Part 2 — PLAN No. 1247. BAKING

This monograph was prepared by J. A. LeClerc, chemist in charge of the laboratory of plant chemistry, Bureau of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture. Acknowledgment is due B. R. Jacobs and E. E. Smith, of the Bureau of Chemistry, and Prof. C. H. Bailey, of the University of Minnesota for assistance in the preparation of this monograph.

What is Baking?

Baking is one of the most ancient, widespread, useful, and highly honored occupations. All classes and grades of bakeries are to be found even to-day from the most primitive, such as those among the Indians of this country and of South America, and those among the native tribes of Africa and other undeveloped countries, up to the most highly developed modern bakery, examples of which are to be found in most of our large cities, in which almost every step in the operation is by machinery, the hands of man scarcely touching the product at any stage. In every large city of the country are to be found bakers who employ a large number of men to carry on the various occupations connected with the industry. Every small town has at least one baker, but a small baker generally carries on, himself, each and every occupation connected with the shop.

What Does the Baker Do?

A baker’s business is to make bread by first making a dough with flour, water, salt, and yeast (with or without sugar, malt extract, milk, lard, etc.), allowing this dough to ferment, and then placing this fermented dough in an oven to bake it into bread. In general the following amounts of ingredients are used per barrel of flour: Flour 196 pounds, water 118 pounds, salt 8 pounds, sugar 6 pounds, yeast 2 pounds. Besides these essential ingredients some bakers add 2 to 3 pounds malt extract, 2 to 4 pounds milk or milk products and 3 to 4 pounds of lard or other shortening. A barrel of flour made into dough containing most of these ingredients will make about 282 to 290 one-pound loaves of bread when baked. Baking is quite a diversified business. There are many kinds of bakers or, rather it might be said, that bakers make many different kinds of products, e. g., bread, pies, cakes, crackers, etc. The term “baker,” as generally used, however, refers to bread bakers.

How Many Bakers are There?

In the United States there are some 30,000 commercial bakers of whom about 3,000 to 4,000 have an output of 70 to 75 per cent of the baking business of the country. Besides these commercial bakers, found in every city of any size in the country, bakeries are also to be found in many large hotels and restaurants, and these number many thousands more. These bakeries are of such size, indeed, that a head baker and an assistant baker, besides many workmen, are engaged in the different occupations.

There are many bakeries in this country who make daily from 50,000 to 100,000 loaves of bread. This requires the use of approximately 170 to 340 barrels of flour every day. Some bakers use five times that amount of flour. One of the largest bakeries in France, in connection with the American Expeditionary Forces, was said to be capable of turning out 1,000,000 loaves per day. The number of bakeries in the United States making over five thousand one-pound loaves per day is very large, and these are the ones which especially require the services of a master baker as well as of several other trained employees.

Value of Bakery Products

At the time of the last census there were over 120,000 men employed in the baking industry and the total output of the product from all kinds of bakeries was estimated to be valued at $400,000,000. Since that time, however, the output of the commercial labor has increased by leaps and bounds. To-day the commercial baker makes fully one-half of the bread consumed in the country, which is a relatively much larger amount than was made even 10 years ago. During the war, bread was advertised as was no other commodity. Besides this, the housewife found very great difficulty in making a satisfactory bread with the use of such a large amount of flour substitutes as the Food Administration required. This compelled many housewives to buy baker’s bread—housewives who had never before used baker’s bread. The habit thus formed has in many cases proved permanent, and thus has resulted in a largely increased demand for baker’s bread.

These facts show the importance of the baking industry, and show furthermore that the need for bakers is constantly growing and indeed is most urgent. It should not be difficult for any returning soldier who desires to make a specialty of baking to find employment near his own home, particularly if he lives in a large city.

Where do Bakers Work?

Bakers formerly almost universally worked in basements, many of them dark and unsanitary. The basement bakery is, in fact, not entirely done away with yet, but such as remain are small and unimportant. To-day the bakers of each city are vieing with each other to see who can put up the most attractive, the most “sunlit,” and sanitary bakery. The consequence is that practically all large important bakeries are built high up, with abundance of air and sunlight. This makes the work much more attractive, agreeable, and healthful than was formerly the case. The conditions of work for bakers are thus improving rapidly and are fully on a par with, if indeed they are not better than, those of other important industries.

Description of Occupations in a Bakery

There are a number of occupations connected with the baking industry, among which may be mentioned truckers, blending-machine tenders, mixers, machine hands, bench hands, oven men, packers, and shipping clerks, salesmen, clerks, and the engineers. The classification in the following table shows the character of occupations, the work required, the qualifications, wages, hours of labor, physical requirements, and training of the men:

Occupation. Character of occupation. Work requires. Qualifications. Wages per week. Hours of work. Physical requirements. Training required.

1. Heavy labor. Handling flour, trucking, miscellaneous handling heavy material, blending-machine tenders, machine hands. Walking, bending, lifting heavy weights, climbing, pushing or pulling heavy trucks. All work done on feet. Unusual bodily strength and agility. [47]$3 8 Both legs, both arms, hands with thumbs and fingers enough to do the work; one eye; good hearing not essential. None.

2. Light labor. Moving bread racks and pan racks; loading wagons, cleaning and greasing pans and machinery; sweeping. Walking, bending, lifting ordinary weights, manipulation of cleaning and greasing machines; pushing and pulling loaded racks. Usually all work done on feet. Some familiarity with bakery practice. [47]3 8 Two legs, one hand with at least thumb and two fingers, if good artificial hand; one eye; good hearing not essential. Do.

3. Dough mixers and assistants. Mixing dough; running mixing machines; weighing and measuring ingredients. Walking, bending, lifting, operating machinery, manipulation of scales and measures. Sitting part of time. Common-school education, good knowledge of doughs and dough batch ingredients. Familiarity with bakery practice. 25-40 8 One hand, if good artificial hand, one foot, with good artificial leg; one eye; fairly good hearing. 3 to 4 months in baking establishment.

4. Operators of fermentation. Turning and timing doughs; pushing troughs; keeping room at constant temperature. Walking, bending, lifting, pushing heavy troughs. Common-school education; somewhat familiar with baking practice. 25-35 8 do. 3 months.

5. Bench hands, dividers, rounders, molders. Running baking machines which divide, round, and mold the dough; sometimes performing these operations by hand. Standing at bench, some walking; loading, light lifting, rapid hand movements. Common-school education, thoroughly familiar with baking practice. 25-35 8 Two hands with thumb and at least one finger on each hand; one foot; one eye; fair hearing. Do.

6. Peelers, oven men. Putting pans into and taking bread from the oven; transferring pans from peels to racks, etc. Standing at oven, bending, light lifting, rapid motions of hands and body. Common school education, thoroughly familiar with baking practice; agility and dexterity. 25-40 8 One hand, if good artificial hand; one foot, if able to stand well on artificial foot; one eye, fair hearing. 3 months.

7. Sorters, checkers, workers in bread room, shipping clerks, packing clerks, clerical office force. Sorting bread; checking bread into wagons, making out bread slips, etc. Largely desk work. No physical exertion except that involved in handling records. Very little walking; can use crutches. Business education; some knowledge of office practice. 20 8-9 One eye (good eyesight), one hand; legs not essential; fair hearing. 6 months.

8. Salesmen. Making deliveries of bakery products; driving horses or automobile; working out routes; keeping up trade, making collections and adjustments of money. Walking, bending, lifting, climbing in and out of wagon or automobile constantly. Business education, knowledge of bakery products: knowledge of salesmanship; pleasing personality. 25-75 8-9 Both feet; one hand, with good artificial hand; one eye; good hearing essential. 6 months.

9. Shop foreman. Immediate supervision of shop operations. Walking; physical exertion only in helping in shop operation; much climbing. Common-school education; thorough familiarity with all lines of bakery work; ability to handle men. 35-50 8-12 do. 1 year.

10. Superintendent or manager of bakery. General supervision of entire plant; determination of methods of manipulation; supervision of all business activities. Largely desk work; but must be able to get around plant, to control operations. Thorough business education; intimate knowledge of manufacturing processes, cost accounting; great executive and directing ability; ability to deal with men. 50-200 [48] Good eyesight, good hearing; able to get around plant. | 2 years.

11. Buyer, purchasing agent. Purchasing of raw material and equipment. Largely desk work. Intimate knowledge of trade and marketing conditions and costs; also of raw materials and equipment used by bakers. 50-100 [48] Good eyesight and hearing; able to walk. 1 year.

12. Engineers. Running power plant. Mostly sitting. Common-school education, training and experience in engineering. 25-50 8 do. Do.

13. Machinists. Repairing and installing machinery. Walking, bending, lifting, climbing. Common-school education, training and experience with machinery. 25-35 8 Both feet, one hand, one eye, fair hearing. Do.

1. Based on intensive technical training of 35 to 40 hours per week.

2. Practically all specialised positions in baking are properly based on a journeyman’s experience. In the case of men who have served only partial apprenticeships, or who have no training whatever, an individual determination is necessary in each case as to the amount of special education, technical school training, and shopwork required to equal the regular apprenticeship foundation.

3. The artificial limbs now available may in many cases enable the individual to meet the physical requirements where the above statement would indicate a difficulty. Each such case must be decided on its merits.

Disabilities—They Need not Disqualify

A study of the table of occupations will show that few soldiers, who feel they have an aptitude for this industry, will find themselves disqualified. Of course, the bakeshop is no place for a consumptive, nor for an invalid, but the loss of an arm, a leg, an eye, or facial or head wounds need not necessarily disqualify men for every occupation in a bakery. There are many occupations in a bakery which a man with these physical defects may fill with perfect satisfaction and success. Indeed, success can be obtained even under the most apparently serious handicap. Much depends upon the man with a physical defect. He must not let his mind dwell upon that fact. If he has not lost his head or his courage he most assuredly can qualify. What he thinks is a disqualifying defect may not be one at all. Certainly, if his mind is made up to overcome his defect, the battle is over half won already.

The Government Will Help You

Every soldier must know that this Government of ours stands ready to assist him to find a congenial occupation. You need not feel discouraged, therefore, because of your supposed disqualification. Instead, it may be the making of you, especially if your mind is positively made up to succeed and if you will accept your Government’s offer to help you to success. While you are learning to become a baker you will be paid a regular allowance to cover your living expenses and your family will be paid an allowance for their support, so that in fact while you are learning you are also earning.

The Chances for Success

The chances for success are as great in the baking industry as in any other. Look about you a bit. It is very seldom you hear or read about the failure of a well-established bakeshop. The people must have bread. Good bread making is not at all difficult. Your chances to make and to sell good bread are just as good as those of your competitor-baker. Baking is a stable industry. There are large profits in the industry when well conducted. Your chances for success, therefore, are good, because the proprietor’s chances for success have always been good. Many examples might be pointed out to you of owners of bakeries who 10 to 20 years ago began in a small way and who to-day are baking from 25,000 to 100,000 loaves per day.

Qualifications

For the owner of a bakery the personal characteristics required for success in a large way are about the same as for other occupations and professions. He must keep abreast of the times by constant study and application. Of course a man must be honest. He must be determined to give full weight. It seems so easy in a bakeshop to cut the weight of a loaf by one-half to 1 ounce and thus reap a temporary advantage, and so it is; but as in other businesses, “honesty is the best policy,” and the baker who has the reputation for giving full weight generally gains in the end, and the one who is known to skimp on his weight will eventually find that policy a losing game. A proprietor must be a hard worker; he is liable to be required to work at any time of day or night. He must be a man who can get along with men, one to win their confidences, cooperation, and best endeavors.

A master baker should be able to manage men so as to get the most out of them consistent with decency and fair play. He should have an intimate knowledge of flours and of the other ingredients used in baking. He should be well posted in the art of baking in all its phases, and have enough ambition to keep posted and abreast of the times.

The other employees of a bakery do not need so many of the qualifications possessed by the master baker so long as they are content to remain where they are, but if they are planning to become master bakers themselves they must make up their minds to obtain this very training. Many soldiers have already had considerable experience in field bakeries. They will find this experience of great value in commercial bakeries. However, previous training and experience in the Army is not an essential, inasmuch as sufficient experience can be had in several months’ study at a trade school to satisfy the requirements of beginners. Men who aspire to forge ahead in a bakery must have “pep,” be alert to learn, and must apply themselves studiously. They should have a natural aptitude for the work, for the best work can never be done in any line where there is no love and enthusiasm.

Training and Experience

Formerly, bakers learned their profession through the apprenticeship. While that system is also in vogue to-day, yet many men are being given a tremendous boost by first attending a trade school for bakers or a technical school, college, or university. In going through the apprenticeship stage, a man would be very greatly assisted if he had at least an eighth-grade education or better still a high school or college education. The trade school will in the course of six to nine months’ intensive training not only train a man to bake a good loaf of bread, but will teach him to know the characteristics of the ingredients which are used in baking and how to detect or determine their quality. He will acquire a chemical knowledge of these raw materials. He will also learn to have a thorough knowledge of baking machinery and how to handle ovens. After such a schooling, he should make fast progress as an apprentice.

Schools of Baking

Among the schools offering training for bakers may be mentioned the Dunwoody Institute at Minneapolis, the University of Minneapolis at University Farm, Minn., the Kansas Agricultural College at Manhattan, and a number of trade schools proper at Chicago—the Columbus Laboratory, Operative Miller, and Siebel Institute.

It should always be recognized that a general education is a great aid on the road to success, and that an ambition to keep pace with the improvements in methods, changes in materials and appliances will be rewarded by more rapid promotion. One of the best ways of maintaining the pace is to read the various journals devoted to milling and baking and to associate one’s self with societies specializing in milling and baking.

The bakers’ journals which will be found helpful are as follows:

Bakers’ Helper, 431 South Dearborn Street, Chicago, Ill.

Bakers’ Review, 408 Whitall Building, New York City.

Bakers’ Weekly, 41 Park Row, New York City.

Confectioners and Bakers’ Gazette, 127 Worth Street, New York City.

National Baker, 411 Walnut Street, Philadelphia.

Retail Confectioner and Baker, 36 Catherine Street, New York City.

The Bakers’ News, 332 South La Salle Street, Chicago, Ill.

The Mediator, 121 Canal Street, New York City.

The Pacific Coast Gazette, San Francisco, Calif.

Among the milling journals may be mentioned:

American Miller, 315 Dearborn Street, Chicago, Ill.

Canadian Miller and Cerealist, Montreal, Canada.

Dixie Miller, 154 North Cherry Street, Nashville, Tenn.

Miller’s Review, 424 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa.

Modern Miller, 1032 Pierce Building, St. Louis, Mo.

Northwestern Miller, the Miller Building, Minneapolis, Minn.

Operative Miller, 537 South Dearborn Street, Chicago, Ill.

Roller Mill, Marine Bank Building, Buffalo, N. Y.

There are two societies in this country which are making special endeavors to study milling and baking problems, viz, the American Society of Milling and Baking Technology and the American Association of Cereal Chemists. Besides these journals and societies, from which considerable help and enthusiasm may be obtained, the Government, particularly the Department of Agriculture, stands ready to assist anyone along these lines. This department has accumulated considerable information on flour, bread, and the various cereals, and it is always glad to answer any questions that it can and ready to give out any information which it has.

Besides all these sources of help, much information may be gained by reading bulletins published by a number of experiment stations, and these bulletins may be obtained for the asking. Among the experiment stations publishing such bulletins may be mentioned the following:

Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Manhattan, Kans.

North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Fargo, N. Dak.

Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington, Ky.

Ontario Agricultural Experiment Station, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.

Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station, State College, Pa.

South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Brookings, S. Dak.

Washington Agricultural Experiment Station, Pullman, Wash.

Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Conn.

Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, University Farm, Minn.

Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio.

Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, Lansing, Mich.

Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Me.

California Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, Calif.

Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, Logan, Utah.

Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station, Moscow, Idaho.

Furthermore, a number of books on baking have been published in the English language, among which may be mentioned the following:

Otto Werlin. The American Cake Baker, published by the Richmond Borough Publishing Printing Co., New York.

Amy L. Handy. War-Time Bread and Cake, published by Houghton & Mifflin Co., Boston, Mass.

William H. Brooks. Modern Practical Cake Baking, published by the Times Publishing Co., Palo Alto, Calif.

Fritz L. Gienandt. The Twentieth Century Book for the Progressive Baker-Confectioner, published by the author, in Boston.

Emil Braun. Secrets of Bread Making.

Siebel’s Manual.

Recipe Book for the Practical Baker. Malzbender.

Paul Richards. Bakers’ Bread, with appendix.

Biscuits and Cakes, 1911. Reliable Flour Co., Boston, Mass.

Robert Wells. Bread, Biscuits, Buns, and Cakes.

Frank A. Kennedy. The Biscuit Industry, 1895.

Wihlfahrt, J. E., A Treatise on Flour, Yeast, Ferment, and Baking.

Laws and Gilbert. The Wheat Grain, Its Milling Products and Bread.

Charles and James Scott. Vienna Bread.

Owen Simmons. The Book of Bread.

Dr. Harry Snyder. Studies on Bread and Bread Making.

J. A. Wanklyn. Bread Analysis.

H. W. Wiley. Cereal and Cereal Products.

Mrs. H. W. Atwater. Bread and the Principles of Bread Making.

Blandy. Studies in Bread Making.

Gill. Short History of the Baker’s Art.

Gill. Chemistry of Bread Making.

T. B. Wood. The Story of a Loaf of Bread.

Grant. Chemistry of Bread Making.

Dr. John Goodfellow. The Dietetic Value of Bread.

William Jago. The Principles of Bread Making.

Archer Kirkland. Studies for the Bakehouse.

John Kirkland. All About Bread Making.

John Kirkland. The Modern Baker, Confectioner, and Caterer.

It is thus seen that for the man who is ambitious to learn about baking there are many sources of knowledge. The baker, or baking employee who aspires to become a baker, can find much assistance and inspiration from bulletins, books, journals, and societies, and by correspondence with experts of the Department of Agriculture. The disabled soldiers who believe they can qualify to become bakers have every reason to feel encouraged.