65. From Tripoli to Alexandria viâ Benghazi and Derna. (continued 3)

The train crosses the Jerusalem road and runs to the S. through marshy flats to (18 M.) the village of Nâaneh. At some distance from the railway Akir, once Ekron, one of the five chief cities of the Philistines (p. 466), lies on the right (W.), and on the left (E.) are the famous ruins of Tell Jezer, mentioned in the letters found at Tell el-Amarna (p. 456), originally the Canaanitish (Phœnician) city of Gezer (a drive of 1 hr. from Er-Ramleh).

24½ M. Sejed. Soon turning to the E., we ascend the Wâdi es-Sarâr (‘valley of Sorek’, Judg. xvi. 4), which beyond (31 M.) Deir Abân narrows to a wild rocky gorge.

47½ M. Bittir, the ancient Baither or Bethar, was heroically defended against the Romans during the revolt of Bar Cochba (p. 472). The train then ascends in the Wâdi el-Werd (‘valley of roses’) and crosses the plain of El-Bukeia to (54½ M.) Jerusalem.

Jerusalem.—The Station (2451 ft.; see Pl. C, 9) lies ¾ M. to the S. of the Jaffa Gate; carr. into the town 2–5 fr., according to the season.

Hotels. *Fast’s Hotel (Pl. a; C, 4, 5), Jaffa Road; Grand New Hotel (Pl. c; D, 5), New Bazaar; Hôt. Hughes (Pl. d; C, 4), Jaffa Road; Olivet House (Pl. e; C, 2); Hôt. Kaminitz (Pl. b; C, 4), Jaffa Road. Pension at all 12–15 (out of season 8–10) fr. per day. Agreement advisable. Wine of the country 1–2, French wine from 3 fr. a bottle.

Hospices. Prussian Johanniter-Hospiz (Pl. g; F, 4), pens. 5 fr.; German Catholic Hospice St. Paulus (Pl. h; E, 2), outside the Damascus Gate; Austrian (Pl. i; F, 3), Via Dolorosa; Casa Nuova (Pl. k; D 4, 5), of the Franciscans; all good, pens. 5–8 fr.

Restaurants. Deutsche Bierhalle, Jaffa Road; Lendhold (brewery), in the German Temple colony.

471Post Offices. Turkish (Pl. C, 5: with the International Telegraph), outside the Jaffa Gate; French (Pl. C, 5), adjoining it; German (Pl. D, 5), etc.

Tourist Offices. Thos. Cook & Son, inside Jaffa Gate; Clark, Hamburg-American Line, Dr. Benzinger (North German Lloyd), N. Tadros, all in Jaffa Road.

Carriages at the Jaffa Gate. Drive ¼ hour, ½ mejidieh. Excursions are best arranged for by tourist-agent or landlord of hotel. So also Horses, half-day 5, whole day 8 fr.; donkey per day 4–5, half-day 2–3 fr.

Consulates. British (Pl. 5; A, 1), H. E. Satow.—United States (Pl. 13; E, 5): consul, W. Coffin.

Banks. Anglo-Palestine Co. (Pl. 1; E, 6), opposite the citadel; Crédit Lyonnais (Pl. 2; D, 5) and Banque Ottomane (Pl. D, 5), Jaffa Road; German Palaestina-Bank (Pl. 3; D, 5), inside Jaffa Gate.

Photographs. The best are those of the American Colony, of Bonfils of Beirut, and (coloured) of the Photoglob of Zürich, to be obtained from Vester (American Colony Store), Boulus Meo, Sfeir, and Shammas, all in the Grand New Hotel; A. Attallah, at the Bâb el-Jedîd; Salman & Co., Jaffa Road.—Other favourite Souvenirs of Jerusalem are carved olive-wood and mother-of-pearl objects, in which there is a brisk trade; the largest choice is to be found in the square in front of St. Sepulchre’s, but half at most of the price asked should be offered; higher class work is best purchased at the shops mentioned above.

Churches, convents, missions, schools, etc. abound (see Baedeker’s Palestine & Syria). Among them may be mentioned the Collegiate Church of St. George (with the Bishop’s House; services at 9 a.m. and 4.30 p.m.), to the N. of the town; Christ Church (Pl. E, 6; services at 10 a.m. and 4 p.m.); St. Paul’s (Pl. C, 1, 2; Arabic services at 9.30 a.m. and 3 p.m.).

Two Days (when time is limited). 1st. Forenoon, Mt. of Olives (p. 479), Kidron and Hinnom Valleys (p. 480); afternoon, Church of the Holy Sepulchre (p. 474), Mûristân (p. 475), and Zion (p. 473).—2nd. Forenoon, Haram esh-Sherîf (p. 476); afternoon, excursion to Bethlehem (p. 480).

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is open before 11.30 and after 3; a forenoon visit may usually be prolonged by giving a fee to the Moslem custodian (1 fr.).

Leave to visit the Haram esh-Sherîf must be obtained from the Turkish authorities through the visitor’s consulate (see above). He is then escorted by a Turkish soldier and usually by a cavass of the consulate also. The cavass receives 8–10 fr., or 4–5 fr. from each member of a party, which covers all fees and outlays. On Fridays and during the Moslem festival of Nebi-Mûsâ (Wed. of Holy Week to Easter Mon.) the mosque is closed to strangers.

Key to Plan of Jerusalem. Banks, see above.—Bazaars, Old (Sûks) and New, F 5; E 5.—Churches. Christ Church (English), E 6; Church of the Redeemer (German Prot.), E 5; Holy Sepulchre, E 4; St. Anne’s, H 3; St. George’s (English), with Bishop’s House, a little to the N. of E 1; St. Mary’s, K 3; St. Mary Magdalen’s, K 4; St. Paul’s (Arab.-Prot.), C 1, 2.— Consulates, see above.—Monasteries. Abraham’s (Greek), Pl. 19, E 4, 5; Abyssinian, Pl. 14, E 4; Armenian Catholic, Pl. 15, F 4; Coptic, Pl. 16, E 4; Gethsemane, Pl. 20, E 5; Greek (Great), D E 4, 5; Panagia (Greek), Pl. 21, E 4; Panagia Melæna (Gr.), Pl. 22, E 5; St. Basil (Gr.), Pl. 23, D 4; St. Caralombos (Gr.), Pl. 24, E 4; St. Catharine (Gr.), Pl. 25, E 4; St. Demetrius (Gr.), Pl. 26, D 5; St. George’s (Coptic), Pl. 17, D 5; St. George’s (Greek), Pl. 27 & 28, D 4 & E 7; St. John the Baptist’s (Gr.), Pl. 29, E 5; St. John Euthymius (Gr.), Pl. 30, E 4; St. Michael’s (Gr.), Pl. 31, D 4; St. Nicholas (Gr.), Pl. 32, D 4; St. Salvator’s (Latin), Pl. 36, D 4; St. Stephen’s (Dominican), E 1; St. Theodore’s (Greek), Pl. 33, D 4.—Mosques. El-Aksâ, H 5, 6; Kubbet es-Sakhra (Dome of the Rock), H 4, 5; Sîdni Omar, Pl. 37, E 5.—Synagogues (indicated by the letter ‘S’ on the Plan), many, E, F 5–7.

472Jerusalem (Hebrew Yerushalayim, Gr. and Lat. Hierosolyma, Arabic El-Kuds) lies in 31°46′ N. lat. and 35°13′ E. long., on an arid limestone plateau (cold in winter) which rises in the form of a peninsula from the Kidron Valley (Wâdi Sitti Maryam, ‘Mary’s Valley’), on the E., and from the Valley of Hinnom (Wâdi er-Rabâbi), on the S. side. The narrow E. height (2441 ft.), the ancient Temple Hill, is separated from the W. hill, that of the old Upper Town (2550 ft.), by a depression, now very slight, called Tyropoeon (‘dung valley’) by Josephus, the Jewish historian. Still higher is the N.W. angle of the present town (2591 ft.).

The population is estimated at 70,000, of whom 45,000 are Jews, living mostly on alms bestowed by the charitable institutions of their European co-religionists; of the 15,000 Christians nearly half are Syrians of the Greek orthodox faith; the Moslems number about 10,000. In spring, especially at the time of the Greek Easter, the town is flooded with pilgrims, the majority being Russians. As a centre of the three chief religions of the world, Jerusalem has quite a religious atmosphere and is historically a city of overwhelming interest, but its tranquillity is sadly marred by the dissensions and jealousies of its numerous religious communities. Careful and patient study alone will reveal to the traveller something of the departed glory of the venerable capital of the Jewish empire.

History. From the tablets of Tell el-Amarna (p. 456) it appears that Urusalim was the capital of a small principality dependent on Egypt about 1400 B.C. When the Israelites under David conquered the town in the 11th cent. (2 Sam. v. 6–10) it was the chief stronghold of the Jebusites, a Canaanitish tribe. David made it his residence and built a castle known as the City of David. His son Solomon, with the aid of Phœnician artificers, afterwards built his palace and the Temple of Jehovah on Mt. Zion (the E. hill). On the bi-partition of the kingdom after his death Jerusalem became the capital of Judah. The kingdom of Israel in N. Palestine was subjugated by the Assyrians in 722 B.C., and in 597 Jerusalem, under Jehoiachin, shared a like fate at the hands of Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. In 586 the revolt under Zedekiah led to the destruction of the city. On the return of the Jews from captivity in 538 the city and Temple were gradually rebuilt, and the new town-wall was completed in 444. On the death of Alexander the Great in 323 Jerusalem fell into the hands of the Ptolemies (p. 433) and often suffered severely from conflicts with the Diadochi of Syria. The last royal dynasty, that of the Maccabees (167–63), was overthrown by the Romans when Pompey conquered the city. As the residence of Herod the Great (37–4 B.C., according to the accepted chronology), in the last year of whose reign Christ was born, Jerusalem prospered anew. A new palace in the Roman style was erected at the N.W. angle of the upper town, and the rebuilding of the Temple was begun. But a revolt of the Zealots, or Jewish national party, led to embittered struggles with the Romans in 67 A.D., with the result that Jerusalem was stormed by Titus in 70, the Temple burned down, and the city was completely destroyed as Carthage had once been. Another rising of the Jews under Trajan (117) extended as far as the Cyrenaica (comp. p. 413) in N. Africa. On the ruins of the city, on a site almost coinciding with that enclosed by the present city-walls, Emp. Hadrian erected the new pagan colony of Ælia Capitolina, from which, after the last revolt, that of Bar Cochba (132–5), Jews were excluded.

The modern history of Christian Jerusalem begins with the building 473of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre by Emp. Constantine (about 326–36). Pilgrims soon flocked to the holy places, and in 570 there were already hospices with 3000 beds for their use. In 614 the Persians under Chosroes II. (p. 485) sacked the city, but when it was captured by caliph Omar in 637 it was treated with clemency, being regarded as a sacred place by Moslems as well as by Christians. In 691 began the erection of the famous Dome of the Rock, on the sacred rock (p. 477), the site of the ancient Jewish Temple, the greatest sanctuary of Islam after the Kaaba of Mecca. Jerusalem fell into the hands of the Egyptian Fatimites in 969, but was wrested from them by the Seljuks in 1077. It was chiefly the maltreatment of the Christian pilgrims by the Seljuks that gave rise to the First Crusade. In 1099 the Crusaders conquered Jerusalem, which under Godfrey de Bouillon (d. 1100) became the capital of the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem. The city was retaken by Saladin in 1187, but in 1229 was voluntarily ceded by Melik el-Kâmil to Emp. Frederick II. Lastly, in 1244, it was stormed by the Kharezmians, and has been under Moslem rule ever since.

Books. Among the best of the numerous works on Jerusalem are Barclay’s ‘City of the Great King’, Besant & Palmer’s ‘Jerusalem, the City of Herod and Saladin’ (5th ed., London, 1908), Warren’s ‘Underground Jerusalem’ (London, 1876), and Wilson & Warren’s ‘Recovery of Jerusalem’ (London, 1871). Miss A. Goodrich-Freer’s ‘Inner Jerusalem’ (1904), Laurence Hutton’s ‘Literary Landmarks of Jerusalem’, and C. R. Conder’s ‘The City of Jerusalem’ (London, 1909) also may be mentioned.

The *Old Town is enclosed by a *Wall of the 13–14th cent., restored by Suleiman the Great (p. 542) in 1537–41; it is 40 ft. high and about 2½ M. long. The two main streets lead to the W. from the Jaffa Gate (Pl. D, 5, 6; Arabic Bâb el-Khalîl), and N. from the handsome Damascus Gate (Pl. D, 5, 6; Bâb el-Amûd) respectively. They divide the town into four quarters, to the N.W. the Greek-Frank, S.W. the Armenian, S.E. the Jewish, and N.E. the Moslem. The streets are crooked, often vaulted over, and, in the Jewish quarter especially, very dirty. All the houses have rain-water cisterns, besides which there are several reservoirs.

The Jaffa Suburb, situated to the N.W., is the most important, in style the most European. It is the chief seat of the European or ‘Frank’ inhabitants and contains the consulates, several churches, and the extensive Russian Buildings (Pl. A-C, 2, 3).—Outside the Gate of Zion (Pl. E, 7, 8; Bâb en-Nebi Dâûd, ‘gate of the prophet David’), but originally within the town-walls, lies the so-called Zion Suburb. It contains the Christian cemeteries, the German Benedictine monastery Dormitio Sanctae Mariae (Pl. E, 8; ‘death-sleep of Mary’), with the new Church of St. Mary, and the now Mohammedan buildings of En-Nebi Dâûd (Pl. E, 8; with ‘David’s Tomb’ and the ‘Room of the Last Supper’). Near the railway-station (p. 470) is the substantial German Temple Colony (comp. p. 468).

We begin our visit to the old town at the Jaffa Gate, a busy centre of traffic, to which the road from the station leads (p. 480). To the S.E. of the gate, and partly on the site of Herod’s palace, rises the citadel El-Kala (Pl. D, 6; 14th and 16th cent.); the N.E. tower probably corresponds to the Phasaël Tower of the time of Herod.

David Street, one of the chief business streets, under different 474names (Sueikat Allân, Hâret el-Bizâr, and Tarîk Bâb es-Silseleh; Pl. D-G, 5), connects the Jaffa Gate with the Silseleh Gate of the Haram esh-Sherîf (p. 476). On the left, opposite the citadel, is the well-stocked New Bazaar (Pl. D, 5).

At St. John’s Monastery (Pl. 29; E, 5), the Greek pilgrims’ hospice at the S.W. angle of the Mûristân (p. 475), we first turn to the left into the Hâret en-Nâsara (Pl. E, 5, 4; Christians’ Street). On the left is the very ancient Patriarch’s Pool (Birket Hammâm el-Batrak; Pl. E, 5), assigned by tradition to king Hezekiah (about 700 B.C.); on the right is the Patriarch’s Bath. Opposite the Great Greek Monastery (Deir er-Rûm el-Kebîr; Pl. D, E, 4, 5), is, on the right, the entrance to the—

*Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Pl. E, 4; adm., see p. 471), whose principal dome, crowned with a gilded cross, is everywhere conspicuous. This, especially at Easter, is the great goal of the pilgrims. The discovery of the Holy Sepulchre, which Eusebius, Bishop of Cæsarea, the father of church history (314–40), tells us was made by Constantine, induced that emperor to build a round church here, the so-called Anastasis (church of the resurrection), and a five-aisled basilica, dedicated to the sign of the Cross (Martyrion). These churches having been burned down by the Persians (p. 473), Abbot Modestus, under Emp. Heraclius, began to build, in 629, a new church of the resurrection, the prototype of the Dome of the Rock (p. 477), a new church of the Cross, and a small Calvary church on the supposed site of the Crucifixion (Golgotha). A fourth church, that of St. Mary, is said to have existed here in 670. Between 1140 and 1149, the period of the Second Crusade, the Crusaders caused a great new church to be built by the architect Jourdain, in the Romanesque transition style, under Arabian influence, an edifice intended to embrace almost all the holy places. On the E. side of the new double church a chapel was dedicated to St. Helena (d. about 326), the mother of Constantine, who, according to later historians, once made a pilgrimage to the holy places and discovered the true Cross near the Sepulchre. On the S. side of the double church a Gothic clock-tower, originally detached, was erected in 1160–80. After the destructions of 1187 and 1244 (see p. 473), we hear of a handsome new church existing here in 1310. At length in 1719 a great part of the church was rebuilt, and at the joint cost of the Greeks and the Armenians, again in 1810 by the architect Komnenos Kalfa. Since then the Greek cathedral, the dome-roofed ‘Catholicon’, has occupied the nave of what was once the Crusaders’ basilica. Among the many additions the chapel of the Apparition (p. 475) is one of the oldest (14th cent.).

In the N.W. corner of the Quadrangle, or outer court, over the Chapel of the Forty Martyrs, rises the Bell Tower, the upper part of which has been destroyed. The Façade, dating from the era of the Crusades, has fine reliefs of the French school over the portals.

475A vestibule, where the custodians (p. 471) sit, leads to the Stone of Unction (John xix. 38–40), last renewed in 1808.

The great Rotunda of the Sepulchre still has the foundation pillars, the massive outer wall of the W. semicircle, and the three apses of the Crusaders’ church. The round central structure embraces the Chapel of the Sepulchre and the Angels’ Chapel. Adjoining the Sepulchre is the 14th station of the Via Dolorosa (see below).

From the N.E. side of the ambulatory an ante-room leads to the Chapel of the Apparition, the chief Latin (Rom. Cath.) sanctuary, on the spot where Christ is said to have appeared to his mother. In a niche is shown a fragment of the ‘Column of Scourging’.

The Nave, which we next visit, has suffered greatly from the introduction of the Catholicon. The pointed windows, the clustered pillars, and the groined vaulting still bear traces of their origin in the Crusaders’ era. The southmost of the three chapels in the apse, in the outer wall of the choir ambulatory, contains the ‘Column of the Derision’.

To the left of this chapel a flight of 29 steps descends to St. Helena’s Chapel, belonging to the Armenians, on the site of Constantine’s basilica, with foundations of the period of Modestus; 13 more steps descend thence to the Chapel of the Finding of the Cross.

We now return to the ambulatory and ascend from it, to the left (S.), to the higher-lying Golgotha Chapels, the 10–13th stations on the Via Dolorosa (see below).

On the S. side of the quadrangle, in front of the Holy Sepulchre Church, lies the Mûristân (Pl. E, F, 5), an open space of 170 by 150 yds., which contained, from the days of Charlemagne onwards, the hostels and hospitals of the European pilgrims and, from 1140, the grand buildings of the Knights of St. John. Saladin (p. 443) granted it as a charitable endowment (wakf) to the Dome of the Rock (p. 477), but allowed the old hostels to remain. The larger W. half, with modern shops, now belongs to the Greek patriarchate; the E. half was presented by the sultan to Prussia. At the N.E. corner, next to the street called Hâret ed-Dabbârîn, is the German Prot. Church of the Redeemer (Pl. E, 5).

The Mûristân is bounded on the E. by the now unimportant Old Bazaar, or sûk, the three parallel streets of which form part of the great thoroughfare between the Damascus and Zion gates (p. 473). The middle street, the Sûk el-Attârin (p. 335), is continued to the N. by the Khân ez-Zeit (Pl. F, 4), from which an alley on the left leads to the Abyssinian and Coptic Monasteries.

At the Coptic Monastery is the 9th station on the Via Dolorosa, the ‘route of suffering’, mentioned for the first time in the 16th cent., on which Christ is said to have borne the Cross from Pilate’s house to Golgotha. The last five stations are within the Holy Sepulchre Church (see above). The other stations lie between the Greek Monastery of St. Caralombos (Pl. 24, E F, 4; 8th station) and the Barracks (Pl. G, 3; 1st station) in the Tarîk Bâb Sitti Maryam (street of the Virgin Mary’s gate).

This street leads to the E. to St. Stephen’s Gate (Pl. H, I, 3; 2405 ft.), the only E. gate of the city, called by the natives Bâb Sitti Maryam, or Lady Mary’s Gate, from its proximity to the Virgin’s Tomb (see p. 480).

476Within the gate a passage leads to the N. to the fine old Church of St. Anne (Pl. H, 3; Arabic Es-Salâhiyeh), on the supposed site of the house of Joachim and Anna, the parents of the Virgin. It is mentioned as already existing in the 7th cent., but in its present form dates chiefly from the 12th. The crypt hewn in the rock is the traditional birthplace of the Virgin, and the tombs of Joachim and Anna also are now pointed out.

We now retrace our steps towards the W., and halfway along the Via Dolorosa follow the El-Wâd street (Pl. F, G, 4, 5) to the left, through the hollow of the ancient Tyropœon (p. 472), to the Sûk el-Kattânîn (see below), near the entrance to the Haram esh-Sherîf; or starting from the Old Bazaar, we reach the same point by the Tarîk Bâb es-Silseleh (Pl. F, G, 5).

The *Haram esh-Sherîf (Pl. G-I, 4–6; ‘noble sanctuary’), the ancient site of the Temple, is the most interesting place in Jerusalem. Adm., see p. 471. The usual entrance is by the Bâb el-Kattânîn (Pl. G, 4, 5), the central W. gate, built by En-Nâsir (p. 448) in 1318, behind the now deserted Sûk el-Kattânîn (cotton-market).

On this site king David erected an altar (2 Sam. xxiv. 25), and Solomon built his palace and Temple. Here stood also the second Temple, erected about 520–516 after the Babylonish captivity, and the third Temple, begun by Herod the Great (p. 472) in 20 B.C. but never completed on the grand scale projected. On the same spot Hadrian erected a temple of Jupiter as the chief sanctuary of Ælia Capitolina (p. 472), and near the S. wall of the great quadrangle Justinian built a basilica in honour of the Virgin, which afterwards became the mosque of El-Aksâ. Beyond these facts little or nothing is known of the history of this memorable site during the early centuries of the Christian era.

Mohammed, who claimed to have visited this spot, evinced great reverence for the ancient Temple, and before he had broken off his relations with the Jews he even enjoined believers to turn towards Jerusalem in prayer. About the year 637 caliph Omar converted the church of St. Mary into a mosque, and the Omaiyade Abd el-Melik (685–705) erected the famous Dome of the Rock on a platform in the centre of the sacred precincts, a building which the Crusaders took to be Solomon’s Temple. Adjoining the mosque of El-Aksâ, then called the Porticus or Palatium Salomonis, probably stood the royal palace of the Franks and the castle of the Knights Templar.

The huge substructions of the Temple plateau, the surface of which was much altered by Saladin, still date from the reign of Herod. The plateau itself forms an immense quadrangle of irregular shape (W. side 536, E. side 518, N. side 351, S. side 310 yds. long). In the N.W. corner, once perhaps the site of Baris, the castle of the Maccabees, and of the Roman castle of Antonia, rises the highest Minaret of the Haram. The buildings by the W. and N. walls, Koran schools, dwellings, etc., with open arcades on the groundfloor, are 477unimportant. The great quadrangle, now partly planted with trees, is studded with numerous mastabas, raised platforms with prayer-niches (mihrâbs), and sebîls, or fountains for the religious ablutions. Especially to the S.W. of the Dome the ground is honeycombed with deep Cisterns, some of which are very ancient.

Entering the precincts and passing the pretty Sebîl of Kâït Bey (p. 458) we mount one of the flights of steps of the time of Abd el-Melik to the Platform, 10 ft. in height.

The so-called **Dome of the Rock (Kubbet es-Sakhra; Pl. H, 4, 5), usually but erroneously called Omar’s Mosque, was built, according to the Arabian historians, by Abd el-Melik for political reasons, the Omaiyades being at that period denied access to the Kaaba at Mecca. The year 72 of the Hegira (691–2) is mentioned as the date of its erection. The chief restorations in the middle ages were undertaken by the Fatimite Ez-Zâhir (1021–36), who rebuilt the dome in 1022, and by Saladin, to whom is due the superb stucco decoration of the dome. Most of the later additions were made by the Turkish sultan Suleiman the Great (1520–66). The W. porch alone is quite modern.

The building, in the late-Roman and Byzantine style (comp. p. 548), is in the form of an octagon, 50 yds. in diameter, with sides 22½ yds. in length, and with two concentric aisles. Above the inner aisle rises the boldly designed *Dome (98 ft. high), consisting of two wooden vaults placed one inside the other and roofed with plates of copper. The external walls are still incrusted below with their old slabs of marble, while above the window-sills the ancient glass mosaics were replaced in the time of Suleiman by superb Persian porcelain-tiles (kishâni). The keel-arches of the windows are of the same period.

The two aisles are separated by two series of supports. Between the eight pillars of the outer octagonal aisle, which are incrusted with marble dating from the time of Suleiman, rise sixteen columns with late-Roman or early-Byzantine capitals, and the round-arched arcades are connected, above the Byzantine imposts, by tie-beams overlaid with copper. The inner row of supports, bearing the dome, consists of four large pillars and twelve antique monolith columns. The pointed arches of the vaulting here, dating from Suleiman’s restoration, rest immediately on the capitals. The wrought-iron screen is of French workmanship of the Crusaders’ era.

The glass *Mosaics in the spandrels of the outer aisle, executed by Byzantine artificers, all belong to the earliest building; those in the drum of the dome are partly of the time of Ez-Zâhir and of Saladin. The stucco decoration of the dome was restored under Mohammed en-Nâsir (p. 448) in 1318, and again in 1830. The *Windows, dating from Suleiman’s restoration, present a marvellous wealth of colouring.

Enclosed by the inner aisle, and best viewed from the high bench beside the N.W. gate of the screen, is the Sacred Rock, measuring 18½ by 14½ yds., and rising 4–6½ ft. above the pavement of the church. Under it is a cavity, probably once a cistern. The rock is supposed to have been the site of the great Jewish altar of burnt-offering. The Jews and the Moslems believe it to have been also the scene of Abraham’s sacrifice. From this spot Mohammed is said to have been translated to heaven on his miraculous steed Burâk, while an angel restrained the rock in its attempt to follow him; here too, they believe, will be erected the throne of God on the Day of Judgment.

478Outside the E. gate of the Dome of the Rock, and probably as old, is the so-called Dome of the Chain (Kubbet es-Silseleh, or Mehkemet Dâûd, ‘David’s Place of Judgment’). This structure consists of two concentric rows of columns, the outer forming a hexagon, the inner an endecagon. The large prayer-recess on the S. side, facing Mecca, is of the 13th century. The arcades, connected by tie-beams, and the drum of the dome are richly adorned with fayence tiles of Suleiman’s period. Across the dome, it is said, will be stretched a chain (silseleh) on the Day of Judgment, from which the awful scales will be suspended.

We now descend from the platform by the steps near the ‘Summer Pulpit’ (15th cent.), at the S.E. angle, and walk past the round basin of El-Kâs to the—

*Mesjid el-Aksâ (Pl. H, 5, 6), the sanctuary ‘farthest’ from Mecca and one of the holy places of Proto-Islam, to which God is said to have brought Mohammed from Mecca in one night (Sureh xvii. 1). The mosque without its additions is now 88 yds. long and 60 yds. wide. Of the church of Justinian nothing apparently has survived except the columns of the nave and two inner aisles. The capitals perhaps date from caliph Omar’s period (637). The broad transept was probably constructed by the Abbaside El-Mehdi (775–95); the wooden dome is now covered with lead outside. The transept gave the edifice the form of a ⟙, which was converted later into a rectangle by the two rows of aisles added on the E. and W. These, in their present shape, and the pointed arcades of the nave and inner aisles, connected by tie-beams, belong to a late period of restoration. The so-called White Mosque, now set apart for women, a long double corridor to the W. of the transept, probably once belonged to the castle of the Knights Templar. The latest addition is the porch built by Melik el-Muazzam Isâ (d. 1227) and restored at a later period. Its middle arcades imitate Frank Gothic.

The interior was once almost as sumptuously decorated as the Dome of the Rock. The *Pulpit (mimbar), carved in wood and inlaid with ivory and mother-of-pearl, executed by order of Nûreddîn (p. 485) in 1169 for the great mosque of Aleppo, was presented by Saladin. To him also the mosque owes the prayer-recess, with its graceful little marble columns, the superb mosaics of the mihrâb-wall, and the drum of the dome. The author or at least restorer of the decorations of the dome is said to have been Mohammed en-Nâsir (p. 448). The windows date only from the time of Suleiman.

In the S.E. corner of the Haram area a staircase descends to a small Moslem Oratory with the ‘Cradle of Christ’ and to 13 vaulted galleries, part of the old substructure of the Haram, known as Solomon’s Stables. In the sixth gallery, counting from the E., there is a small door in the S. wall called the ‘Single Gate‘, an old entrance to the Haram.

The roof of the ‘Golden Gate’ (Pl. H, I, 4; Bâb ed-Dâhirîyeh), the only E. gate of the Haram, dating from the reign of Justinian 479(?) but now built up, affords a survey of the whole great quadrangle. At our feet lies the Kidron valley (p. 480), with its rock-tombs, and opposite rises the Mt. of Olives (see below).

Time permitting, we may now visit the Wailing Place of the Jews (Kautal Maarbei; Pl. G, 5), to the W. of the Haram, reached by descending (to the S.) the eastmost side-street of the Tarîk Bâb es-Silseleh. It is probable that the Jews, who never enter the Haram precincts for fear of desecrating the holy of holies, were in the habit of repairing hither as early as the middle ages to bewail the downfall of Jerusalem. The scene is most touching on Friday afternoons (after 4 p.m.), when crowds of mourners flock to the place and litanies are chanted.

The Mount of Olives (Mons Oliveti, Jebel et-Tûr), running parallel to the Temple hill, is closely associated with the last days of Christ on earth. It is visited (best in the forenoon) either by carriage from the Jaffa or the Damascus Gate (10–12 fr.; ascent ½ hr.), or on horseback (p. 471) or on foot from St. Stephen’s Gate (p. 475). Those who return by the valley of the Kidron should order their carriage to meet them at the Garden of Gethsemane.

From the Damascus Gate (p. 473) the road leads past the Dominican Monastery of St. Stephen (on the right; Pl. E, 1) and then, beyond the Anglican Bishop’s House, past the so-called Tombs of the Kings (on the right). This large subterranean burial-ground, with its tomb-chambers and shaft-tombs, probably belonged to queen Helena of Adiabene and her family (1st cent. A.D.). The road to Nâbulus soon diverges to the left; ours ascends in a wide curve northwards to the top of the Scopus and to the Mt. of Olives.

On the N. height of the Mt. of Olives, to the left of the road, is the new German Augusta Victoria Institute (sanatorium and church).

On the E. summit (2665 ft.) are the Russian Buildings, a pilgrims’ hospice, the Russian Church of the Ascension, and a six-storied Belvedere Tower (214 steps). The *Panorama embraces the city and the hills around Jerusalem and Bethlehem (the latter itself not visible). Towards the E. lie the Dead Sea (1293 ft. below sea-level) and the Jordan valley (Arabic El-Ghôr), and among the bluish Mts. of Moab rises Mt. Nebo (2644 ft.), whence Moses beheld the promised land before his death (Deut. xxxiv. 1–4).

A little to the W. of the Russian Buildings lies the poor village Kafr et-Tûr. Near it is the Chapel of the Ascension, built in 1834–5, to mark the scene of the Ascension (in contradiction to Luke xxiv. 50, ‘He led them out as far as Bethany’). Of the earlier churches here, one a round building of Emp. Constantine, the other built by the Crusaders, few traces are left.

To the S. of the village are the Latin Buildings, including the Credo and Paternoster Churches (1898).

480A steep path descends hence, to the W., to the Garden of Gethsemane (Pl. K, 4), now the property of the Franciscans. Near the entrance (E. side) a rock marks the spot where Peter, James, and John are said to have slept (Mark xiv. 32 et seq.), and the fragment of a column close by indicates the traditional scene of the Betrayal. (A monk acts as guide; fee 3–6 pias.) A little higher up the Greeks have their own Garden of Gethsemane, containing the many-domed Church of Mary Magdalen (Pl. K, 4).

A few paces to the N.W., on the road to the upper bridge over the Kidron (Pl. I, 3) and to St. Stephen’s Gate, rises St. Mary’s Church (Pl. K, 3; Arabic Kenîset Sitti Maryam), built by queen Milicent or Melisendis (d. 1161) on the site of an ancient church mentioned as early as the 5th cent.; it contains the ‘coffin of the Virgin’, in which she lay until her Assumption.

The Valley of the Kidron, identified from a very early age with the Valley of Jehoshaphat, has been supposed, ever since pre-Christian times, owing to a misinterpretation of Joel iii. 2, to be the future scene of the Last Judgment. The Moslems bury their dead on the E. slope of the Haram esh-Sherîf, and the Jews on the W. slope of the Mt. of Olives.

From the Jericho road, to the S. of the Garden of Gethsemane, a path diverges to the right to the lower bridge over the Kidron (Pl. I, 5). To the left of the path are the so-called Tomb of Absalom, a cube of rock, with a curious conical roof expanding at the top; St. James’s Cavern, a rock-tomb; and the Pyramid of Zacharias. All these date from the Græco-Roman period.

Farther on, to the S.E., passing below the hill-village of Siloah (Pl. H, I, 7–9; Arabic Kafr Silwân), we come to St. Mary’s Fountain (Pl. H, 7; Aïn Sitti Maryam), an intermittent spring, probably the Gihon of the Old Testament. Since the time of Hezekiah (about 700 B.C.) its water has flowed through the underground Siloah Conduit to the Pool of Siloam (Pl. G, H, 9), within the Jewish town-wall.

Farther down the valley we reach in a few minutes ‘Job’s Well’ (about 2035 ft.; Bîr Eiyûb).

We return thence to the town by the Valley of Hinnom (p. 472). The ‘Zion Suburb’ (p. 473) rises steeply on the N.W.; to the left is the slope of Jebel Abû Tôr, covered with rock-tombs. Near (12 min.) the Sultan’s Pond (see below) we join the Bethlehem road.

The Excursion to Bethlehem, by a good road (half-a-day; carr. about 12 fr.; horse, see p. 471), will even repay walkers.

The road descends to the S. from the Jaffa Gate (p. 473) into the Valley of Hinnom (see above). Beyond the Birket es-Sultân (Pl. C, D, 8), an old Jewish reservoir restored by Suleiman the Great (16th cent.), the station-road diverges to the right.

Our road leads to the S.W. across the tableland of El-Bukeia (p. 470), past the traditional Well of the Magi (Matth. ii. 9), to the (3 M.) Greek convent of Mâr Elyâs (left). Bethlehem appears in the foreground. Fine view of the Dead Sea (p. 479) to the left.

At (4 M.) ‘Rachel’s Tomb’ (Kubbet Râhîl), built like the welis or tombs of Moslem saints, the Hebron road diverges to the right.

4815 M. Bethlehem (2550 ft.; pop. about 11,000, almost all Christians), the home of David and the birthplace of our Saviour, has a situation resembling that of Jerusalem. It consists of eight different quarters, containing many monasteries, hospitals, and schools. Fine view from the German Prot. Weihnachtskirche (‘Christmas Church’, 1893), on the W. outskirts.

Over the traditional birthplace of Christ rises *St. Mary’s Church, now occupied by the Greeks, Latins, and Armenians jointly. The original columnar basilica of the time of Constantine, with its double aisles, is still the nucleus of the present church. It was thoroughly renovated by the Crusaders, and the superb wallmosaics were restored by the Byzantine Emp. Manuel Comnenos (1143–80). The Greeks, who were in sole possession from 1672 to 1852, unfortunately added the transept wall.

Interior. The entrance is by the old central portal, approached from an open space once occupied by an atrium. Three passages lead through the transept, with semicircular apses at either end, to the semicircular choir. Among the almost obliterated mosaics is a quaint representation of the Entry into Jerusalem in the S. apse.

Adjoining the choir are two flights of steps descending into the Crypt, or Chapel of the Nativity, and to the ‘Chapel of the Manger’, the ‘dwelling of St. Jerome’ (b. about 340 in Dalmatia, d. in 420 at Bethlehem), and his tomb, which also are highly revered.

The stairs on the N. side ascend to the Latin Church of St. Catharine, through which we return to the principal church.

For full details, see Baedeker’s Palestine and Syria.

74. Beirut. Excursion to Damascus.

Arrival. The steamers anchor in the harbour (Pl. F, G, 1). The landing is better managed than at Jaffa. Boat for 1 pers. 2 fr.; less for a party, as may be arranged. The hotels and tourist-agents send their men on board. The Douane (Pl. F, 1; passport and custom-house formalities; comp. p. 537) is close to the landing-place.—To the E. of the Douane lies the Railway Station (Gare; Pl. F, G, 1).

Hotels. *Hôt. d’Allemagne (Pl. a; E, 1), well spoken of, Hôt. d’Orient (Pl. b; E, 1), both near the sea; Gassmann’s Hotel (Pl. c; F, 1), in the Sûk ed-Jemîl; pens. at these 12–15 fr. (less for a prolonged stay); Hôt. Victoria (Pl. d; E, 1), plainer, etc.—Restaurants. Blaich, Jean Schröter, both near the Hôt. d’Allemagne.

Electric Tramways. Four different lines traverse the town (comp. Plan); of these the Blue Line runs from the Place des Canons to the Lighthouse (Phare; Pl. A, 2), near the Râs Beirût (p. 483).

Carriages. Drive 1 fr.; per hr. in town 2, in country 2–3 fr. (more on Sun.). Longer drives as may be arranged.—Horses. Half-day 1, whole day 1½ mejidieh.

Post Offices. Turkish (Poste Turque; Pl. F, 1); British, French, German, and others, Khân Antûn Beg (Pl. F, 1).—Telegraph Office (Internat.; Pl. F, 2), Derb el-Kebîreh (p. 483).

Banks. Banque Ottomane (Pl. F, 1), Anglo-Palestine Co., German Palaestina-Bank, all at the harbour.—For the Turkish money, see p. 536.

Consulates. British (Pl. 2; G, 2): consul-general, H. A. Cumberbatch; vice-consul, H. E. W. Young.—United States (Pl. 6; C, 2): consul-general, G. B. Ravndal; vice-consul, L. Memminger.

Steamboat Agencies. Khedivial Mail, opposite the custom-house; Austrian Lloyd, Messag. Maritimes, and Russian Steam Navigation & Trading Co., all in Khân Antûn Beg (Pl. F, 1); Società Nazionale, 482opposite the German Bank.—Tourist Agents. Thos. Cook & Son, in the Hôtel d’Orient; Agence Lubin, Khân Antûn Beg (Pl. F, 1).

Churches. American Presbyterian Mission (Pl. F, 2); services on Sun. at 11 a.m. in English and at 9 a.m. in Arabic. Among the many other missions and schools are the British Syrian, the Ch. of Scotland Jewish, the Syrian Prot., and a number of German, French, etc.

Beirut (Fr. Beyrout, Arab. Beirût; pop. 190,000), the chief commercial place in Syria (Esh-Shâm), and the capital of the Turkish vilayet (province of a vali or governor) of that name, is beautifully situated, in 33° 50′ N. lat. and 35° 30′ E. long., on the S. shore of St. George’s Bay, between Râs Beirût (p. 483) and Mt. St. Dimitri. To the E. rises Lebanon (p. xxxiv), with Jebel Keneiseh and Jebel Sannîn (p. 483). The climate is mild and pleasant (mean temperature of Jan. 56° Fahr., of Aug. 81°), and the rainfall is considerable (34 in.). The sea-breezes render the summer bearable, but they are apt to fail in August and September. Many of the citizens then seek refuge in the summer quarters of Lebanon, to which Egyptians and Cypriotes also resort.

Berytus (‘fountain’) is mentioned in the tablets of Tell el-Amarna (p. 456) as the seat of the Egyptian vassal Ammunira. It lay in the territory of the Giblites, a northern branch of the Phœnicians. In 140 B.C., during the wars of the Diadochi, the town was entirely destroyed. The Romans rebuilt it and named it Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus, after the daughter of Emp. Augustus. In the 3rd cent. its school of Roman law became renowned. From that time down to the present day it has been noted also for its silk-industry, which was transplanted to Greece and to Sicily. In 529 the prosperity of the town was destroyed by an earthquake. Since its conquest by the Arabs in 635 it has been in the possession of the Moslems, except during the brief Crusaders’ occupation. Like Saida (p. 469) it was a favourite residence of the able Druse prince Fakhreddîn (1595–1634), who in league with the Venetians wrested Central Syria from the Turks. They, however, later recaptured Beirut. During the 19th cent. Beirut gradually attained a new lease of prosperity. Under the Egyptian rule its sea-borne commerce increased, while Saida and Tripoli declined. In 1840 the town was bombarded by the British fleet and recaptured for the Turks. After the massacre of Christians in 1860 (see p. 485) many Christians from central Syria settled at Beirut.

The Moslem inhabitants (about 65,000) are in a considerable minority. Among the Christians there are 64,000 Greeks, 40,000 Maronites, and 2100 Protestants. The Jews number about 5500. An unusually large percentage of the natives can read and write. The chief language is Arabic.

Beirut offers few sights. The poor and closely built Old Town contains the Great Mosque (Pl. F, 2), once a Crusader’s church, the Greek Churches, and the Maronite Cathedral (Pl. F, 2).

The Sûks or markets have lost much of their Oriental character. Most of the genuine native products come from Lebanon (keffîyehs or head-cloths, embroidery, woven stuffs, slippers, bridal chests, etc.). The filigree-work has long been noted (sold by weight).

The native population may be studied also in the large Place des Canons or Place de l’Union (Pl. F, 2), on the S. side of the 483Serâi or government-buildings. The numerous Arabian cafés are for men only.

The broad streets of the New Town skirt the picturesque hill-sides. Palm, orange, and lemon trees abound in the beautiful gardens. The Damascus Road (tramway; Pl. G, 4, 5) leads to the S. in ½ hr. to the Bois de Pins (Pl. G, F, 6), a pine-wood planted by Fakhreddîn for protection against the sand of the dunes.

The finest point of view is *Mt. St. Dimitri (Pl. H, 3–5; best by evening light), ½ hr. to the S.E. of the old town. From the Place des Canons we follow the Derb en-Nahr (Pl. G, 2) and the Tripoli road, turn to the right beyond the Greek Orthodox Hospital (Pl. H, 2), and then ascend to the left.

From the Place des Canons (tramway, see p. 481) the Derb el-Kebîreh (Pl. F, E, 2) and Derb el-Prusiani lead to the W., below the dunes, to the Râs Beirût. After ½ hr. we reach the Lighthouse (Phare or Fanâr; Pl. A, 2). Thence the road descends in windings to the sea and farther on to the ‘Pigeons’ Grottoes’ (reached by boat from the harbour in ½ hr.; 1½ mej.). The light is best near sunset.

From Beirut to Damascus, 91½ M., narrow-gauge railway (20 M. being on Abt’s rack-and-pinion system). Two trains daily in 9¼–11 hrs. (fare 110 pias. 10 or 75 pias.). The passenger should have the exact fare ready before booking. Reyâk is the diningstation for the day-train.

This Railway Company (French) has its own rate of exchange: 1 napoleon = 87 pias.; 1 sovereign = 110 pias.; 1 mejidieh = 18½ pias.

The train runs from the harbour to the E., close to the sea, to the (1½ M.) Chief Station, and through the valley of the Nahr Beirût at the E. base of Mt. St. Dimitri, soon turning to the S. to (4½ M.) El-Hadet. It then rapidly ascends the slopes of Lebanon.

10½ M. Areiya, 13 M. Aleih (2460 ft.), two summer resorts in the Lebanon. The train threads a tunnel to the highest point of the line (4879 ft.). We then descend, enjoying fine views, to the right and left, of Jebel el-Barûk (6749 ft.) and Jebel Keneiseh (6660 ft.), to (35 M.) El-Muallaka, a large village, and station for the Christian town of Zahleh (3101 ft.) on the S. spurs of Jebel Sannîn (8556 ft.; snow-capped in early summer).

We next traverse the lofty valley of El-Bikâ, the ancient Bucca Vallis, watered by the Nahr el-Lîtânî (Leontes), once the most fertile part of Coelesyria (‘hollow Syria’).

41 M. Reyâk or Rayak (Buffet; halt of ½ hr.), junction for Baalbek (Heliopolis) and Aleppo (Haleb).

Passing through the narrow Wâdi Yahfûfeh we next ascend the Anti-Lebanon Mts.; 54½ M. Sarrâyâ or Zerghaya (4610 ft.) lies between their two main ranges, on the watershed between the Bikâ and the plain of Damascus.

484Beyond (61 M.) Ez-Zebedâni (3888 ft.) the train enters the valley of that name, famed for its fruit and watered by the Nahr Baradâ (Gr. Chrysorrhoas, ‘gold stream’). 71½ M. Sûk Wâdi Baradâ (‘market of Baradâ vale’), at the end of a defile.

76½ M. Aïn Fîjeh, the chief source of the Baradâ, has remains of a Roman Nymphæum (see p. 241). 85 M. Dummar, a villa-suburb of Damascus. The city with its minarets soon comes in sight.

The floor of the Baradâ valley, between (left and right) Jebel Kâsyûn (p. 489) and the hills of Kalabât el-Mezzeh, is well planted with trees. At the mouth of the valley the river divides into seven branches which water the great plain of Damascus.

Skirting large meadows (merj), then orchards, and a Roman Aqueduct, the train reaches (89½ M.) Damascus-Beramkeh (see below), where it is usual to alight, and lastly runs past the W. side of El-Meidân (p. 487) to (91½ M.) Damascus-Meidân.

Damascus.—Railway Stations. 1. Beramkeh or Baramki, near the hotels and the Serâi.—2. Meidân, near the Bauwâbet Allah, chief station of the Beirut line.—3. Kadem, for the Hejâz line (p. 469; no cabs).—Cabs and tramway, see below.

Hotels. Hôt. Victoria, Hôt. d’Orient, Palace Hotel, all near the Beramkeh Station and the Serâi; Hôt. d’Angleterre, to the E. of the Serâi Square; pens. 10–15 fr. (or more when crowded), in the quiet season 6–10 fr.; good wine of the country (from Shtôra) 1½–5 fr.

Arabian Cafés, the largest and most interesting in the East, mostly on an arm of the Baradâ, in the Serâi Square, on the Beirut road, the Aleppo road, etc.—Visitors should beware of the cold night-air from the river after a hot day.

Cabs in the Serâi Square, 6–7 pias, per drive, or 10–12 pias. per hr. (always to be agreed upon beforehand); but more on holidays and in the height of the season.—Electric Tramway (3¼ M.) from the El-Meidân quarter viâ the Serâi Square to the suburb of Es-Sâlehîyeh (p. 489).

Post Office and International Telegraph Office, Serâi Square.

Consuls. British, G. P. Devey, near the Beramkeh Station.—United States Consular Agent, N. Meshâka, in the Christian quarter.

Dragomans (Arabic terjumân), about 10 fr. a day during the season, desirable for new-comers (comp. p. xxvi), and essential in visiting the Omaiyade Mosque. Travellers should beware of trusting them with money or purchases.

Banks. Banque Ottomane, German Palaestina-Bank, both in the Sûk el-Asrunîyeh (p. 486).—Photographs sold by Suleimân Hakîm, at the E. end of the Straight Street (p. 487).—Baths. The Hammâm el-Khaiyâtin and the Hammâm ed-Derwîshîyeh or el-Malikeh, among others, are worth seeing.

Churches. English Church (St. John’s), of the London Jews Society, in the Hammâm el-Kari Quarter; Rev. J. E. Hanauer; Sun. service at 10.30. Also Edinburgh Medical, British Syrian Mission, Irish Presbyterian, and other missions, with excellent schools, hospitals, etc.—The Latins, the Greeks, and the Jews also have their own schools.

Sights (when time is limited). 1st Day, in the forenoon, Serâi Square, the Bazaars, and Meidân (pp. 486, 487); afternoon, Es-Sâlehîyeh and Jebel Kâsyûn (p. 489).—2nd Day. Mosque of the Omaiyades (p. 488).

Damascus (2268 ft.), formerly called Dimishk, a name still sometimes used, but commonly called by the natives Esh-Shâm (a 485term applied also to the whole of Syria; p. 482), lies on the borders of the Syrian Desert (p. xxxiii) in the Rûta, a beautiful oasis between Anti-Lebanon and the ‘Meadow Lakes‘, into which fall all the branches and canals of the Baradâ. As the Koran pictures paradise as a garden, where luscious fruits drop into the mouth, the Arabs have ever regarded Damascus, with its luxuriant orchards, as the prototype of that blissful abode. The Rûta does not, however, and least of all in winter, impress Europeans quite so favourably. Yet in May, when the walnut-tree is in full leaf and the vine climbs exuberantly from tree to tree, or still later, when the apricot-trees in the midst of their rich carpet of green herbage bear their countless golden fruits and the pomegranates are in the perfection of their blossom, the gardens are truly beautiful.

History. With regard to the foundation of Damascus, which like the whole of Syria belonged from about 1500 B. C. onwards to Egypt and to the Hittite empire (p. 547) alternately, countless traditions are current among the Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans. After David had temporarily extended his sway to Damascus, there arose here, in Solomon’s time, an independent Aramæan kingdom under Rezon (1 Kings, xi. 23–25). In the protracted struggles between the neighbouring kingdoms of Israel and Judah the Syrian kings generally succeeded, by means of judicious alliances, in maintaining their independence. In the annals of the Assyrians, who destroyed Damascus in 732, the town is called Dimaski and the kingdom Imîrisu. From that time onwards Damascus lost its political importance; but it continued, especially under the sway of the Seleucides of Antioch during the period of the Diadochi, to prosper as a trading and industrial city and as the starting-point of the caravan traffic with Mesopotamia and Persia. When it became a Roman provincial city it formed a political bulwark against the Arabs (Nabatæans) and Parthians. In 611 A. D., under the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, many of its inhabitants were carried into captivity by the Sassanide Chosroes II.

With its conquest by the Arabs in 635 begins the most brilliant period in the history of the city. Under Mûawiya (661–79), founder of the dynasty of the Omaiyades, the greatest of Arabian princes, it became the seat of the caliphate. But when the Abbasides removed their residence to Mesopotamia in 750 Damascus again sank to the position of a provincial town. It fell successively into the hands of the Egyptian Tulunides and Fatimites (p. 443), and at length in 1075 succumbed to the Seljuks (p. 542). In 1148 it was unsuccessfully besieged by Conrad III. Under Nûreddîn and Saladin (p. 443) Damascus was the chief base of all the wars against the Crusaders. During the conflicts between the Mongols, who under Hûlagû had captured the city in 1260, and the Egyptian Mameluke sultans, Damascus was specially favoured by Beybars (1260–77). During the great predatory expedition of the Mongols under Timur (1399–1400) many scholars and artists, including the city’s famous armourers, were exiled to Samarkand. In 1516 the Turkish sultan Selim I. (p. 542) entered the city as its final conqueror. In 1860 there took place a great massacre of Christians in which the Christian quarter was utterly destroyed and about 6000 Christians killed.

Damascus consists of several different quarters. The Jews’ Quarter, as in the time of the Apostles, adjoins the ‘Straight Street’ (p. 487), on the S.E. side of the city; to the N.E. of it is the poor Christian Quarter. The other parts of the town are Moslem. Far towards the S. stretches the suburb of Meidân, inhabited by peasants. The Arabian houses in the old town are noted for their 486splendour. They usually contain a spacious court, adorned with fountains, flower-beds, orange-trees, etc., and flanked on the S. side by a lofty open arcade (lîwân) with pointed arches.

The population is roughly estimated at 300,000, of whom four-fifths are Moslems, and there is a garrison of 12,000 men. The Damascenes are notorious for their ignorance and fanaticism. The city was once a great centre of learning, but of about a hundred old medresehs or colleges five only now remain. The famous old weaving industry of the place (still employing about 10,000 primitive looms for silk, woollen, and cotton stuffs) is being steadily ousted by European competition. The busy bazaar traffic here is hardly less picturesque than at Cairo.

We begin our visit at the Serâi Square, the centre of business, built over the main branch of the Baradâ (p. 484). A Monument here commemorates the opening of telegraphic communication with Mecca.

To the E. of the square are the *Bazaars. Through the covered Sûk Ali Pasha (fruit and tobacco) we reach the Sûk el-Hamîr (donkey-market), beyond which is an open street where corn is sold.

At a large plane-tree here we turn to the right to visit the interesting Sûk es-Surûjîyeh (saddlers’ market), which ends near the citadel at the Sûk en-Nahhâsîn. This is the bazaar of the coppersmiths, who make the handsome kursi, or trays placed on wooden stands (p. 487) to serve as tables.

The Citadel (no admittance), a huge castle in the style introduced by the Crusaders, was built in 1219 and was afterwards restored by Beybars (p. 485). The thick walls stand on ancient substructures of massive blocks. At the corners rise square towers with bartisans. The chief gate is on the W. side.

From the W. side of the Citadel the chief thoroughfare of the city (tramway, see p. 484) leads past the Military Serâi and the Hammâm el-Malikeh (or ed-Derwîshîyeh) to the Meidân suburb (p. 487). On the left is the Sûk el-Kharrâtin, or Turners’ Market.

Opposite the Military Serâi is the entrance to the ‘Greek Bazaar‘, a covered market restored in 1893, one of the largest in the city. Among the wares, for which buyers can hardly offer too little, are weapons, antiquities, clothing, pipe-stems, and ‘damascened’ daggers (made in Germany).

Straight through the Greek Bazaar we come to the Sûk elHamîdîyeh, also renovated, with its attractive Arabian sweetmeatshops. A side-street leads thence (l.) to the bazaar for Water Pipes (a kind of hookah smoked by the peasants) and the Sûk el-Asrunîyeh, for utensils, glass, henna (p. 108), and attar of roses (p. 335).

Beyond the Sûk Bâb el-Berîd (on the left) we pass the almost deserted bazaar-street of the Booksellers (leading to the Omaiyade mosque, p. 488), with an old Triumphal Arch; whence a double 487row of columns once led to the ancient temple (see p. 488). We then turn out of the Hamîdîyeh, to the right, into the Cloth Bazaar (chiefly imported goods). On the right is the Tomb of Nûreddîn (p. 485; unbelievers not admitted).

Adjoining the S. side of the mosque are the bazaar of the Joiners, where we note the kabkâbs, a kind of patten, the kursistands, and the bridal chests, and that of the Goldsmiths.

To the S. of the great mosque is the region of the Khâns (p. 445). We come first to the Khân el-Harîr, or silk-bazaar, now that of the furriers. Near it is the House of Asad Pasha, one of the finest in the city (admittance with the aid of a dragoman). The *Khân Asad Pasha, with its superb stalactite portal, is the largest of all.

Near this point runs the ancient ‘Straight Street’ (Acts ix. 11; now Sûk et-Tawîleh, or ‘long market’), connecting the Meidân road with the Bâb esh-Sherki (see below). A few paces to the W., towards the Meidân road, on the left, is the Khân Suleimân Pasha, for Persian carpets and silks. On the right, where the cloth-bazaar (see above) diverges, is the Silk Bazaar proper, for the sale of keffîyehs (head-cloths, ‘kerchiefs’), table-covers, embroidery, woollen cloaks (abâyehs) for peasants and Bedouins, etc.—We next come to the Sûk el-Attârîn, or spice-market, and to the Meidân Road.

At the point where we join this road rises the Jâmi es-Sinânîyeh, one of the most sumptuous mosques in Damascus. The chief portal (E. side), with its rich stalactites, and the minaret enriched with fayencetiles (kishâni, p. 477) are interesting.

The road forks farther on. We follow the Meidân Road (at first called Sûk es-Sinânîyeh) to the S. Close to the Jâmi el-Idein, where the Meidân Road trends somewhat to the right, we pass, on the left, the Moslem cemetery Makbaret Bâb es-Sarîr, where women weep at the tombs on Thursdays.

The poor suburb of Meidân is modern. Its numerous mosques, including the fine Kâat el-Ûla, are in a ruinous state. The sûk is frequented by corn-dealers, whose grain is heaped up in open barns, and by smiths. The arrival of caravans here presents a picturesque scene. The long strings of camels are attended by ragged Bedouins. Among them are seen Haurânians, bringing their corn to market, and here and there a Kurd shepherd with his square felt-mantle driving his sheep to the shambles. The Bedouins, armed with guns or with long lances, sometimes ride beautiful horses. The wealthy Druses from Lebanon have a most imposing appearance. Twice a year almost all these types may be seen together: on the departure, and again, better still, on the return of the Mecca pilgrims.

If time permit we may now retrace our steps to the cemetery Makbâret Bâb es-Sarîr (see above) whence we take a short walk along the City Wall, on the S.E. side of the old town, beyond the Jewish and Christian quarters (p. 485). Its foundations are Roman, the central part dates from the days of Nûreddîn and the Egyptian sultan El-Ashraf Khalîl (1291), and the upper part from the Turkish period. Passing the camping-ground of the caravans from Bagdad and the Bâb esh-Sherki (E. Gate, originally Roman), we come to the well-preserved Bâb Tûmâ (St. Thomas’s Gate). [About ¾ M. to the S. of the Bâb esh-Sherki are Christian burial-grounds; in one of which Henry Thomas Buckle, the eminent English historian (d. 1862), is interred.]

Near the Bâb Tûmâ on the Aleppo road, beyond the Baradâ, are public 488gardens and pleasant cafés patronized by Christians. We return thence to the Citadel (p. 486), passing between the Baradâ and the N. side of the town-wall, here probably Byzantine.

The great *Omaiyade Mosque (Jâmi el-Umawî), the finest monument of that dynasty in Syria next to the Dome of the Rock (p. 477), deserves close inspection. Entrance by the W. gate (Bâb el-Berîd), at the end of the booksellers’ sûk (p. 486). Gratuity to the sheikh who acts as guide ca. 1 mejidieh each person; addit. charge for slippers 1–2 pias. each person.

On the site of the mosque there once stood a Roman temple within a large quadrangle. This was succeeded by the church of St. John, a three-aisled basilica built by Emp. Theodosius I. (379–95), and so named from the ‘head of John the Baptist’ (Arabic Yahyâ) preserved in the Confessio, by which the Damascenes still swear. After the conquest of the city by the Arabs (p. 485) the E. half of the church was assigned to the Moslems. Caliph Welîd (705–15) deprived the Christians of the W. half also; and in 708, with the help, it is said, of 1200 Byzantine artificers, he transformed the church into the present mosque, which was so magnificent that Arabian authors extolled it as one of the wonders of the world. Adjacent to it the earliest school of learning was built by caliph Omar II. (717–20). The mosque was carefully restored after fires in 1069, 1400, and 1893, but its ancient glory has departed for ever.

We enter the great Court, which with the mosque itself forms an immense rectangle of 143 by 104 yds., and is flanked by two-storied arcades in the Byzantine style. Behind these are the sleeping-apartments and studies of the teachers and students. The old marble pavement of the court, the mosaic incrustation of the walls, and the crown of pinnacles have disappeared. The fountain of ablution (Kubbet en-Naufara) and the two smaller domed buildings are modern.

Of the three Towers the ‘bride’s minaret’ (Mâdinet el-Arûs; now being rebuilt) on the N. side of the court is said to date from the time of Welîd. The ‘minaret of Jesus’ (Mâdinet Isâ), at the S.E. angle of the mosque, recalls the Crusaders’ edifices. The Mâdinet el-Rarbîyeh, at the S.W. angle, in the Egypto-Arabian style and famed for its view, was added by Kâït Bey (p. 458).

The Interior (143 by 41 yds.), with its three span-roofs, still has the form of an early-Christian basilica. Above each of the two rows of columns, 23 ft. high, which separate the aisles, rises a row of ‘colonnettes’ with round-arch openings, to which similar round-arched windows in the outer walls correspond. In the centre a threefold transept, with four huge pillars supporting the dome (Kubbet en-Nisr, eagle’s dome), indicates the direction of Mecca. The Byzantine glass-mosaics of the time of Welîd, the superb timber ceiling, and the mihrâb and mimbar (15th cent.) were all sadly damaged by the fire of 1893. In the central aisle on the E., over the ‘head of John the Baptist’, rises a modern dome in wood.

On the N. side of the mosque, near the Bâb el-Amâra, are the handsome Tomb of Saladin (Kabr Salâheddîn; adm. 6 pias.) and the Medreseh and Tomb Mosque of Sultan Beybars (p. 485), the latter, according to the inscription, built by his son in 1279.

489The suburb of Es-Sâlehîyeh (tramway, see p. 484), l–1/4 M. to the N.W. of the Serâi Square, has about 25,000 inhab., mostly descended from Seljuks, reinforced later by Kurds and by Moslem refugees from Crete. The finest of the ruinous mosques, but not readily shown, is the tomb-mosque of Muhieddîn ibn el-Arâbi (d. 1240), adjoined by the tomb of Abd el-Kâder (p. 221).

From the Cretan quarter at the W. end of the suburb we may ascend, past a platform affording a good view, to the (1¼ hr.) top of the Jebel Kâsyûn (3718 ft.). The *View at the small Kubbet en-Nasr (‘dome of victory’) embraces the city, encircled by the broad green belt of the oasis of the Rûta, the barren heights of Anti-Lebanon, with the long chain of Mt. Hermon (9052 ft.; generally snow-capped) to the S.W.; and to the S.E., beyond Jebel Mâni, the distant hill-country of the Haurân.

Fuller details in Baedeker’s Palestine and Syria.

75. From Beirut to Smyrna (and Constantinople).

713 M. Steamers (agents at Beirut, see p. 481; at Smyrna, p. 531; at Constantinople, pp. 538, 539). 1. Messageries Maritimes (N. Mediterranean Marseilles and Beirut line), from Beirut every alternate Sat. (from Constantinople on Thurs.) viâ Rhodes, Vathy, and Smyrna to Constantinople in 4 days (fare 205 or 140 fr.).—2. Russian Steam Navigation & Trading Co. (see also R. 72; Syria-Egypt circular line, coming from Alexandria) from Beirut on Thurs. night (in the reverse direction Thurs. aft.) viâ Tripoli, Alexandretta, Mersina, Chios, and Smyrna to Constantinople in 8½ days (fare 284 or 212 fr.; to Smyrna 198 or 148 fr.).—3. Khedivial Mail Steamship Co. (comp. also R. 72; from Alexandria and calling at Port Said) leaves Beirut every alternate Wed. foren. (returning Sat. aft.) for Constantinople (in 7 days) viâ Tripoli, Alexandretta, Mersina, Rhodes, Chios, Smyrna, Mytilini, the Dardanelles, and Gallipoli (fare £E 9¼ or £E 6½; see p. 431).

Beirut, see p. 481. The French steamers make straight out to sea in a W. direction. Astern Lebanon remains long in sight.

About half-a-day’s steaming brings us in view of the mountains of Cyprus (Turk. Kibris; pop. ca. 243,000), culminating in the bare Troodos (6408 ft.). Under the Phœnicians and Greeks Kypros, the third-largest island in the Mediterranean (3613 sq. M.), was the seat of the cult of Aphrodite and the scene of a peculiar civilization, the product of Egyptian, Phœnician, and Greek influences in succession. In the middle ages the island was governed by kings of the house of Lusignan and was for a time the seat of the Knights of St. John (1292–1308; see pp. 475, 469, 490). Since 1878 it has been under British protectorate and only nominally Turkish.

Far away to the right we see the table-shaped Capo Greco and the bays of Larnaka and Limassol. We then pass, on the S. coast of Cyprus, the prominent peninsula of Akrotiri, with Cape Gata 490(lighthouse) and Cape Zevgari. Beyond Port Paphos (lighthouse) we skirt the rocky W. coast of the island.

On the coast of Asia Minor (Anatolia), on a clear day, we sight the beautiful ranges of the Lycian Taurus (10,500 ft.; p. xxxiii); at night the lighthouse on the island of Kasteloryzo (ancient Megiste), with the seaport of Mandraki, is sometimes visible.

To the S.E. of Rhodes we cross one of the deepest parts of the Mediterranean (12,683 ft.).

Nearing Rhodes (562 sq. M.; ca. 30,000 inhab.), the eastmost island of the Greek Archipelago, we sight its S.E. coast as far as Attáiros (4068 ft.; formerly Atabyrion) and Cape Lartos. The latter rises beyond the small bay of Lindos, which together with Ialysos and Kamiros, ancient Greek towns on the N. coast, and with Cnidus, Cos, and Halicarnassus, once formed the league of the Doric Hexapolis.

The French steamers call at Rhodes (Hôt. Karayannis, good; Brit. vice-cons.), the capital of the island, picturesquely situated at its N.E. point. Founded in 408 B. C. by the three older towns (see above) it became famous in later Greek times for its navy and for the Colossus of Rhodes, a bronze statue of Helios 112 ft. high, which was accounted one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The ruinous mediæval *Fortifications and the Strada dei Cavalieri, with the old ‘Houses’ (places of assembly) of the different nations, recall the mediæval glory of Rhodes under the sway of the Knights of St. John (1308–1522) after their expulsion from Cyprus (p. 489).

We next steer through the Ægean Sea, where the scenery and the historic associations are alike most attractive. We pass the S. Sporades, Greek islands off the coast of ancient Caria and Lydia, once ruled by the Knights of St. John, and now called Dodekanesos (‘twelve islands’), which enjoy autonomy under Turkish suzerainty.

Steaming to the W.N.W. we cross the inland sea of the ancient Doris, between Rhodes and Cos, noted for its sponge-fishery. On our right lies the Anatolian peninsula of the ancient Chersonesus Rhodia, with Cape Alupo (Cynossema) and the island of Symi (Syme); to the W. rise the precipitous and fissured island of Telos (Tilos; 2008 ft.) and the volcanic island of Nisyros (2268 ft.), with its huge, still smoking crater and its hot springs. To the N.W. stretch the long outlines of Chersonesus Cnidia, with the ruins of Cnidos and Cape Krio (Triopium Promontorium).

The steamer rounds the E. coast of Cos (2871 ft.; Turk. Istankiöi; not one of the Dodekanesos group), once the seat of the most ancient shrine of Æsculapius and of a famous medical school (Hippocrates), and passes the peninsula of Budrum (Halicarnassus). To the W. appear in succession the islands of Kalymnos (2248 ft.), Leros (1086 ft.), Lipso (902 ft.; Lepsia), and Arki (Acrite).

To the E. of the island of Gaïdaronisi (696 ft.; Tragia), where 491Cæsar was captured by pirates in 76 B. C., opens the Latmian Bay, belonging to the ancient Ionia, now silted up by the deposits of the Mæander. A little inland are the ruins of Miletus and Priene.

The French steamers now pass through the Straits of Samos, between the Samsun Dagh (4150 ft.; Mykale) and the island of Samos, whose old capital, Samos, now Tigani, with its walls of the age of Polycrates and its new harbour (1908), is seen in the distance.

Vathy (Xenodochion Hegemonia tēs Samu, a good inn; pop. 9500), the new capital of Samos, lies in the bay of Scalanova (set below), on the N. coast. Above the narrow bay rises the distant Samsun Dagh. On the shore stands the plain palace of the Samian princes. Since 1832 the island has formed a Christian-Greek state under Turkey. The Museum, in the court of the high school, contains antiquities from the famous shrine of Hera and from Tigani.

The French vessels, soon after starting, offer a retrospect of Mt. Kerki (4725 ft.; Cerceteus Mons), the highest in Samos, and then cross the Bay of Scalanova (Sinus Caystrius). In the hill-country on the mainland, to the E. of this bay, near the mouth of the Cayster or Kaystros, once lay the rich Ionian towns of Ephesus and Colophon and, to the N. of these, Lebedus and Teos.

Passing the Bay of Sighajik and Cape Koraca (Carycium Promontorium) we soon reach the Straits of Chios (comp. p. 492).

Smyrna, see p. 530; voyage thence to Constantinople, see p. 533.

76. From Alexandria to Athens and Smyrna (and Constantinople).

From Alexandria to the Piræus (Athens: 590 M.): 1. Khedivial Mail Steamship Co. (Alexandria and Constantinople line), from Alexandria on Wed. (returning from the Piræus Thurs.) aft., in 42 hrs. (fare £ E 5 or £ 3 E 25 pias.).—2. Rumanian Mail Line (Alexandria and Constantza line), from Alexandria on Frid. aft. (returning from the Piræus Sat. aft.), in 2 days.—3. Russian Steam Navigation & Trading Co. (Odessa, Constantinople, and Alexandria line), from Alexandria on Frid. aft. (from the Piræus Tues.), in 2 days (130 or 90 fr.).

From Alexandria to Smyrna (623 M.), steamers of the Belgian company La Phocéenne (between Alexandria and Constantinople), every Sat. aft. viâ Rhodes, Leros, and Chios.

Agents in Alexandria, see p. 432; at the Piræus, p. 494; at Smyrna, p. 531. Passports for Turkey should be visés before starting, or a Turkish passport (teskeré) may be obtained at the government buildings (p. 434).

Alexandria, see p. 431. The Athens Steamers steer to the N.W. to the Strait of Kasos, 28 M. broad, lying between Kasos (1706 ft.; one of the Dodekanesos group, p. 490) and Crete (p. 415). Behind Kasos rises the lofty island of Kárpathos (4003 ft.; Ital. Scarpanto, Turk. Kerpe), like the former one of the southmost of the Sporades. Fine view of the Sitía Mts. (4852 ft.), continued 492by the Lasithi Mts., together called Dikte in ancient times. Off the E. coast of Crete we see the flat islet of Elasa.

We steer close by Cape Sídero (lighthouse), the N.E. point of Crete, and past the Gianitsades (Insulae Dionysiades). As we steam across the Cretan Sea (Mare Creticum) the high mountains of Crete long remain visible.

We next pass Askania (469 ft.) and Christiana (916 ft.), the southmost islets of the Cyclades (p. xxxii), which belong to Greece, and which, like the S. Sporades (p. 490) in the Ægean Sea, rise from a submarine barrier running between the extremities of Attica and Eubœa (p. 529) and the coast of Asia Minor.

Beyond Christiana we have a striking view of the immense prehistoric crater-basin formed by the islands of Therasía (952 ft.) and Santorin (p. 417). To the N. appear the wild rocky island of Síkinos (1480 ft.) and the distant Iós or Niós (p. 417), and to the N.W. Pholégandros (1349 ft.) and the large volcanic island of Melos or Milos (2537 ft.).

We steer between Pholégandros on the right and Polinos (1171 ft.) on the left, a broad passage marked by lighthouses at night, and then through the strait between Kímolos (1306 ft.) on the left and Siphnos (2280 ft.; lighthouse) on the right, both of which, like Sériphos (1585 ft.; on the right; with iron-mines), have retained their ancient Greek names.

Passing at some distance from Thermiá (1148 ft.; the ancient Kythnos) and Kea (p. 529) we steer close by the islet of Hágios Georgios and through the Bay of Ægina to the Piraeus (p. 494).

On the Voyage to Smyrna we steam to the N.N.W., 370 M. from Alexandria, to Rhodes (p. 490).

Beyond Rhodes on the left are the island of Charki (1954 ft.), off its N.W. coast, and then Telos and Nisyros (p. 490). A little farther on we pass through the strait between the Syrina Group, on the left, and the islets of Kandelëusa and Pantelëusa (181 ft.; lighthouse), adjoining Nisyros, on the right.

To the W. we sight the double-peaked island of Astropalia (1660 ft.; ancient Astypalaea) and Amorgós (p. 417), and to the E. Cos and Kalymnos (p. 490). Beyond the lights on the islet of Lévitha (548 ft.) and beyond Leros (p. 490), at which the steamer calls, the rocky isle of Patmos or Patínos (870 ft.), St. John’s place of exile, becomes more conspicuous.

We next steer round Cape Papas, the W. point of the bold island of Nikaria or Ikaria (3422 ft.), and then to the N.N.E. through the Straits of Chios, 4½ M. in breadth, between the island of Chios (Turk. Sakis Adasi; 318 sq. M. in area) and the mainland of Anatolia or Asia Minor. The S. entrance of the straits, beyond Capo Bianco (right; once Argennon), is flanked with the islets 493of Páspargon (lighthouse) and Panagia. On the right lies the harbour of Cheshmeh, a little town with a mediæval castle.

We now enter the harbour of Kastro, or Chios (Xenodochion Nea Chios, a good inn; pop. about 14,000, mostly Greeks), the capital of the island, on the E. coast. Once a most important member of the Ionian league of cities, Chios belonged in the middle ages to the Venetians (1204–1345), and then to the Genoese (1346–1566), and only became Turkish under Suleiman the Great (p. 542). The fruitless Greek struggle for independence ended with the massacre of Chios in 1832. The hill-country of Chios is extremely fertile. A valuable export is the gum of the mastic-shrub.

We next pass close to the Goni Islands, lying in front of the bay of Lytri (Erythrae), and the Spalmatori Islets (Œnussae Insulae), at the N. end of the straits of Chios.

Sail up the Gulf of Smyrna, see p. 530.

77. From (Marseilles, Genoa) Naples to Athens (and Constantinople).

774 M. From Naples to Athens (steamboat-agents at Marseilles, see p. 120; at Genoa, p. 114; at Naples, p. 137; at the Piræus, pp. 494, 495). 1. North German Lloyd (Mediterranean & Levant Service, RR. 23, 24, 80) from Marseilles every other Thurs. viâ Genoa (Sat.), Naples (Mon.), and Catania (Tues.) to the Piræus in 6 days (fare from Marseilles 180 or 120 marks, from Genoa 168 or 112 marks, from Naples 120 or 84 marks, from Catania 96 or 64 marks).—2. Messageries Maritimes (Marseilles, Constantinople, and Beirut line), from Marseilles every second Thurs. viâ Naples (Sat.) to the Piræus in 4 days (fare 225 or 150 fr.); also (Marseilles, Constantinople, and Black Sea line) every second Sat. viâ Kalamata and Canea (p. 415) to the Piræus in 5 days.—3. Società Nazionale, lines X and XI (Genoa, Constantinople, and Odessa line), from Genoa, Tues. night, viâ Leghorn (p. 143), Naples (Frid.), Palermo (p. 147), Messina, Catania, and Canea (p. 415) to the Piræus in 11 days (fare from Naples 155 fr. 50 c. or 109 fr.).

From Marseilles and Genoa to Naples, see RR. 23, 24.

From Naples (see R. 27), after half-a-day’s sail, we reach the superb Straits of Messina. On the right, at the foot of the Monti Peloritani, lie the ruins of Messina (p. 156); to the left is Reggio (p. 159); to the S.W. towers Mt. Ætna (p. 159).

The German and Italian boats steer to the S.S.W. to Catania (p. 160).

Sailing to the E.S.E., and gradually leaving Ætna behind, we lose sight of land for a whole day. At length, on the left, we sight the Messenian Peninsula of the Peloponnesus, flanked by the Œnussae Islands; beyond it, the Bay of Koronē, the ancient Messenian Bay, runs far inland. We then steer to the E. towards Cape Taenaron or Matapán (p. xxxii), the S. point of the peninsula of Mani. To the N.E. looms the bold rocky crest of Mt. Taygetos (7903 ft.), whose top is free from snow in summer only.

494Beyond Cape Tænaron the Bay of Marathonisi, the ancient Sinus Laconicus, opens to the N. We next pass between Cape Maléa, notorious for its storms, and the island of Kythera (1660 ft.; Ital. Cerigo), and turn towards the N. For a short time we see the mountains of Crete (p. 415) to the S.E. The bleak S.E. coast of the Peloponnesus is now gradually left behind, while to the right a few small rocky islands, belonging to the Cyclades (p. 492), come into sight.

Off Hydra (1942 ft.; lighthouse), near the peninsula of Argolis, opens the Bay of Ægina, the ancient Saronic Gulf. To the left is the island of Poros; in the background rises Mt. Hágios Elias (1748 ft.), the highest hill in Ægina. On the right, beyond the islet of Hagios Geōrgios (1050 ft.; lighthouse), the ancient Belbina, appears the hilly S. extremity of Attica with Cape Colonna (p. 529). The barren rounded hill in Attica, much foreshortened at first, is Mt. Hymettos; straight in front of us is Mt. Parnes, forming the N. boundary of the Attic plain.

Before us are the ancient Mt. Ægaleos (now Skaramangá Mts.) and the indented coast of the island of Salamis, which appears at both ends to join the mainland. Above Salamis towers the lofty peak of Geraneia in Megaris. A hill jutting into the sea in front of Mt. Ægaleos now becomes visible. This is the Piraeus Peninsula (comp. Map, p. 528). The hill a short way inland is the Munychia (p. 495), and to the right of it lies the shallow bay of Phálēron (p. 528). Between Hymettus and Parnes the gable-shaped Pentelikon appears. We now have a beautiful view of Athens; in the centre rises the Acropolis, on the left the monument of Philopappos. The large white building on the right is the royal palace, beyond which rises Lykabettos (p. 528).

As we near the Piræus we observe the rocky islet of Lipsokutáli (Psyttaleia; lighthouse), lying off the E. tongue of Salamis, and masking the entrance to the straits of Salamis, the scene of the famous battle of 480 B. C. (p. 506). The steamer rounds the headland of Aktē and slowly enters the harbour of the Piræus.

Piræus.—The Commissionnaires of the chief Athens hotels come on board (those of the smaller, only when written for). Arrangements for landing (boat 1 dr., with baggage 2 dr.) and for a carriage to Athens (p. 495) had better be left to them. Heavier baggage is briefly examined at the Teloníon, at the S. E. angle of the harbour.

Station of the electric railway to Athens (comp. p. 503), to the N. of the town (opposite the station of the Peloponnesus line).

Hotel. Hot. & Restaurant Continental, Karaïskakis Sq., to the N. of the harbour, R. from 2 dr.; but better quarters are to be had in Athens.—Cafés in and near the garden to the S. of the Dēmarchía, 3 min. to the E. of Karaïskakis Sq., on the harbour.

Electric Tramways from the custom-house to the Athens station; from the station to the Zea harbour; also from the station, from the harbour (Karaïskakis Sq.), or from the Rue de Socrate to New Phálēron (p. 528).

Steamboat Agents. Messageries Maritimes, Vamvakaris, Rue de Miaulis 30 b; North German Lloyd, Roth & Co., Rue de Tsamadú 21; 495German Levant, Frangopulos; Austrian Lloyd, S. Calucci, Quai de Tshelebi, to the W. of Karaïskakis Sq.; Società Nazionale, A. Vellas; Russian Steam Navigation & Trading Co., Mussuris.

British Consul, C. J. Cooke; vice-consul, J. Joannidis.

The Piraeus, Gr. Peiraieus (pronounced Piræévs; pop. 71,500), the time-honoured seaport of Athens (comp. p. 506), became a mere village after its destruction by Sulla in 86 B. C., and in the middle ages even lost its name, but within the last few decades has developed into a prosperous town. Its trade now exceeds that of Patras. The harbour, the ancient Kantharos, admits the largest vessels. Spacious quays, an exchange, a theatre, wide and regular streets, and over a hundred factories have been constructed.

Its antiquities are few compared with those of Athens. The chief are parts of the fortifications, such as a wall defended by towers, ascending the peninsula of Eétioneia, to the W. of the harbour. It is reached from the station in 8 min. by walking round the shallow N. arm of the harbour (the ‘blind harbour’ of antiquity). On the hill it is pierced by a gateway between two round towers.

A broad and easy path ascends the Munychia Hill (280 ft.), to the E. of the town (20 min.), whence we overlook the various basins of the Great Harbour, the round Zea Bay at the S.W. foot of the hill, the Munychia Harbour at the S.E. base, and to the E. of the latter the broad Phaleron Bay, where the Athenian ships lay down to the time of the Persian wars. We may return by the Zea Bay, noticing remains of ancient boat-houses at the beginning of the Rue du Serangeion, and regain the station by tramway.

From the Piræus to Athens (5 M.) the electric Railway (p. 503) is the quickest conveyance, but as it lies low and runs through cuttings and tunnels near the city it affords little view.

New-comers had better take a Carriage. The new route (1½ hr.; fare, with luggage, 8–10 dr.), though longer, is in better condition, and is therefore preferred by the drivers. At first running alongside the railway it reaches New Phaleron (p. 528); it then skirts the bay of Phaleron at some little distance from the shore. Later proceeding inland it follows the broad new Boulevard Syngrós, which commands an excellent view of the Acropolis and leads in a straight line as far as the Olympieion (p. 509).—The old route (1¼ hr.; fare, with luggage, 6–7 dr.) follows the ‘Long Walls’ (p. 506) which once connected the Piræus with Athens. On the left is Mt. Ægaleos (p. 494), while on the right appears the bay of Phaleron. We cross the generally dry bed of the Kephisos (p. 505), and then pass the limits of the ancient olive-grove that occupies the plain of the Kephisos. Leaving behind a hill which conceals the Acropolis we at once come in sight of the Theseion, the Areopagus, and the Acropolis. The houses of the city, which we reach at the Dipylon (p. 522), all too soon exclude this splendid view. Athens, see p. 502.

496

78. From Venice or Trieste to Athens (and Constantinople) viâ Brindisi and Patras.

From Venice to the Piræus (Athens), Società Nazionale (Line XII, Venice, Brindisi, Patras, and Constantinople), from Venice on Sat. aft. (returning from Piræus Frid. foren.), to Patras in 4½, to the Piræus in 5 days (fare 195 or 134 fr.).

From Trieste to the Piræus. 1. Austrian Lloyd (fast boats to Constantinople) from Trieste on Tues. aft. (returning from Piræus Sun. even.) to Patras in 2½, to the Piræus in 4 days (fare to Patras 159 or 109, to Piræus 220 or 147 fr.). Also Greek-Oriental Line (every Sun. foren.; returning from Piræus Sun. aft.), in 5 days, and Thessalian Line (Frid. aft.; returning from Piræus Frid. or Sat.) in 6½ days.—2. Greek Steamboat Co. Panhellenios, from Trieste on Frid. foren. (from Piræus Mon. morn.) to Patras in 3, to the Piræus in 5 days.

From Trieste to Patras, New York Line of the Austro-Americana (p. 425), from Trieste weekly or fortnightly, in 42–46 hrs. (fare 150 or 110 K). Passengers for the Piræus are conveyed through the Corinth canal by the Achaia Co., or they may go on by rail (see below).

Agents in Venice, see p. 420; at Trieste, p. 425; at Brindisi, p. 429; at Corfu, p. 497; at Patras, p. 501; at the Piræus, pp. 494, 495.

From Patras to Athens, 137½ M., railway in 7½–9½ hrs. (fare 25 or 18 dr.); express on Tues. and Frid. in 6–1 ‘wagon de luxe’ 33 dr. 40 l.). As to Greek money, see p. 502.

The Italian steamers (comp. p. 427) from Venice touch at Ancona, Bari, and Brindisi. The Lloyd steamers, except those of the Thessalian line, go direct from Trieste to Brindisi (comp. p. 429).

Soon after leaving Brindisi we steer to the S.E. To the left of the Straits of Otranto (p. 430) are seen the outlines of Albania (Turkey), with the great rampart of the Acroceraunian Mts. (6644 ft.). Farther on, in the foreground, lies the island of Corfu. On the right are the Othonian Islands, Othoní, Eríkusa, Mathraki, and the islet of Diaplo. At the S. end of the Acroceraunian Mts. lies Santi Quaranta, where the Italian steamers call, the poor seaport for Yánina, which is two day’s ride (59 M.) distant.

The scenery of the wide Strait of Corfu (2–4½ M. broad), separating the island from the mainland, is very imposing. To the right towers Monte San Salvatore (p. 500). The town of Corfu, partly hidden at first by the island of Vido, is now revealed. On casting anchor we have on our left the double hump of the Fortezza Vecchia and on the right the dark ramparts of the Fortezza Nuova.

Corfu.

Arrival. Landing or embarking 1½, with heavy baggage, 2 dr. As the boatmen are insolent, there is no tariff, and great confusion prevails, the traveller had better allow the hotel-agents who come on board to arrange for boat, baggage, and carriage, for which a charge of 3–4 fr. is made in the bill. Passengers who go ashore for a few hours only may bargain to be landed and rowed back for 1½ fr., payable on their return.

497Hotels (tariffs payable in gold, see p. 502). *Hôt. d’Angleterre & Belle Venise (Pl. a), to the S. of the town, high site, with fine views and garden, R. 3–7, B. 1½, déj. 4, D. 5 fr.; St. Georges (Pl. b), on the Esplanade, similar charges.—Unpretending houses, with restaurants: Belvedere, Strada sulle Mura, pens. 7 dr.; the following are in the Greek style: Orient, on the Esplanade; Patras, Nikephoros Street; Hôt. d’Alexandrie, R. 2 fr., and Hôt. de Constantinople, R. 3 dr., both near the harbour.

Cafés in the Esplanade, at the beginning of the double avenue; cup of Turkish coffee 20 l.—Restaurants. Abbondanza (Greek), Nikephoros Street, moderate; Patras, Belvedere, see above.—Beer. Dobay, on the Esplanade; Gambrinus, near the Old Theatre (p. 498).

Banks. Fels & Co. (Pl. 1), Strada sulle Mura; Banque Ionienne, Nikephoros Street, not far from the Esplanade; Banque Nationale.—Post Office, adjoining the Sanità, Nikephoros Street.—Telegraph Office, near the Banque Ionienne.

Steamboat Offices. Austrian Lloyd, Ellerman Line, Fels & Co. (see above); Società Nazionale (Pl. 8), G. Topali.—Tourist Agency. Hamburg-American Line, Strada sulle Mura.—Lloyd’s Agents, Barff & Co.

Consulates. British (Pl. 3): consul, G. Raymond; vice-consul, P. Papadachi.—United States (Pl. 7): consular agent, Ch. E. Hancock.

Carriages. Drives in town or nearer environs 2–3 dr. per hr., as may be agreed upon; short drive usually 1 fr. Carr. obtained at the hotels are better but dearer.—Boats for excursions may be ordered at the hotels.

Motor Cars (belonging to the Société d’Automobiles): omnibus daily to the N. and S. parts of the island, each person 10 l. per kilomètre; vehicle seated for live 50 l. per kilomètre.

Theatres. Teatro Grande, built in 1895 on the model of San Carlo at Naples, near the Porta Reale; Ital. opera in winter; Summer Theatre, to the S. of the Ginnasio.

Sea Baths (80 l. to 1 dr.) and plunge-baths, near Punta San Nicolò.

English Church (Holy Trinity), service in the season.

Corfu, Ital. Corfù, Greek Kérkyra, the capital of the island of the same name and the seat of archbishops of the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, is one of the wealthiest towns in the Greek dominions (pop. 28,250, incl. 4000 Rom. Cath. and 2700 Jews). The spacious harbour is enlivened by a brisk trade, the chief export being olive-oil. The fortifications constructed by the Venetians, the Fortezza Vecchia, picturesquely situated in the sea, on a double rock to the E. of the town, and the Fortezza Nuova, on the N.W., are both now unimportant. The narrow streets present a busy scene. The chief languages are Greek and Italian.

Kérkyra. Lat. Corcyra, the largest (245 sq. M.) and most important of the Ionian Islands, was supposed in ancient times to have been Scheria, the home of the Phæaci and their king Alkinoos. Having been colonized by the Corinthians at an early period (734 B. C.), it developed into a dangerous rival of its mother-city, thus partly causing the Peloponnesian war. The mediæval name seems to have been derived from ‘Korphus’, as the old fortress on the two rocks was called. From 1386 to 1797 Corfu belonged to Venice, from 1815 to 1863 it was under British sway, after which it was ceded, along with the other Ionian Islands, to the kingdom of Greece.

The island (with 93,860 inhab.) possesses hill and plain, bold rocks and charming bays on the coast, abundant water-supply, rich vegetation, and fine old olive forests, which combine to render its scenery highly attractive. The climate is mild and equable in spring and autumn. The good roads made everywhere by the British government add to the comfort and enjoyment of a short stay in the island.

On disembarking we cross the courtyard of the Dogana, turn to the left at the small Hôt. de Constantinople, and follow the 498Strada sulle Mura, which skirts the N. side of the town, affording numerous fine views, and reaches the Esplanade near the royal palace. Or we may ascend direct from the Dogana through the Strada Nikephoros, the busy main street, in 5 min. to the Esplanade. Before we reach the Esplanade we pass a side-street on the left with the church of Santo Spiridione, and another on the right with the Teatro Vecchio, built by the Venetians, now the municipio.

The Esplanade, or Spianata, lies between the town and the old fortress. On the W. side it is bounded by handsome houses with arcades on the groundfloor. At the N. end rises the—

Royal Palace, built in grey Malta stone, at the beginning of the British period, for the Lord High Commissioner, and containing the throne-room and the hall of the former Ionian senate. The entrance is by the W. side-door (gratuity). A marble staircase ascends to the first floor. At the top is an antique lion couchant.—In front of the palace is a Statue of Sir Frederick Adam, a much respected Lord High Commissioner of the islands (1823–32).

At the E. end of the double avenue intersecting the Esplanade rises a statue of Count von der Schulenburg, who conducted the defence of Corfu against the Turks in 1716, erected by the republic of Venice. Beyond it a bridge crosses a strait to the—

*Fortezza Vecchia (adm. on application), which rises on the steep twin-rocks in terraces. The dilapidated buildings are now used as barracks and a military hospital. At the foot of the height is the garrison-church built by the British. The passage opposite the chief entrance gives access to the commandant’s house. We ascend hence to the left, pass through a long vaulted passage, leading straight on to the ramparts, which are overgrown with vegetation, and lastly mount a few steps to the platform on the W. rock (230 ft.; with signalling station and lighthouse). The custodian lends a telescope (25 l.). We enjoy here a superb **View of the town and of the island, from Monte San Salvatore and Capo Cassopetto on the N. to Capo Bianco on the S.; to the E. is Epirus in Turkey, with its lofty mountains.

A broad street descends from the S. end of the Esplanade to the Viale dell’ Imperatrice Elisabetta, formerly Strada Marina, skirting the shore below the new quarter of the town and now a favourite promenade in the evening. At the beginning of it, on the right, is the Casino, with reading and concert rooms. Turning to the right after 4 min., and then to the left, we come to the Museum, containing ancient sculptures and tomb-inscriptions. Near it is the round Tomb of Menecrates, resembling a well (7th or 6th cent. B.C.). Above is the ruined Fort of San Salvatore (prison).

The boulevard sweeps round the suburb of Kastrades or Garitza first to the S. and then to the E. to the Molo protecting the bay. At a bend, short of the molo, we follow the Viale Imperatore 499Guglielmo Secondo to the right (S.). After 7 min., opposite the apse of the old church of Santa Corcyra, we ascend a road to the left. A gate on the left is the entrance to the—

*Royal Villa of Monrepos (Villa Reale; free on Sun. and Thurs. aft.). The park affords fine views of the town and castle.

The Viale Imperatore Guglielmo skirts the W. slope of the hilly peninsula which stretches to the S., between Lake Kalikiópulo and the sea. Here probably lay the ancient city, with the bay of Kastrades as its trading harbour, while the Lake of Kalikiopulo, now choked with mud, seems to have been the Portus Hyllaeicus, used as a station for vessels of war. The road is bordered with rose and orange gardens, and farther on with beautiful olive-groves. In 25 min. (or from the Esplanade in ¾ hr.) we reach a round open space, called the *Canone, or One-gun Battery (carr. 5–6 fr.), which commands a superb view of the E. coast of the island.

Opposite, at the entrance to the ancient Hyllæan harbour, lies the Scoglio di Ulisse (‘cliff of Ulysses’), or Pontikonisi (‘mouse island’), a cypress-planted islet with a chapel and parsonage, now owned by an enterprising German. The Greeks took this to be the ship of the Phæacians which had brought Odysseus to Ithaca, and on its way back was turned into stone by the angry Poseidon. The S.W. shore of the Lake of Kalikiopulo, where a brook named Kressida enters the lake, is pointed out as the place where Odysseus was cast ashore and met the princess Nausicaa.

The charming drive to Gasturi and Benizze (7½ M.) and back takes 3–4 hrs. (carr. 10–15 dr.; as far as the Achilleion, there and back 2½ hrs., 8–10 dr.). We leave the town by the former W. gate, or Porta Reale and pass through the suburb of San Rocco. The road runs a little to the W. of Lake Kalikiopulo and ascends in windings to (5 M.) Gasturi (Achilleion, pens. 7 dr.). About ½ M. farther, a little to the left, is the villa *Achilleion (adm. to the building and the grounds 11–3, 2 dr.), built in 1890–1 for Empress Elizabeth of Austria (d. 1898), in the Italian Renaissance style, and purchased by the German emperor in 1907. The back of the villa is adjoined by a peristyle and three terraces adorned with statues. On the road, just beyond the villa, is the Restaurant Bella Vista. We now descend (short-cuts for walkers) to the (2 M.) fishing-village of Benizze, where delicious oranges grow, and where there are remains of a Roman villa (boat to Corfu, 5 dr.)