Part 2 — The Accusative of the Part Concerned. (continued 3)

1542. The present is very common in asseveration: as,

peream, nisi sollicitus sum, Fam. 15, 19, 4, may I die, if I am not worried. sollicitat, ita vīvam, me tua valētūdō, Fam. 16, 20, your state of health worries me, as I hope to live. ita vīvam, ut maximōs sūmptūs faciō, Att. 5, 15, 2, as I hope to be saved, I am making great outlays. See also 1622.

1543. The perfect subjunctive sometimes refers to past action now completed: as, utinam abierit malam crucem, Pl. Poen. 799, I hope he’s got him to the bitter cross (1165). utinam spem implēverim, Plin. Ep. 1, 10, 3, I hope I may have fulfilled the expectations.

1544. (2.) The imperfect represents a wish as hopeless in the present or immediate future, the pluperfect represents it as unfulfilled in the past: as,

(a.) tēcum lūdere sīcut ipsa possem, Cat. 2, 9, could I with thee but play, e’en as thy mistress’ self, to Lesbia’s sparrow. utinam ego tertius vōbīs amīcus adscrīberer, TD. 5, 63, would that I could be enrolled with you myself, as the third friend, says tyrant Dionysius to Damon and Phintias. (b.) utinam mē mortuum prius vīdissēs, QFr. 1, 3, 1, I wish you had seen me dead first. (c.) utinam nē in nemore Pēliō secūribus caesa accēdisset abiēgna ad terram trabēs, E. in Cornif. 2, 34, had but, in Pelion’s grove, by axes felled, ne’er fallen to the earth the beam of fir, i.e. for the Argo. utinam ille omnīs sēcum cōpiās ēdūxisset, C. 2, 4, I only wish the man had marched out all his train-bands with him.

1545. In old or poetical Latin, the imperfect sometimes denotes unfulfilled past action, like the usual pluperfect; as, utinam in Siciliā perbīterēs, Pl. R. 494, would thou hadst died in Sicily. utinam tē dī prius perderent, Pl. Cap. 537, I wish the gods had cut thee off before. See 2075.

1546. In poetry, a wish is sometimes thrown into the form of a conditional protasis with sī or ō sī: as, ō sī urnam argentī fōrs quae mihi mōnstret, H. S. 2, 6, 10, oh if some chance a pot of money may to me reveal.

(B.) Exhortation, Direction, Statement of Propriety.

1547. The subjunctive may be used to express an exhortation, a direction, or a statement of propriety.

The subjunctive of exhortation is sometimes preceded in old Latin by utī or ut, originally interrogative. In negative exhortations or directions, nē, nēmō, nihil, or numquam, &c., is used, rarely nōn.

1548. (1.) The present expresses what is to be done or is not to be done in the future: as,

(a.) hoc quod coepī prīmum ēnārrem, T. Hau. 273, first let me tell the story I’ve begun. taceam nunc iam, Pl. B. 1058, let me now hold my tongue. cōnsīdāmus hīc in umbrā, Leg. 2, 7, let us sit down here in the shade. nē difficilia optēmus, V. 4, 15, let us not hanker after impossibilities. (b.) HAICE · VTEI · IN · COVENTIONID · EXDEICATIS, CIL. I, 196, 23, this you are to proclaim in public assembly. (c.) nōmina dēclīnāre et verba in prīmīs puerī sciant, Quintil. 1, 4, 22, first and foremost boys are to know how to inflect nouns and verbs. utī adserventur magnā dīligentiā, Pl. Cap. 115, let them be watched with all due care. nē quis tamquam parva fastīdiat grammaticēs elementa, Quintil. 1, 4, 6, let no man look down on the rudiments of grammar fancying them insignificant.

1549. (2.) The perfect subjunctive is rare: as, idem dictum sit, Quintil. 1, 1, 8, the same be said, once for all. Mostly in prohibitions: as, morātus sit nēmō quō minus abeant, L. 9, 11, 13, let no man hinder them from going away.

1550. In positive commands, the second person singular often has a definite subject in old or epistolary Latin, and particularly sīs, for the imperative es or estō. Usually however an indefinite subject (1030): as,

(a.) eās, Pl. R. 519, be off. hīc apud nōs hodiē cēnēs, Pl. Most. 1129, dine here with us today. cautus sīs, mī Tirō, Fam. 16, 9, 4, you must be careful, dear Tiro. (b.) istō bonō ūtāre, dum adsit, CM. 33, enjoy this blessing while you have it with you.

1551. When a prohibition is expressed in the subjunctive, the second person of the present is often used in old Latin, sometimes the perfect. Later, however, the perfect is generally prevalent. In the classical period, the present is almost confined to poetry. For the imperative in prohibitions, see 1581-1586.

(a.) nē illum verberēs, Pl. B. 747, you mustn’t thrash the man. Once in Horace: nē sīs patruos mihī, S. 2, 3, 88, don’t play stern governor to me. (b.) nē trānsierīs Ibērum, L. 21, 44, 6, do not cross the Iberus. quod dubitās nē fēcerīs, Plin. Ep. 1, 18, 5, what you have doubt about, never do.

1552. (3.) The imperfect or (but not in old Latin) pluperfect subjunctive is sometimes used to express past obligation or necessity: as,

(a.) Imperfect: quae hīc erant cūrārēs, T. Hec. 230, thou shouldst have looked to matters here. paterētur, T. Hau. 202, he should have stood it. quod sī meīs incommodīs laetābantur, urbis tamen perīculō commovērentur, Sest. 54, well, if they did gloat over my mishaps, still they ought to have been touched by the danger to Rome. crās īrēs potius, Pl. Per. 710, you’d better have gone tomorrow, i.e. have resolved to go tomorrow. poenās penderēs, Pl. B. 427, thou hadst to pay a penalty. (b.) Pluperfect: restitissēs, rēpugnāssēs, mortem pugnāns oppetīssēs, Poet. in Sest. 45, thou shouldst have made a stand, fought back, and fighting met thy fate. quid facere dēbuistī? frūmentum nē ēmissēs, V. 3, 195, what ought you to have done? you should not have bought any wheat. Usually, however, past obligation or necessity is expressed by the gerundive construction, or by some separate verb meaning ought (1496).

(C.) Willingness, Assumption, Concession.

1553. The subjunctive of desire may be used to denote willingness, assumption, or concession: as,

ōderint dum metuant, Poet. in Suet. Cal. 30, they are welcome to hate, as long as they fear. nē sit sānē summum malum dolor, malum certē est, TD. 2, 14, grant for aught I care that pain is not the worst evil, an evil it certainly is. nīl fēcerit, estō, J. 6, 222, he may be guiltless, be it so.

II. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF ACTION CONCEIVABLE.

1554. The subjunctive is often used to represent action as conceivable, without asserting that it actually takes place.

In some of its applications, this subjunctive is often more exactly defined by an expression of doubt or of assurance: as, fors fuat an in Plautus, forsitan from Terence on (rarely forsan, fors), fortasse, may be, perhaps; opīnor, haud sciō an, I fancy; facile, easily, sine ūllā dubitātiōne, unhesitatingly, &c., &c. The negative used with this subjunctive is nōn.

1555. This subjunctive is particularly common in guarded or diffident statements: thus, velim, I could wish, nōlim, I should not be willing, mālim, I would rather, dīxerim, I should say, are often preferred to a blunter volō, I insist, nōlō, I won’t, mālō, I prefer, or dīcō, I say.

1556. The present denotes action in an indefinite future: as,

(a.) ego forsitan in grege adnumerer, RA. 89, as for me, I might perhaps be counted in the common herd. mūtuom argentum rogem, Pl. Tri. 758, money I might borrow. haud sciō an rēctē dīcāmus, Sest. 58, I rather think we may say with propriety. (b.) The second person singular generally has an imaginary subject (1030): as, dīcās hīc forsitan, J. 1, 150, here peradventure thou mayst say, i.e. anybody may say. rogēs mē quid sit deus, auctōre ūtar Simōnidē, DN. 1, 60, you may ask me what god is; I should follow the lead of Simonides. migrantīs cernās, V. 4, 401, thou canst descry them on the move (1635). Often with some generalizing word, such as saepe, numquam, plūrēs: as, saepe videās, H. S. 1, 4, 86, thou oft canst see. Fortūnam citius reperiās quam retineās, Publil. Syr. 168, dame Fortune thou mayst sooner find than bind. (c.) nunc aliquis dīcat mihi, H. S. 1, 3, 19, now somebody may say to me (more commonly dīcet aliquis, dīcēs, 1620). forsitan aliquis dīcat, L. 5, 52, 5, perhaps somebody may say. hoc vōbīs incrēdibile videātur, V. 3, 109, this may seem incredible to you.

1557. (1.) The perfect seldom occurs in old Latin. Later, it is rarely used of past time. In this use it resembles the perfect of concession (1553): as,

(a.) forsitan temere fēcerim, RA. 31, peradventure I may have acted rashly. errāverim fortasse, Plin. Ep. 1, 23, 2, I may have been mistaken perhaps. (b.) concēdō; forsitan aliquis aliquandō eius modī quippiam fēcerit, V. 2, 78, I grant it; perhaps somebody, at some time or other, may have done something of the sort. haec ipsa forsitan fuerint nōn necessāria, Br. 52, even this may perhaps have been superfluous.

1558. (2.) The perfect is oftenest used with a future meaning, and particularly the first person singular active of verbs meaning think or say: as,

(a.) nōn facile dīxerim, TD. 5, 121, I could not readily say. hoc sine ūllā dubitātiōne cōnfirmāverim, Br. 25, this I can assert without any hesitation. pāce tuā dīxerim, TD. 5, 12, by your leave I would say. The first person plural occurs first in Cornificius, and is rare: as, hunc deum rīte beātum dīxerīmus, DN. 1, 52, such a god we should be right in pronouncing happy. (b.) plānē perfectum Dēmosthenem facile dīxerīs, Br. 35, you would readily pronounce Demosthenes absolutely perfect (1030). tū vērō eum nec nimis valdē umquam nec nimis saepe laudāverīs, Leg. 3, 1, oh no, rest assured you never can praise him too emphatically nor too often. conluviem istam nōn nisi metū coērcuerīs, Ta. 14, 44, such a motley rabble you can only keep under by terrorism. (c.) forsitan quispiam dīxerit, Off. 3, 29, perhaps somebody may say.

1559. (1.) The imperfect properly denotes action which might have taken place in the past: as,

(a.) nōn ego hoc ferrem calidus iuventā cōnsule Plancō, H. 3, 14, 27, this I should not have brooked in my hot youth, in Plancus’ consulate. (b.) The second person singular, particularly of verbs meaning see, make out, think, say, generally has an imaginary subject (1030): as, vidērēs, H. S. 2, 8, 77, thou mightst have seen. cernerēs, L. 22, 7, 12, you might have descried. nescīrēs, L. 3, 35, 3, you could not have told. tē columen rē̆ī pūblicae dīcerēs intuērī, Sest. 19, you would have sworn you were gazing on a pillar of the state. (c.) quī vidēret, urbem captam dīceret, V. 4, 52, anybody who saw it, would have said it was a captured city. dīcī hoc in tē nōn potest, posset in Tarquiniō, cum rēgnō esset expulsus, TD. 1, 88, this cannot be said in your case; it might have been said in Tarquin’s, when he was driven from the throne. numquam faceret, T. Ph. 121, he never would have done it.

1560. (2.) The imperfect often denotes action not performed at the present time; so especially vellem (nōllem, māllem): as,

(a.) nimis vellem habēre perticam, Pl. As. 589, I wish so much I had a stick. vellem adesse posset Panaetius; quaererem ex eō, TD. 1, 81, I only wish Panaetius could be with us: I should ask him (Panaetius was dead). cuperem voltum vidēre tuum, Att. 4, 16, 7, I should like to see the expression of your face. māllem Cerberum metuerēs, TD. 1, 12, I would rather you stood in dread of Cerberus. possem idem facere, TD. 1, 84, I could do the same. (b.) melius sequerēre cupīdine captam, O. 14, 28, better for thee it were a loving bride to woo. (c.) in hāc fortūnā perūtilis eius opera esset, Att. 9, 17, 2, in the present pinch his services would be extremely valuable.

1561. The pluperfect represents action which did not take place in the past: as,

(a.) vellem quidem licēret: hoc dīxissem, RA. 138, I only wish it were allowed; I should have said so and so. (b.) dedissēs huic animō pār corpus, fēcisset quod optābat, Plin. Ep. 1, 12, 8, you might have given this spirit a body to match; he would have done what he craved to do. (c.) urbēs et rēgna celeriter tanta nēquitia dēvorāre potuisset, Ph. 2, 67, such colossal prodigality might have been capable of swallowing down cities and kingdoms speedily. vīcissent inprobōs bonī; quid deinde? Sest. 43, the good might have overpowered the bad; what next?

1562. It may be mentioned here, that the subjunctive of action conceivable often extends to subordinate sentences: see 1731.

Questions.

1563. I. The subjunctive is often used to ask what action or whether any action is desired, commanded, proper, or necessary.

In many instances a negative answer or no answer at all is expected The negative is nē, sometimes nōn.

(a.) quō mē vertam? Scaur. 19, which way shall I turn? quid faciam, praescrībe :: quiēscās :: nē faciam, inquis, omnīnō versūs? H. S. 2, 1, 5, lay down the law, what I’m to do :: keep still :: wilt have me write, sayst thou, no verse at all? quid igitur faciam? nōn eam? T. Eu. 46, what then am I to do? not go? quid nī meminerim? DO. 2, 273, why should not I remember? or of course I remember. huic cēdāmus? huius condiciōnēs audiāmus? Ph. 13, 16, shall we bow the knee to him? shall we listen to his terms? (b.) quid tandem mē facere decuit? quiēscerem et paterer? L. 42, 41, 12, what in the world ought I to have done? keep inactive and stand it?

1564. Such questions sometimes have the alternative form: as, Corinthiīs bellum indīcāmus, an nōn? Inv. 1, 17, are we to declare war against Corinth, or not? utrum indicāre mē e͡i thēnsaurum aequom fuit, an ego alium dominum paterer fierī hīsce aedibus? Pl. Tri. 175, should I have pointed out the hoard to him, or should I have allowed another to become the owner of this house? here paterer is equivalent to aequom fuit patī (1495).

1565. II. The subjunctive is often used to ask whether action is conceivable: as,

(a.) quis putet celeritātem ingenī L. Brūtō dēfuisse? Br. 53, who can suppose that Brutus lacked ready wit? i.e. nēmō putet (1556), putābit (1620), or putāre potest. sī enim Zēnōnī licuit, cūr nōn liceat Catōnī? Fin. 3, 15, for if it was allowed Zeno, why should not it be allowed Cato? (b.) hoc tantum bellum quis umquam arbitrārētur ab ūnō imperātōre cōnficī posse? IP. 31, who would ever have dreamed that this stupendous war could be brought to a close by a single commander? The imperfect sometimes denotes action not performed at the present time (1560): quis enim cīvis rēgī nōn favēret? D. 6, for what Roman would not feel for the king? (c.) ego tē vidēre nōluerim? QFr. 1, 3, 1, I have objected to seeing you?

1566. The subjunctive is often used in interrogative outbursts of surprise, disapprobation, indignation, or captious rejoinder. In such questions a pronoun, ego, tū (ille), is usually expressed. The negative is nōn.

This subjunctive occurs in Plautus and Terence, in Cicero, oftenest the letters, in Horace, Vergil, and Livy. Not in Caesar nor Sallust.

1567. (1.) The question may have no interrogative word, or may have -ne, especially in comedy: as,

(a.) nōn tacēs? :: taceam? T. Ph. 987, you hold your tongue :: I hold my tongue? nē flē :: egone illum nōn fleam? Pl. Cap. 139, weep not :: what, I not weep for him? tū pulsēs omne quod obstat? H. S. 2, 6, 30, what, you, sir, punch whatever’s in your way? faveās tū hostī? ille litterās ad tē mittat? Ph. 7, 5, you, sir, sympathize with the enemy? he correspond with you? sapiēnsne nōn timeat? Ac. 2, 135, a sage not be afraid? (b.) ego mihī̆ umquam bonōrum praesidium dēfutūrum putārem? Mil. 94, could I have dreamed that I should ever lack the protection of the patriotic? (c.) ‘apud exercitum mihī̆ fuerīs’ inquit ‘tot annōs?’ Mur. 21, ‘to think of your having been with the army, bless my soul?’ says he, ‘so many years.’ (d.) mihī̆ cuiusquam salūs tantī fuisset, ut meam neglegerem? Sull. 45, could anybody’s safety have been so important in my eyes as to make me disregard my own?

1568. (2.) The question may have utī or ut: as,

tē ut ūlla rēs frangat? tū ut umquam tē corrigās? C. 1, 22, any thing break you down? you ever reform? pater ut obesse fīlīo dēbeat? Planc. 31, a father morally bound to work against his son?

1569. (3.) The question with utī or ut is sometimes attended by a remnant of another question with -ne or -n. In this combination, -ne either precedes, joined to an emphatic word, or it is attached directly to utī or ut: as,

(a.) egone ut tē interpellem? TD. 2, 42, what I? interrupt you? illīne ut impūne concitent fīnitima bella? L. 4, 2, 12, what, they be allowed to stir up border warfare with impunity? virgō haec līberast :: meane ancilla lībera ut sit, quam ego numquam ēmīsī manū? Pl. Cur. 615, this girl is free :: my servant-girl? she to be free, when I have never set her free? (b.) utne tegam spurcō Dāmae latus? H. S. 2, 5, 18, what, I’m to shield a nasty Dama’s side? somnium. utine haec īgnōrāret su͡om patrem? T. Ph. 874, oh bosh, not to have known the father that begat her? See 1505 and 1532.

1570. It may be mentioned here, that the interrogative subjunctive is often used in subordinate sentences: see 1731.

THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Command.

1571. The second person of the imperative mood is used in commands, either particular or general.

Commands are very often attended by a vocative or vocative nominative, or by tū, sir, sirrah, or vōs, gentlemen, you people (1118). They are of various kinds, as follows: (a.) Order, often to an inferior: thus, to an official: līctor, conligā manūs, Rab. 13, L. 1, 26, 7, Gell. 12, 3, 2, lictor, tie up his wrists. To soldiers: as, dēsilīte mīlitēs, 4, 25, 3, overboard, my men. sīgnifer, statue sīgnum, L. 5, 55, 1, standardbearer, plant your standard. īnfer mīles sīgnum, L. 6, 8, 1, advance your standard, man, or charge. To sailors: as, hūc dīrigite nāvēs, L. 29, 27, 13, head your galleys this way. To slaves: as, convorrite aedēs scōpīs, agite strēnuē, Pl. B. 10, sweep up the house with brooms, be brisk. Also to an equal: as, aperīte aliquis, Pl. Mer. 130, open the door there somebody (1080). Or to a superior: as, heus, exī, Phaedrome, Pl. Cur. 276, ho Phaedromus, come out. (b.) Exhortation, entreaty, summons, request, prayer, imprecation, wish, concession, &c.: as, vōs vōbīs cōnsulite, 7, 50, 5, every man of you for himself. ēs, bibe, animō obsequere, Pl. MG. 677, eat, drink, and be merry. sperne voluptātēs, H. E. 1, 2, 55, scorn thou delights. quīn tū ī intrō, Pl. Most. 815, go in, go in, won’t you go in? (1527). patent portae, proficīscere, ēdūc tēcum etiam omnīs tuōs, C. 1, 10, the gates are open, march forth; take out all your myrmidons with you too. audī, Iuppiter, L. 1, 32, 6, bow down thine ear, Jupiter. ī in crucem, Pl. As. 940, get you gone to the cross. vīve valēque, H. S. 2, 5, 109, long live and thrive, or farewell. tibī̆ habē, Pl. Men. 690, you keep it yourself.

1572. The imperative is often softened by the addition of amābō, obsecrō, quaesō, prithee, I beg, or sīs, sultis, sōdēs, please (97). It is sharpened by age, agedum or agidum, age sīs, mark me, or ī, go, come on, or by modo, only. The concessive imperative sometimes has sānē, for all me.

1573. In Plautus and Terence, the enclitic dum, a while, a minute, just, is often attached to the imperative: as, manedum, Pl. As. 585, wait a minute. In classical Latin, dum is retained with age and agite: as, agedum cōnferte cum illīus vītā P. Sūllae, Sull. 72, come now, compare Sulla’s life with that man’s (1075).

1574. It may be mentioned here, that the imperative is often used in the protasis of a conditional sentence: as,

tolle hanc opīniōnem, lūctum sustuleris, TD. 1, 30, do away with this notion, and you will do away with mourning for the dead. Once only in old Latin, but often in late Latin, with a copulative: as, perge, ac facile ecfēceris, Pl. B. 695, start on, and you will do it easily.

1575. (1.) The third person, and the longer forms of the second person, are used particularly in laws, legal documents, and treaties, and also in impressive general rules and maxims: as,

(a.) rēgiō imperiō duō suntō, Leg. 3, 8, there shall be two men vested with the power of kings. amīcitia rēgī Antiochō cum populō Rōmānō hīs lēgibus estō, L. 38, 38, 1, there shall be amity between king Antiochus and Rome on the following terms. (b.) vīcīnīs bonus estō, Cato, RR. 4, always be good to your neighbours. mōribus vīvitō antīquīs, Pl. Tri. 295, live thou in old-time ways. The longer forms are often called the Future Imperative.

1576. (2.) The longer forms of the second person are also sometimes used in the ordinary speech of everyday life: as, cavētō, QFr. 1, 3, 8, beware. In old Latin, often ēs, be thou, but in classical Latin, oftener estō (or sīs). Usually habētō, meaning keep, or consider, regularly scītō, scītōte, you must know (846). In verse, the long forms may sometimes be due to the metre: as, hīc hodiē cēnātō, Pl. R. 1417, take dinner here today. pār prō parī refertō, T. Eu. 445, pay tit for tat. But also without such necessity: as, aufertō intrō, Pl. Tru. 914, take it within. quiētus estō, inquam, T. Ph. 713, be not concerned, I say.

1577. (3.) It may be mentioned here, that the longer forms are very often used in the apodosis of a complex sentence, particularly with a future or a future perfect protasis: as,

sī iste ībit, ītō, Pl. Ps. 863, if he shall go, go thou. medicō mercēdis quantum poscet, prōmittī iubētō, Fam. 16, 14, 1, you must order your medical man to be promised all he shall charge in the way of a fee. ubī̆ nihil erit quod scrībās, id ipsum scrībitō, Att. 4, 8b, 4, when you don’t have anything to write, then write just that. cum ego P. Grānium testem prōdūxerō, refellitō, sī poteris, V. 5, 154, when I put Granius on the witness stand, refute him if you can.

1578. In such combinations, however, the shorter forms are sometimes found: as, ubi volēs, accerse, T. Andr. 848, fetch me when you will. And conversely the longer forms are also found with a present protasis: as, ūnum illud vidētō, sī mē amās, Fam. 16, 1, 2, attend to this one thing, an thou lovest me.

1579. A command is sometimes expressed by the subjunctive, accompanying fac, facitō, fac ut, facitō ut, cūrā ut, cūrātō ut, vidē, vidē ut, volō, or particularly velim: as,

magnum fac animum habeās et spem bonam, QFr. 1, 2, 16, see that you keep up an heroic soul and unabated hope (1712). fac cōgitēs, Fam. 11, 3, 4, see that you bear in mind. cūrā ut valeās, Fam. 12, 29, 3, take good care of yourself. velim exīstimēs, Fam. 12, 29, 2, I should like to have you consider. For commands in the subjunctive alone, see 1547; in the future indicative, 1624; in the form of a question, 1531.

1580. A periphrastic perfect passive form is rare: as, iūre caesus estō, Twelve Tables in Macrob. Sat. 1, 4, 19, he shall be regarded as killed with justifying circumstances. probē factum estō, L. 22, 10, 6, let it be considered justified. at vōs admonitī nostrīs quoque cāsibus este, O. Tr. 4, 8, 51, but be ye warned by our misfortunes too.

Prohibition.

1581. (1.) In prohibitions with the second person, the imperative with nē is used in old Latin, and with nēve as a connective, rarely neque: as,

nē flē, Pl. Cap. 139, weep not. nē saevī tantō opere, T. Andr. 868, be not thus wroth. Sometimes in classical poetry also, in imitation of old style: as, nē saevī, magna sacerdōs, V. 6, 544, rave not, thou priestess grand. Once in Livy: nē timēte, 3, 2, 9, be not afraid.

1582. From Ovid on, nōn is used a few times for nē: as, nōn cārīs aurēs onerāte lapillīs, O. AA. 3, 129, load not with precious stones your ears.

1583. (2.) Prohibitions in the second person are usually expressed by nōlī or nōlīte with the infinitive, particularly in classical prose: as,

obiūrgāre nōlī, Att. 3, 11, 2, don’t scold. nōlīte id velle quod fierī nōn potest, Ph. 7, 25, don’t yearn after the unattainable.

1584. In poetry, equivalents for nōlī are sometimes used with the infinitive, such as fuge, parce or comperce, conpesce, mitte or omitte, absiste: as, quid sit futūrum crās, fuge quaerere, H. 1, 9, 13, what fate the morrow brings, forbear to ask. Livy has once parce, 34, 32, 20.

1585. (3.) A prohibition in the second person is often expressed by the subjunctive accompanying cavē̆, fac nē, vidē nē, vidētō nē, cūrā nē, cūrātō nē, or nōlim, and in old Latin cavē̆ nē: as,

cavē festīnēs, Fam. 16, 12, 6, don’t be in a hurry. cavētō nē suscēnseās, Pl. As. 372, see that thou beest not wroth. hoc nōlim mē iocārī putēs, Fam. 9, 15, 4, I should hate to have you think I am saying this in fun. For prohibitions in the second person with nē and the present or perfect subjunctive, see 1551. For the subjunctive coordinated with cavē̆, see 1711.

1586. In law language, prohibitions are expressed by the third person of the imperative with nē, and with nēve as a connective: as,

hominem mortuom in urbe nē sepelītō nēve ūritō, Twelve Tables in Leg. 2, 58, he shall not bury nor yet shall he burn a dead man in town. mulierēs genās nē rāduntō nēve lessum fūneris ergō habentō, Twelve Tables in Leg. 2, 59, women shall not tear their cheeks nor shall they keen in lamentation for the dead (1257). Likewise with nēmō: as, nēminī pārentō, Twelve Tables in Leg. 3, 8, they shall not be subject to anybody. See also 1548.

TENSE.

THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

The Present Tense.

1587. The present indicative represents action as going on at the time of speaking or writing: as,

scrībō, I write, or I am writing. nunc prīmum audiō, T. Andr. 936, for the first time I hear. notat ad caedem ūnum quemque nostrūm, C. 1, 2, he is marking us out for death, each and all. domus aedificātur, Att. 4, 2, 7, the house is building.

1588. The present is used to denote action customary or repeated at any time, or a general truth: as,

agrī cultūrae nōn student, 6, 22, 1, they do not apply themselves to farming. virī in uxōrēs vītae necisque habent potestātem, 6, 19, 3, the married men have power of life and death over their wives. probitās laudātur et alget, J. 1, 74, uprightness gets extolled, and left out in the cold. dum vītant stultī vitia, in contrāria currunt, H. S. 1, 2, 24, while fools essay a vice to shun, into its opposite they run. mors sōla fatētur quantula sint hominum corpuscula, J. 10, 172, death is the only thing that tells what pygmy things men’s bodies be. stultōrum plēna sunt omnia, Fam. 9, 22, 4, the world is full of fools. rīsū ineptō rēs ineptior nūllast, Cat. 39, 16, there’s nothing sillier than a silly laugh.

1589. The present, when accompanied by some expression of duration of time, is often used to denote action which has been going on some time and is still going on.

This present is translated by the English perfect: as, Lilybaeī multōs iam annōs habitat, V. 4, 38, he has lived at Lilybaeum this many a year. iam dūdum auscultō, H. S. 2, 7, 1, I have been listening for an age. satis diū hōc iam saxum vorsō, T. Eu. 1085, I’ve trundled at this boulder long enough as ’t is. nimium diū tē castra dēsīderant, C. 1, 10, the camp has felt your absence altogether too long. iam diū īgnōrō quid agās, Fam. 7, 9, 1, I have not known this long time how you are getting on. This use extends to the subjunctive and to nouns of the verb also. But if the action is conceived as completed, the perfect is used: as, sērō resistimus ē̆ī quem per annōs decem aluimus, Att. 7, 5, 5, it is too late to oppose a man whom we have been supporting ten long years.

1590. The present is often used to represent past action as going on now. This is called the Present of Vivid Narration: as,

trānsfīgitur scūtum Puliōni et verūtum in balteō dēfīgitur. āvertit hīc cāsus vāgīnam, inpedītumque hostēs circumsistunt, 5, 44, 7, Pulio has his shield run through, and a javelin sticks fast in his sword belt. This mischance puts his scabbard out of reach, and the enemy encompass him in this hampered condition. This present often stands side by side with a past tense. It is common in subordinate sentences also.

1591. The present is sometimes used in brief historical or personal memoranda, to note incidents day by day or year by year as they occur. This is called the Annalistic Present: as,

Proca deinde rēgnat. is Numitōrem prōcreat. Numitōrī rēgnum vetustum Silviae gentis lēgat, L. 1, 3, 9, after this Proca is king; this man begets Numitor; to Numitor he bequeaths the ancient throne of the Silvian race. duplicātur cīvium numerus. Caelius additur urbī mōns, L. 1, 30, 1, number of citizens doubled; Mt. Caelius added to city. in Māmurrārum lassī deinde urbe manēmus, H. S. 1, 5, 37, in the Mamurras’ city then forspent we sleep. Particularly common with dates: as, A. Vergīnius inde et T. Vetusius cōnsulātum ineunt, L. 2, 28, 1, then Verginius and Vetusius enter on the consulship. M. Sīlānō L. Nōrbānō cōnsulibus Germānicus Aegyptum proficīscitur, Ta. 2, 59, in the consulship of Silanus and Norbanus, Germanicus leaves for Egypt.

1592. Verbs of hearing, seeing, and saying are often put in the present, even when they refer to action really past: as,

audiō Valerium Mārtiālem dēcessisse, Plin. Ep. 3, 21, 1, I hear that Martial is dead, i.e. the epigrammatist, 102 A.D. Particularly of things mentioned in books, or in quoting what an author says: as, Hercyniam silvam, quam Eratosthenī nōtam esse videō, 6, 24, 2, the Hercynian forest, which I see was known to Eratosthenes. Platō ‘ēscam malōrum’ appellat voluptātem, CM. 44, Plato calls pleasure the ‘bait of sin.’

1593. The present is sometimes loosely used of future action: as,

crās est mihī̆ iūdicium, T. Eu. 338, tomorrow I’ve a case in court. ego sȳcophantam iam condūcō dē forō, Pl. Tri. 815, for me, a sharper from the market place I’ll straight engage. quam mox inruimus? T. Eu. 788, how soon do we pitch in? This present is also used in subordinate sentences with antequam and priusquam (1912, 1915), with dum, until (2006), and sometimes with sī.

The Imperfect Tense.

1594. The imperfect indicative represents action as going on in past time: as,

scrībēbam, I was writing, or I wrote. ei mihi quālis erat, V. 2, 274, woe’s me, how ghastly he appeared. multōsque per annōs errābant āctī fātīs, V. 1, 31, and they for many a year were roaming round, by fates pursued.

1595. The imperfect often denotes past action lasting while something else occurred: as,

an tum erās cōnsul, cum mea domus ardēbat? Pis. 26, were you perhaps consul at the time my house was burning down? neque vērō tum īgnōrābat sē ad exquīsīta supplicia proficīscī, Off. 3, 100, and all the time he knew perfectly well that he was starting off to suffer studied torments.

1596. The imperfect is used to denote repeated or customary past action or condition: as,

commentābar dēclāmitāns cōtīdiē, Br. 310, I always practised speaking my compositions every day. noctū ambulābat in pūblicō Themistoclēs, TD. 4, 44, Themistocles used to promenade the streets nights.

1597. The imperfect, when accompanied by some expression of duration of time, is used to denote action which had been going on for some time, and was still going on.

This imperfect, which is translated by the English pluperfect, is analogous to the present in 1589: as, pater grandis nātū iam diū lectō tenēbātur, V. 5, 16, his aged father had long been bedridden. hōram amplius iam permultī hominēs mōliēbantur, V. 4, 95, something over an hour a good many men had been prizing away. But if the action is conceived as completed at a past time, the pluperfect is used: as, diem iam quīntum cibō caruerat, 6, 38, 1, four whole days he had gone without eating.

1598. In a few examples, the imperfect is used to denote action suddenly recognized, though going on before: as, ehem, Parmenō, tūn hīc erās? T. Hec. 340, why bless me, Parmeno, were you here all this time?

1599. In descriptions of place or in general truths, where the present might be expected, the imperfect is sometimes used, by assimilation to past action in the context: as, ipsum erat oppidum Alesia in colle summō, 7, 69, 1, Alesia proper was situated on the top of a hill. Often also in subordinate sentences.

1600. For the imperfect indicative of certain verbs relating to action not performed at the present time, see 1497; for the conative use, see 2302.

1601. In letters, the imperfect may denote action at the time of writing, the writer transferring himself to the time of the reader: as,

haec tibi dictābam post fānum putre Vacūnae, H. E. 1, 10, 49, I dictate this for thee behind Vacuna’s crumbling shrine. nihil habēbam quod scrīberem, Att. 9, 10, 1, I have nothing to write. Similarly in the delivery of messages: as, scrībae ōrābant, H. S. 2, 6, 36, the clerks request. The present, however, is very often used where the imperfect would be applicable. Compare 1616.

The Perfect Tense.

1602. The Latin perfect indicative represents two English tenses: thus, the preterite, I wrote, and the perfect, I have written, are both expressed by the perfect scrīpsī. In the first sense, this perfect is called the Historical Perfect; in the second sense, it is called the Perfect Definite.

The Historical Perfect.

1603. The historical perfect simply expresses action as having occurred at an indefinite past time, without implying anything as to the duration of the action: as,

scrīpsī, I wrote. vēnī, vīdī, vīcī, Caesar in Suet. Iul. 37, came, saw, overcame. apud Helvētiōs longē nōbilissimus fuit Orgetorīx, 1, 2, 1, among the Helvetians, the man of highest birth by all odds was Orgetorix. Diodōrus prope triennium domō caruit, V. 4, 41, for nearly three years Diodorus had to keep away from home. in Graeciā mūsicī flōruērunt, discēbantque id omnēs, TD. 1, 4, in Greece musicians stood high, and everybody studied the art (1596).

1604. It may be mentioned here, that in subordinate sentences the historical perfect is sometimes loosely used from the writer’s point of view, instead of the more exact pluperfect demanded by the context: as, aliquantum spatiī ex eō locō, ubī̆ pugnātum est, aufūgerat, L. 1, 25, 8, he had run off some distance from the spot where the fighting had occurred. See 1925.

The Perfect Definite.

1605. The perfect definite expresses action which is already completed at the present time, and the effects of which are regarded as continuing: as,

scrīpsī, I have written. dīxērunt, Clu. 73, dīxēre, Quintil. 1, 5, 43, they have finished speaking. spectātōrēs, fābula haec est ācta, Pl. Most. 1181, ladies and gentlemen, this play is done.

1606. In old Latin, habeō with the perfect participle is sometimes equivalent to a periphrastic perfect: as, illa omnia missa habeō, Pl. Ps. 602, I’ve dropped all that, i.e. mīsī. But in classical Latin, the participle and a tense of habeō are more or less distinct in their force: as, Caesar aciem īnstrūctam habuit, 1, 48, 3, Caesar kept his line drawn up, not had drawn up. Compare 2297.

1607. With verbs of inceptive meaning the perfect definite is equivalent to the English present: as,

cōnsistō, take my stand, cōnstitī, stand, cōnsuēscō, get used, cōnsuēvī, am used, nōscō, learn, nōvī, know. Similarly meminī, remember, and ōdī, hate. The pluperfect of such verbs is represented by the English imperfect, and the future perfect by the English future.

1608. The perfect often denotes a present resulting state: as, vīcīne, periī, interiī, Pl. Most. 1031, my neighbour, I am dead and gone. Particularly in the passive voice: as, Gallia est omnis dīvīsa in partēs trēs, 1, 1, 1, Gaul, including everything under the name, is divided into three parts. Compare 1615.

1609. In the perfect passive, forms of fuī, &c., are sometimes used to represent a state no longer existing: as, monumentō statua superimposita fuit, quam dēiectam nūper vīdimus ipsī, L. 38, 56, 3, on the monument there once stood a statue which I saw not long ago with my own eyes, lying flat on the ground. Similarly, in the pluperfect, fueram, &c.: as, arma quae fīxa in parietibus fuerant, ea sunt humī inventa, Div. 1, 74, the arms which had once been fastened on the walls were found on the floor. Sometimes, however, forms of fuī, &c., fueram, &c., and fuerō, &c., are used by Plautus, Cicero, especially in his letters, Nepos, Sallust, and particularly Livy, in passives and deponents, quite in the sense of sum, &c.

1610. The perfect of some verbs may imply a negative idea emphatically by understatement, as:

fuit Īlium, V. 2, 325, Ilium has been, i.e. Ilium is no more. vīximus, flōruimus, Fam. 14, 4, 5, we have lived our life, we have had our day. fīlium ūnicum adulēscentulum habeō. āh, quid dīxī? habēre mē? immō habuī, T. Hau. 93, I have one only son, a growing boy. Ah me, what did I say, I have? Oh no, have had.

1611. The perfect may denote an action often done, or never done: as,

iam saepe hominēs patriam cārōsque parentēs prōdiderunt, Lucr. 3, 85, time and again have men their land betrayed and parents dear. nōn aeris acervus et aurī dēdūxit corpore febrīs, H. E. 1, 2, 47, no pile of brass and gold hath fevers from the body drawn. multī, cum obesse vellent, prōfuērunt et, cum prōdesse, obfuērunt, DN. 3, 70, many a man has done good, when he meant to do harm, and when he meant to do good, has done harm. Common from Cicero, Sallust, and Catullus on, especially in poetry.

1612. The perfect is sometimes used as a lively future perfect to express completed future action: as,

quam mox coctumst prandium? Pl. R. 342, how soon is lunch all cooked? cui sī esse in urbe licēbit, vīcimus, Att. 14, 20, 3, if he shall be allowed to stay in town, the day is ours. periī, sī mē aspexerit, Pl. Am. 320, I’m gone, if he lays eyes on me.

1613. It may be mentioned here, that the perfect is regularly used in a subordinate sentence denoting time anterior to a present of repeated action (1588). In such sentences the present is preferred in English: as,

reliquī, quī domī mānsērunt, sē atque illōs alunt, 4, 1, 5, the others, that stay at home, always support themselves and the above-mentioned also. sī quī aut prīvātus aut populus eōrum dēcrētō nōn stetit, sacrificiīs interdīcunt, 6, 13, 6, if any man or any community does not abide by their decree, they always debar them from sacrifices. So also with quom or cum, quotiēns, simul atque, ubī̆. Compare 1618.

The Pluperfect Tense.

1614. The pluperfect indicative expresses past action, completed before another past action expressed or understood: as,

scrīpseram, I had written. Pyrrhī temporibus iam Apollō versūs facere dēsierat, Div. 2, 116, in Pyrrhus’s day Apollo had quite given up making poetry. mortuus erat Āgis rēx. fīlium relīquerat Leōtychidem, N. 17, 1, 4, Agis the king had died; he had left a son Leotychides.

1615. The pluperfect often expresses a past resulting state: as,

castra oportūnīs locīs erant posita, 7, 69, 7, the camp was pitched on favourable ground. ita ūnō tempore et longās nāvēs aestus complēverat, et onerāriās tempestās adflīctābat, 4, 29, 2, thus at one and the same time the tide had filled the men-of-war, and the gale of wind kept knocking the transports about. This use is analogous to that of the perfect in 1608.

1616. In letters, the pluperfect is sometimes used to denote action occurring previous to the time of writing, the writer transferring himself to the time of the reader: as,

ūnam adhūc ā tē epistolam accēperam, Att. 7, 12, 1, I have only had one letter from you thus far. This use is analogous to that of the imperfect in 1601, and very often, where this pluperfect would be applicable, the perfect is used.

1617. The pluperfect is sometimes used where the perfect would be expected. Particularly so when it anticipates a past tense to follow in a new sentence: as, quod factum prīmō populārīs coniūrātiōnis concusserat. neque tamen Catilīnae furor minuēbātur, S. C. 24, 1, this terrified the conspirators at first; and yet Catiline’s frenzy was not getting abated. Verbs of saying are also often put in the pluperfect in subordinate sentences referring to a preceding statement: as, Epidamniēnsis ille, quem dūdum dīxeram, adoptat illum puerum surruptīcium, Pl. Men. prol. 57, said man of Epidamnus that I named erewhile adopts said kidnapped boy.

1618. It may be mentioned here, that the pluperfect is used in a subordinate sentence denoting time anterior to a past tense of repeated action. In such sentences the preterite is preferred in English: as,

hostēs ubī̆ aliquōs singulārēs cōnspexerant, incitātīs equīs adoriēbantur, 4, 26, 2, every time the enemy caught sight of detached parties, they would always charge full gallop. Compare the analogous perfect in 1613.

The Future Tense.

1619. The future indicative expresses future action, either momentary or continuous: as,

scrībam, I shall write, I shall be writing, or I will write, I will be writing. The future commonly expresses either prediction, or will, determination, promise, threat: as, (a.) tuās litterās exspectābō, Att. 5, 7, I shall be on the lookout for letters from you. (b.) vīvum tē nōn relinquam; moriēre virgīs, V. 4, 85, I will not leave you alive; you shall die under the rod. But separate forms to mark the sharp distinction which exists between shall and will in the English future and future perfect are utterly unknown in Latin: thus, in occīdar equidem, sed victus nōn perībō, Cornif. 4, 65, I shall be murdered, to be sure, but I will not die a vanquished man, the difference between the prediction contained in I shall, and the determination contained in I will, cannot be expressed in Latin by the future indicative.

1620. The future is often used in diffident assertion, to express an assumption, a belief, conviction, or concession, of the speaker himself, without implying its universal acceptance: as,

dīcēs, TD. 2, 60, you will say. dīcet aliquis, TD. 3, 46, somebody will say (1556). dabit hoc Zēnōnī Polemō, Fin. 4, 51, Polemo will concede this point to Zeno. excūdent aliī spīrantia mollius aera, crēdō equidem, V. 6, 847, with greater grace, I well believe, shall others shape the bronze that breathes. Particularly in conclusions: as, sequētur igitur vel ad supplicium beāta vīta virtūtem, TD. 5, 87, happiness then will walk with goodness even to the scaffold. Or in general truths: as, cantābit vacuus cōram latrōne viātor, J. 10, 22, the pourë man whan he goth by the weye, bifore the thevës he may synge and pleye.

1621. The future sometimes predicts that a thing not yet known to be true will prove to be true: as, haec erit bonō genere nāta, Pl. Per. 645, this maid, you’ll find, is come of honest stock, i.e. esse reperiētur. Compare the imperfect in 1598.

1622. In Plautus and Terence, the future is sometimes used in protestations, wishes, or thanks: as, ita mē dī amābunt, T. Hau. 749, so help me heaven. dī tē amābunt, Pl. Men. 278, the gods shall bless thee. Usually, however, the subjunctive: see 1542 and 1541.

1623. The future is sometimes used in questions of deliberation or appeal: as, dēdēmus ergō Hannibalem? L. 21, 10, 11, are we then to surrender Hannibal? hancine ego ad rem nātam memorābō? Pl. R. 188, am I to say that I was born for such a fate? Oftener the present subjunctive (1563), or sometimes the present indicative (1531).

1624. The future is sometimes used, particularly in the second person, to express an exhortation, a direction, a request, a command, or with nōn a prohibition: as,

crās ferrāmenta Teānum tollētis, H. E. 1, 1, 86, tomorrow to Teanum you will take your tools. bonā veniā mē audiēs, DN. 1, 59, you will listen to me with kind indulgence. tū intereā nōn cessābis, Fam. 5, 12, 10, meantime you will not be inactive. haec igitur tibī̆ erunt cūrae, Fam. 3, 9, 4, you will attend to this then, i.e. haec cūrābis.

1625. It may be mentioned here, that the future is used in sentences subordinate to a future, an imperative, or a subjunctive implying a future: as,

profectō nihil accipiam iniūriae, sī tū aderis, Att. 5, 18, 3, I am sure I shall suffer no harm, if you are with me. ut mēd esse volēs, ita erō, Pl. Ps. 239, as you will have me be, so will I be. ut is quī audiet, cōgitet plūra, quam videat, DO. 2, 242, so that the hearer may imagine more than he sees. But sometimes a present is used (1593).

The Future Perfect Tense.

1626. The future perfect indicative expresses completed future action: as,

scrīpserō, I shall have written, or I will have written. The future perfect is very common in Latin, particularly in protasis with a relative, with cum, ubī̆, &c., with antequam or priusquam, with ut (... ita), as (... so), or with sī, to express action anterior in time to a future; in English, this future perfect is usually represented by a loose present or perfect: as, quicquid fēceris, adprobābō, Fam. 3, 3, 2, whatever you do, I shall think right. Examples will be given further on, in speaking of the complex sentence.

1627. It may be mentioned here that the future perfect in protasis and apodosis both denotes two actions occurring at one and the same time; these actions are usually identical: as,

quī Antōnium oppresserit, is hoc bellum taeterrimum cōnfēcerit, Fam. 10, 19, 2, the man that puts down Antony will put an end to this cruel war, i.e. putting down Antony will be ending the war. respīrārō, sī tē vīderō, Att. 2, 24, 5, I shall take breath again, if I set eyes on you.

1628. The future perfect sometimes denotes a future resulting state: as,

molestus certē e͡i fuerō, T. Andr. 641, at all events I shall have proved a bane to him. meum rē̆ī pūblicae atque imperātōrī officium praestiterō, 4, 25, 3, I will have my duty all done to country and commander too.

1629. The future perfect is sometimes used to express rapidity of future action, often with the implication of assurance, promise, or threat: as,

abierō, Pl. Most. 590, I’ll instantly be gone. iam hūc revēnerō, Pl. MG. 863, B. 1066, I’ll be back here again forthwith. prīmus impetus castra cēperit, L. 25, 38, 17, the first rush will see the camp carried.

1630. The future perfect often denotes action postponed to a more convenient season, or thrown upon another person.

Often thus with post, aliās, and particularly mox: as, vōbīs post nārrāverō, Pl. Ps. 721, I’ll tell you by and by, i.e. I won’t tell you now. ad frātrem mox īerō, Pl. Cap. 194, I’ll to my brother’s by and by, i.e. not yet. fuerit ista eius dēlīberātiō, L. 1, 23, 8, that is a question for him to settle, i.e. not me. Especially vīderō: as, quae fuerit causa, mox vīderō, Fin. 1, 35, what the reason was, I won’t consider now. rēctē secusne aliās vīderimus, Ac. 2, 135, whether right or not, we will consider some other time, i.e. never. vōs vīderitis, L. 1, 58, 10, that is a question for you, i.e. not me.

1631. The future perfect sometimes denotes action which will have occurred while something else takes place: as,

nōn erō vōbīs morae: tībīcen vōs intereā hīc dēlectāverit, Pl. Ps. 573^a, I will not keep you long; meantime the piper will have entertained you here. tū invītā mulierēs, ego accīverō puerōs, Att. 5, 1, 3, do you, sir, invite the ladies, and I will meantime have fetched the children.

1632. The future perfect is often not perceptibly different from the future, especially in the first person singular in old Latin: as,

ego mihī prōvīderō, Pl. Most. 526, I’ll look out for myself. erōs in obsidiōne linquet, inimīcūm animōs auxerit, Pl. As. 280, he’ll leave his owners in a state of siege, he’ll swell the courage of the enemy. Similarly Cicero, in the protases sī potuerō, sī voluerō, sī licuerit, sī placuerit.

The Future Active Participle with sum.

1633. The future active participle combined with the tenses of sum expresses action impending, resolved on, or destined, at the time indicated by the tense of the verb: as,

cum hōc equite pugnātūrī estis, L. 21, 40, 10, with this kind of cavalry are you going to fight. bellum scrīptūrus sum, quod populus Rōmānus cum Iugurthā gessit, Sall. I. 5, 1, I purpose to write the history of the war that the people of Rome carried on with Jugurtha. fīet illud, quod futūrum est, Div. 2, 21, whatever is destined to be, will be. Delphōs petiīt, ubī̆ columnās, quibus impositūrī statuās rēgis Perseī fuerant, suīs statuīs dēstināvit, L. 45, 27, 6, he went to Delphi, where he appropriated for his own statues the pillars on which they had intended to put statues of king Perses.

THE TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

1634. In simple sentences, the tenses of the subjunctive correspond in general to the same tenses of the indicative. But the present has a future meaning; the imperfect sometimes expresses past, sometimes present action; and the perfect sometimes expresses past action, and sometimes future action.

1635. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in reference to past action, like the indicative present of vivid narration (1590): as, migrantīs cernās, V. 4, 401, you can descry them swarming out (1556). comprehendī iussit; quis nōn pertimēscat? V. 5, 14, he ordered them to be arrested; who would not be thoroughly scared? (1565). See also 2075.

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE, OR COORDINATION.

1636. Two or more independent simple sentences may be coordinated to form a compound sentence in one of two ways: either without a connective, or with a connective.

What applies to the coordination of sentences, also applies to the coordination of the parts of sentences in abridged sentences (1057).

(A.) Without a Connective.

1637. When simple sentences or parts of sentences are coordinated without any connective, this mode of arrangement is called Asyndetic Coordination or Asyndeton.

Asyndeton, whether in unabridged or in abridged sentences, is more usual with three or more members than with two. It occurs particularly often in Plautus, Terence, Ennius, and Cato, also in Cicero, especially in his early works and letters.

1638. The sentences in which asyndeton occurs are commonly such as might be connected by words meaning and or but; less often by words meaning as, for, &c. Asyndeton is especially common:

1639. (a.) In animated narration of events happening at the same moment, in description, and in climaxes. Also in mention of colleagues in office, and in many set phrases and formulas: as,

vēnī, vīdī, vīcī, Caesar in Suet. Iul. 37, came, saw, overcame. nostrī celeriter ad arma concurrunt, vāllum cōnscendunt, 5, 39, 3, our men rush speedily to arms, clamber up the palisade. huic s. c. intercessit C. Caelius, C. Pānsa, tribūnī pl., Fam. 8, 8, 7, this decree of the senate was objected to by Caelius and Pansa, tribunes of the commons. hī ferre agere plēbem, L. 3, 37, 7, there were these people worrying and harrying the commons (1535).

1640. (b.) In contrasts or antitheses: as,

opīniōnis commenta dēlet diēs, nātūrae iūdicia cōnfirmat, DN. 2, 5, the fictions of speculation are swept away by time, but the judgements of nature are confirmed. Particularly when either member is positive, the other negative: vincere scīs, Hannibal, victōriā ūtī nescīs, L. 22, 51, 4, you know how to conquer, Hannibal, but not how to use victory, says Maharbal after Cannae, 216 B.C.

1641. Asyndeton is very common with two or more imperatives: as, ēgredere ex urbe, Catilīna, līberā rem pūblicam metū, in exsilium proficīscere, C. 1, 20, go forth from Rome, Catiline, relieve the commonwealth from its fear, depart into exile. Particularly when the first is age, come on, mark me, or ī, go (1572). But from Horace on, ī nunc, go to now, is followed by et with a second imperative in derisive orders. In old Latin, the imperatives may be joined by et or even atque.

1642. Asyndeton is also common with parentheses. These often take the place of a modern foot-note: as, lēgātus capite vēlātō fīlō (lānae vēlāmen est) ‘audī, Iuppiter,’ inquit, L. 1, 32, 6, the envoy with his head covered with a ‘filum’ (that is to say a wrap of wool) says ‘bow down thine ear, Jupiter.’ Parentheses however are often introduced, from Terence on by nam, and from Sallust and Cicero on, by et, neque, autem, enim, &c.

(B.) With a Connective.

(1.) CONJUNCTIONS AS CONNECTIVES.

1643. Simple sentences or parts of sentences may be connected by copulative, disjunctive, or adversative conjunctions.

(a.) Copulative Conjunctions.

1644. Copulative conjunctions denote union, and connect both the sentences and their meaning. They are et, -que, atque or ac, and, and neque or nec, neither.

1645. (1.) et, and, is the commonest copulative, and connects either likes or unlikes; with two members only, it is either used between them, or is prefixed for emphasis to both: as,

Dumnorīx apud Sēquanōs plūrimum poterat et Helvētiīs erat amīcus, 1, 9, 3, Dumnorix was very influential among the Sequani and a friend to the Helvetians. Dēmocritus alba discernere et ātra nōn poterat, TD. 5, 114, Democritus could not tell white and black apart. et discipulus et magister perhibēbantur inprobī, Pl. B. 425, both pupil and master were rated as knaves.

1646. With three or more members, et is either used between the members or, frequently, prefixed for emphasis to all. Often, however, it is omitted throughout (1637), or a third member is appended by -que (1651): as,

persuādent Rauricīs et Tulingīs et Latovicīs utī ūnā cum hīs proficīscantur, 1, 5, 4, they induce the Rauricans, Tulingans, and Latovicans to join them in their march. is et in custōdiam cīvēs Rōmānōs dedit et supplicātiōnem mihī̆ dēcrēvit et indicēs maximīs praemiīs adfēcit, C. 4, 10, this person voted in the first place to put Roman citizens in ward, then to decree a thanksgiving in my honour, and lastly to reward the informers with liberal gifts.

1647. Two members belonging closely together as a pair, and connected by et, atque, or -que, are sometimes put asyndetically with another member or members: as,

Aeduī ferunt sē dēiectōs prīncipātū; queruntur fortūnae commūtātiōnem et Caesaris indulgentiam in sē requīrunt, 7, 63, 8, the Aeduans set forth that they were cast down from the chief place; they complain of the change of fortune, and say they miss Caesar’s former kindness to them. nūntiātum est equitēs Ariovistī propius tumulum accēdere et ad nostrōs adequitāre; lapidēs in nostrōs conicere, 1, 46, 1, it was reported that Ariovistus’s cavalry were moving nearer the hillock and galloping up to the Romans; that they were throwing stones at our men.

1648. et has sometimes the meaning of also or of and also, particularly when there is a change of speakers, or before a pronoun: as, et hoc sciō, Plin. Ep. 1, 12, 11, I know that too. Sometimes also after vērum, nam, and simul, especially when a pronoun follows. Not in Caesar.

1649. (2.) -que, and, combines members which belong together and make a whole, though they may be different or opposed to each other; the second member is often a mere appendage: as,

rogat ōratque tē, RA. 144, he begs and entreats you, or he earnestly entreats you. lībertī servolīque nōbilium, RA. 141, the freedmen and slaves of the great, or retainers, bond and free. omnēs ea, quae bona videntur, sequuntur fugiuntque contrāria, TD. 4, 12, everybody runs after what seems good and avoids the opposite. -que is usually put after the first word of the new member. It is particularly common in old or legal style.

1650. The combination -que . . . -que, both . . . and, is very common in poetry: as, noctēsque diēsque, E. in CM. 1, both night and day. In prose, it is used by Sallust when the first word is a pronoun: as, mēque rēgnumque meum, I. 10, 2, both myself and my throne; and by Livy to connect two relative sentences: as, omnēs quīque Rōmae quīque in exercitū erant, 22, 26, 5, everybody, both people in Rome and people in the army.

1651. After two members without a connective, a third member is sometimes appended by -que: as,

satis habēbat hostem rapīnīs, pābulātiōnibus, populātiōnibusque prohibēre, 1, 15, 4, he was satisfied with keeping the enemy from plundering, foraging, and ravaging.

1652. (3.) atque, or before any consonant except h often ac, and, and besides, adds something belonging essentially to what goes before, but more important as a supplement or extension; as,

sē ex nāvī prōiēcit atque in hostēs aquilam ferre coepit, 4, 25, 4, he sprang overboard and furthermore proceeded to bear the eagle upon the enemy. magna dīs immortālibus habenda est atque huic Iovī Statōrī grātia, C. 1, 11, we owe a great debt of gratitude to the gods immortal in general, and to yon Jove the Stayer in particular. atque . . . atque occurs for et . . . et once in Vergil, and once in Silius Italicus.

1653. atque is used in comparisons, after words of likeness and unlikeness: as,

parī spatiō trānsmissus, atque ex Galliā est in Britanniam, 5, 13, 2, the journey across is just as long as it is from Gaul to Britain. īdemque iussērunt simulācrum Iovis facere maius et contrā, atque anteā fuerat, ad orientem convertere, C. 3, 20, and they furthermore gave orders to make a statue of Jupiter, a bigger one, and to turn it round to the east, the opposite of the way it originally faced. Sometimes et is thus used after alius, aliter, aequē, pariter, &c.: see the dictionary.

1654. With adjectives and adverbs in the comparative degree, atque sometimes takes the place of quam than, when the first member of comparison is negative (1895): as, amīcior mihi nūllus vīvit atque is est, Pl. Mer. 897, I have no greater friend alive than that man is. So in Plautus, Terence, Lucretius, Catullus, Vergil, rarely in Cicero, and in Horace even when the first member is positive.

1655. A sentence is often introduced by et, -que, or atque, where but would be used in English, particularly so when a positive sentence follows a negative one: as,

Sōcratēs nec patrōnum quaesīvit nec iūdicibus supplex fuit adhibuitque līberam contumāciam, TD. 1, 71, Socrates did not try to find an advocate nor bow the knee to his judges, but he was plain-spoken and defiant. nostrōrum mīlitum impetum hostēs ferre nōn potuērunt ac terga vertērunt, 4, 35, 2, the enemy could not stand the dash of our people, but turned their backs. hominis nē Graecī quidem ac Mȳsī potius, QFr. 1, 1, 19, a creature who is not even a Greek, but more of a Mysian.

1656. Two sentences, one of which would ordinarily be introduced by a subordinating temporal conjunction, are sometimes, mostly in poetry, coordinated by et or -que: as, dīxit et in silvam pennīs ablāta refūgit, V. 3, 258, she spake, and on her pinions sweeping, vanished to the wood, i.e. simul atque dīxit, refūgit.

1657. (4.) neque or nec, neither, nor, and . . . not, but . . . not, is used as a negative copulative, sometimes as a negative adversative: as,

opīniōnibus volgī rapimur in errōrem nec vēra cernimus, Leg. 2, 43, we are swept into error by the delusions of the world and cannot make out the truth. nōn enim temere nec fortuī̆tō creātī sumus, TD. 1, 118, for we were not created at adventure nor by accident. subsidiō suīs iērunt collemque cēpērunt, neque nostrōrum mīlitum impetum sustinēre potuērunt, 7, 62, 8, they went to aid their people and carried the hill, but they could not stand the fiery onset of our soldiers. neque or nec is often repeated: as, nec meliōrēs nec beātiōrēs esse possumus, RP. 1, 32, we can neither be better nor wiser.

1658. nec is rarely used in the sense of nē . . . quidem, not even, not . . . either: as, nec nunc, H. S. 2, 3, 262, not even now, a free quotation of nē nunc quidem, T. Eu. 46. nec . . . quidem, and not even, is used once or twice for the common ac nē . . . quidem or et nē . . . quidem.

1659. Instead of neque or nec, and not, the copulatives et, atque, rarely -que, followed by a negative, nōn, nēmō, nihil, &c., are sometimes used in Cicero and Livy, less often in old Latin, and rarely in Caesar and Sallust: as, quid tū fēcissēs, sī tē Tarentum et nōn Samarobrīvam mīsissem? Fam. 7, 12, 1, what would you have done, if I had sent you to Tarentum, and not to Samarobriva? Particularly thus et nōn, or oftener ac nōn, in corrections. But ordinarily neque or nec is preferred to et nōn, and nec quisquam, &c., to et nēmō, &c. (1445).

1660. When neque is followed by another negative, the assertion is positive (1452): as,

nec hoc ille nōn vīdit, Fin. 4, 60, and the man did not fail to see this. This positive use begins with Varro. In old Latin two negatives, and particularly neque . . . haud, are often used, as in old English, to strengthen the negation (1453).

1661. After a general negative, a word may be emphasized by nē ... quidem or nōn modo, or the parts of a compound sentence may be distributed by neque . . . neque, without destroying the negation: as,

nihil in locīs commūnibus, nē in fānīs quidem, nihil istum neque prīvātī neque pūblicī tōtā in Siciliā relīquisse, V. 4, 2, that the defendant has left nothing untouched in public places, no, not even in the temples, nothing either in the way of private or of public property, in all Sicily. Similarly when a coordinate member is appended with neque: as, nequeō satis mīrārī neque conicere, T. Eu. 547, I can’t quite puzzle out or guess.

Combination of Different Copulatives.

1662. Different copulatives are sometimes combined, as follows.

1663. (1.) The affirmative copulatives et and -que are sometimes combined, particularly in abridged sentences: as,

et Epamīnōndās praeclārē cecinisse dīcitur, Themistoclēsque est habitus indoctior, TD. 1, 4, Epaminondas in the first place is said to have played beautifully, and Themistocles was not considered exactly an educated man. This combination is used by Cicero rarely, by Horace in the satires, and rarely by late writers.

1664. The sequence -que . . . et is rare in old Latin, and not used by Caesar, Vergil, or Horace. -que . . . atque is first used by Lucretius, then by Vergil, Ovid, Livy, and Tacitus.

1665. (2.) Affirmative and negative copulatives are sometimes combined. Thus neque or nec combined with et, in the sequences neque . . . et and et . . . neque, which is rare in old Latin, is common in Cicero: as,

nec mīror et gaudeō, Fam. 10, 1, 4, in the first place I am not surprised, and in the second place I feel glad; neque . . . et nōn, however, is rare. patēbat via et certa neque longa, Ph. 11, 4, there lay a road open at once plain and not long. neque . . . -que begins with Cicero, but is rare (1655), neque . . . ac begins with Tacitus.

1666. Of all the Latin writers, Tacitus aims most at variety by combination of asyndeton and by the use of different copulatives: as, rēgem Rhamsēn Libyā Aethiopiā Mēdīsque et Persīs et Bactriānō ac Scythā potītum, 2, 60, that king Rhamses got control of Libya and Aethiopia and the Medes and Persians, and the Bactrian and Scythian.

(b.) Disjunctive Conjunctions.

1667. Disjunctive conjunctions connect the sentences, but disconnect the meaning. They are aut, vel, sīve or seu, -ve, and an, or. Of these conjunctions, aut, vel, and sīve are often placed before two or more members of a sentence in the sense of either . . . or. And in poetry, -ve . . . -ve sometimes occurs.

1668. (1.) aut, or, sometimes or even, or at least, is used between two members which are to be represented as essentially different in meaning, and of which one excludes the other: as,

hīc vincendum aut moriendum, mīlitēs, est, L. 21, 43, 5, here you must conquer, my men, or die. hōrae mōmentō cita mors venit aut victōria laeta, H. S. 1, 1, 7, within an hour’s brief turn comes speedy death or victory glad. aut vīvam aut moriar, T. Ph. 483, I shall either live or die. sīderibus dubiīs aut illō tempore quō sē frīgida circumagunt pigrī serrāca Boōtae, J. 5, 22, when stars blink faint, or even at the time when round rolls slow Boötes’ frigid wain. quā rē vī aut clam agendum est, Att. 10, 12, 5 [10, 12b, 2], so we must use force, or at any rate secrecy. Sometimes aut connects kindred ideas: as, equī ictī aut vulnerātī cōnsternābantur, L. 21, 33, 6, the horses kept getting frantic from being hit or wounded.

1669. aut, in the sense of otherwise, or else, sometimes introduces a statement of what necessarily follows, if something else is not done: as,

audendum est aliquid ūniversīs, aut omnia singulīs patienda, L. 6, 18, 7, you must make some bold dash collectively, or else you must suffer every thing individually. vel is also occasionally used in this sense.

1670. (2.) vel, or, introduces an alternative as a matter of choice or preference, and often relates merely to the selection of an expression: as,

eius modī coniūnctiōnem tēctōrum oppidum vel urbem appellāvērunt, RP. 1, 41, such a collection of dwelling-houses they called, well, a town or a city, whichever you please. vel imperātōre vel mīlite mē ūtiminī, S. C. 20, 16, use me as your generalissimo or as a private, whichever you will. Catilīnam ex urbe vel ēiēcimus vel ēmīsimus vel ipsum ēgredientem verbīs prōsecūtī sumus, C. 2, 1, we have—what shall I say?—driven Catiline out of town, or allowed him to go out, or, when he was going out of his own accord, wished him a pleasant journey. vel is often followed by etiam, potius, or dīcam. From Tacitus on, vel is sometimes used in the sense of aut: as, vincendum vel cadendum esse, Ta. 14, 35, they must do or die (1668).

1671. vel is sometimes used in the sense of if you will, even, or perhaps, especially before superlatives, or in the sense of for instance: as,

huius domus est vel optima Messānae, nōtissima quidem certē, V. 4, 3, this gentleman’s house is perhaps the finest in all Messana, at any rate the best known. amant tēd omnēs mulierēs, neque iniūriā: vel illae, quae here palliō mē reprehendērunt, Pl. MG. 58, the girls all idolize you, well they may; for instance those that buttonholed me yesterday.

1672. (3.) sīve or seu, or, used as a disjunctive conjunction, denotes a distinction which is not essential, or the speaker’s uncertainty as to some matter of detail; when used once only, it is chiefly in corrections, often with potius, rather, added; as,

is Ascanius urbem mātrī seu novercae relīquit, L. 1, 3, 3, said Ascanius left the city to his mother, or his stepmother, if you prefer. dīxit Pompēius, sīve voluit, QFr. 2, 3, 2, Pompey made a speech, or rather attempted to make one.

1673. sīve is often repeated in the sense of either, or no matter whether . . . or: as,

ita sīve cāsū sīve cōnsiliō deōrum, quae pars calamitātem populō Rōmānō intulerat, ea prīnceps poenās persolvit, 1, 12, 6, thus, no matter whether from chance or through special providence, the part which had done damage to Rome was the first to pay penalty in full.

1674. (4.) -ve rarely connects main sentences, usually only the less important parts of the sentence, or, oftener still, subordinate sentences: as,

cūr timeam dubitemve locum dēfendere? J. 1, 103, why should I fear or hesitate to stand my ground? Appius ad mē bis terve litterās mīserat, Att. 6, 1, 2, Appius had written me two or three times. With nē it forms nēve or neu, which is used as a continuation of nē or ut: see 1581; 1586; 1947.

1675. (5.) The interrogative particle an sometimes becomes a disjunctive conjunction, or, or possibly, or perhaps: as, Simōnidēs an quis alius, Fin. 2, 104, Simonides or possibly somebody else. Common in Cicero, though not so in his speeches, and in Livy, commonest in Tacitus.

(c.) Adversative Conjunctions.

1676. Adversative conjunctions connect the sentences, but contrast the meaning. They are autem, on the other hand, sed, vērum, cēterum, but, vērō, but, indeed, at, but, tamen, nihilō minus, nevertheless.

Of these conjunctions, autem and vērō are put after one word, or sometimes after two closely connected words; tamen is put either at the beginning, or after an emphatic word.

1677. (1.) autem, again, on the other hand, however, simply continues the discourse by a statement appended to the preceding, without setting it aside: as,

hōrum prīncipibus pecūniās, cīvitātī autem imperium tōtīus prōvinciae pollicētur, 7, 64, 8, to the chieftains of this nation on the one hand he promises moneys, and to the community on the other hand the hegemony of the whole province. The opposition in a sentence introduced by autem, again, is often so weak that a copulative, and, might be used: as, ille quī Dī̆ogenem adulēscēns, post autem Panaetium audierat, Fin. 2, 24, the man who in his early youth had sat at the feet of Diogenes, and afterwards of Panaetius. autem is oftenest used in philosophical or didactic discourse, less frequently in history, oratory, or poetry.

1678. autem is often used in questions: as, metuō crēdere :: crēdere autem? Pl. Ps. 304, I am afraid to trust :: trust, do you say?

1679. (2.) sed or set, and vērum, but, are used either in restriction, or, after a negative, in direct opposition: as,

vēra dīcō, sed nēquīquam, quoniam nōn vīs crēdere, Pl. Am. 835, I tell the truth, but all in vain, since you are bent not to believe. nōn ego erus tibī, sed servos sum, Pl. Cap. 241, I am not your master, but your slave.

1680. nōn modo, or nōn sōlum, not only, not alone, is followed by sed etiam or vērum etiam, but also, by sed . . . quoque, but ... as well, or sometimes by sed or vērum alone: as,

quī nōn sōlum interfuit hīs rēbus, sed etiam praefuit, Fam. 1, 8, 1, who has not had a hand only in these matters, but complete charge. quī omnibus negōtiīs nōn interfuit sōlum, sed praefuit, Fam. 1, 6, 1. nōn tantum is sometimes used by Livy, and once or twice by Cicero, but not by Caesar or Sallust, for nōn modo. Livy and Tacitus sometimes omit sed or vērum.

1681. nōn modo has sometimes the meaning of nōn dīcam: as, nōn modo ad certam mortem, sed in magnum vītae discrīmen, Sest. 45, I won’t say to certain death, but to great risk of life.

1682. nōn modo or nōn sōlum, when attended by another negative, may also be followed by sed nē . . . quidem, but not even, or sed vix, but hardly: as,

nōn modo tibī̆ nōn īrāscor, sed nē reprehendō quidem factum tuum, Sull. 50, so far from being angry with you I do not even criticise your action. When both members have the same predicate, usually placed last, the negation in nē . . . quidem or vix usually applies to the first member also: as, tālis vir nōn modo facere, sed nē cōgitāre quidem quicquam audēbit, quod nōn audeat praedicāre, Off. 3, 77, a man of this kind will not only not venture to do, but not even to conceive anything which he would not venture to trumpet to the world, or will not venture to conceive, much less do.

1683. (3.) cēterum is sometimes used in the sense of sed, in Terence, Sallust, and Livy. Sometimes also in the sense of sed rē vērā, in Sallust and Tacitus, to contrast reality with pretence.

1684. (4.) vērō, but, indeed, introduces an emphatic contrast or a climax: as,

sed sunt haec leviōra, illa vērō gravia atque magna, Pl. 86, however, all this is less important, but the following is weighty and great. scīmus mūsicēn nostrīs mōribus abesse ā prīncipis persōnā, saltāre vērō etiam in vitiīs pōnī, N. 15, 1, 2, we know that, according to our Roman code of ethics, music is not in keeping with the character of an eminent man, and as to dancing, why that is classed among vices. In Plautus, vērō is only used as an adverb; its use as an adversative conjunction begins with Terence. In the historians, vērō is often equivalent to autem.

1685. (5.) at, but, denotes emphatic lively opposition, an objection, or a contrast: as,

brevis ā nātūrā nōbīs vīta data est; at memoria bene redditae vītae sempiterna, Ph. 14, 32, a short life hath been given by nature unto man; but the memory of a life laid down in a good cause endureth for ever. at is often used before a word indicating a person or a place, to shift the scene, especially in history. In law language, ast sometimes occurs, and ast is also sometimes used, generally for the metre, in Vergil, Horace, and late poetry.

1686. (6.) tamen, nihilō minus, nevertheless.

accūsātus capitis absolvitur, multātur tamen pecūniā, N. 4, 2, 6, he is accused on a capital charge and acquitted, but is nevertheless fined in a sum of money. minus dolendum fuit rē nōn perfectā, sed poeniendum certē nihilō minus, Mil. 19, there was less occasion for sorrow because the thing was not done, but certainly none the less for punishment.

(2.) OTHER WORDS AS CONNECTIVES.

1687. Instead of a conjunction, other words are often used as connectives: as, pars . . . pars, aliī . . . aliī; adverbs of order or time: as, prīmum, first, or prīmō, at first ... deinde . . . tum, &c.; and particularly adverbs in pairs: as, modo . . . modo, tum . . . tum, less frequently quā . . . quā, simul . . . simul: as,

multitūdō pars prōcurrit in viās, pars in vestibulīs stat, pars ex tēctīs prōspectant, L. 24, 21, 8, part of the throng runs out into the streets, others stand in the fore-courts, others gaze from the house-tops. prōferēbant aliī purpuram, tūs aliī, gemmās aliī, V. 5, 146, they produced some of them purple, others frankincense, others precious stones. prīmō pecūniae, deinde imperī cupīdō crēvit, S. C. 10, 3, at first a love of money waxed strong, then of power. tum hoc mihī̆ probābilius, tum illud vidētur, Ac. 2, 134, one minute this seems to me more likely, and another minute that.

1688. Simple sentences may also be coordinated by words denoting inference or cause, such as ergō, igitur, itaque, therefore; nam, namque, enim, for, etenim, for you see: as,

adfectus animī in bonō virō laudābilis, et vīta igitur laudābilis bonī virī, et honesta ergō, quoniam laudābilis, TD. 5, 47, the disposition in a good man is praiseworthy, and the life therefore of a good man is praiseworthy, and virtuous accordingly, seeing it is praiseworthy. Of these words, nam, namque, and itaque are usually put first in the sentence; enim and igitur, usually after one word, rarely after two. But in Plautus regularly, and generally in Terence, enim has the meaning of indeed, verily, truly, depend upon it, and may stand at the beginning.

1689. In Plautus, the combination ergō igitur occurs, and in Terence and Livy, itaque ergō: as, itaque ergō cōnsulibus diēs dicta est, L. 3, 31, 5, accordingly then a day was set for the trial of the consuls.

1690. The interrogative quippe, why? losing its interrogative meaning, is also used as a coordinating word, why, or for: as, hōc genus omne maestum ac sollicitum est cantōris morte Tigellī: quippe benignus erat, H. S. 1, 2, 2, such worthies all are sad, are woebegone over Tigellius the minstrel’s death; why he was generosity itself.

1691. Simple sentences may also be coordinated by pronominal words, such as hinc, inde, hence, eō, ideō, idcircō, proptereā, so, on that account, &c.: as,

nocte perveniēbant; eō custōdiās hostium fallēbant, L. 23, 19, 10, they got there in the night; in that way they eluded the enemy’s pickets. But eō and ideō are not used thus by Cicero, Caesar, or Sallust, or idcircō and proptereā by Cicero or Caesar.

1692. In animated rhetorical discourse any word repeated with emphasis may serve as a copulative; this is called Anaphora: as,

mīles in forum, mīles in cūriam comitābātur, Ta. 1, 7, soldiers went with him to the forum, soldiers to the senate chamber. ēreptī estis ex interitū, ēreptī sine sanguine, sine exercitū, sine dīmicātiōne, C. 3, 23, you are rescued from death, rescued without bloodshed, without an army, without a struggle.

The Intermediate Coordinate Sentence.

1693. A sentence coordinate in form with another sentence is often equivalent in meaning to a subordinate sentence. Such sentences are called Intermediate Coordinate Sentences.

The most varied relations of a subordinate sentence may be thus expressed by a coordinate sentence, and the combination of the two coordinate sentences is in sense equivalent to a complex sentence.

1694. Such coordinated sentences are a survival of a more primitive state of the language. They occur oftenest in Plautus and Terence, in Cicero’s philosophical works and letters, in Horace’s satires and epistles, and in Juvenal. In general they have been superseded by complex sentences, even in the oldest specimens of the language.

1695. I. The relation of the two members may not be indicated by the mood, but left to be determined from the context.

Thus, in the combination amat, sapit, Pl. Am. 995, he is in love, he shows his sense, the two members amat and sapit are alike in form. But in sense, sapit is the main member and amat is the subordinate member. Just what the relation of the amat is, whether it is sī amat, if he is in love, cum amat, when he is in love, quod amat, because he is in love, or etsī amat, though he is in love, &c., &c., is left to the reader to make out. The following are some of the commonest combinations of this class:

1696. (1.) The coordinated member may stand instead of the commoner accusative and infinitive with a verb of perceiving, thinking, knowing, or saying (2175). Such are crēdō, fateor, opīnor, putō, certum est, &c.: as,

lūdōs mē facitis, intellegō, Pl. Per. 802, you are making game of me, I am aware. nārrō tibī̆: plānē relēgātus mihī̆ videor, Att. 2, 11, 1, I tell you what, I seem to myself regularly banished. spērō, servābit fidem, Pl. E. 124, I hope he’ll keep his word (2235).

1697. (2.) The coordinated member may be a direct question or an exclamation.

Thus (a.) in enquiries calling for an answer: as, sīgnī dīc quid est, Pl. Am. 421, tell me, what is there in the shape of seal? (1251). Or (b.) in ejaculation: as, viden ut astat furcifer? Pl. Most. 1172, seest how the knave is posing there? vidēte quaesō, quid potest pecūnia, Pl. St. 410, see pray how all-commanding money is. This construction occurs oftenest in comedy, and with an imperative meaning say, tell, or look. The subordinate construction is the rule: see 1773.

1698. (3.) The coordinated member rarely represents a relative sentence (1816): as,

urbs antīqua fuit, Tyriī tenuēre colōnī, V. 1, 12, there was an ancient town, which Tyrian settlers held. est locus, Hesperiam Graī cōgnōmine dīcunt, V. 1, 530, there is a place, the Greeks by name Hesperia call, imitated from est locus Hesperiam quam mortālēs perhibēbant, E. in Macrob. Sat. 6, 1, there is a place which sons of men Hesperia called.

1699. (4.) The coordinated member may represent a subordinate temporal member: as,

vēnit hiemps, teritur Sicuōnia bāca trapētis, V. G. 2, 519, has winter come, in mills is Sicyon’s olive ground (1860). vix prōram attigerat, rumpit Sāturnia fūnem, V. 12, 650, scarce had he touched the prow, Saturnia snaps the rope, i.e. cum rumpit (1869). lūcēbat iam ferē, prōcēdit in medium, V. 5, 94, it was just about light, when he presents himself before them. fuit ōrnandus in Mānīliā lēge Pompēius; temperātā ōrātiōne ōrnandī cōpiam persecūtī sumus, O. 102, when I had to glorify Pompey in the matter of the Manilius law, I went through the ample material for glorification in moderate language.

1700. (5.) The coordinated member may be equivalent to a member with ut, expressing result (1965): as,

iam faxō sciēs, T. Eu. 663, I’ll let you know at once, i.e. sciās (1712) or ut sciās (1965). iam faxō hīc erunt, Pl. B. 715, I’ll warrant they shall soon be here. adeō rēs rediīt, adulēscentulus victus est, T. Hau. 113, things came to such a pass the youngster was put down. cētera dē genere hōc, adeō sunt multa, loquācem dēlassāre valent Fabium, H. S. 1, 1, 11, the other cases of the kind, so plentiful are they, might tire the gabbling Fabius out. ita haec ūmōre tigna pūtent, nōn videor mihi sarcīre posse aedīs meās, Pl. Most. 146, so sopping rotten are these joists, I don’t think I can patch my house. ita avidō ingeniō fuit, numquam indicāre id fīliō voluit suō, Pl. Aul. prol. 9, so niggardly was he, he’d never point it out to his own son. tanta incepta rēs est, haud somnīculōsē hoc agundumst, Pl. Cap. 227, so big a job have we begun, not drowsily must this be done.

1701. (6.) The coordinated member may be equivalent to a conditional protasis: as,

(a.) fīliam quis habet, pecūniā opus est, Par. 44, a man has a daughter, he needs money. trīstis es, indignor, O. Tr. 4, 3, 33, if you are sad, I feel provoked. (b.) sī iste ībit, ītō; stābit, astātō simul, Pl. Ps. 863, if he shall move, move thou; but shall he stand, stand by his side. in caelum, iusseris, ībit, J. 3, 78, say but the word, he’ll mount the sky. (c.) subdūc cibum ūnum diem āthlētae, Iovem Olympium inplōrābit, TD. 2, 40, cut off an athlete from his food just a day, he will pray to Jupiter aloft in Olympus (1574). (d.) Zēnōnem rogēs, respondeat totidem verbīs, Fin. 4, 69, you may ask Zeno, he would answer in just as many words (1556). (e.) tū quoque magnam partem opere in tantō, sineret dolor, Īcare, habērēs, V. 6, 31, thou too a goodly space in work so vast, had grief allowed, O Icarus, hadst filled (1559). at darēs hanc vim M. Crassō, in forō saltāret, Off. 3, 75, but had you given this chance to Crassus, he would have capered in the market place (1559). nam absque tē esset, hodiē numquam ad sōlem occāsum vīverem, Pl. Men. 1022, for were it not for you, I ne’er should live this blessed day till set of sun (1560, 2110). (f.) ūnā fuissēmus, cōnsilium certē nōn dēfuisset, Att. 9, 6, 6, had we been together, we certainly should not have lacked a programme (1561).

1702. (7.) The coordinated member may be equivalent to a concession: as,

id fortasse nōn perfēcimus, cōnātī quidem sumus, O. 210; though we have perhaps not attained unto this, yet we have attempted it. ergō illī intellegunt quid Epicūrus dīcat, ego nōn intellegō? Fin. 2, 13, do those gentlemen then understand what Epicurus means, and I not?

1703. (8.) The coordinated member may denote efficient cause or reason: as,

peregrīnus ego sum, Sauream nōn nōvī, Pl. As. 464, I am a stranger, and I don’t know Saurea. mulier es, audācter iūrās, Pl. Am. 836, because you are a woman, you are bold to swear. tacent, satis laudant, T. Eu. 476, their silence is sufficient praise.

1704. (9.) The coordinated member may represent the protasis of a comparative sentence with ut (1937): as,

ita mē dī ament, honestust, T. Eu. 474, so help me heaven, he is a proper man. sollicitat, ita vīvam, mē tua, mī Tirō, valētūdō, Fam. 16, 20, your health, dear Tiro, keeps me fidgety, as I hope to live.

1705. II. The subordinate idea is often indicated by the subjunctive of desire coordinated with another verb, usually with one which has a different subject.

Thus, the combination amēs: oportet, you should love; it is right (1547), in which the two verbs are used separately, blends into one whole, amēs oportet, Fin. 2, 35, it is right you should love. The verb with which the subjunctive is coordinated specifies more exactly the general idea of desire contained in the subjunctive itself. The tense of the coordinate subjunctive is regulated by that of the other verb.

1706. The negative employed with coordinated subjunctives is the adverb nē, not.

Thus, the combination vidē: nē mē lūdās, see to it; don’t you fool me (1547), in which the two verbs are used separately, blends into one whole, vidē nē mē lūdās, Pl. Cur. 325, see to it you don’t fool me. Similarly, metuō: nē peccet, I am afraid; let her not slip up (1548), becomes metuō nē peccet, Pl. Per. 624, I am afraid she may slip up. From its frequent use in sentences of subordinate meaning, nē came at an early period to be regarded as a subordinating conjunction also, lest, that . . . not, as well as an adverb, and took the place of the less usual ut nē. Hence members with nē are more conveniently treated under the head of subordination (1947).

1707. (1.) The subjunctive is often coordinated with verbs of wishing. Such are volō, nōlō, rarely mālō, optō, placet, &c.: as,

animum advortās volō, Pl. Cap. 388, I wish you would pay heed (1548). quid vīs faciam? T. Hau. 846, what wilt thou I should do? (1563). vin conmūtēmus? tuam ego dūcam et tū meam? Pl. Tri. 59, would you like to swap? I take your wife, and you take mine? (1563). mālō tē sapiēns hostis metuat, quam stultī cīvēs laudent, L. 22, 39, 20, I would rather a wise enemy should fear you, than stupid fellow-citizens admire you (1548). Coordination is the rule with velim, vellem, &c., used in the sense of utinam (1540): as, dē Menedēmō vellem vērum fuisset, dē rēgīnā velim vērum sit, Att. 15, 4, 4, about Menedemus I could wish it had been true, about the queen I hope it may be true. tellūs optem prius īma dehīscat, V. 4, 24, I would the earth to deepest depths might sooner yawn. L. Domitius dīxit placēre sībī̆ sententiās dē singulīs ferrent, Caes. C. 3, 83, 3, Domitius said his view was they should vote on the men separately.

1708. (2.) The subjunctive is often coordinated with verbs of request, entreaty, encouragement, exhortation, charge, direction, command. Such are precor, rogō, ōrō, petō, hortor, postulō, moneō, cēnseō; mandō, imperō, praecipiō, dēcernō; and chiefly in old Latin, iubeō: as,

(a.) reddās incolumem precor, H. 1, 3, 7, deliver him up safe I pray. rogat fīnem ōrandī faciat, 1, 20, 5, he requests him to make an end of entreaty. ā tē id quod suēstī petō, mē absentem dēfendās, Fam. 15, 8, I ask you to do as you always do, stand up for me when I am away. nōn hortor sōlum sed etiam rogō atque ōrō, tē colligās virumque praebeās, Fam. 5, 18, 1, I not only exhort you, but more than that I beg and entreat you, pull yourself together and quit you like a man. postulō etiam atque etiam cōnsīderēs quō prōgrediāre, L. 3, 45, 10, I charge you think again and again what you are coming to. tē moneō videās, quid agās. magnō opere cēnseō, dēsistās, V. 5, 174, I advise you to consider what you are doing. I earnestly recommend you to stop. hunc admonet iter cautē faciat, 5, 49, 3, he warns him he must pursue his march with care. (b.) huic mandat Rēmōs adeat, 3, 11, 2, he directs him to go to the Remans. praecipit ūnum omnēs peterent Indutiomarum, 5, 58, 5, he says they must all concentrate their attack on Indutiomarus. huic imperat quās possit adeat cīvitātēs, 4, 21, 8, he orders him to visit such communities as he can. senātus dēcrēvit darent operam cōnsulēs nē quid rēs pūblica dētrīmentī caperet, S. C. 29, 2, the senate decreed the consuls must see to it that the commonwealth received no harm. iube maneat, T. Hau. 737, tell her she must stay. mīlitēs certiōrēs facit, paulisper intermitterent proelium, 3, 5, 3, he tells the soldiers they must stop fighting a little while. abī, nūntiā patribus urbem Rōmānam mūniant, L. 22, 49, 10, go tell the fathers they must fortify Rome town. dīxī equidem in carcerem īrēs, Pl. St. 624, I’m sure I told you you must go to jail. scrībit Labiēnō cum legiōne veniat, 5, 46, 3, he writes to Labienus he must come with a legion. lēgātiōnem mittunt sī velit suōs recipere, obsidēs sibī̆ remittat, 3, 8, 5, they send an embassy, if he wishes to get his own men back, he must send back the hostages to them.

1709. (3.) The subjunctive is often coordinated with expressions of propriety or necessity. Such are oportet, optumum est, opus est, decet, necesse est.

mē ipsum amēs oportet, nōn mea, Fin. 2, 85, it is myself you should love, not my possessions. quoniam habēs istum equom, aut ēmerīs oportet, aut hērēditāte possideās, aut surripuerīs necesse est, Inv. 1, 84, since you are in possession of that horse, you must either have bought him or inherited him, or else you must necessarily have stolen him. sed taceam optumumst, Pl. E. 60, but I’d best hold my tongue. nihil opust rescīscat, Pl. Mer. 1004, she needn’t find it out at all. condemnētur necesse est, RA. 111, be condemned he needs must.

1710. (4.) The subjunctive is sometimes coordinated with verbs of permission or concession. Such are permittō in Sallust and Livy, concēdō, also sinō, mostly in the imperative, chiefly in old Latin and poetry, and the impersonal licet (used thus often in Cicero, rarely before or after): as,

supplēmentum scrīberent cōnsulēs, permissum, L. 27, 22, 11, leave was given that the consuls might fill up the army. sine sciam, L. 2, 40, 5, let me know. sine modo adveniat senex, Pl. Most. 11, let but the old man come. fremant omnēs licet, dīcam quod sentiō, DO. 1, 195, though everybody may growl, I will say what I think. See 1904.

1711. (5.) The subjunctive is often coordinated with the imperative cavē̆, cavētō, cavēte, beware, used in the sense of nē (1585): as,

cavē faciās, Att. 13, 33, 4, don’t do it. cave dīrumpātis, Pl. Poen. prol. 117, don’t break it off (1075).

1712. (6.) The subjunctive is often coordinated with verbs of giving, persuading, accomplishing, taking care. In this case the subjunctive has the meaning of purpose or result. Such are the imperative cedo, and dō, persuādeō, impetrō, cūrō, also faciō, particularly fac and facitō: as,

cedo bibam, Pl. Most. 373, give me to drink. date bibat tībīcinī, Pl. St. 757, give the piper to drink. huic Sp. Albīnus persuādet rēgnum Numidiae ā senātū petat, S. I. 35, 2, Albinus induces him to ask of the senate the throne of Numidia. tandem inpetrāvī abīret, Pl. Tri. 591, at last I’ve coaxed him to clear out. fac sciam, Fam. 7, 16, 3, let me know. faxō sciās, Pl. Men. 644, I’ll let you know, much oftener sciēs or scībis (1700). fac bellus revertāre, Fam. 16, 18, 1, mind you come back a beauty (1579).

1713. A subjunctive is now and then loosely coordinated with verbs in general, to indicate the purpose of the action: as,

ēvocāte hūc Sōsiam, Blepharōnem arcēssat, Pl. Am. 949, call Sosia here, let him fetch Blepharo. clārē advorsum fābulābor, hic auscultet quae loquar, Pl. Am. 300, I’ll speak distinctly face to face, that he may hear what I shall say. operam hanc subrupuī tibī̆, ex mē scīrēs, Pl. Am. 523, I did this secretly for you, that you might learn from me. manibus date līlia plēnīs, purpureōs spargam flōrēs, V. 6, 883, lilies in handfuls give, I fain would scatter purple flowers, that is, that I may scatter.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE, OR SUBORDINATION.

1714. In a complex sentence, that is one consisting of a main and a subordinate sentence, the subordinate member is introduced by some subordinating word: such are,

I. Interrogative words, in indirect questions; II. Relative pronouns; III. Relative conjunctive particles, or conjunctive particles not of relative origin.

1715. Subordinate sentences may have the value of a substantive, usually as subject or as object; of an attributive; or of an adverb or adverbial adjunct: as,

(a.) eādem nocte accidit ut esset lūna plēna, 4, 29, 1, it came to pass the same night that there was a full moon. videō quid agās, Fam. 16, 17, I see what you are driving at. (b.) fundus quī est in agrō, quī Sabīnus vocātur, eum meum esse aiō, Mur. 26, the estate which is in the territory which is called Sabine, that I maintain is mine, lawyers’ wordiness for fundus Sabīnus. (c.) cum advesperāsceret, ad pontem Mulvium pervēnērunt, C. 3, 5, when it was getting dark, they reached the Mulvius bridge, i.e. vesperī, or prīmō vespere.

1716. Subordinate sentences which express time or place, are called Temporal or Local sentences; comparison or manner, Comparative or Modal sentences; condition, cause, or concession, Conditional, Causal, or Concessive sentences; purpose, Final sentences; result, Consecutive sentences.

1717. In a main sentence, the indicative present, future, and future perfect, and the imperative, are called Primary Tenses; the indicative imperfect, historical perfect, and pluperfect, and the infinitive of intimation, are called Secondary Tenses. The perfect definite and the present of vivid narration are sometimes regarded as primary tenses, oftener as secondary tenses.

1718. Verbs which have an implication of futurity, such as those meaning can, ought, must, &c., with an infinitive, also subjunctives of wish (1540) or of exhortation (1547), may be called Virtual Futures.

1719. Sometimes the subjunctive serves as a main sentence: see 1762; sometimes a noun of the verb: see 1766.

MOOD OF THE SUBORDINATE SENTENCE.

1720. The indicative and the subjunctive are both used in subordinate sentences, as will be shown in the treatment of the several words of subordination. Some general uses may be mentioned collectively here.

THE INDICATIVE MOOD.

1721. The indicative is ordinarily used in sentences introduced by a relative pronoun, or by a causal conjunctive word other than cum.