PART FIRST ❧ WORDS (continued 2)

(5.) The group -ncn- was simplified to simple -n-, and the preceding vowel was lengthened: as, quīnī, five each, for *quīnc-nī (317); cō-nīveō, wink and blink, for con-cnīveō.

(6.) n before gn was dropped and the preceding vowel lengthened: as, ī-gnōscō, I forgive, for *in-gnōscō, cō-gnōscō, I know, for *con-gnōscō. In this manner (170, 5; 6) arises a form cō- by the side of con- (122, e): as, cō-nectō, cō-nubium, cō-ligātus (Gell. 2, 17, 8).

(7.) In the imperial age, ss after long vowels and diphthongs was regularly changed to s: as, clausī, I closed; ūsus, used (166, 2); but always ēsse, to eat (769); ll changed to l after diphthongs: as, caelum, chisel (166, 6); also when preceded by ī and followed by i: as, vīlla, country-place, but vīlicus (adject.); mille, thousand, but mīlia (642). Elsewhere ll was retained after long vowels: as, pūllus (166, 7), clean; rāllum, ploughshare, from rādō with suffix -lo- (209). In Cicero’s time (Quint. 1, 7, 20) the spelling was still caussa (155, b), matter; cāssus (930), fallen; divīssiō (cf. 912), division. Vergil also, according to Quintilian, retained the doubled consonants, and the best manuscripts of both Vergil and Plautus frequently show ll and ss for later l and s, as do inscriptions: as, PROMEISSERIT, he might have promised (49 B.C.); ACCVSSASSE, to have accused.

(8.) After a long vowel d was dropped before consonant u (v): as, svāvis, sweet, for *svādvis from svād- (cf. svādeō).

(9.) r before st was dropped: as, tostus, roasted (1004) for *torstus from the stem tors- (cf. torreo with assimilated -rs-, 166, 8).

(10.) -rts- changed to -rs: as, arsī, I burnt, for *artsī (1000). -rcsc- changed to -sc-: as, poscō, I demand, for *porcscō (834).

(11.) In ipse, self, for *is-pse, an s has disappeared before -ps-

(12.) (12.) d (t) disappears between r and c: as, cor-culum for cord(i)-culum (275).

171. Final Disappearance. (1.) A word never ends in a doubled consonant: as, es for *es-s, thou art, which Plautus and Terence still scan as a long syllable; and the following cases of assimilation: ter for *terr from *ters (cf. terr-uncius, a quarter of an ās, a farthing, 1272, for *ters-uncius, 166, 8); fār, spelt, for *farr, from *fars (489); fel, gall, for *fell, from *fels (482); in mīles, soldier, for *mīless from *mīlets (cf. Gen. mīlitis, 477) the final syllable is still long in Plautus. hoc, this, for *hocc from *hod-c(e)(the neuter *hod from the stem ho-, as istud, illud (107, c) from isto-, illo-) counts as a long syllable even in classical poetry.

(2.) No Latin word can end in two explosives: thus, final t is dropped in lac, milk (478); final d in cor, heart (476).

(3.) When final s was preceded by r or l, it was assimilated to these liquids, and final rr and ll were then simplified to r and l. See the examples under (1). Wherever final -rs and -ls appear they are not original but the result of the disappearance of an intervening consonant: as, puls, pottage, for *pults (533); pars, part, for *parts (533); all with syncope (111) of the vowel i in the nominative sg.

(4.) Original final ns was changed to s and the preceding vowel was lengthened: as, sanguīs, blood (2452), for *sanguins from the stem sanguin- (486). Wherever final -ns appears it is not original but the result of the disappearance of an intervening consonant: as, ferēns, carrying, for *ferents, from the stem ferent-; frōns, foliage, for *fronds, from the stem frond-.

(5.) A dental mute before final s is dropped: as, hērēs, heir, for *hērēds (475); virtūs, virtue, for *virtūts (477); nox, night, for *nocts (533); a labial or guttural mute is retained: as, fornāx (x = cs), furnace, from the stem fornāc- (531); lēx, law, from the stem leg- (472); urbs, city, from the stem urb- (480); ops from the stem op-, help (480).

DEVELOPMENT OF AN ANAPTYCTICAL VOWEL.

172. Certain consonant groups, notably those containing a liquid, are sometimes eased by the insertion of a vowel which develops between the consonants. This is called Anaptyxis (Greek ἀναπτύσσειν, unfold). It is the opposite of syncope of vowels (110, 111).

(1.) The suffix -clo- (242), changed to -culo-, being thus no longer distinguishable from the diminutive suffix -culo- (267): as, pōculum, cup, for pōclum (Plaut.); vehiculum, carriage, for vehiclum (Plaut.). But -clo- is more common in Plautus than -culo-, especially after long vowels. The suffixes -blo- (245), and -bli- (294) always show the anaptyctical vowel. Its colour depends on the nature of the l (60): as, stabulum, resting-place; stabilis, steady. The group -ngl- also changes to -ngul-: as, angulus (164, 6).

(2.) In words borrowed from the Greek an unfamiliar sequence of consonants was so lightened; as, mina, mina, for *mna (μνᾶ); and in Old Latin drachuma (Plaut.) for later drachma, drachma (δραχμή); techina, trick, from Greek τέχνη; Tecumēssa for Tecmēssa (Τέκμησσα).

(3.) Before syllabic (83) l and r a vowel is developed (111, b): as, íncertus, uncertain, for *íncr̥tus; fácultās, capability, for fácl̥tās. Likewise before syllabic n (139).

DISSIMILATION.

173. (1.) To avoid the repetition of the same liquid in successive syllables l is sometimes changed to r: as, caeruleus, sky-blue, for *caeluleus, from caelum; Parīlia, by the side of Palīlia, from Palēs; the suffix -clo- appears as -cro- after an l: as, lavācrum, bath, simulācrum, image (241); the suffix -āli- under like conditions changes to -āri-; as, molāre, of a mill (313), but augurāle, of an augur.

(2.) In a few cases repetition is avoided by dropping the sound once: as, praestīgiae, jugglery, for praestrīgiae. This also applies to the spirant s followed by a consonant, a combination which is not tolerated in successive syllables: as in the reduplicated perfects stetī, for *stestī; spopondī, for *spospondī (859), where the second syllable, and in quisquiliae, sweepings, for *squisquiliae, where the first syllable was lightened.

CHANGES WITHIN COMPOUNDS.

174. The final syllable of the first member of compounds (181) sometimes undergoes certain changes by analogy to other compounds:

(1.) The final -ā of ā-stems, by analogy to the more frequent -o-stems, usually changed to -o, which in atonic syllables became -i (105): as, āli-ger, winged, for *ālo-ger from ālā-.

(2.) Stems in -on- substitute -o- for -on- by analogy to the -o-stems: as, homi-cída, murderer, for *homo-cīda (105) from homon- (Nom. homō).

(3.) Some stems in -s substitute -o- by analogy to the -o-stems: as, foedi-fragus, treaty-breaking, for *foedo-fragus from the stem foedos- (Nom. foedus, Gen. foederis; 154).

SYLLABLES.

175. A word has as many syllables as it has separate vowels or diphthongs. The last syllable is called the Ultima; the last syllable but one is called the Penult; the last syllable but two is called the Antepenult.

176. The quantity of single sounds (e.g. the quantity of a vowel) must be carefully distinguished from the quantity of the group of sounds or the syllable of which the single sound forms a part.

LENGTH OF SYLLABLES.

177. A syllable is long if its vowel is long, or if its vowel is followed by two consonants or by x or z: as,

dūcēbās; volvunt. In dūcēbās both the vowels and the syllables are long; in volvunt the vowels are short, but the syllables are long; in cases like the last the syllables (not the vowels) are said to be long by position. h does not count as a consonant (58) and qu (or qv, 27) has the value of a single consonant only: thus, in adhūc and aqua the first syllable is short.

178. In prose or old dramatic verse a syllable with a short vowel before a mute or f followed by l or r is not long: as tenebrae. In other verse, however, such syllables are sometimes regarded as long. In compounds such syllables are long in any verse: as obruit.

LOSS OF SYLLABLES.

179. The first of two successive syllables which begin with the same sound is sometimes lost. This is called Haplology.

Thus, sēmodius for sēmimodius, half a bushel; calamitōsus for *calamitātōsus, from the stem calamitāt- (262) and suffix -oso- (336); voluntārius, for voluntātārius (262, 309); cōnsuētūdō, for cōnsuētitūdō (264). See also 255; 379.

B. FORMATION.

180. Formation is the process by which stems are formed from roots or from other stems.

181. A word containing a single stem is called a Simple word: as, magnus, great, stem magno-; animus, soul, stem animo-. A word containing two or more stems is called a Compound word: as, magnanimus, great-souled, stem magnanimo-.

182. Most inflected words consist of two parts: a stem, which is usually a modified root (195), and an inflection ending: thus, in ductōrī, for a leader, the root is duc-, lead, the stem is ductōr-, leader, and -ī is the inflection ending, meaning for.

ROOTS.

183. A Root is a monosyllable which gives the fundamental meaning to a word or group of words.

184. A root is not a real word; it is neither a noun, naming something, nor a verb, denoting action. Thus iug-, yoke, does not mean a yoke nor I yoke; it merely suggests something about yoking. The root becomes a real word only when an inflection ending is added, or, more commonly, both a formative suffix and an inflection ending: as, iug-u-m, a yoke.

185. Roots are common to Latin and its cognate languages, such as the Sanskrit and the Greek. When a root is named in this book, the specific Latin form of the root is meant. This often differs somewhat from the form of the root which is assumed as applicable to all the cognate languages.

186. Almost all roots are noun and verb roots; that is, roots with a meaning which may be embodied either in a noun or in a verb, or in both. Besides these there is a small class, less than a dozen in number, of pronoun roots. There are many words which cannot be traced back to their roots.

187. A root sometimes has two or more forms: as, fīd- (for feid-), foed-, fid-, trust; gen-, gn-, sire; tol, tl, bear; see 135, 145.

Thus, fīd- is found in fīd-us, trusty, fīd-ūcia, confidence, fīd-ūciō, I pledge, fīd-ūciārius, in trust, fīd-ere, put trust in, fīd-ēns, courageous, fīd-entia, courage; foed- in foed-us, pledge of faith, foed-erātus, bound by a pledge of faith; fid- in fid-ēs, faith, fid-ēlis, faithful, fid-ēliter, faithfully, fid-ēlitās, faithfulness, per-fid-us, faithless, per-fid-ia, faithlessness, per-fid-iōsus, full of faithlessness, per-fid-iōsē, faithlessly. gen- in gen-itor, sire, gn- in gi-gn-ere, beget, gn-ā- in gnā-tus, son.

188. A root ending in a vowel is called a Vowel Root: as, da-, give; a root ending in a consonant is called a Consonant Root: as, rup-, break. Roots are conveniently indicated by the sign √: as, √teg-, to be read ‘root teg-.’

189. A root or a part of a root is sometimes doubled in forming a word; this is called Reduplication: as, mur-mur, murmur; tur-tur, turtle-dove; po-pul-us, people; ul-ul-āre, yell.

PRESENT STEMS AS ROOTS.

190. Many nouns are formed from the present stems of verbs, which take the place of roots. Stems thus used are mostly those of verbs in -āre and -īre.

Thus, from ōrā-, stem of ōrāre, speak, are formed ōrā-tor, speaker, and ōrā-tiō, speech; from audī-, stem of audīre, hear, are formed audī-tor, hearer, and audī-tiō, hearing.

191. Verbs in -ēre, and those in -āre and -īre in which the ā or ī is confined to the present system (868, 874) usually have parallel nouns formed directly from a root: as,

doc-tor, teacher, doc-umentum, lesson, doc-ilis, teachable (√doc-, docēre); sec-tor, cutter (√sec-, secāre); dom-itor, tamer, dom-inus, master, dom-itus, tamed (√dom-, domāre); sarc-ina, package (√sarc-, sarcīre).

192. But a noun is sometimes exceptionally formed from the present stem of a verb in -ēre: as, monē-ta, mint (monēre); acē-tum, vinegar (acēre); virē-tum, a green (virēre); suādē-la, persuasion (suādēre); habē-na, rein (habēre); egē-nus, needy (egēre); verē-cundus, shamefast (verērī); valē-tūdō, health (valēre).

193. Verbs in -ere, and particularly such as have a present in -nō, -scō, -tō or -iō (832), usually have their parallel nouns formed directly from a root: as,

vic-tor, conqueror (√vic-, vincere); incrē-mentum, growth (√crē-, crēscere); pul-sus, a push (√pol-, pellere).

194. Sometimes, however, nouns are formed from such verb stems, and not from roots: as, lecti-stern-ium, a couch-spreading (sternere, √ster-, strā-); vinc-ibilis, conquerable (vincere, √vīc-); pāsc-uum, pasture (pāscere, √pā-); pect-en, comb (pectere, √pec-); fall-āx, deceitful (fallere, √fal-).

STEMS.

195. A Stem is that part of a word which contains its meaning, and is either a root alone or more commonly a root with an addition called a Formative Suffix.

Thus, in the word ducis, leader’s, the stem, which is identical with the root duc-, means leader; a root thus serving as a stem is called a Root Stem; in ductōris, leader’s, the stem is formed by the formative suffix -tōr-, denoting the agent, attached to the √duc-.

196. New stems are formed by adding a suffix to a stem. Thus, from ōrātōr-, speaker, is formed by the addition of the suffix -io-, a new stem ōrātōr-io-, N. ōrātōrius, speaker’s.

197. The noun has usually only one form of the stem. The verb has different stems to indicate mood and tense; these stems are all based on two principal tense stems, the present and the perfect active.

PRIMITIVES AND DENOMINATIVES.

198. I. A stem or word formed directly from a root or a verb stem is called a Primitive. II. A stem or word formed from a noun stem is called a Denominative.

(a.) Primitives: from √rēg-, reg-, guide: rēx, stem rēg-, king; rēgnum, stem rēg-no-, kingdom; rēctus, stem rēc-to-, guided; regere, stem reg-e-, guide. From ōrā-, stem of ōrāre, speak: ōrātor, stem ōrā-tōr-, speaker; ōrātiō, stem ōrā-tiōn-, speech.

(b.) Denominatives: from noun stem rēg-, king: rēgīna, stem rēg-īnā, queen; rēgius, stem rēg-io-, rēgālis, stem rēg-āli-, royal. From ōrātiōn-, speech: ōrātiūncula, stem ōrātiūn-culā-, little speech. From rēg-no-, kingdom: rēgnāre, stem rēgnā-, to rule. From iūs, law: iūrāre, swear, stem iūrā (154).

(A.) FORMATION OF THE NOUN.

WITHOUT A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.

199. Some roots are used as noun stems: as, duc-, N. dux, leader (√duc-, lead); rēg-, N. rēx, king (√rēg-, guide); particularly at the end of a compound: as, con-iug-, N. coniūnx, yoke-fellow, spouse (com-, √jug-, yoke); tubi-cin-, N. tubicen, trumpeter (tubā-, √can-, play).

WITH A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.

200. Simple formative suffixes are vowels: as, -ā-, -o-, -i-, -u-; also -io-, -uo-, (-vo-); or such little syllables as -mo-, -min-; -ro-, -lo-; -ōn-; -no-, -ni-, -nu-; -to-, -ti-, -tu-; -ter-, -tōr-; -unt- (-nt-); -es- (-er-), -ōr-; these syllables sometimes have slight modifications of form. Compound suffixes consist of one or more simple suffixes attached to a simple suffix: as, -tōr-io-, -ti-mo-, &c., &c.

201. The following are examples of noun stems formed from roots or verb stems by simple suffixes added:

Stem. Nominative. From.

fug-ā- fuga, flight fug-, fly

fīd-o- fīdus, trusty fīd-, trust

ac-u- acus, pin ac-, point

od-io- odium, hate od-, hate

pluv-iā- pluvia, rain plov-, wet

ar-vo- arvom, tilth ar-, till

al-vo- alvos, belly al-, nurture

sal-vo- salvos, safe sal-, safe

fā-mā- fāma, tale fā-, tell

teg-min- tegmen, cover teg-, cover

sel-lā- sella, seat sed-, sit

err-ōn- errō, stroller errā-, stroll

som-no- somnus, sleep sop-, sleep

plē-no- plēnus, full plē-, fill

rēg-no- rēgnum, realm rēg-, guide

da-to- datus, given da-, give

lec-to- lectus, bed leg-, lie

gen-ti- gēns, race gen-, beget

sta-tu- status, stand sta-, stand

rēc-tōr- rēctor, ruler rēg-, guide

e-unt-, iēns, going i-, go

rege-nt- regēns, guiding rege-, guide

gen-er- genus, race gen-, beget

fur-ōr- furor, madness fur-, rave

202. Formative suffixes are often preceded by a vowel, which in many instances is a stem vowel, real or presumed; in others, the vowel has come to be regarded as a part of the suffix itself.

Thus, -lo-: fīlio-lo-, N. fīlio-lu-s, little son (fīlio-); hortu-lu-s, little garden (horto-, 105, h); but -ulo-: rēg-ulu-s, petty king (rēg-); ger-ulu-s, porter (√ges-, bear), -ci-: pugnā-ci-, N. pugnā-x, full of fight (pugnā-re); but -āci-: fer-āx, productive (√fer-, bear), -to-: laudā-to-, N. laudā-tu-s, praised (laudā-re); but -āto-: dent-ātus, toothed (denti-). -tu-: equitā-tu-, N. equitā-tu-s, cavalry (equitā-re); but -ātu-: sen-ātu-s, senate (sen-). -lā-: suādē-lā-, N. suādē-la, persuasion (suādē-re, 192); but -ēlā-: loqu-ēla, talk (√loqu-, speak). -tāt-: cīvi-tāt-, N. cīvi-tā-s, citizenship (cīvi-); but -itāt-: auctōr-itā-s, authority (auctōr-). -cio-: aedīli-cio-, N. aedīli-ciu-s, of an aedile (aedīli-); but -icio-: patr-iciu-s, patrician (patr-). -timo-: fīni-timo-, N. fīni-timu-s, bordering (fīni-); but -itimo-: lēg-itimu-s, of the law (lēg-).

203. There are many formative suffixes of nouns. The commonest only can be named, and these may be conveniently grouped as below, by their meanings. Compound suffixes are arranged with reference to the last element of the suffix: thus, under the adjective suffix -io- (304) will be found -c-io-, -īc-io-, -tōr-io-, and -ār-io-. In many instances it is difficult to distinguish between simple and compound suffixes.

I. THE SUBSTANTIVE.

(A.) PRIMITIVES.

I. THE AGENT.

204. The suffixes -tōr-, -o-, -ā-, -lo-, and -ōn-, are used to denote the Agent: as,

Stem. Nominative. From.

lēc-tōr- lēctor, reader √lēg-, read

scrīb-ā- scrība, writer √scrīb-, write

fig-ulo- figulus, potter √fig-, mould

err-ōn- errō, stroller errā-re, stroll

(1.) -tōr- (N. -tor).

205. -tōr-, N. -tor, or -sōr-, N. -sor (159, 202), is the commonest suffix of the agent; the feminine is -trī-ci-, N. -trī-x. -tōr- is sometimes used in a present sense, of action repeated or occurring at any time, and sometimes in a past sense.

206. (a.) -tōr- (-sōr-), in the present sense, often denotes one who makes a regular business of the action of the root or verb.

ōrā-tōr-, N. ōrā-tor, spokesman, speaker (ōrā-re); lēc-tor, reader (√leg-, read). Workmen and tradesmen: arā-tor, ploughman, pās-tor, shepherd, pīc-tor, painter, sū-tor, shoemaker. Semi-professional: captā-tor, legacy-hunter, dēlā-tor, professional informer. Government officials: cēn-sor, appraiser, censor, imperā-tor, commander, prae-tor, (leader), praetor, dictā-tor, līc-tor. Of the law: āc-tor, manager, accūsā-tor, accuser, spōn-sor, bondsman, tū-tor, guardian. From presumed verb stems (202): sen-ātor, senator (sen-); viā-tor, wayfarer (viā-); fundi-tor, slinger (fundā-). -tro-, N. -ter, has the meaning of -tōr-: as, aus-tro-, N. aus-ter (scorcher), south-wester (√aus-, burn).

207. In the present sense -tōr- (-sōr-) is also used to indicate permanent character, quality, capability, tendency, likelihood: as, bellā-tor, a man of war, warlike; dēlīberā-tor, a man of caution; cessā-tor, a loiterer; dērī-sor, a mocker, ironical; cōnsūmp-tor, apt to destroy, destructive; aedificā-tor, building-mad.

208. (b.) -tōr- (-sōr-), in a perfect sense, is used particularly in old Latin, or to denote an agent who has acquired a permanent name by a single conspicuous action. In this sense it usually has a genitive of the object, or a possessive pronoun: thus,

castīgā-tor meus, my mentor, or the man who has upbraided me; olīvae inven-tor, the deviser of the olive (Aristaeus); reper-tor vītis, the author of the vine (Bacchus); patriae līberā-tōrēs, the emancipators of the nation.

(2.) -o- (N. -u-s), -ā- (N. -a); -lo- (N. -lu-s); -ōn- (N. -ō).

209. -o- and -ā- stems may denote vocation or class; many are compounds. -o-, N. -u-s: coqu-o-, N. coqu-o-s or coc-u-s, cook (√coqu-, cook); causidic-u-s, pleader (causā-, √dic-, speak). -ā-, N. -a: scrīb-ā-, N. scrīb-a, clerk (√scrīb-, write); agricol-a, husbandman (agro-, √col-, till).

210. -u-lo-, N. -u-lu-s (202): ger-ulo-, N. ger-ulu-s, bearer (√ges-, bear); fig-ulu-s, potter (√fig-, shape, mould).

211. -ōn-, N. -ō-: err-ōn-, N. err-ō, stroller (errā-re); especially in compounds: praed-ō, robber (praedā-rī); praec-ō for *praevocō, herald (prae-vocā-re); combib-ō, fellow-drinker (com-, √bib-, drink).

II. THE ACTION.

212. The suffixes -ā-, -io-, -iā-; -min-; -i-ōn-, -ti-ōn-; -lā-; -mā-, -nā-; -tā-, -tu-; -er-, -or-, -ōr-, are used to denote the Action: as,

Stem. Nominative. From.

od-io- odium, hate √od-, hate

āc-tiōn- āctiō, action √āg-, do

ques-tu- questus, complaint √ques-, complain

fur-ōr- furor, rage √fur-, rave

213. Words denoting action (1470) in a substantive form have a wide range of meaning; they may denote, according to the connection, action intransitive, transitive, or passive, complete or incomplete; if the verb denotes condition or state, the word of action often comes very near to denominatives of quality; furthermore the idea of action is often lost, and passes over to result, concrete effect, means or instrument, or place.

(1.) -ā- (N. -a); -io- (N. -iu-m); -iā- (N. -ia), -iē- (N. -iē-s).

214. -ā-, N. -a, is rare in words of action: fug-ā-, N. fug-a, flight (√fug-, fly); most words are concrete: mol-a, mill (√mol-, grind); tog-a, covering (√teg-, cover).

215. -ūr-ā-, N. -ūr-a, is rare: fig-ūrā-, N. fig-ūra, shape (√fig-, shape).

216. -tūr-ā-, N. -tūr-a, or -sūr-ā-, N. -sūr-a (159, 202), akin to the agent in -tōr- (-sōr-): armā-tūrā-, N. armā-tūra, equipment (armā-re); pīc-tūra, painting, i.e., act of painting or picture (√pig-, paint). Words parallel with official personal names (206) denote office: cēn-sūra, taxing, censor’s office (cf. cēnsōr-); prae-tūra, praetorship (cf. praetōr-).

217. -io-, N. -iu-m, sometimes denotes the effect or the object. The line cannot always be drawn very sharply between these stems in -io- (many of which may be formed through a presumed noun stem), and denominatives in -io- (249).

218. (a.) -io- is rarely suffixed to simple roots or verb stems: od-io-, N. od-iu-m, hate, hateful thing, hateful conduct (√od-, hate); some words become concrete: lab-iu-m, lip (√lab-, lick).

219. (b.) Most primitives in -io- are compounds: as, adag-iu-m, proverb (ad, √ag-, speak); ingen-iu-m, disposition (in, √gen-, beget); dīscid-iu-m, separation, exscid-iu-m, destruction (dī-, ex, √scid-, cleave); incend-iu-m, conflagration (in, √cand-, light); obsequ-iu-m, compliance (ob-, √sequ-, follow); conloqu-iu-m, parley (com-, √loqu-, talk); obsid-iu-m, siege (ob, √sed-, sit).

220. -t-io-, N. -t-iu-m: spa-tio-, N. spa-tiu-m, stretch (√spa-, span, stretch); sōlsti-tiu-m, sun-stand, solstice (sōl-, √sta-, stand); ini-tiu-m, a beginning (in, √i-, go).

221. -iā-, N. -ia: fur-iā-, N. fur-iae, plural, ravings, madness (√fur-, rave); pluvia, rain (√pluv-, rain). Most stems in -iā- are compounds, used in the plural only, often with concrete or passive meaning: dēlic-iae, allurements, pet (dē, √lac-, allure); excub-iae, patrol (ex, √cub-, lie).

222. -iē-, N. -iē-s, a variation of -iā-, usually denotes result (604): ser-iē-, N. ser-iē-s, row (√ser-, string); spec-iē-s, sight, looks (√spec-, spy, see); pernic-iē-s, destruction (per, √nec-, murder).

223. -t-iē-, N. -t-iē-s: permi-tiē-, N. permi-tiē-s, wasting away (per, √mi-, less).

(2.) -min- (103) (N. -men); -din-, -gin- (105, g) (N. -dō, -gō).

224. -min-, N. -men (202), usually active, occasionally passive, is very common; it sometimes denotes the means, instrument, or effect.

certā-min-, N. certā-men, contest (certā-re); crī-men, charge (√cer-, crī-, sift); spec-imen, what is inspected, sample (√spec-, spy, see); lū-men, light (√lūc-, light); flū-men, flood, stream (√flugṷ-, flow); ag-men, what is led, train (√ag-, lead). Words in -min- often mean nearly the same as those in -mento- (239): as, levā-men, levā-mentu-m, lightening; teg-umen, teg-umentu-m, covering.

225. ē-din-, -ī-din- (202): -ē-din-, N. -ē-dō: grav-ēdin-, N. grav-ēdō, (heaviness), catarrh (√grav-, heavy), -ī-din-, N. -ī-dō: cup-īdin-, N. cup-īdō, desire (√cup-, desire); lib-idō, whim (√lib-, yearn).

226. -ā-gin-, -ī-gin- (202): -ā-gin-, N. -ā-gō: vorā-gin-, N. vorā-gō, gulf (vorā-re); imā-gō, representation (*imā-, cf. imitārī). -ī-gin-, N. -ī-gō: orī-gin-, N. orī-gō, source (orī-rī); cāl-īgō, darkness (√cāl-, hide). A few denominatives have -ū-gin-, N. -ū-gō: aer-ūgin-, N. aer-ūgō, copper rust (aer-).

(3.) -i-ōn- (N. -i-ō); -ti-ōn- or -si-ōn- (N. -ti-ō or -si-ō).

227. -i-ōn-, N. -i-ō: opīn-iōn-, N. opīn-iō, notion (opīnā-rī); condic-iō, agreement (com-, √dic-, say); contāg-iō, touch (com-, √tag-, touch). Some words are concrete: leg-iō, pick, legion (√leg-, pick). A few are denominatives: commūn-iō, mutual participation (commūni-).

228. -ti-ōn-, N. -ti-ō, or -si-ōn-, N. -si-ō (159, 202), is very common, and may denote action either intransitive, transitive, or passive, or the manner or possibility of action.

cōgitā-tiōn-, N. cōgitā-tiō, a thinking, a thought (cōgitā-re); exīstimā-tiō, judging, reputation (exīstimā-re); coven-tiō, commonly cōn-tiō, meeting, speech (com-, √ven-, come); dēpul-siō, warding off (dē-, √pol-, push); oppugnā-tiō, besieging, method of besieging (oppugnā-re); occultā-tiō, hiding, chance to hide, possibility of hiding (occultā-re). Some words denote the place where: sta-tiō, a stand (√sta-, stand); some become collectives or concretes: salūtā-tiō, greeting, levee, guests at a levee (salūtā-re); mūnī-tiō, fortification, i.e., act of fortifying or works (mūnī-re).

(4.) -ē-lā- (N. -ē-la), -tē-lā- (N. -tē-la).

229. -ē-lā-, N. -ē-la (202): suādē-lā-, N. suādē-la, persuasion (suādē-rē): loqu-ēla, talk (√loqu-, talk); quer-ēla or quer-ēlla, complaint (√ques-, complain). Some words are concrete: candē-la, candle (candē-re).

230. -tē-lā-, N. -tē-la-: conrup-tēlā-, N. conrup-tēla, a seduction (com-, √rup-, spoil, ruin); tū-tēla, protection (√tū-, watch, protect).

(5.) -mā- (N. -ma), -nā- (N. -na); -trī-nā- (N. -trī-na).

231. -mā- and -nā- are rare, and denote result or something concrete. -mā-, N. -ma: fā-mā-, N. fā-ma, tale (√fā-, tell); -nā, N. -na: ur-na, pitcher (√urc- in urc-eus, pitcher, 170, 3); with original suffix -sna (170, 2): lū-na, moon (√lūc-, light); scāla, stairs (√scand-, mount).

232. -inā-, N. -ina: ang-inā-, N. ang-ina, choking (√ang-, choke); pāg-ina, page (√pāg-, fasten); sarc-ina, package (√sarc-, patch). -īnā-, N. -īna (202): ru-īnā-, N. ru-īna, downfall (√ru-, tumble); -īnā- is very common in denominatives: pisc-īna, fish-pond (pisci-).

233. -trī-nā-, N. -trī-na, akin to the agent in -tōr-: doc-trīnā-, N. doc-trīna, teaching, either the act of teaching or what is taught (√doc-, teach); sū-trīna, shoemaking, shoemaker’s trade, shoemaker’s shop (√sū-, sew).

(6.) -tā- or -sā- (N. -ta or -sa); -tu- or -su- (N. -tu-s or -su-s).

234. -tā-, N. -ta, or -sā-, N. -sa (159), is rare, and sometimes denotes result, or something concrete: as, no-tā-, N. no-ta, mark (√gno-, know); por-ta (passage), gate (√por-, fare); fos-sa, ditch (√fod-, dig); repul-sa, repulse (re-, √pol-, push); offēn-sa, offence (ob, √fend-, strike).

235. -tu-, N. -tu-s, or -su-, N. -su-s (159, 202), denotes the action and its results: ques-tu-, N. ques-tu-s, complaint (√ques-, complain); gem-itus, groan (√gem-, groan). Stems in -ā-tu-, N. -ā-tu-s, sometimes denote office or officials: cōnsul-ātu-, N. cōnsul-ātu-s, being consul, consulship (cōnsul-); sen-ātu-s, senate (sen-). -tu- is seldom passive: vī-su-s, active, sight, passive, looks (√vīd-, see); apparā-tu-s, preparation, either a getting ready, or what is got ready (apparā-re). The supine (2269) is the accusative or ablative of substantives in -tu- (-su-). Most words in -tu- (-su-) are defective in case, and are chiefly used in the ablative (430).

(7.) -er- for -es- (N. -us); -ōr- (N. -or).

236. Neuter stems in -er- (for -es-), or in -or- (for -os-), N. -us, denote result, or have a concrete meaning: gen-er-, N. gen-us, birth, race (√gen-, beget); op-er-, N. op-us, work (√op-, work); frīg-or-, N. frīg-us, cold (√frīg-, cold). -ēs with lengthened ē is sometimes used in the nominative of gender words: as, nūb-ēs, cloud (√nūb-, veil); sēd-ēs, seat (√sēd-); vāt-ēs, bard. -n-er-, -n-or-, N. -n-us: vol-ner-, N. vol-nus, wound (√vol-, tear); fac-inor-, N. fac-inus, deed (√fac-, do, 202).

237. -ōr- (for an older form -ōs-, 154), N. -ōs, commonly -or, masculine, denotes a state. Many substantives in -ōr- have a parallel verb, usually in -ēre (368), and an adjective in -ido- (287).

od-ōr-, N. od-ōs or od-or, smell (√od-, smell, cf. olē-re); pall-or, paleness (cf. pallē-re); cal-or, warmth (cf. calē-re); ūm-or, moisture (cf. ūmē-re); am-or, love (cf. amā-re); ang-or, choking, anguish (√ang-, choke).

III. THE INSTRUMENT OR MEANS.

238. The suffixes -men-to-, -tro-, -cro- or -culo-, -lo-, -bro- or -bulo-, are used to denote the Instrument or Means: as,

Stem. Nominative. From.

ōrnā-mento- ōrnāmentum, embellishment ōrnā-re, embellish

arā-tro- arātrum, plough arā-re, plough

pō-culo- pōculum, drinking-cup √pō-, drink

pā-bulo- pābulum, fodder √pā-, feed

239. -men-to-, N. -men-tu-m (202), is one of the commonest suffixes; it sometimes denotes result of action, rarely action itself.

pig-mento-, N. pig-mentu-m, paint (√pīg-, paint); experī-mentu-m, test (experī-rī); ōrnā-mentu-m, ornament (ōrnā-re); frag-mentu-m, fragment (√frag-, break); cae-mentu-m, quarried stone (√caed-, cut); incrē-mentu-m, growth (in, √crē-, grow); al-imentu-m, nourishment (√al-, nurture); doc-umentu-m, lesson (√doc-, teach). See also -min- (224). -men-tā-, N. -men-ta, F., is rare: ful-menta, prop (√fulc-, prop); rā-menta, scraping (√rād-, scrape).

240. -tro-, N. -tru-m (202): arā-tro-, N. arā-tru-m, plough (arā-re); fer-etru-m, bier (√fer-, bear); rōs-tru-m, beak (√rōd-, peck). Sometimes -stro-: mōn-stru-m, warning (√mon-, mind); lu-stra, plural, fen, jungle (√lu-, wash); lū-stru-m, purification (√lou-, wash). -trā-, N. -tra, F.: mulc-trā-, N. mulc-tra (also mulc-tru-m, Ne.), milking-pail (√mulg-, milk). -es-trā-: fen-estra, window.

241. -cro-, N. -cru-m, used when an l precedes: ful-cro-, N. ful-cru-m, couch-leg (√fulc-, prop). -cro- sometimes denotes the place where: ambulā-cru-m, promenade (ambulā-re); sometimes the effect: simulā-cru-m, likeness (simulā-re).

242. -culo-, N. -culu-m (202): pō-culo-, N. pō-culu-m, cup (√pō-, drink); fer-culu-m, tray (√fer-, bear). -culo- sometimes denotes the place where: cub-iculu-m, sleeping-room (√cub-, lie); cēnā-culu-m, originally dining-room, usually garret (cēnā-re).

243. -u-lo-, N. -u-lu-m- (202): chiefly after c or g: vinc-ulo-, N. vinc-ulu-m, bond (√vinc-, bind); cing-ulu-m, girdle (√cing-, gird). -u-lā-, N. -u-la, F., rēg-ula, rule (√rēg-, guide).

244. -bro-, N. -bru-m (202): crī-bro-, N. crī-bru-m, sieve (√cer-, crī-, sift); lā-bru-m, wash-basin (√lav-, wash). -brā-, N. -bra, F.: dolā-bra, chisel, mattock (dolā-re); late-bra, hiding-place (√lat-, hide).

245. -bulo-, N. -bulu-m (202): pā-bulo-, N. pā-bulu-m, fodder (√pā-, keep); vēnā-bulu-m, hunting-spear (vēnā-rī); pat-ibulu-m, pillory (√pat-, stretch). -bulo- sometimes denotes the place where: sta-bulu-m, standing-place, stall (√sta-, stand). -bulā-, N. -bula, F., rare: sū-bula, awl (√su-, sew); ta-bula, board (√ta-, stretch); fā-bula, talk (√fā-, talk).

(B.) DENOMINATIVES.

I. THE QUALITY.

246. The suffixes -io-, -iā-; -tā-, -tāt-, -tūt-, -tū-din-, are used to denote the Quality: as,

Stem. Nominative. From.

conlēg-io- conlēgium, colleagueship conlēgā-, N. conlēga, colleague

audāc-iā- audācia, boldness audāci-, N. audāx, bold

cīvi-tāt- cīvitās, citizenship cīvi-, N. cīvis, citizen

magni-tūdin- magnitūdō, greatness magno-, N. magnus, great

247. These abstracts are feminine, and come chiefly from adjectives or participles, except those in -io-, which are neuters, and come mostly from substantives. Sometimes the same stem takes two or more of these suffixes: as, clāri-tāt- or clāri-tūdin-, brightness (clāro-); iuven-tūt-, in poetry iuven-tāt- or iuven-tā-, youth (iuven-).

(1.) -io- (N. -iu-m), -iā- (N. -ia), -iē- (N. -iēs).

248. -iē- sometimes occurs as collateral form to -iā- (604); -io- or -iā- is sometimes attached to other suffixes: thus, -t-io-, -t-iā- (-t-iē-); -mōn-io-, -mōn-iā-; -cin-io-.

249. -io-, N. -iu-m, chiefly used in compounds, denotes belonging to, with a very wide range of meaning; many of these words are clearly neuter adjectives in -io- (305). Suffixed to personal names -io- often denotes the condition, action, or employment, which gives rise to the name; this meaning sometimes passes over to that of result, relation of persons, collection of persons, or place.

250. (a.) From simple noun stems: sen-io-, N. sen-iu-m, feeble old age (sen-); somn-iu-m, dream (somno-); sāv-iu-m, love-kiss (suāvi-); silent-iu-m, silence (silenti-); crepund-ia, plural, rattle (*crepundo-); mendāc-iu-m, lie (mendāci-); sōlāc-iu-m, comfort (*sōlāci-, comforting).

251. (b.) Direct compounds (377): aequinoct-iu-m, equinox (aequo-, nocti-); contubern-iu-m, companionship (com-, tabernā-); prīvilēg-iu-m, special enactment (prīvo-, lēg-).

252. (c.) Indirect compounds (377), chiefly from personal names: cōnsil-iu-m, deliberating together, faculty of deliberation, conclusion, advice, deliberative body (cōnsul-); auspic-iu-m, taking auspices, auspices taken (auspic-); rēmig-iu-m, rowing, oars, oarsmen (rēmig-); conlēg-iu-m, colleagueship, corporation (conlēgā-); aedific-iu-m, building (*aedific-, builder); perfug-iu-m, asylum (perfugā-).

253. -t-io- N. -t-iu-m, rare: servi-tio-, N. servi-tiu-m, slavery, slaves (servo-); calvi-tiu-m, baldness (calvo-).

254. -mōn-io-, N. -mōn-iu-m (202): testi-mōnio-, N. testi-mōniu-m, evidence (testi-); mātr-imōniu-m, marriage (mātr-); patr-imōniu-m, patrimony (patr-).

255. -cin-io-, N. -cin-iu-m, rare: latrō-cinio-, N. latrō-ciniu-m, robbery (latrōn-); patrō-ciniu-m, protection (patrōno-).

256. -iā-, N. -ia, is very common indeed, forming abstracts from nouns, mostly adjectives or present participles.

audāc-iā-, N. audāc-ia, boldness (audāci-); miser-ia, wretchedness (misero-); abundant-ia, plenty (abundanti-); scient-ia, knowledge (scienti-); mīlit-ia, warfare (mīlit-); victōr-ia, victory (victōr-); māter-ia, timber (māter-); custōd-ia, guard (custōd-).

257. -iē-, N. -iē-s: pauper-iē-, N. pauper-iē-s, moderate means (pauper-). Most stems in -iē- are primitive (222).

258. -t-iā-, N. -t-ia, is suffixed to a few adjective stems, chiefly in -o-: iūsti-tiā-, N. iūsti-tia, justice (iūsto-); mali-tia, wickedness (malo-); pudīci-tia, shamefastness (pudīco-); trīsti-tia, sadness (trīsti-).

259. -t-iē-, N. -t-iē-s, particularly as a collateral form of -t-iā- in the N., Ac., and Ab. singular (604): molli-tiē-, N. molli-tiē-s, softness (molli-).

260. -mōn-iā-, N. -mōn-ia (202): ācri-mōniā-, N. ācri-mōnia, sharpness (ācri-); parsi-mōnia, economy (parso-). Analogously from roots, quer-imōnia, complaint (√ques-, complain); al-imōnia, nurture (√al-, nurture).

(2.) -tā- (N. -ta), -tāt- (N. -tā-s), -tūt- (N. -tū-s), -tū-din- (N. -tū-dō).

261. -tā-, N. -ta: chiefly poetic: iuven-tā-, N. iuven-ta, youth (iuven-); senec-ta, age (sen-ec-).

262. -tāt-, N. -tā-s (202), is one of the very commonest suffixes.

pie-tāt-, N. pie-tā-s, dutifulness (pio-, 105); fēlīci-tā-s, happiness (fēlīci-); cīvi-tā-s, citizenship, the community (cīvi-); facili-tā-s, easiness, facul-tā-s, ability (facili-); cāri-tā-s, dearness (cāro-); auctōr-itā-s, authority (auctōr-); līber-tā-s, freedom (lībro-, 111, b); maies-tā-s, grandeur (maiōs-); volun-tā-s, wish (*volunti-, 179); venus-tā-s, grace (venusto-, 179); ae-tā-s, age (aevo-, 111, a); tempes-tā-s, kind of time, weather (tempes-).

263. -tūt-, N. -tū-s, only in iuven-tūt-, N. iuven-tū-s, youth (iuven-), senec-tū-s, age (senec-), servi-tū-s, slavery (servo-), and vir-tū-s, manhood (viro-, 111).

264. -tū-din-, N. -tū-dō, suffixed to adjective stems: magni-tūdin-, N. magni-tūdō, greatness (magno-); forti-túdō, courage (forti-); and to a few participles: cōnsuē-tūdō, custom (cōnsuēto-, 179); sollici-tūdō, anxiety (sollicito-); analogously valē-tūdō, health (*valēto-, valēre).

II. THE PERSON CONCERNED.

265. The suffixes -ārio-, -ōn-, -iōn-, -li-, -no-, and some others, are used to denote the Person concerned or occupied with a thing: as,

Stem. Nominative. From.

sīc-ārio- sīcārius, assassin sīcā-, N. sīca, dagger

āle-ōn- āleō, gambler āleā-, N. ālea, die

lūd-iōn- lūdiō, player lūdo-, N. lūdus, play

aedī-li- aedīlis, aedile aedi-, N. aedis, house

tribū-no- tribūnus, tribune tribu-, N tribus, tribe

III. THE PLACE.

266. Neuters with the suffixes -tōrio-, -ārio-, -īli-, -to-, or -ēto- are often used to denote the Place: as,

Stem. Nominative. From.

audī-tōrio- audī-tōrium, lecture-room audītōr-, N. audītor, hearer

aer-ārio- aerārium, treasury aer-, N. aes, money

ov-īli- ovīle, sheepfold ovi-, N. ovis, sheep

murt-ēto- murtēta, myrtlegroves murto-, N. murtus, myrtle

IV. DIMINUTIVES.

267. The suffixes -lo-, -lā-, or -cu-lo-, -cu-lā-, are used to form substantives with a Diminutive meaning. Diminutives may denote:

268. (1.) Actual smallness: as, secūricula, a little hatchet; ventulus, a bit of wind; spēcula, a ray of hope.

269. (2.) Imputed smallness: implying, (a.) admiration, affection, or compassion; (b.) contempt or irony. This diminutive, which usually serves to add point to sentences themselves of a playful, patronizing, or slurring character, is very hard to translate; little and small are often inadequate; old or poor will sometimes do; but usually recourse must be had to free translations adapted to the particular context: as,

ōrātiuncula, a gem of a speech, an attempt at a speech; mātercula, an anxious mother, poor mamma, dear mamma; lectulus, one’s own little bed; ānellus aureolus, a gay gold ring; Graeculī, our Greek cousins, the good people in Greece; Graeculus, a regular Greek, your gentleman from Greece; muliercula, a pretty girl, a lady gay, one of the gentler sex, a mere woman, an unprotected female, a maiden all forlorn; lacrimula, a wee tear, a crocodile tear; volpēcula, Master Reynard, dan Russel; tōnstrīcula, a common barber girl; popellus, rabble; nummulī, filthy lucre; mercēdula, an apology for pay; ratiuncula, a first rate reason; caupōnula, a low tavern.

270. Some diminutives have entirely lost the diminutive meaning: as, puella, girl, not necessarily little girl; others have changed their original meaning: as, avunculus, uncle, originally grandpapa; anguīlla, eel, originally little snake. Some words are only found in the diminutive form: as, stēlla, star (*ster-). Diminutives usually have the gender of their primitives; exceptions are rare: as, rāna, frog, F., rānunculus, tadpole, M.

(1.) -lo- (N., M. -lu-s, Ne. -lu-m), -lā- (N. -la).

271. Stems in -o-, -ā-, or a mute (-g-, -c-, -d-, or -t-), take -lo- or -lā-, which is usually preceded by -u- (202).

hortu-lo-, N. hortu-lu-s, little garden (horto-); oppidu-lu-m, hamlet (oppido-); serru-lā-, N. serru-la, little saw (serrā-); rēg-ulu-s, chieftain (rēg-); vōc-ula, a bit of a voice (vōc-); calc-ulu-s, pebble (calci-); nepōt-ulu-s, a grandson dear (nepōt-); aetāt-ula, tender age (aetāt-).

272. Stems in -eo-, -io-, or -vo-, retain -o- before -lo-; stems in -eā-, -iā-, or -vā-, also have -o- before -lā-.

alveo-lo-, N. alveo-lu-s, little tray (alveo-); gladio-lu-s, little sword (gladio-); servo-lu-s, little slave (servo-); nauseo-lā-, N. nauseo-la, a slight squeamishness (nauseā-); bēstio-la, little animal (bēstiā-); fīlio-la, little daughter (fīliā-).

273. Stems in -lo-, -ro-, -no-, and -lā-, -rā-, -nā-, commonly drop the stem vowel and assimilate -r- or -n- to -l-: thus: -el-lo-, -el-lā- (111, b; 166, 6, 7).

catel-lo-, for *catululo-, N. catel-lu-s, puppy (catulo-); agel-lu-s, little field (agro-); asel-lu-s, donkey (asino-); fābel-lā-, N. fābel-la, short story (fābulā-); umbel-la, sunshade (umbrā-); pāgel-la, short page (pāginā-). A few words are not thus changed: pueru-lo-, N. pueru-lu-s, poor boy (puero-), as well as puel-lu-s.

274. Another vowel than e (172, 3) appears in: Hispāl-lu-s (Hispāno-), Messāl-la (Messānā-), proper names; corōl-la, chaplet (corōnā-); ūl-lu-s, the least one, any at all (ūno-); Sūl-la (Sūrā-), proper name; lapil-lu-s, for *lapid-lu-s, pebble (lapid-). Also homul-lu-s, son of the dust (homon-).

(2.) -cu-lo- (N., M. -cu-lu-s, Ne. -cu-lu-m), -cu-lā- (N. -cu-la).

275. Stems in a continuous sound (-l-, -n-, -r-, or -s-), or in -i-, -u-, or -ē-, usually take -cu-lo- or -cu-lā-.

sermūn-culo-, N. sermūn-culu-s, small-talk (sermōn-); virgun-culā-, N. virgun-cula, little maid (virgon-); homun-culu-s, son of earth (homon-); arbus-cula, tiny tree (arbos-); cor-culu-m, heart of hearts (cord-, 170, 12); igni-culu-s, spark (igni-); ani-cula, grandam (anu-); diē-cula, brief day (diē-); analogously, volpē-cula (vixen), little fox (*volpē-). Rarely with ī: canī-cula, little dog (can-).

276. -un-culo-, N. -un-culu-s: av-unculo-, N. av-unculu-s, uncle (avo-); rān-unculu-s, tadpole (rānā-). -un-culā-, N. -un-cula: dom-unculā-, N. dom-uncula, little house (domo-).

277. Diminutives are sometimes formed from other diminutives: cistel-lu-la, casket (cistel-la, cistu-la, cistā-).

278. A few other suffixes have a diminutive meaning: as, -ciōn-, -leo-, -astro-, -ttā-: homun-ciō, manikin, child of dust (homon-); acu-leu-s, sting (acu-); Antōni-aster, regular little Antony; pīn-aster, bastard pine; Iūli-tta, Juliet (Iūliā-); Pōlli-tta, little Polla (Pōllā-).

V. PATRONYMICS.

279. Patronymics, or proper names which denote descent from a father or ancestor, have stems in -dā- (N. -dē-s), F. -d- (N. -s). These are chiefly Greek names used in poetry.

Prīami-dā-, N. Prīami-dē-s, scion of Priam’s house; Tantali-d-, N. Tantali-s, daughter of Tantalus. Pēlī-dē-s (Pēleu-s); Aenea-dē-s (Aenēā-); Thestia-dē-s (Thestio-); Lāertia-dē-s (Lāertā-); Scīpia-dā-s (Scīpiōn-). F. sometimes -īnē or -ōnē: Neptūnīnē (Neptūno-); Acrisiōnē (Acrisio-).

II. THE ADJECTIVE.

(A.) PRIMITIVES.

280. Primitive adjectives may usually be divided into active and passive; but the same suffix often has either an active or a passive meaning. Under primitive adjectives belong the participles; but these will be mentioned in connection with the verb.

I. WITH AN ACTIVE MEANING.

281. The suffixes -o-, -uo-, -ci-, -lo-, and -do-, are used to form adjectives with an Active meaning: as,

Stem. Nominative. From.

vag-o- vagus, wandering √vag-, wander

contig-uo- contiguus, touching com-, √tag-, touch

minā-ci- mināx, threatening minā-rī, threaten

cali-do- calidus, warm √cal-, warm

(1.) -o- (N. -u-s); -uo- (N. -uu-s).

282. -o- (N. -u-s): such words express nature or capacity: vag-o-, N. vag-u-s, roaming (√vag-, roam); vīv-u-s, living (√vīv-, live); many are compounds: as, male-dic-u-s, abusive (male, √dic-, say); pro-fug-u-s, flying on (prō-, √fug-, fly). Passive: fīd-u-s, trustworthy (√fīd-, trust).

283. -uo-, N. -uu-s: adsid-uo-, N. adsid-uu-s, unremitting (ad, √sed-, sit); contig-uu-s, touching (com-, √tag-, touch); perpet-uu-s, uninterrupted (per, √pet-, go). Some words are passive: as, sal-vu-s, safe (√sal-, save); vac-uu-s, empty (√vac-, empty); relic-uo-s, left behind (re-, √liqu-, leave), later reliquos, relicus, reliquus (157).

(2.) -ci- (N. -x); -lo- (N. -lu-s); -do- (N. -du-s).

284. -ā-ci-, N. -ā-x (202), denotes capacity, habit, or inclination, often implying censure: pugnā-ci-, N. pugnā-x, full of fight (pugnā-re); minā-x, threatening (minā-ri); fer-āx, productive (√fer-, bear); dic-āx, full of mother-wit, quick at a joke (√dic-, say); rap-āx, apt to snatch (√rap-, snatch).

285. -u-lo-, N. -u-lu-s (202), denotes simple action: as, pat-ulo-, N. pat-ulu-s, spreading (√pat-, spread); or inclination: as, bib-ulu-s, apt to drink (√bib-, drink).

286. The suffixes -undo- (-endo-), -bundo-, and -cundo- form a group and are possibly related to the suffix in -do-.

287. -do-, N. -du-s (202), denotes a state, and usually has a parallel verb in -ēre (368): cali-do-, N. cali-du-s warm (cf. calē-re); calli-du-s, knowing (cf. callē-re); niti-du-s, shining (cf. nitē-re); rarely in -ere: cup-idu-s, desirous (cf. cupe-re); flui-du-s, liquid (cf. flue-re); rapi-du-s, hurried (cf. rape-re). -i-do- becomes -i-di- in viri-di-s, green (cf. virē-re). -do- sometimes occurs in denominatives: herbi-du-s, grassy (herbā-).

288. -undo- (-endo-), N. -undu-s, (-endu-s) is the suffix of the gerundive, which was originally neither active nor passive (2238). In a few words from reflexives, which have become adjectives, it has a reflexive or active meaning: lāb-undo-, N. lāb-undu-s, gliding, slipping (lābī); ori-undu-s, arising (orīrī); sec-undu-s, following (sequī); volv-endu-s, rolling (volvī). See 899.

289. -bundo-, N. -bundu-s (202), has the meaning of an exaggerated present participle: freme-bundo-, N. freme-bundu-s, muttering away (√frem-, roar); treme-bundu-s, all in a flutter (√trem-, quiver); fur-ibundu-s, hot with rage (√fur-, rave); cōntiōnā-bundu-s, speaking a speech (cōntiōnā-rī); minitā-bundu-s, breathing out threatenings (minitā-rī); vītā-bundu-s, forever dodging (vītā-re).

290. -cundo-, N. -cundu-s, denotes permanent quality: fā-cundo-, N. fā-cundu-s, eloquent (√fā-, speak); īrā-cundu-s, choleric (īrā-scī); iū-cundu-s, pleasant, interesting (√iuv-, help).

II. WITH A PASSIVE MEANING.

291. The suffixes -li-, -ti-li-, -bili-, -tīvo-, -no-, and -mino-, are used to form adjectives with a Passive meaning: as,

Stem. Nominative. From.

fac-ili- facilis, easy to do √fac-, do

duc-tili- ductilis, ductile √duc-, draw

amā-bili- amābilis, lovable amā-re, love

mag-no- magnus, great √mag-, increase

(1.) -li-, (N. -li-s); -ti-li-, -bili- (N. -ti-li-s, -bili-s).

292. -i-li-, N. -i-li-s (202), denotes passive capability: fac-ili-, N. fac-ili-s, easy to do (√fac-, do); frag-ili-s, breakable, frail (√frag-, break); hab-ili-s, manageable, handy (√hab-, hold); nūb-ili-s, marriageable (√nūb-, veil).

293. -ti-li-, N. -ti-li-s, or -si-li-, N. -si-li-s (159), denotes capability or quality: as, duc-tili, N. duc-tili-s, capable of being drawn out, ductile (√duc-, draw); fis-sili-s, cleavable (√fid-, split); rā-sili-s, scraped (√rād-, scrape). Rarely active: as, fer-tili-s, productive (√fer-, bear).

294. -bili-, N. -bili-s (202), denotes passive capability like -i-li-, but is far more common: horr-ibili-s, exciting a shudder (cf. horrē-re); amā-bili-s, lovable (amā-re); flē-bili-s, lamentable (√flē-, weep). Rarely active: as, sta-bili-s, that can stand (√sta-, stand); penetrā-bili-s, piercing (penetrā-re). -ti-bili- (159), passive, rare: flexibili-s, flexible (√flec-, bend, 960).

295. -tīvo-, N. -tīvu-s, denotes the way a thing originated: as, cap-tīvu-s, captive (√cap-, take); sta-tīvu-s, set (√sta-, set).

(2.) -no- (N. -nu-s); -mino- (N. -minu-s).

296. -no-, N. -nu-s, an old passive participle suffix, denotes result: mag-nu-s (enlarged), great (√mag-, great); plē-nus, full (√plē-, fill). Neuter as substantive: dō-nu-m, gift (√dō-, give). Sometimes active: egē-nu-s, needy (egē-re, 192).

297. The suffix -mino- (for -meno-, 103, a) in its weakest form (135, 2) is found in a few substantives: as, alu-mnu-s, nursling (√al-, nurse). The endings -minī (730) and -minō (731) are apparently case forms of the same suffix. -minō would seem to be an ablative; -minī may be a nominative plural.

(B.) DENOMINATIVES.

298. Denominative adjectives may be divided into such as denote: I. Material or Resemblance. II. Appurtenance: implying sometimes possession, often fitness, conformity, character, or origin. III. Supply. IV. Diminutives. V. Comparatives and Superlatives; a few of these are primitive.

I. MATERIAL OR RESEMBLANCE.

299. The suffixes -eo- and -n-eo- are used to form adjectives denoting Material or Resemblance: as,

Stem. Nominative. From.

aur-eo- aureus, golden auro-, N. aurum, gold

ahē-neo- ahēneus, bronze (58) aes-, N. aes, bronze

300. -eo-, N. -eu-s: aur-eo-, N. aur-eu-s, golden, all gold, as good as gold (auro-); ferr-eu-s, iron (ferro-); pulver-eu-s, all dust (pulver-); virgin-eu-s, girlish (virgin-).

301. -n-eo-, N. -n-eu-s: ahē-neu-s, bronze (ahē-, 58; aes-); quer-neu-s, oaken (quercu-). -no- is usually poetical: as, ebur-nu-s, ivory (ebur-); quer-nu-s, oaken (quercu-). -ā-neo-, N. -ā-neu-s: miscell-āneu-s, mixed (miscello-).

II. APPURTENANCE.

302. The suffixes -o-, -io-, -vo-; -timo-, -li-, -no-; -bri-, -cri-, -tri-; -co-, -ti-, -si-, are used to form adjectives denoting Belonging to: as,

Stem. Nominative. From.

rēg-io- rēgius, kingly rēg-, N. rēx, king

mari-timo- maritimus, of the sea mari-, N. mare, sea

rēg-āli- rēgālis, of a king rēg-, N. rēx, king

can-īno- canīnus, of a dog can-, N. canis, dog

mulie-bri- muliebris, womanly mulier-, N. mulier, woman

cīvi-co- cīvicus, citizen’s cīvi-, N. cīvis, citizen

(1.) -o- (N. -u-s), -io- (N. -iu-s), -vo- (N. -vu-s).

303. -o-, N. -u-s: decōr-o-, N. decōr-u-s, becoming (decōr-); canōr-u-s, melodious (canōr-); pervius, passable (via-).

304. -io- is one of the commonest suffixes, and is often added to other suffixes; thus: -c-io-, -īc-io-; -tōr-io- (-sōr-io-); -ār-io-.

305. -io-, N. -iu-s: rēg-io-, N. rēg-iu-s, of or like a king (rēg-); patr-iu-s, of a father (patr-). Here belong many gentile names: as, Sēst-iu-s (Sexto-). These are used with substantives as adjectives: as, lēx Cornēl-ia, lēx Iūl-ia. Furthermore patrial adjectives: as, Corinth-iu-s, Corinthian (Corintho-). In some, consonant -io- is used: plēbē-iu-s, of the commons (plēbē-). -io- is rare in primitives: exim-iu-s, select (ex, √em-, take).

306. -c-io-, N. -c-iu-s (202): aedīli-cio, N. aedīli-ciu-s, of an aedile (aedīli-); patr-iciu-s, of the fathers (patr-); later-iciu-s, of brick (later-).

307. -īc-io-, N. -īc-iu-s: nov-īcio-, N. nov-īciu-s, new, new-comer (novo-); nātāl-īciu-s, birthday’s (nātāli-); caement-īciu-s, rubble (caemento-). Usually suffixed to perfect participles to denote the quality derived from the past act: conduct-īciu-s, hired (conducto-); trālāt-īciu-s, transferred (trālāto-).

308. -tōr-io-, N. -tōr-iu-s, or -sōr-io-, N. -sōr-iu-s, from the agent (205) in -tōr- (-sōr-), is the commonest ending with -io-: imperā-tōrio-, N. imperā-tōriu-s, of a commander (imperātōr-). The neuter, as substantive, denotes the place where (266): audī-tōriu-m, lecture-room (audītōr-); dēvor-sōriu-m, inn (dēvorsōr-).

309. -ār-io-, N. -ār-iu-s, very common, is chiefly added to substantives: as, agr-ārio-, N. agr-āriu-s, of land (agro-). Often as substantive: not-āriu-s (265), stenographer (notā-); aer-āriu-m (266), treastury (aer-); sēmin-āriu-m, nursery (sēmin-); bell-āria, plural, goodies, bonbons (bello-).

310. -ī-vo-, N. -ī-vu-s (202): tempest-īvu-s, seasonable (tempestāt-, 126); aest-īvu-s, summer’s (aestāt-). See 179.

(2.) -timo- (N. -timu-s); -li- (N. -li-s); -no- (N. -nu-s).

311. -timo-, N. -timu-s (202), for an older -tumo- (28): mari-timo-, N. mari-timu-s, of the sea (mari-); fīni-timu-s, of the border (fīni-); lēg-itimu-s, lawful (lēg-).

312. -li- N. -li-s: humi-li-, N. humi-li-s, lowly (humo-); but almost always in denominatives -li- is preceded by a long vowel (202), usually -ā- or -ī-, thus: -ā-li- (-ā-ri-), -ī-li; -ē-li-, -ū-li-.

313. -ā-li-, N. -ā-li-s: rēg-āli-, N. rēg-āli-s, kingly (rēg-); decemvir-āli-s, of a decemvir (decemviro-); fāt-āli-s, fated (fāto-); t-āli-s, such (stem to-, that); qu-āli-s, as (quo-), -ā-ri-, N. -ā-ri-s, is used for -āli- if an l precedes (173): as, mol-āri-, N. mol-āri-s, of a mill (molā-); mīlit-āri-s, of a soldier (mīlit-). Neuters in -āli- and -āri- often become substantives (600): fōc-āle, neckcloth (fauci-); anim-al, breathing thing (animā-); calc-ar, spur (calci-).

314. -ī-li-, N. -ī-li-s: cīv-īli-, N. cīv-īli-s, of a citizen (cīvi-); puer-ili-s, boyish (puero-). The neuter, as substantive, sometimes denotes the place where (266): ov-īle, sheepfold (ovi-).

315. -ē-li, N. -ē-li-s: fidē-li-, N. fidē-li-s, faithful (fidē-); crūd-ēli-s, cruel (crūdo-); patru-ēli-s, cousin (patruo-). -ū-li-, N. -ū-li-s: tribū-li-, N. tribū-li-s, tribesman (tribu-).

316. The old participle suffix -no- (296) is sometimes added at once to noun stems, sometimes to other suffixes: thus, -ā-no-, -ī-no-; -ti-no-, -tī-no-; -er-no-, -ur-no-.

317. -no-, N. -nu-s, is added to stems formed with the comparative suffix -ero- or -tero- (347), denoting place: super-no-, N. super-nu-s, above; inter-nu-s, internal (inter); exter-nu-s, outside; so, also, alter-nu-s, every other (altero-); and to a very few substantives: as, pater-nu-s, fatherly (patr-); frāter-nu-s, brotherly (frātr-); vēr-nu-s, of spring (vēr-). Also to cardinals, making distributives: as, bī-nī, two by two (for *dṷīnī, duo-, 161).

318. -ā-no-, N. -ā-nu-s (202): arcā-no-, N. arc-ānu-s, secret (arcā-); Rōma-nu-s, of Rome (Rōmā-); mont-ānu-s, of a mountain (monti-); oppid-ānu-s, of a town (oppido-). -i-āno-: Cicerōn-iāno-, N. Cicerōn-iānu-s, Cicero’s. Rarely -ā-neo-: mediterrā-neu-s, midland (medio-, terrā-).

319. -ī-no-, N. -ī-nu-s (202): mar-īno-, N. mar-īnu-s, of the sea; repent-īnu-s, sudden (repenti-); oftenest added to names of living beings: as, can-īnu-s, of a dog (can-); dīv-īnu-s, of a god (dīvo-); -ē-no-: lani-ēnu-s, ali-ēnu-s. Also to proper names: as, Plaut-īno-, N. Plaut-īnu-s, of Plautus (Plauto-); Alp-īnu-s, Alpine (Alpi-).

320. -ti-no-, N. -ti-nu-s, is used in some adjectives of time: crās-tinu-s, to-morrow’s (crās-); diū-tinu-s, lasting (diū); prīs-tinu-s, of aforetime (prī-, prae).

321. -tī-no-, N. -tī-nu-s, is used in a few words of place and time: intes-tīno-, N. intes-tinu-s, inward (intus); vesper-tīnu-s, at eventide (vespero-).

322. From words like frāter-nus (from *fratr(i)-nus, 111, b), pater-nus, exter-nus, inter-nus, arose a new suffix -terno-: as, hes-ternus, from the stem hes- (cf. her-ī, 154), and -erno- in hodiernus. From the adverb *noctur (νυκτωρ) was derived noctur-nus, by analogy to which diurnus was formed. Elsewhere the -ur of -urnus and the -tur- of -turnus belong to the stem: as, ebur-nus; tacitur-nus, from the agent *taci-tor (205).

(3.) -bri-, -cri-, -tri- (N. -ber or -bri-s, &c.).

323. -bri-, N. -ber or -bri-s: salū-bri-, N. salū-ber, healthy (salūt-); mulie-bri-s, womanly (mulier-).

324. -cri-, N. -cer or -cri-s (202): volu-cri-, N. volu-cer, winged (*volo-, flying); medio-cri-s, middling (medio-).

325. -tri-, N. -ter or -tri-s: eques-tri-, N. eques-ter, of horsemen (equit-, 152); sēmēs-tri-s, of six months (sex, mēns-). -es-tri- is used in a few words: camp-ester, of fields (campo-); silv-estri-s, of woods (silvā-).

(4.) -co- (N. -cu-s); -ti-, -si- (N. -s, -si-s).

326. -co- is often suffixed to -ti-, sometimes to -es-ti-; thus: -ti-co-, -es-ti-co-.

327. -co-, N. -cu-s: cīvi-co-, N. cīvi-cu-s, of a citizen (cīvi-); belli-cu-s, of war (bello-); vīli-cu-s, bailiff (vīllā-). -ā-co-, -ī-co-, -ū-co- (202): merā-cu-s, amī-cu-s, antī-cu-s, aprī-cu-s, postī-cu-s, pudī-cu-s, cadū-cu-s. -ti-co-, N. -ti-cu-s: rūs-tico-, N. rūs-ticu-s, of the country (rūs-). -es-ti-co-, N. -es-ti-cu-s: dom-esticu-s, of a house (domo-, domu-).

328. -ti- or -si- denotes belonging to a place; usually -ā-ti-, -ī-ti-, -es-ti-, -en-ti-; -ēn-si-, or -i-ēn-si-.

329. -ti-, N. -s: Tībur-ti-, N. Tībur-s, Tiburtine (Tībur-). -ā-ti-: quoi-āti-, N. quoi-ā-s, what countryman? (quoio-); Anti-ā-s, of Antium (Antio-); optim-ātēs, good men and true (optimo-). -ī-ti-: Samn-īti-, N. Samn-ī-s, Samnian (Samnio-). -en-ti-: Vēi-enti-, N. Vēi-ēn-s, of Vei (Vēio-). -es-ti-, N. -es-ti-s: agr-esti-, N. agr-esti-s, of the fields (agro-); cael-esti-s, heavenly (caelo-).

330. -ēn-si-, N. -ēn-si-s (202), from appellatives of place or proper names of place: castr-ēnsi-, N. castr-ēnsi-s, of a camp (castro-); circ-ēnsi-s, of the circus (circo-); Hispāni-ēnsi-s (temporarily) of Spain. -i-ēnsi-: Karthāgin-iēnsi-s, of Carthage (Karthāgin-).

III. SUPPLY.

331. The suffixes -to- or -ōso- are used to form adjectives denoting Supplied or Furnished with: as,

Stem. Nominative. From.

barbā-to- barbātus, bearded barbā-, N. barba, beard

ann-ōso- annōsus, full of years anno-, N. annus, year

(1.) -to- (N. -tu-s); -len-to- (N. -len-tu-s).

332. -to-, the perfect participle suffix, is sometimes added at once to a noun stem, sometimes to other suffixes, thus: -āto-, -īto-, -ēto-, -ūto-, -ento-, -lento-.

333. -to-, N. -tu-s: onus-to-, N. onus-tu-s, loaded (onus-); vetus-tu-s, full of years (*vetus-, year); iūs-tu-s, just (iūs-); hones-tu-s, honourable (*hones-); fūnes-tu-s, deadly (fūnes-). -ā-to-: barbā-tu-s, bearded (barbā-); dent-ātu-s, toothed (denti-); -ī-to-: aurī-tu-s, long-eared (auri-); -ū-to-: cornū-tu-s, horned (cornu-). -en-to-, N. -en-tu-s: cru-ento-, N. cru-entu-s, all gore (*cruenti-, *cruēre). As substantive, arg-entu-m (white metal), silver; flu-enta, plural, streams (fluenti-).

334. The neuter of stems in -to-, as a substantive, denotes the place where something, generally a plant, is found (266): arbus-tu-m, vineyard (arbos-); commonly preceded by -ē-, forming -ē-to- (202), usually plural: dūm-ēta, thorn-thickets (dūmo-); murt-ēta, myrtle-groves (murto-).

335. -len-to-, N. -len-tu-s (202): vīno-lento-, N. vīno-lentu-s, drunken (vīno-); sanguin-olentu-s, all blood (sanguin-); lūcu-lentu-s, bright (lūci-, 28); pulver-ulentu-s, dusty (pulver-). A shorter form -lenti- is rare: vi-olenti-, N. vi-olēn-s, violent (vi-); op-ulēn-s, rich (op-).

(2.) -ōso- (N. -ōsu-s).

336. -ōso- (sometimes -ōnso-, -ōsso-), N. -ōsu-s, full of, is very common indeed, -ōso- is sometimes attached to other suffixes, thus: -c-ōso-, -ul-ōso-, -ūc-ul-ōso-.

337. -ōso-, N. -ōsu-s: ann-ōso-, N. ann-ōsu-s, full of years; fōrm-ōnsu-s, fōrm-ōssu-s or fōrm-ōsu-s, shapely (fōrmā-); perīcul-ōsu-s, with danger fraught (perīculo-); mōr-ōsu-s, priggish, cross (mōr-); calamit-ōsu-s, full of damage (calamitāt-, 179); superstiti-ōsu-s, superstitious (superstitiōn-, 179); frūctu-ōsu-s, fruitful (frūctu-, 116, c); mont-uōsu-s, full of mountains (monti-, 202); cūri-ōsu-s, full of care (cūrā-); labōr-iōsu-s, toilsome (labōr-, 202).

338. -c-ōso-, N. -c-ōsu-s: belli-cōso-, N. belli-cōsu-s, warlike (bello-, bellico-). -ul-ōso-, N. -ul-ōsu-s: formīd-ulōso-, N. formid-ulōsu-s, terrible (formīdin-, 179). -ūc-ul-ōso-, N. -ūc-ul-ōsu-s: met-ū-culoso-, N. met-ū-culōsu-s, skittish (metu-).

IV. DIMINUTIVES.

339. Diminutives are formed from adjectives, as from substantives (267).

-lo-, N. -lu-s: aureo-lo-, N. aureo-lu-s, all gold, of precious gold, of red red gold, good as gold (aureo-); ebrio-lu-s, tipsy (ebrio-); parvo-lu-s, or parvu-lu-s, smallish (parvo-); frīgidu-lu-s, chilly (frigido-); vet-ulus, little old (vet-); tenellu-lu-s, soft and sweet (tenello-, tenero-); pulchel-lus, sweet pretty (pulchro-); bel-lu-s, bonny (bono-); novel-lu-s, newborn (*novolo-, novo-). -culo-, N. -culu-s: pauper-culo-, N. pauper-culu-s, poorish (pauper-); levi-culu-s, somewhat vain (levi-).

340. A peculiar class of diminutives is formed by adding -culo- to the comparative stem -ius- (346): as, nitidius-culo-, N. nitidius-culu-s, a trifle sleeker (nitidius-); longius-culu-s, a bit longer (longius-).

341. Adverbs sometimes have a diminutive form: as, bellē, charmingly; paullulum, a little bit; meliusculē, a bit better (340).

V. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.

342. Comparatives and superlatives are usually formed from the stem of the positive: as, dignior, worthier, dignissimus, worthiest, from digno-, stem of dignus. A few are formed directly from roots: thus, maior, greater, and maximus, greatest, are formed from the √mag-, and not from magno-, stem of magnus.

(1.) COMPARATIVE -ior, SUPERLATIVE -issimus.

343. The nominative of comparative adjectives ends usually in -ior, and that of superlatives in -issimus: thus,

Comparative. Superlative.

Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut.

-ior -ior -ius -issimus -issima -issimum

Positive. Comparative. Superlative.

altus, high, altior, higher, altissimus, highest.

trīstis, sad, trīstior, sadder, trīstissimus, saddest.

(2.) SUPERLATIVE -rimus.

344. Adjectives with the nominative in -er have the nominative of the superlative like the nominative of the positive with -rimus added (350): as,

Positive. Comparative. Superlative.

pauper, poor, pauperior, poorer, pauperrimus, poorest.

ācer, sharp, ācrior, sharper, ācerrimus, sharpest.

mātūrrimus occurs once (Tac.), for mātūrissimus, positive mātūrus, ripe.

(3.) SUPERLATIVE -limus.

345.

humilis, difficilis, and facilis,

similis, dissimilis, and gracilis,

have the nominative of the superlative in -limus, following l of the stem (350): as,

Positive. Comparative. Superlative.

humilis, lowly, humilior, lowlier, humillimus, lowliest.

THE COMPARATIVE SUFFIX.

346. The comparative suffix is -iōs-, which becomes in the singular, nominative masculine and feminine, -ior (154; 132), neuter nominative and accusative, -ius (107, c); in all other cases -iōr- (154).

347. Other comparative suffixes are -ro- or -ero-, and -tro- or -tero-, used in a few words, principally designating place: as, sup-erī, the upper ones, īnferī, the nether ones; ex-terī, outsiders, posterī, after-generations; alter, the other; uter, whether? which of the two? (for *quo-ter, 146); dexter, right.

348. Some words designating place have a doubled comparative suffix, -er-iōr-, or -ter-iōr-: as, sup-er-ior, upper, īnferior, lower. ci-ter-ior, hither, dēterior (lower), worse, exterior, outer, interior, inner, posterior, hinder, after, ulterior, further, dexterior, more to the right, -is-tro- is used in two words which have become substantives: min-is-ter (inferior), servant, and magister (superior), master.

THE SUPERLATIVE SUFFIX.

349. The common superlative suffix is -issimo-, nominative -issimus, with older -issumo-, nominative -issumus (28).

350. Stems which end in -ro-, -ri-, or -li- (344, 345) take the suffix -issimo- (cf. -simo-, 351) with syncope of its initial i (111) and assimilation of the final l or r (166, 8).

351. The suffix -timo- is further used in a few root superlatives: ci-timus, dextimus, extimus, intimus, optimus, postumus, and ultimus; and -simo- in maximus, pessimus, and proximus.

352. The suffix -mo- or -imo- is used in sum-mo-, N. summus, highest (sub); min-imo-, N. minimus, least; prīmus, first, septimus, seventh, decimus, tenth. -mo- or -imo- is attached to -is- (135, 2) in plūrimus for *plō-is-imo-s (fullest), most (99); and to -rē- or -trē-, possibly an adverbial form (705), in suprēmus, extrēmus, and postrēmus.

PECULIARITIES OF COMPARISON.

353. Some positives have a comparative or superlative, or both, from a different form of the stem: such are,

frūgī, thrifty, frūgālior, frūgālissimus.

nēquam, naughty, nēquior, nēquissimus.

iuvenis, young, iūnior, (nātū minimus).

senex, old, senior, (nātū maximus).

magnus, great, maior, maximus (351).

beneficus, kindly, beneficentior, beneficentissimus.

honōrificus, complimentary, honōrificentior, honōrificentissimus.

magnificus, grand, magnificentior, magnificentissimus.

354. iuvenior, younger, is late (Sen., Plin., Tac.). benevolēns, kindly, benevolentior, benevolentissimus, and maledīcēns, abusive, maledīcentior (once each, Plaut.), maledīcentissimus, have usually as positive benevolus and maledicus respectively.

355. Some positives have a comparative or superlative, or both, from a wholly different stem: such are,

bonus, good, melior, optimus (351).

malus, bad, peior, pessimus (351).

multus, much, plūs (sing. Ne. only), plūrimus (352).

parvus, little, minor, minimus (352).

parvus has rarely parvissimus.

356. Four comparatives in -erior or -terior, denoting place (348), have two forms of the superlative; the nominative masculine singular of the positive is not in common use:

exterior, extimus (351), or extrēmus (352), outermost.

īnferior, īnfimus, or īmus, lowest.

posterior, postumus (351), lastborn, or postrēmus (352), last.

superior, summus (352), or suprēmus (352), highest.

357. Six, denoting place, have the positive only as an adverb or preposition:

cis, this side, citerior (348), citimus (351), hitherest.

dē, down, dēterior (348), dēterrimus, lowest, worst.

in, in, interior (348), intimus, inmost.

prae, before, prior, prīmus (352), first.

prope, near, propior, proximus (351), nearest.

uls, beyond, ulterior (348), ultimus (351), furthest.

ōcior, swifter, ōcissimus, has no positive.

358. These have a superlative, but no comparative: bellus, pretty, falsus, false, inclutus, famed, invictus, unconquered, invītus, unwilling, meritus, deserving, novus, new; vetus, veterrimus, old, sacer, sacerrimus, sacred, vafer, vaferrimus, sly; malevolus, malevolentissimus (twice, Cic.), spiteful; maleficus, maleficentissimus (once, Suet.), wicked, mūnificus, mūnificentissimus (inscrr.; Cic. once), generous, mīrificus, mīrificissimus (twice, Acc., Ter.), strange. Plautus has ipsissumus, his very self.

359. Most primitives in -ilis and -bilis (292, 294), have a comparative, but no superlative; but these have a superlative: facilis and difficilis (345), easy and hard, ūtilis, useful; also fertilis, productive, amābilis, lovable, mōbilis, movable, nōbilis, well known.

360. Many adjectives have no suffixes of comparison, and supply the place of these by magis, more, and maximē, most: as, mīrus, strange, magis mīrus, maximē mīrus. Many adjectives, from their meaning, do not admit of comparison.

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADVERBS.

361. Adverbs derived from adjectives have as their comparative the accusative singular neuter of the comparative adjective; the superlative is formed like that of the adjective, but ends in -ē: as,

altē, on high, altius, altissimē.

ācriter, sharply, ācrius, ācerrimē.

facile, easily, facilius, facillimē.

362. An older superlative ending, -ēd for -ē, occurs in an inscription of 186 B.C.: FACILVMED, i.e. facillimē. A few adverbs have superlatives in -ō or -um: as, meritissimō, most deservedly; prīmō, at first, prīmum, first; postrēmō, at last, postrēmum, for the last time.

363. If the comparison of the adjective has peculiarities, they are retained in the adverb likewise: as, bene, well, melius, optimē; male, ill, peius, pessimē; multum, much, plūs, plūrimum; mātūrē, betimes, mātūrius, mātūrissimē (Cic., Plin.), or mātūrrimē (Cic., Caes., Sall., Tac.). ōcius, swifter, no positive, ōcissimē. minus, less, is formed by the nominal suffix -es- (236), from √min- (minuō); for magis, more, see 135, 2. In poetry magis sometimes becomes mage, as if neuter of an adjective in -i-.

364. A few adverbs not derived from adjectives are compared: as, diū, long, diūtius, diūtissimē; saepe, often, saepius, saepissimē; nūper, lately, no comparative, nūperrimē; secus, otherwise, sētius, the less; temperī, betimes, temperius, earlier, no superlative.

(B.) FORMATION OF DENOMINATIVE VERBS.

365. Denominative verb stems have present infinitives in -āre, -ēre, or -īre (-ārī, -ērī, or -īrī), and are formed from noun stems of all endings: as,

Verb. From Noun.

fugā-re, rout fugā-, N. fuga

locā-re, place loco-, N. locus

nōminā-re, name nōmin-, N. nōmen

levā-re, lighten levi-, N. levis

sinuā-re, bend sinu-, N. sinus

albē-re, be white albo-, N. albus

miserē-rī, pity misero-, N. miser

flōrē-re, blossom flōr-, N. flōs

sordē-re, be dirty sordi-, N. sordēs

pūnī-re, punish poenā-, N. poena

condī-re, season condo-, N. condus

custōdī-re, guard custōd-, N. custōs

vestī-re, dress vesti-, N. vestis

gestī-re, flutter gestu-, N. gestus

366. These present verb stems are formed by adding the suffix -i̭o-, -i̭e- to the noun stem: as *fugā-i̭ō, I flee; the i̭ between two vowels was dropped (153, 2) and the final vowel of noun stem was often contracted with the ending (118, 3). The noun stem ending is often slightly modified.

367. In a half a dozen denominatives from stems in -u- the u of the noun stem remains without modification, and is not contracted with the variable vowel (116, c): these are, acuere, sharpen (acu-), metuere, fear, statuere, set, tribuere, assign; arguere, make clear, bātuere, beat.

368. Verbs in -āre are by far the most numerous class of denominatives; they are usually transitive; but deponents often express condition, sometimes occupation: as, dominārī, lord it, play the lord; aquārī, get oneself water. Most verbs in -īre also are transitive; those in -ēre usually denote a state: as, calēre, be warm; but some are causative: as, monēre, remind.

369. Many denominative verbs in -āre contain a noun suffix which is not actually found in the noun itself; such suffixes are: -co-, -cin-, -lo-, -er-, -ro-, -to-, &c.: as,

-co-: albi-cāre, be white (*albi-co-); velli-cāre, pluck (*velli-co-, plucker). -cin-: latrō-cinārī, be a robber (latrōn-); sermō-cinārī, discourse (sermōn-). -lo-: grātu-lārī, give one joy (*grātu-lo-); vi-olāre, harm (*vi-olo-); heiu-lāri, cry ‘heia’ (*heiu-lo-). -er-: mod-erārī, check (*mod-es-, 236). -ro-: tole-rāre, endure (*tole-ro-); flag-rāre, blaze (*flag-ro-). -to-: dēbili-tāre, lame (*dēbili-to-); dubi-tāre, doubt (*dubi-to-).

370. Many denominatives in -āre are indirect compounds (377), often from compound noun stems which are not actually found. So, particularly, when the first part is a preposition, or the second is from the root fac-, make, ag-, drive, do, or cap-, take: as,

opi-tul-ārī, bear help (opitulo-); suf-fōc-āre, suffocate (*suf-fōc-o-, fauci-); aedi-fic-āre (housebuild), build (*aedific- or *aedifico-, housebuilder); sīgni-fic-āre, give token (*sīgnifico-); fūm-ig-āre, make smoke (*fūmigo-, smoker, fūmo-, √ag-); nāv-ig-āre, sail, and rēm-ig-āre, row (nāvi-, ship, and rēmo-, oar); mīt-ig-āre, make mild (mīti-); iūr-ig-āre, commonly iūr-g-āre, quarrel (iūr-); pūr-ig-āre, commonly pūr-g-āre, clean (pūro-); gnār-ig-āre, tell (gnāro-, narrāre, 169, 2; 133, 1); anti-cip-āre, take beforehand (*anticipo-, ante, √cap-); oc-cup-āre, seize (*occupo-); re-cup-er-āre, get back (*recupero-).

371. Many verbs in -tāre (-sāre), or -tārī (-sārī), express frequent, intense, or sometimes attempted action. These are called Frequentatives or Intensives; they are formed from perfect participle stems; but stems in -ā-to- become -i-to-: as,

cant-āre, sing (canto-); cess-āre, loiter (cesso-); amplex-ārī, embrace (amplexo-); habit-āre, live (habito-); pollicit-āri, make overtures (pollicito-); dormīt-āre, be sleepy (dormīto-); neg-itāre, keep denying (for *negā-tāre, with suffix -i-tāre, 910).

372. Some frequentatives in -tāre are formed from the present stem of a verb in -ere; the formative vowel before -tāre becomes i: as,

agi-tāre, shake (age-re); flui-tāre, float (flue-re); nōsci-tāre, recognize (nōsce-re); quaeri-tāre, keep seeking (quaere-re); scīsci-tārī, enquire (scīsce-re); vēndi-tāre, try to sell (vēnde-re).

373. A few frequentatives add -tā- to the perfect participle stem: as,

ācti-tāre, act often (ācto-); facti-tāre, do repeatedly (facto-); lēcti-tāre, read again and again (lēcto-); ūncti-tāre, anoint often (ūncto-). From a frequentative another frequentative is sometimes derived: as, dict-āre, dictate, dicti-tāre, keep asserting (dicto-).

374. Some verbs are found only as frequentatives: as, gust-āre, taste (*gusto-, √gus-, taste); put-āre, think (puto-, √pu-, clean); aegrōt-āre, be ill (aegrōto-).

375. A few verbs in -uriō, -urīre, express desire; such are called Desideratives: as, ēss-urīre or ēs-urīre, want to eat (edere, ēsse). A few in -ssō, -ssere, express earnest action; such are called Meditatives: as, lacē-ssō, lacē-ssere, provoke.

COMPOSITION.

376. In compounds, the fundamental word is usually the second, which has its meaning qualified by the first.

377. A Direct Compound is one formed directly from two parts: as, con-iug-, N. coniūnx, yoke-fellow (com-, together, √iug-, yoke); con-iungere, join together (com-, iungere); an Indirect Compound is one formed by the addition of a suffix to a direct compound: as, iūdic-io-, N. iūudicium, trial (iūdic-): iūdicā-re, judge (iūdic-).

378. A Real Compound is a word whose stem is formed from two stems, or an inseparable prefix and a stem, fused into one stem; an Apparent Compound is formed by the juxtaposition of an inflected word with another inflected word, a preposition, or an adverb.

I. COMPOSITION OF NOUNS.

(A.) REAL COMPOUNDS.

FORM OF COMPOUNDS.

379. If the first part is a noun, its stem is taken: as, Ahēno-barbus, Redbeard, Barbarossa; usually with weakening of a stem vowel (103-105): as, aurifex, jeweller (auro-). On other changes of the final vowel in the first member of compounds, see 174. Sometimes with disappearance of a syllable (179); as, *venēni-ficus, venē-ficus, poisoner (venēno-); or of a vowel (111): as, man-ceps, contractor (manu-); particularly before a vowel (119): as, magn-animus, great-souled (magno-). Consonant stems are often extended by i before a consonant: as, mōri-gerus, complaisant (mōr-).

380. Stems in -s-, including those in -er-, -or- and -ōr- (236), are sometimes compounded as above (379): as, nemori-vagus, woodranger; honōri-ficus, complimentary; but usually they drop the suffix and take i: as, opi-fex, work-man (oper-); foedi-fragus, truce-breaker (foeder-); volni-ficus, wounding (volner-); mūni-ficus, generous (mūner-); terri-ficus, awe-inspiring (terrōr-); horri-fer, dreadful, horri-sonus, awful-sounding (horrōr-).

381. The second part, which often has weakening of the vowel (102), is sometimes a bare root used as a stem (199), oftener a root with a formative suffix; or a noun stem, sometimes with its stem ending modified: as, iū-dic-, N. iūdex, juror (√dic-, declare); causi-dic-o-, N. causidicus, pleader (209); in-gen-io-, N. ingenium, disposition (√gen-, beget, 219); con-tāg-iōn-, N. contāgiō, touching together (√tag-, touch, 227); im-berb-i-, N. imberbis, beardless (barbā-).

MEANING OF COMPOUNDS.

382. Determinatives are compounds in which the second part keeps its original meaning, though determined or modified by the first part. The meaning of a determinative may often be best expressed by two words.

383. (1.) The first part of a determinative may be an adjective, an adverb, a preposition, or an inseparable prefix; the second part is a noun: as,

lāti-fundium, i.e. lātī fundī, broad acres; prīvi-lēgium, i.e. prīva lēx, special act; alti-sonāns, i.e. altē sonāns, high-sounding; con-discipulus, i.e. cum alterō discipulus, fellow-pupil; per-magnus, i.e. valdē magnus, very great; in-dignus, i.e. nōn dignus, unworthy.

384. (2.) The first part of a determinative may represent the oblique case of a noun, generally a substantive; the second part is a noun or verb stem. These compounds are called Objectives: as,

Accusative of direct object (1132), armi-ger, i.e. quī arma gerit, armour-bearer; dative of indirect object (1208), man-tēle, i.e. manibus tēla, handkerchief, napkin; genitive (1227), sōl-stitium, i.e. sōlis statiō, solstice; ablative instrumental (1300), tubi-cen, i.e. quī tubā canit, trumpeter; locative (1331), Troiu-gena, i.e. Troiae nātus, Troy-born; ablative locative (1350), nocti-vagus, night-wandering; monti-vagus, mountain-ranging.

385. Possessives are adjective compounds in which the meaning of the second part is changed. The second part of a possessive is always formed from a substantive, qualified by the noun, adverb, or inseparable prefix of the first part, and the whole expresses an attribute which something has: as,

longi-manus, longarms, long-armed; miseri-cors, tender-hearted; bi-linguis, two-tongued; magn-animus, greatheart, great-hearted; im-berbis, beardless.

(B.) APPARENT COMPOUNDS.

386. Apparent Compounds are formed:

387. (1.) By two nouns combined, one with an unchanging case ending, the other with full inflections: as, aquae-ductus, aqueduct; senātūs-cōnsultum, decree of the senate; pater-familiās, father of a family; vērī-similis, like the truth; in these words, aquae, senātūs, familiās, and vērī are genitives, and remain genitives, while the other part of the compound is declinable.

388. (2.) By a substantive with an adjective habitually agreeing with it, both parts being declined: as, rēs pūblica, the common-weal; rēs gestae, exploits; iūs iūrandum, oath; pecūniae repetundae, money claim.

389. (3.) By nouns, chiefly substantives, in the same case placed loosely side by side and making one idea. The two words may be used: (a.) Copulatively: as, ūsus-frūctus, use and enjoyment; pactum-conventum, bargain and covenant; duo-decim, two and ten, twelve; or (b.) Appositively: one word explaining the other (1045): as, Iuppiter, Jove the Father (94; 133); Mārspiter, Mars the Father, for Mārs pater.

390. (4.) From an original combination of an oblique case with a preposition: as, prōcōnsul, proconsul, from prō cōnsule, for a consul; ēgregius, select, from ē grege, out of the herd; dēlīrus, astray, mad, from dē līrā, out of the furrow.

II. COMPOSITION OF VERBS.

(A.) REAL COMPOUNDS.

391. Real Compounds are direct compounds of a verb with a preposition; the root vowel or diphthong of the verb is often weakened (102): as,

per-agere, put through, accomplish; ab-igere, drive away; ex-quīrere, seek out. The prefix, which was originally a separate adverb modifying the verb, is in poetry sometimes separated from the verb by another word; the disyllabic prepositions in particular often remain as juxtaposed adverbs (396).

392. Some prepositions are inseparable, that is, used only in composition: ambi-, round, an-, up, dis-, in two, apart, por-, towards, red-, re-, back, sēd-, sē-, by oneself, away: as, amb-īre, go round to; an-hēlāre, breathe up; dis-pellere, drive apart; por-rigere, stretch forth; red-dere, give back; sē-iungere, separate.

(B.) APPARENT COMPOUNDS.

393. Apparent Compounds are formed by the juxtaposition of:

394. (1.) A verb with a verb: faciō and fīō are added to present stems, mostly of intransitive verbs in -ēre; the -e- of the first verb is sometimes long, and sometimes short (130, 5): as, calē̆-facere, make warm (calēre); excandē̆-facere, make blaze (candēre); madē̆-facere, make wet (madēre). In these apparent compounds, the accent of faciō remains the same as in the simple verb: as, calē̆fácis.

395. (2.) A substantive with a verb: as, anim-advertere, pay heed to, animum advertere; vēnum-dare, or vēndere, sell, vēnum dare; vēn-īre, be sold, vēnum īre; lucrī-facere, make gain, lucrī facere; manū-mittere, set free.

396. (3.) An adverb with a verb: as, circum-dare, put round; satis-facere, satis-dare, give satisfaction; intro-īre, go inside; mālle, prefer, for magis velle (170, 2); nōlō, be unwilling, for ne volō; ne-scīre, hau-scīre, not know.

C. INFLECTION.

397. Inflection is the change which nouns, pronouns, and verbs undergo, to indicate their relation in a sentence.

The inflection of a noun or pronoun is often called Declension, and that of a verb, Conjugation.

(A.) INFLECTION OF THE NOUN.

398. The noun or pronoun is inflected by attaching case endings to the stem.

The endings, which are called case endings for brevity, indicate number as well as case, and serve also to distinguish gender words from neuters in the nominative and accusative singular of some stems, and of all plurals. These endings are nearly the same for stems of all kinds.

THE STEM.

399. The stem contains the meaning of the noun. Noun stems are arranged in the following order: (1.) stems in -ā-, in -o-, in a consonant, or in -i-; these are substantive, including proper names, or adjective; (2.) stems in -u- or -ē-; these are substantive only, and include no proper names.

400. In some instances, a final stem vowel is retained before a case ending which begins with a vowel: as, urbi-um, ācri-a, cornu-a, portu-ī, portu-um (116, c); in others the stem vowel blends inseparably with the vowel of the case ending: as, mēnsīs, dominīs (108, a).

401. Some nouns have more than one form of the stem: as,

sēdēs (476); femur, iecur (489); vās, mēnsis (492); vīrus, volgus (493); iter, nix, senex, &c. (500); vīs (518); caedēs (523); famēs, plēbēs (524); domus (594); angiportus, &c. (595). Many nouns have a consonant stem in the singular, and an -i- stem in the plural: see 516; most substantives in -iē- or -tiē- have a collateral form in -iā- or -tiā- (604). Some adjectives have two different stems: as, hilarus, hilara, hilarum, and hilaris, hilare; exanimus and exanimis.

GENDER.

402. There are two genders, Masculine and Feminine. Masculine and feminine nouns are called Gender nouns. Nouns without gender are called Neuter.

403. Gender is, properly speaking, the distinction of sex. In Latin, a great many things without life have gender in grammar, and are masculine or feminine.

404. Some classes of substantives may be brought under general heads of signification, as below, like the names of rivers and winds (405), which are usually of the masculine gender, or of plants (407), which are usually of the feminine. When the gender cannot be determined thus, it must be learned from the special rules for the several stems and their nominatives.

GENDER OF SOME CLASSES OF SUBSTANTIVES.

MASCULINES.

405. Names of male beings, rivers, winds, and mountains, are masculine: as,

Caesar, Gāius, Sūlla, men’s names; pater, father; erus, master; scrība, scrivener; Tiberis, the Tiber; Aquilō, a Norther; Lūcrētilis, Mt. Lucretilis.

406. The river names: Allia, Dūria, Sagra, Lēthē, and Styx are feminine. Also the mountain names Alpēs, plural, the Alps, and some Greek names of mountains in -a or -ē: as, Aetna, Mt. Etna; Rhodopē, a Thracian range. A few are neuter, as Sōracte.

FEMININES.

407. Names of female beings, plants, flowers, shrubs, and trees, are feminine: as,

Gāia, Glycerium, women’s names; mālus, apple-tree; quercus, oak; īlex, holm-oak; abiēs, fir.

408. Masculine are: bōlētus, mushroom, carduus, thistle, dūmī, plural, brambles, intibus, endive, iuncus, rush, oleaster, bastard olive, rubus, bramble, rumex, sorrel, scirpus, bulrush, and rarely fīcus, fig. Also some of Greek origin: as, acanthus, amāracus, asparagus, and crocus. Neuter are: apium, parsley, balsamum, balsam-tree, rōbur, heart of oak, and some names with stems in -er- (573).

MOBILE, COMMON, AND EPICENE NOUNS.

409. Mobile Nouns have different forms to distinguish sex: as, Iūlius, a man, Julius, Iūlia, a woman, Julia; cervus, stag, cerva, hind; socer, father-in-law, socrus, mother-in-law; victor, conqueror, victrīx, conqueress. Adjectives ‘of three endings’ (611), belong to this class.

410. Some nouns have one ending, but are applicable to either sex. Such are said, to be of Common Gender: as, adulēscēns, young man or young woman; dux, leader; īnfāns, baby, child; and many other consonant stems or stems in -i-, denoting persons. Adjectives ‘of two endings’ or ‘of one ending’ (611), belong to this class.

411. Epicenes have one ending and one grammatical gender, though applicable to animals of either sex. Thus, aquila, eagle, is feminine, though it may denote a he-eagle as well as a she-eagle; anatēs, ducks, feminine, includes drakes.

NEUTERS.

412. Infinitives, words and expressions quoted or explained, and letters of the alphabet, are neuter: as,

vīvere ipsum, mere living; istūc ‘taceō,’ your ‘I won’t mention;’ longum vale, a long goodbye; o Graecum, Greek O. But the letters have sometimes a feminine adjective, agreeing with littera understood.

VARIABLE GENDER.

413. Some substantives have different genders in the two numbers; the different gender is sometimes indicated by a difference of stem: as, epulum, neuter, epulae, feminine, feast. See balneum, frēnum, jocus, locus, margarīta, ostrea, rāstrum, in the dictionary.

NUMBER.

414. There are two numbers, the Singular used of one, the Plural of more than one.

415. ambō, both, and duo, two, nominative and accusative masculine and neuter, are the only remnants of an old Dual number, denoting two.

416. Some substantives, from their meaning, have no plural.

Such are: proper names: as, Cicerō, Cicero; Rōma, Rome; material and abstract substantives: as, oleum, oil, vīnum, wine, iūstitia, justice; and gerunds: as, regendī, of guiding. For the occasional use of the plural, 1105-1110.

417. Some substantives, from their meaning, have no singular.

Such are: names of persons of a class: as, maiōrēs, ancestors; superī, the beings above; mānēs, ghosts; of feasts, sacrifices, days: as, Sāturnālia, festival of Saturn; kalendae, first of the month; of things made of parts or consisting of a series of acts: as, arma, arms; artūs, joints; quadrīgae, four-in-hand; exsequiae, funeral rites; of some places: as, Faleriī; Vēī; Pompēī; Athēnae, Athens; Alpēs, the Alps.

418. Some substantives have different meanings in the two numbers: as,

aedis, temple, aedēs, house; auxilium, aid, auxilia, auxiliaries; carcer, jail, carcerēs, race-barriers; Castrum, Castle, castra, camp; comitium, meeting-place, comitia, election; cōpia, abundance, cōpiae, troops; facultās, ability, facultātēs, wealth; fīnis, end, fīnēs, boundaries; grātia, favour, grātiae, thanks; impedīmentum, hindrance, impedīmenta, baggage; littera, letter (of the alphabet), litterae, epistle; rōstrum, beak, rōstra, speakers stand. See also aqua, bonum, fortūna, lūdus, opera, pars, in the dictionary.

CASE.

419. Nouns have five cases, the Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative.

The nominative represents a noun as subject, the accusative as object; the genitive denotes the relation of of, the dative of to or for, and the ablative of from, with, in, or by. But the meanings of the cases are best learnt from reading. All cases but the nominative and vocative (420) are called Oblique Cases.

420. Town names and a few appellatives have also a case denoting the place where, called the Locative. Masculine stems in -o- and some Greek stems with other endings have still another form used in addressing a person or thing, called the Vocative.

421. The stem of a noun is best seen in the genitive; in the genitive plural it is preserved without change, except that o of -o- stems is lengthened (123). In dictionaries the stem ending is indicated by the genitive singular, thus: -ae, -ī, -is, -ūs (-ĕī), indicate respectively stems in -ā-, -o-, a consonant or -i-, -u-, and -ē-, as follows:

Genitive Singular. Genitive Plural. Stems in.

-ae, mēnsae, table -ārum, mēnsā-rum -ā-, mēnsā-, N. mēnsa

-ī, dominī, master -ōrum, dominō-rum -o-, domino-, N. dominus

-is, rēgis, king -cons. um, rēg-um -consonant, rēg-, N. rēx

-is, cīvis, citizen -ium, cīvi-um -i-, cīvi-, N. cīvis

-ūs, portus, port -uum, portu-um -u-, portu-, N. portus

(ĕ̄ī, rĕ̄ī), thing (-ērum, rē-rum) -ē, rē-, N. rēs

422. Gender nominatives usually add -s to the stem: as, servo-s or servu-s, slave, rēx (164, 1), cīvi-s, portu-s, rē-s. But stems in -ā- or in a continuous consonant (-l-, -n-, -r-, or -s-) have no -s: as, mēnsa, cōnsul, consul, flāmen, special priest, pater, father, flōs, flower.

423. Neuters have the nominative and accusative alike; in the singular the stem is used: as nōmen, name; or a shortened stem: as, exemplar, pattern; but stems in -o- take -m: as, aevo-m or aevu-m, age. In the plural -a is always used: as, rēgna, kingdoms, nōmina, cornua, horns. For -s in adjectives ‘of one ending,’ see 612.

424. Gender accusatives singular add -m to the stem: as, mēnsa-m, servo-m or servu-m, nāvi-m, ship, portu-m, die-m. The consonant stems have the ending -em: as, rēg-em; most substantive stems in -i- and all adjectives also drop -i- and take -em: as, nāv-em, trīst-em, sad. In the plural, gender stems add -s before which the vowel is long: as, mēnsā-s, servō-s, rēgē-s, nāvī-s or nāvē-s, portū-s, rē-s.

425. The ablative singular usually ends in the long vowel of the stem: as, mēnsā, dominō, nāvī, portū, rē. The ablative of consonant stems usually has -e (rarely -ī-, see 502): as, patre, father; and that of substantive -i- stems has -e more commonly than -ī: as, nāve.

426. The ablative singular of -ā- and -o- stems ended anciently in -ād and -ōd respectively: as, PRAIDAD, PREIVATOD; that of consonant stems in -īd: as, AIRID, COVENTIONID. But -d is almost entirely confined to inscriptions and disappeared early (149).

427. The genitive plural adds -rum to -ā-, -o-, and -ē- stems: as, mēnsā-rum, dominō-rum, rē-rum; and -um to consonant stems, -i- stems, and -u- stems: as, rēg-um, cīvi-um, portu-um.

428. The dative and ablative plural are always alike: stems in -ā- and -o- take -is, which blends with the stem vowel (400): as, mēnsīs, dominīs; other stems have -bus, before which consonant stems are extended by i: as, rēgi-bus, nāvi-bus, portu-bus or porti-bus, rē-bus.

429. Some pronouns and a few adjectives have some peculiar case endings; see 618-694.

430. Many nouns are defective in case.

Thus, many monosyllables have no genitive plural: as, aes, copper, cor, heart, cōs, whetstone, dōs, dowry, ōs, face, pāx, peace, pix, pitch, rōs, dew, sāl, salt, lūx, light; many words have no genitive, dative, or ablative plural: as, hiemps, winter; especially neuters: as, fār, spelt, fel, gall, mel, honey, pūs, matter, rūs, country, tūs, frankincense. Many words in -tu- (-su-) have only the ablative (235). For -ē- stems, see 600. Other words more or less defective are exlēx, exspēs, fās and nefās, īnfitiās, inquiēs, īnstar, luēs, nēmō, opis and vicis genitives, pondō and sponte ablatives, secus, vīs. Many adjectives ‘of one ending’ want the nominative and accusative neuter plural and genitive plural.

431. Some adjectives are altogether indeclinable: as, frūgī, thrifty, an old dative; nēquam, naughty, an old accusative; quot, how many; tot, so many; and most numerals (637). These adjectives are attached to any case of a substantive without varying their own forms.

THE SUBSTANTIVE.

STEMS IN -ā-.

The First Declension.

Genitive singular -ae, genitive plural -ā-rum.

432. Stems in -ā- include substantives and adjectives; both substantives and adjectives are feminine.

433. Names of males are masculine (405): as, scrība, writer; also Hadria, the Adriatic, and rarely damma, deer, and talpa, mole.

434. The nominative of stems in -ā- ends in the shortened stem vowel -a.

435. Stems in -ā- are declined as follows:

Example Stem mēnsa, table, mēnsā-, F. Stem and case endings

Singular

Nom. mēnsa table, a (or the) table -a

Gen. mēnsae a table’s, of a table -ae

Dat. mēnsae to or for a table -ae

Acc. mēnsam a table -am

Abl. mēnsā from, with, or by a table -ā

Plural

Nom. mēnsae tables (or the) tables -ae

Gen. mēnsārum tables’, of tables -ārum

Dat. mēnsīs to or for tables -īs

Acc. mēnsās tables -ās

Abl. mēnsīs from, with, or by tables -īs

SINGULAR CASES.

436. -ā- of the stem was shortened in the nominative and accusative singular at an early period (130, 132). A few apparent examples of the nominative in -ā, found in the oldest writers, seem due to metrical causes: as, aquilā́ (Enn.). But -ā occurs in Greek proper names (445). A couple of old masculine nominatives in -ās are quoted (422): pāricīdās, murderer, and hosticapās, taker of enemies. In the accusative singular -ām occurs once: inimīcitiā́m (Enn.).

437. The genitive sometimes ends (1.) in -āī in poetry: as, aulāī, of the hall; pīctāī, embroidered; (2.) in -ās: as, molās, of a mill. This genitive is rare, but was always kept up in the word familiās with pater or māter, sometimes with fīlius or fīlia: pater familiās, the goodman, māter familiās, the housewife. But pater familiae, or in the plural patrēs familiārum, is equally common.

438. Town names and a few appellatives have a locative case in -ae: as, Rōmae, at Rome, in Rome; mīlitiae, in war, in the field, in the army.

PLURAL CASES.

439. Compounds ending with -cola, inhabiting, and -gena, born, and patronymics, sometimes have the genitive plural in -ū̆m in poetry: as, caelicolū̆m, of occupants of heaven; Graiugenū̆m, of Greek-born men; Aeneadū̆m, of Aeneas’s sons; also names of peoples: as, Lapithū̆m, of the Lapithae. With these last -ū̆m occurs even in prose: as, Crotōniātū̆m, of the Crotona people. Others in -ŭm are drachmŭm, amphorū̆m.

440. In the dative and ablative plural, -eis sometimes occurs (443): as, tueis ingrātieis, against your will (Plaut.). Nouns in -ia have rarely a single ī: as, pecūnīs, by moneys (Cic.); taenīs, with fillets (Verg.); nōnīs Iūnīs, on the fifth of June (Cic.). See 24.

441. In the dative and ablative plural, words in -āia, or plural -āiae, have -āīs, and those in -ēia have -ēīs (127, 7): as KAL. MAIS, on the calends of May (inscr.); Bāīs, at Bajae (Hor.); plēbēīs, plebeian.

442. The dative and ablative plural sometimes end in -ābus, particularly in deābus, goddesses, and fīliābus, daughters, to distinguish them from deīs, gods, and fīliīs, sons. ambae, both, and duae, two, regularly have ambābus and duābus.

443. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:

G. -ai, which may be monosyllabic or disyllabic in pronunciation: PVLCHRAI; LAVERNAI; -āēs, after 80 B.C., chiefly in proper names, mostly Greek: HERAES; rarely in appellatives: DOMINAES; -ēs: MINERVES; -ā, VESTA; COIRA, i.e. Cūrae. D. -ai, in all periods (96): FILIAI; -ā: FORTVNA; -ē (96): FORTVNE. Ac. -a (61): TAVRASIA; MAGNA SAPIENTIA. Ab. -ād (426): PRAIDAD. Loc. -ai: ROMAI. Plural: N. -ai (96): TABELAI DATAI; -ā, rare: MATRONA; -ē, rare and provincial (96): MVSTE, i.e. mystae. D. and Ab. -eis, very often (98): SCRIBEIS; D. -ās, once: DEVAS CORNISCAS, i.e. dīvīs Cornīscīs. Ab. -ēs once (98): NVGES, i.e. nūgīs.

GREEK NOUNS.

444. Greek appellatives always take a Latin form in the dative singular and in the plural, and usually throughout: thus, poēta, M., poet, and aula, F., court, are declined like mēnsa. Masculines have sometimes a nominative -ēs and accusative -ēn: as, anagnōstēs, reader, anagnōstēn; rarely an ablative -ē: as, sophistē, sophist. Greek feminines in -ē sometimes have Greek forms in late writers: as, N. grammaticē, philology, G. grammaticēs, Ac. grammaticēn, Ab. grammaticē (Quintil.).

445. Greek proper names sometimes have the following forms. Nominative masculine -ās, -ēs: as, Prūsiās, Atrīdēs; feminine -ā: as, Gelā, Phaedrā; -ē: as, Circē. Genitive feminine -ēs: as, Circēs. Accusative masculine -ān, -dēn: as, Aenēān, Pēlīdēn; feminine -ēn: as, Circēn. Ablative feminine -ē: as, Tīsiphonē. Vocative -ā or -a: as, Atrīdā, Atrīda, Thyesta; -tē: as, Boōtē; -dē: as, Aeacidē.

STEMS IN -o-.

The Second Declension.

Genitive singular -ī, genitive plural -ō-rum.

446. Stems in -o- include substantives and adjectives, masculine or neuter.

447. Most names of plants in -us are feminine (407); also the following: alvos or alvus, belly, colus, distaff, domus, house, humus, ground, vannus, fan.

448. The nominative of masculines ends, including the stem vowel, in -o-s, or usually -u-s; some end in -r; neuters end in -o-m, or usually -u-m.

449. (1.) Stems in -o- with the nominative in -us or -um are declined as follows:

Examples Stems dominus, master, domino-, M. rēgnum, kingdom, rēgno-, Ne. Stem and case endings

Singular M. Ne.

Nom. dominus, a (or the) master rēgnum -us -um

Gen. dominī, a master’s rēgnī -ī -ī

Dat. dominō, to or for a master rēgnō -ō -ō

Acc. dominum, a master rēgnum -um -um

Abl. dominō, from, with, or by a master rēgnō -ō -ō

Voc. domine, master -e