Part 2 — PLAN No. 1157. CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION AND CEMENT MANUFACTURE

Acknowledgment

This monograph was prepared by A. J. R. Curtis, of the Portland Cement Association, under direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance.

Development in the field of concrete construction during the past two decades has been little short of marvelous. This increase may be accredited to the wide variety of uses to which concrete may be put and to the demand on the part of the American public for construction that is permanent, reasonable in cost, and fireproof. The concrete industry has brought in to the field of labor a new type of skilled workmen and its varied phases each call for men with distinct, definite training. Indications point to a greatly increased demand for men in this line of industrial activity. If the increase in the production of Portland cement during the last few years is reviewed one can easily see the constantly increasing importance with which concrete construction is being regarded. The shipments of cement leaped from 8,000,000 barrels in 1900 to 92,000,000 in 1917. A vivid imagination will not be needed to picture a still greater and wider field for its use in the future.

With the cessation of hostilities new construction work of many kinds is being planned in every section of the country. Millions of dollars will be spent for new buildings, highways, bridges, and various other types of public and private improvements. There will be a demand for trained workmen which will probably tax every effort to supply. A large percentage of the occupations in this line of work can be filled efficiently by men who have suffered some disability in the service of their country. The handicap in the loss of a leg or an arm on the battlefields of France can be overcome with the aid of a “Made in America” leg or arm, fitting the wearer to fill efficiently many occupations in the concrete industry.

A careful study has been made of the limitations imposed by various injuries. There are many cases on record where injured men have overcome all handicaps and have made good in positions which from the survey of the re-educationist appeared quite impossible. Many instances have come to light which show that the statement, “A handicap is merely a state of mind,” holds true for a great variety of cases.

The wage question is no doubt one of the first which arises in your mind. It is natural that one should ask, “What wages or salary does this job pay?” and, “What are the chances for advancement?” In a review of the wages of men engaged in concrete construction as compared with the men engaged in other lines of construction work this fact was noted, that although in 1913 the average wage for the concrete worker was somewhat lower, during the year 1916 wages for concrete workers advanced 60 per cent while for workers in the other line the advance was only 20 per cent. For the man with training in this work the salary will average near $150 per month. As regards opportunities for advancement, few other lines of activity seem to hold forth comparable opportunities, when it is considered that a large proportion of competent workers eventually become partners or managing owners in contracting concerns, while the demand for construction superintendents is usually greater than the supply.

For convenience, concrete-work employments may be classified in three distinct groups, namely: (1) Structural group, including the building of reinforced concrete structures, ships, bridges, dams, retaining walls, and a multitude of small structures; (2) roads and highway group, including the construction of concrete roads and highways, pavements, and alleys; (3) products plant group, including the making of blocks, brick, tile, sewer and pressure pipe, and ornamental trim work.

PLAN No. 1158. STRUCTURAL GROUP

Engineer or Architect

In large structural work the man in charge is usually a civil engineer or an architect, who has specialized during his course of training in structural or reinforced concrete engineering. He is the designer or the creator of the proposed structure. Before any work is done he must picture in his mind the finished product in every detail of its construction; he must be able to design and lay out the plans for the work in its entirety; he must be familiar with the cost of labor and materials, in order that he may know when the contractor is placing a fair price upon the construction. He must know the building laws and codes in any part of the country in which he may be working. He should have business training and experience, as practically all his associations will be with business men, and he must be able to talk intelligently and in business terms to them.

A large percentage of his time will be spent in the office or designing room.

His training is received in one of two ways, namely: By full-time course of training in the civil engineering department of a university or college, or by part-time study in a technical school. Many schools of this last-named type are now giving evening work, which enables young men to attain the degree of a civil engineer or architectural engineer while working. Thus, a man who is working during the day, may increase his efficiency and attain the same end as his brother, who has been more fortunate in that he has received a full four years’ training.

To reach the position of engineer architect, the training described above is an absolute necessity. As a usual thing a civil engineer who has just completed his course starts work in the capacity of draftsman, foreman, inspector, or assistant superintendent, and as he gains in experience is given more responsible positions. His wages range from approximately $100 at the start to $400 or $500 per month as he gains in efficiency and experience.

Often, after gaining experience an engineer will establish a clientage, and gradually work up a business of his own. This is a goal toward which to strive, as it means greater independence and a larger income. His services are in demand in every part of the country the year round.

PLAN No. 1159. INSPECTOR

After designing a structure the engineer lets the job of constructing to a contracting firm. He places as his representative on the job an inspector whose duty it is to see that the engineer’s plans and specifications are properly carried out. The duties of an inspector are not difficult, but it takes a man with diplomacy and consideration, yet one who is sufficiently firm to safeguard his employer’s interests and make sure that every part of the work is performed in a thoroughly acceptable manner. It goes without saying that he must be acquainted with every feature of the construction work as planned by the engineer.

His training is practically the same as that of the engineer or architect. However, it is possible for a man who can not complete his entire training at one time to accept a position as inspector, and gain some very valuable experience in this way. There are also men who work up from the ranks to this position. The demand for his services is greatest in connection with large industrial and public projects and in the general construction work in cities. His wages range from $100 to $200 per month.

PLAN No. 1160. CONTRACTOR

The contractor or firm of contractors are equipped to handle the construction work. At such a time as the engineer or architect has his plans completed he advertises among the contractors for bids on the construction according to his plans. As a rule the responsible firm making the lowest bid gets the job.

PLAN No. 1161. SUPERINTENDENT

The first thing the contractor does after accepting the job is to select a superintendent of construction. Superintendents are usually engineers who have grown up in the service of the firm. The successful superintendent must have resourcefulness, technical knowledge, tact, energy, honesty, and judgment. He must have a personality which drives to activity several hundred originally unorganized men who are without special interest in the company they work for or in the results accomplished, and with tact and judgment he must weld them into a unified working organization, cheerful and self-respecting, with a high morale and finally with enthusiasm for the work at hand. He must be able to build in full size, with permanent materials, a structure the design of which troubled the engineer or architect to show clearly on paper; he must be honest, since his company must leave their reputation in his hands and trust him with funds; he must, through attention and experience, be so trained that dangerous operations are carried on as a matter of routine without worry either to himself or his company; he must have ability to foresee and provide for the problems which are perhaps to come up months later; he should have his temper continually under control, even under the most provoking circumstances; he should have as much pride in the structure he is erecting as the engineer who designed it; he must be able to handle labor and cope with the various labor problems that may arise.

His training is practically the same as that of the engineer or inspector, but he has been fitted by experience for the position of superintendent. He may have served in various capacities with the same contracting firm or with other firms. In some cases men with extraordinary ability have worked up from the ranks by hard work and home study or night-school training. The salary of the superintendent varies in different localities and upon different jobs. It usually ranges from $150 per month upward.

PLAN No. 1162. ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT

On the larger jobs the superintendent has an assistant. His duties are dependent largely upon the man under whose direction he may be working. From a study of the duties and qualifications of the superintendent an idea may be gained of the nature of the assistant’s work. The educational requirements are the same as those for the superintendent, but his responsibility is less and therefore as great and varied experience is not required. The opportunity for his services depends upon the number of large jobs under construction. His salary usually ranges from $100 to $200 per month.

PLAN No. 1163. TIMEKEEPER

On all large jobs a timekeeper has a position of responsibility. His duties are clerical in nature; in fact he might be called the superintendent’s clerical assistant. As his name implies he is keeper of the time of the men, and each day checks up the men on the job in order that no mistakes may be made in figuring their time. He handles a large amount of clerical work in connection with the pay roll, and may also be called upon to do other work in connection with construction. He must be a man who is absolutely honest and trustworthy. He has a wonderful opportunity for observation and study of construction operations, and can by application and study advance to a position of greater responsibility and trust. His wage varies somewhat, and is dependent on the amount of responsibility placed upon him and of work required of him. Experience is of secondary importance.

PLAN No. 1164. FOREMAN

On a large job there will be several foremen, usually a general foreman, a concrete foreman, foreman of reinforcing placing, and a carpenter-foreman.

First and most important a foreman must be able to handle men. His duties are more than just to hire and fire. He must be acquainted with the problems of his men and spend some time studying their viewpoint of all questions in which they may be interested. As he is ofttimes a man who has advanced from the ranks by hard work, study, and superior ability, he will be acquainted with the men’s side of the various labor questions. However, he must be fair minded and not see the viewpoint of the men alone, but must regard that also of his employer. He must be able to weigh carefully any situation, and to make a fair and just decision.

He must be able to read designs and put them into operation. He may not be called upon to perform actual mechanical operations, but he must be able to tell and to show his men how the work is done. He is, in fact, the superintendent’s right-hand man on the particular portion of the work which has been assigned to him. All of his time will be spent out in the open upon the job. Wherever there are concreting operations in progress, there you will find him.

The general foreman has active charge of all operations. The other foremen, as a rule, come directly under his jurisdiction.

The concrete foreman has charge of all concreting operations; the reinforcing foreman has charge of the placing all reinforcing; and the carpenter foreman has charge of the building of the forms and erecting of all staging and hoist towers necessary for carrying on the concreting operations.

Generally speaking, the foremen gain their training from experience and study; night schools have been started in some of the cities of the country, which are giving courses in concrete work, particularly for the man who is anxious to better his position.

PLAN No. 1165. FINISHERS

The repairing of imperfections in the concrete surfaces and the finishing or floating of flat surfaces requires the work of the finisher. He must possess manual dexterity so that he can handle a float skillfully and must know when a surface has been worked sufficiently. Skill is also required in pointing up or repairing imperfections in surface from which forms have been removed. His wages range from 50 to 60 cents per hour. His training is received on the job.

PLAN No. 1166. MIXER OPERATOR

Several things are required of a mixer operator. First he must have some mechanical skill and be able to handle and to take care of a steam or gas engine or an electric motor. He should be able to repair the mixer in case of a breakdown. He must also know something of proportioning and of consistencies required for different mixtures and under different conditions. Wherever any considerable amount of concreting is done the services of a mixer operator are required. The wages are practically the same as for finishers. His training is gained through experience on the job.

PLAN No. 1167. FORM BUILDERS

Form builders are carpenters and must have the experience and training required in that trade.

PLAN No. 1168. REINFORCING PLACERS

Reinforcing placers are very often laborers under the direction of a skilled foreman. Their duties are to place the reinforcing steel according to the specifications prepared by the engineer. In some of the larger cities the Structural Steel Workers’ Union requires that all placing of reinforcing be done by men from their union. The wages vary according to locality. Very little training or experience is necessary.

PLAN No. 1169. RURAL CONTRACTORS

Rural contractors comprise a very numerous group, handling concrete jobs in the smaller cities and towns throughout the country. Endowed with an ordinary amount of business judgment, the rural contractor usually becomes a well-to-do business man. He usually acts as his own superintendent directing his jobs personally. The average rural contractor is independent and commands the respect of the business men of his community. His income is variable but always affords a good living if his business is well managed. His income is often comparable with that of the larger merchants in the community.

Road and Highway Group

A large number of the occupations in this division are analogous to the positions in the structural division.

PLAN No. 1170. ENGINEER

On practically all public highways the outlining of the plans and specifications are left to the county or state highway engineer. His course of technical training should include specialized work in highway engineering. He must be thoroughly reliable and of unquestionable integrity, as his judgment in matters pertaining to the construction of highways and roads must be faultless.

Only recently the states of Illinois and Pennsylvania voted enormous bond issues to be used in the construction of permanent hard-surfaced roads. Many other states are planning to appropriate huge sums for the same purpose. Never before has the opportunity for the highway engineer been so great. The training required and the salary paid are very similar to those of the structural engineer.

PLAN No. 1171. INSPECTOR

As in structural work the building of highways is usually let to a contractor and the engineer places an inspector as his representative on the job. The duties of the inspector are practically the same as upon structural work.

PLAN No. 1172. SUPERINTENDENT

In a general way all that has been said regarding a superintendent of structural work applies to the superintendent of highway work. He should understand how the grading in preparation for the building of roads should be done and be able to carry on the construction of the road efficiently, with as little delay and as economically as possible.

PLAN No. 1173. FOREMAN

The foreman on road work has usually been trained in the school of experience and has learned the various requirements of good concrete road building. He has shown by hard work and superior ability that he is able to handle the position of foreman of the highway building gang. In a general way his requirements are the same as heretofore mentioned.

PLAN No. 1174. MIXER OPERATOR, FINISHER, REINFORCING PLACER

The requirements are the same as in structural work.

PLAN No. 1175. FORM SETTER

Before it is possible to place any concrete it is necessary to build side rails to contain the concrete. This work is done by form setters. No special training is required.

Products Group

The making of various concrete products is a field which is increasing in importance. The construction of block, brick, tile, sewer, and pressure pipe, silo staves, ornamental trim, structural units, lamp posts, fence posts, telephone and telegraph poles, burial vaults, kitchen sinks, bath and laundry tubs, garden furniture, roofing and floor tile, cribbing fences, columns and grindstones are included in this group. The concrete products industry is coming into a position of dignity and importance. The day of the incompetent man is passing, and his product—the pasty looking, porous cement block—is giving way to the real concrete unit, structurally sound and architecturally beautiful. The factory-made concrete block of quality has made its way against the prejudice created by inferior products and against a conservatism which requires a new material to prove beyond any possibility of doubt its superiority to materials with which builders are acquainted. Concrete units have suffered through the ignorance which has placed them upon the market as substitutes and imitations rather than as products of a material having its own distinctive qualities and characteristic charm.

The development of concrete stone manufacture depends upon the possibility of the market, skillful workmanship, economical operation and competent management; upon the utilization of the best available materials and equipment in preference to makeshifts and clumsy manual labor. It depends on artistic perception, and also upon the appreciation of public demands.

This line of work presents a wonderful opportunity for the man who desires to eventually go into business for himself. The amount of capital required for the start is comparatively small. However, before entering this line of business a very careful study should be made of the management, manufacture, and marketing of concrete products.

PLAN No. 1176. MANAGER

In large plants a manager is employed by the operating company, but in smaller plants the proprietor usually acts as manager. The man who undertakes the management of an enterprise of this kind should understand business principles and have training and experience in business life; he must be familiar with the requirements of the product which he is manufacturing; he should not attempt to manufacture too large a line of products, but should specialize according to the demands of the locality in which he is situated.

PLAN No. 1177. FOREMAN

The foreman is in active charge of the manufacturing of the products and has direct charge of the labor employed. The requirements for his position are the same as have already been mentioned for a foreman.

PLAN No. 1178. MACHINE OPERATORS

A large percentage of concrete products are manufactured in specially designed machines which require some skill in operating. The operator must know the machine thoroughly. His training is gained by experience.

PLAN No. 1179. MODELER

If ornamental work is undertaken the services of a modeler are absolutely necessary. To produce products artistic in design requires the services of a man trained in an art school. From a clay model, molds of plaster or glue are made in which the concrete is poured. Most of the modeler’s work is done indoors, usually in a well lighted studio. His salary is variable and dependent upon his ability. Demand for his services is not very general at the present, but the occupation holds many very promising allurements for the man who has ability.

PLAN No. 1180. PATTERN MAKER

In some cases it is necessary to make wooden forms for ornamental trim work. The making of these forms requires the services of a pattern maker. The requirements and qualifications for this position have been discussed in other monographs.

PLAN No. 1181. PLASTER AND GLUE MOLD MAKER

It is the work of a plaster and glue mold maker to take the model which has been designed and make a plaster or glue mold in which the concrete will be placed. His experience and training is gained by actual work with the material, either in the shop or in the school. This occupation requires considerable mechanical ability. In smaller plants the modeling and mold making are frequently done by one man.

Miscellaneous

Each one of the various groups which have been mentioned requires an office force, and commonly in the case of the concrete products group salesmen are employed.

Re-education

To the man who has been disabled, some place in the field of concrete construction activities may present a life work which has a future both big and bright. The work is vitally interesting and alive. If you have the determination and ability the way is clear to assume almost any of the responsible positions reviewed in this monograph. Do not expect to step from the hospital or from the vocational institution into the highest position; the minor jobs are stepping stones to the bigger ones. Make up your mind that you will attain the highest possible position in that phase of the construction industry in which you are engaged, and by diligent application you will ultimately reach this goal. The industry is large and there are opportunities for everyone to whom the doing of big things appeals. Talk with the re-educational expert with whom you should in any case get acquainted, and learn of schools near your home that are giving instruction in the various phases of concrete construction.

PLAN No. 1182. CEMENT MANUFACTURE

With the increase in construction activities the demand upon the manufacturers of Portland Cement becomes greater. However, the manufacture of this product does not present as large an opportunity to you as does the field of concrete construction. In the actual manufacture of this product there are few positions which make a direct appeal.

However, in the laboratories, which are maintained by all manufacturing companies there is an opportunity for you if you are interested in chemistry or physics. Elaborate tests, both chemical and physical, are made of this product. If you have had training in chemical engineering, here is an opportunity for you to get into work which is interesting, of which the future is assured. If you have not had the training, the chemical engineering departments of our colleges present the opportunity for study and research work. If your mind is made up to enter the cement testing laboratory, specialize on this subject while taking your course of training.