prepositional expressions are commoner: as, magnā ex parte, 1, 16, 6, principally. For vicem, instead of, for, or like, see the dictionary.

1146. The accusative is sometimes disengaged from a verb, and qualifies a substantive as an attribute, chiefly in a few set expressions (1129): as, ōrātiōnēs aut aliquid id genus, Att. 13, 12, 3, speeches or something that kind. aucupium omne genus, Cat. 114, 3, fowling of every kind. nūgās hoc genus, H. S. 2, 6, 43, small talk—this kind. hoc genus in rēbus, Lucr. 6, 917, in matters of this kind. cum id aetātis fīliō, Clu. 141, with a son of that age. Similarly diēs quīndecim supplicātiō, 2, 35, 4, a fortnight thanksgiving.