Chapter III

TUNICATA (CONTINUED)

CLASSIFICATION: LARVACEA—APPENDICULARIANS—STRUCTURE, ETC.—ASCIDIACEA—SIMPLE ASCIDIANS—SPECIFIC CHARACTERS—COMPOUND ASCIDIANS—GEMMATION—MEROSOMATA—HOLOSOMATA—PYROSOMATIDAE—THALIACEA—DOLIOLIDAE—SALPIDAE—GENERAL CONCLUSIONS—PHYLOGENY.

We now turn to the systematic classification of the group; and further details of structure or function, points of interest in the life-history such as budding and the formation of colonies, the habits and occurrence, and other peculiarities such as phosphorescence, will all be noted under the orders, sub-orders, families and genera in which they occur.

CLASS TUNICATA.

The Tunicata or Urochordata are hermaphrodite marine Chordate animals, which show in their development the essential Vertebrate characters, but in which the notochord is restricted to the posterior part of the body, and is in most cases present only during the free-swimming larval stages. The adult animals are usually sessile and degenerate, and may be either solitary or colonial, fixed or free. The nervous system is, in the larva, of the elongated, tubular, dorsal, Vertebrate type, but in most cases it degenerates in the adult to form a small ganglion placed above the pharynx. The body is completely covered with a thick cuticular test ("tunic") which contains a substance similar to cellulose. The alimentary canal has a greatly enlarged respiratory pharynx or branchial sac, which is perforated by two or many more or less modified gill-slits opening into a peribranchial or atrial cavity, which communicates with the exterior by a single dorsal exhalent aperture (rarely two ventral apertures). The ventral heart is simple and tubular, and periodically reverses the direction of the blood-current.

Fig. 27.—Sketch of the chief kinds of Tunicata found in the sea.

This Class is divided into three Orders:—The Appendicularians, the Ascidians, and the Salpians (see Fig. 27).

Order I. Larvacea (Appendicularians).

Free-swimming pelagic forms, in which the posterior part of the body takes the form of a large locomotory appendage, the "tail," in which there is a skeletal axis, the urochord. A relatively large cuticular test, the "house," may be formed with great rapidity (in an hour or so) as a secretion from a part of the ectoderm; it is, however, merely a temporary structure which is soon cast off and replaced by another. The branchial sac is simply an enlarged pharynx with two ventral ciliated openings (stigmata) leading to the exterior. These may be regarded as the representatives of the primary gill-slits (undivided) of the Ascidian. There are thus a single pair. There is no separate peribranchial, atrial, or cloacal cavity. The nervous system consists of a large dorsally placed ganglion and a long nerve-cord, which stretches backwards over the alimentary canal to reach the tail, along which it runs on the left side (morphological dorsal edge) of the urochord. The anus opens ventrally on the surface of the body, usually in front of the stigmata. No reproduction by gemmation or metamorphosis is known in the life-history.

Structure and Mode of Life.—This is one of the most interesting groups of the Tunicata, as it shows more completely than any of the rest the probable characters of the ancestral forms. It has undergone little or no degeneration, and consequently corresponds more nearly to the tailed, larval condition than to the adult forms of the other groups. It retains, in fact, the originally posterior, chordate, part of the body which is lost in the metamorphosis of all the other Tunicata. Hence the Appendicularians have been described as permanent, or sexually mature, larval forms, and hence also the adult Ascidia may be said to correspond to the trunk alone of the Appendicularian. The Order includes a single group, the Appendiculariida, all the members of which are minute (usually about 5 mm. in total length) and free-swimming (Fig. 28). They occur near the surface of the sea (and exceptionally in deeper water) in most parts of the world, moving in a characteristic vibratory manner by the contractions of the powerful tail (see Fig. 27). They possess the power of forming with great rapidity, from tracts of specially large glandular ectoderm cells, the "oikoplasts," an enormously large (many times the size of the body) investing gelatinous layer, which probably corresponds to the test of other groups, although it is doubtful whether it contains cellulose, and it differs also in having no immigrated cells and in its temporary nature. This structure (Fig. 28) was first described by Von Mertens, and by him named "Haus"; it has recently been more minutely investigated by Lohmann. It is only loosely attached to the body, and is frequently thrown off soon after its formation. Its function is probably protective, and possibly to some extent hydrostatic, and it may also be of use in straining the nutritive particles from the large volumes of water which filter through its complicated passages and perforated folds.^[98] The long, laterally compressed "tail" in the Appendiculariida is attached to the ventral surface of the body (Fig. 30), and is bent downwards and forwards, so that it usually points more or less anteriorly; and is twisted through an angle of 90°, so that the dorsal edge lies to the left. It shows what have been interpreted as traces of metameric segmentation, having its lateral muscle-bands broken up into successive pieces (supposed myotomes, probably only cells), while the nerve-cord presents a series of enlargements formed of groups of nerve-cells from which distributory nerves are given off. In Oikopleura the muscle-band in the tail is formed of ten cells fused on each side. Near the base of the tail there is a distinctly larger elongated ganglion. The urochord in the tail consists of a homogeneous rod surrounded by a sheath containing nuclei.

Fig. 28.—Appendiculariida. A, Appendicularia sicula, Fol, with house; B, Megalocercus abyssorum, Chun, nat. size; C, Oikopleura cophocerca, Gegenb., with house; D, Fritillaria megachile, Fol, with vesicle; E, Appendicularian in its house; F and G, two stages in the formation of the house. (A to D from Seeliger; E to G from Lohmann.)

The anterior (cerebral) ganglion has connected with it an otocyst (Fig. 29), a pigment spot, and a tubular richly ciliated process opening into the branchial sac, and representing the dorsal tubercle and associated parts of an ordinary Ascidian. The tube ends in a plain or coiled cellular mass lying to the right of the ganglion. No neural gland is found.

Fig. 29.—Transverse section through anterior part of Oikopleura to show ganglion, sense-organs, endostyle, etc. × 300. br.s, Branchial sac; c.f, ciliated funnel; ec, dorsal ectoderm; end, closed anterior end of endostyle; hy, hypobranchial groove in floor of branchial sac; n.g, nerve-ganglion; or.gl, oral gland; ot, otocyst; x, opening of ciliated funnel into pharynx.

The branchial aperture or mouth leads into the simple branchial sac or pharynx (Fig. 30, br.s). There are no tentacles. The endostyle is short, is a closed tube both anteriorly and posteriorly (Fig. 29), and has about four longitudinal rows of gland-cells. There is no dorsal lamina, and the peripharyngeal bands run dorsally and posteriorly to unite close in front of the oesophageal opening. The wall of the branchial sac does not show the complex structure usual in Tunicata, and has only two ciliated apertures (Figs. 30, 31, 32, sg). These are homologous with the primary stigmata of the typical Ascidians, and with a pair of the gill-clefts of Vertebrates. They are placed far back on the ventral surface, one on each side of the middle line, and lead into short funnel-shaped tubes which open on the surface of the body behind the anus (Fig. 30, at). These tubes correspond to the right and left atrial involutions, which in an ordinary Ascidian fuse to form the peribranchial cavity. The remainder of the alimentary canal consists of oesophagus, stomach (which may have a glandular diverticulum), intestine and rectum (Fig. 30). The heart, surrounded ventrally by a delicate pericardial membrane, lies below and in front of the stomach, and is formed by the differentiation of the outer ends of epithelial cells into muscular fibrillae. Two specially large glandular cells are placed at the opposite ends of the heart. There are no blood-vessels except the remains of the primary body-cavity (blastocoel). No heart can be seen in some of the smaller species of Oikopleura. Nearly all the species are hermaphrodite, and the large ovary and testis are placed at the posterior end of the body. There is no proper oviduct, the genital products merely breaking through to the exterior at the point marked g.d in Fig. 30. The spermatozoa are generally matured and shed before the ova, and thus self-fertilisation is prevented. The ova are very small, and little is known of the development.

Fig. 30.—Longitudinal optical section of Oikopleura. Part of the tail is cut off. a, Anus; at, atrial opening; br.s, branchial sac; c.f, ciliated funnel; ec, ectoderm; end, endostyle; ep.p, epipharyngeal ridge; g.d, opening of gonads to exterior; ht, heart; hy.p, hypopharyngeal ridge; i, intestine; m, mouth; mus, muscle-bands in tail; n, nerve-cord; n′, nerve in tail; n.ch, urochord; n.g, nerve-ganglion; n.g′, ganglion in tail; oes, oesophagus; or.gl, oral gland; ot, otocyst; ov, ovary; sg, stigmata; so, sense-organ; sp, testis; st, stomach; t, test. (After Herdman.)

Classification.—There are two Families of Larvacea: First, the Kowalevskiidae, including only the remarkable genus Kowalevskia, Fol, in which the heart and endostyle are absent, and the branchial sac is provided with four rows of ciliated tooth-like processes. The two known species have been found in the Mediterranean and in the Atlantic.

The second family Appendiculariidae comprises about eight genera, amongst which may be mentioned:—(1) Oikopleura, Mertens, and (2) Appendicularia, Fol, in both of which the body is short (1 or 2 mm. in length) and compact (Fig. 30), and the tail relatively long, while the endostyle is straight. (3) Megalocercus, Chun, from deep water in the Mediterranean; M. abyssorum is the largest Appendicularian known, having a total length of 3 cm.—it is of a bright red colour. (4) Fritillaria, Q. and G., in which the body is elongated (Fig. 32) and composed of anterior and posterior regions, the tail relatively short, the endostyle recurved, the stigmata opening far in front of the anus, and an ectodermal hood is formed over the front of the body.

In all nearly forty species of Larvacea are known.

Fig. 31.—Transverse section of body and tail of Oikopleura flabellum (?) at, Atrial tube; bl.s, blood-space; br.s, cavity of pharynx or branchial sac; ec, ectoderm; en, endoderm; ep.p, epipharyngeal ciliated bands; gel, gelatinous layer between ectoderm and endoderm; hy.p, hypopharyngeal ciliated band; mus, muscular tissue on inner surface of ectoderm of tail; n, nerve-cord; n′, its continuation in the tail; n.ch, notochord in tail; r, rectum; sg, one of the stigmata or ciliated openings from the branchial sac to the atrial tube; t, test (= young "house"); x, bridge of gelatinous tissue in front of stigma closing branchial sac off from atrial tube. (After Herdman.)

Occurrence.—Although for the most part transparent, and usually almost invisible in sea-water, some Appendicularians may have certain parts of the body (alimentary canal, endostyle, gonads, etc.) brilliantly pigmented (orange, violet, etc.), and may under exceptional circumstances be present in such profusion as to colour tracts of the sea. Appendicularians are widely distributed, having been found in all seas from the Arctic to the Antarctic, both round coasts and in the open ocean. Although a few species have been found at considerable depths in the Mediterranean, still in the Atlantic they are not deep-water animals, and as a group must be regarded as surface-forms. They are fairly abundant to a depth of 100 fathoms, and some few reach 1500. Species of Oikopleura and Fritillaria are frequent round the British coasts, our commonest species being probably O. dioica, Fol, and F. furcata, Moss. Young specimens appear in the plankton about February and March, and larger forms are as a rule found later in the summer. Several instances have been recorded of swarms of especially large forms, provided with massive tests (the "house"), having appeared suddenly on our coast in such abundance as to form an important element in the surface life of the sea.

Fig. 32.—Diagram of Fritillaria seen from the right side to show the elongated body, the hood, and the relative positions of anus, atrial opening, and gonads. (Compare with Oikopleura, Fig. 30.) a, Anus; at, opening of atrial tube; br.s, branchial sac; end, endostyle; ht, heart; m, mouth; n.ch, notochord; n.g, nerve-ganglion; oes, oesophagus; ov, ovary; sg, stigma; sp, testis; st, stomach.

Order II. Ascidiacea (Ascidians).

Fixed or free-swimming Simple or Compound Ascidians, which in the adult are never provided with a locomotory appendage or tail, and have no trace of a notochord. The free-swimming forms are colonies, the Simple Ascidians being always sedentary and usually fixed. The test is permanent and well developed, and becomes organised by the immigration of cells from the body; as a rule it increases in size with the age of the individual. The branchial sac is large and well developed. Its walls are perforated by numerous slits (stigmata) opening into the peribranchial cavity, which communicates with the exterior by the single atrial aperture. Many of the Ascidiacea, both fixed and free, reproduce by gemmation to form colonies, and in most of them the sexually produced embryo develops into a tailed larva.

The Ascidiacea includes three groups, the Simple Ascidians, the Compound Ascidians, and the free-swimming colonial Pyrosoma, which in some respects connects this Order with the Thaliacea.

Sub-Order 1. Ascidiae Simplices.

Fixed Ascidians, which are solitary, and very rarely reproduce by gemmation; if, as in a few cases, small colonies are formed, the members are not buried in a common investing mass, but each has a distinct test of its own. No strict line of demarcation can be drawn between the Simple and Compound Ascidians; and one of the families of the former group, the Clavelinidae (the "Social" Ascidians of Milne-Edwards), forms a transition from the typical Simple forms which never reproduce by gemmation, to the Compound forms which always do. Over 500 species of Ascidiae Simplices are now known, but there are probably very many more still undescribed. The sub-order may be divided into the following families:—

Fam. 1. Clavelinidae.—Simple Ascidians which reproduce by gemmation to form small colonies (Fig. 33), in which each member, or ascidiozooid, has a distinct test, but all are connected by a common blood-system, and by a prolongation of the "epicardiac tubes" (see p. 83) from the branchial sac. Buds are formed on the stolons (Fig. 33), which are vascular outgrowths from the posterior end of the body, containing prolongations from the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm (the epicardium) of the Ascidiozooid. Branchial sac not folded; internal longitudinal bars usually absent; stigmata straight; tentacles simple. The Clavelinidae are the simplest of the Ascidiae Simplices. They are the forms that come nearest to the Compound Ascidians, and are closely related to the Distomatidae. They are probably the nearest representatives now existing of the ancestral forms from which both Simple and Compound Ascidians are descended.

Fig. 33.—Colony of Clavelina lepadiformis (nat. size).

This family contains amongst others the following three genera:—Ecteinascidia, Herdman, with internal longitudinal bars in the branchial sac; Clavelina, Savigny, with a long body and intestine extending behind the branchial sac (Fig. 33); and Perophora, Wiegmann, with a short compact body and intestine alongside the branchial sac. Clavelina lepadiformis and Perophora listeri are common British species found at a few fathoms depth off various parts of our coast. Both occur round the south end of the Isle of Man. In autumn Clavelina accumulates reserve-material in the ectoderm cells of parts of the stolon, which remain when the rest of the colony dies away, and then form new buds in spring.

Fam. 2. Ascidiidae.—Solitary fixed Ascidians, never forming colonies; with gelatinous or cartilaginous test; branchial aperture usually eight-lobed, atrial aperture usually six-lobed; branchial sac not folded; internal longitudinal bars usually present; stigmata straight or curved; tentacles simple; gonads in or around the intestinal loop. This family is divided into three sections:—

Sub-Fam. 1. Hypobythiinae.—Branchial sac with no internal longitudinal bars, test strengthened with curious symmetrically placed nodules.

The one genus Hypobythius, Moseley, contains two stalked deep-water forms found by the "Challenger;" H. calycodes (Fig. 34, A), from the North Pacific, 2900 fathoms, and H. moseleyi from the South Atlantic, 600 fathoms.

Fig. 34.—A, Hypobythius calycodes, Moseley; B, Chelyosoma macleayanum, Brod. and Sowb.; C, Corynascidia suhmi, Herdman; D, Rhodosoma callense, Lac.-Duth.

Sub-Fam. 2. Ascidiinae.—Internal longitudinal bars present; stigmata straight. Many genera, of which the following are the more important:—Ciona, Fleming, dorsal languets present; Ascidia, Linnaeus (in part Phallusia, Savigny), dorsal lamina present (Fig. 15, p. 40); Rhodosoma, Ehrenberg, anterior part of test modified to form operculum (Fig. 34, D); Abyssascidia, Herdman, intestine on right side of branchial sac. The type genus of this section, Ascidia, has been described in detail above (Chapter II. p. 39), and Figs. 15 to 26 illustrate its structure and life-history. There are many species. Ciona intestinalis, Linn. (Fig. 40, B), is one of the commonest of British Ascidians, and lives readily in aquaria.

Sub-Fam. 3. Corellinae.—Stigmata curved and forming spirals (Fig. 35). Three genera:—Corella, Alder and Hancock, test gelatinous, body sessile; Corynascidia, Herdman, test gelatinous, body pedunculated (Fig. 34, C), a remarkable deep-sea form with very delicate spirally-coiled vessels in the branchial sac (Fig. 35, A), found in the Pacific (2160 faths.) and the Southern Ocean; Chelyosoma, Brod. and Sowb., upper part of test modified into horny plates (Fig. 34, B).

Fig. 35.—A, branchial sac of Corynascidia suhmi, Herdman; B, branchial sac of Corella japonica, Herdman. i.l, Internal longitudinal bars; tr, transverse vessels. (After Herdman.)

Corella contains several British species, one of which, C. parallelogramma, O. F. Müll., is one of the commonest and most handsome Ascidians in our coralline zone (about 20 faths.). Through its clear crystalline test the lemon-yellow and carmine pigmentation of the mantle, and even (with a lens) the working of the cilia along the spiral stigmata of the branchial sac (compare Fig. 35, B), can readily be seen. The beating of the heart can be seen just in front of the viscera upon the right side of the branchial sac (compare with Ascidia, Fig. 23).

In the family Ascidiidae the eggs are minute and contain little or no food-yolk, and the tailed larvae (Figs. 26, 42, A) are of the typical form and structure described in Chapter II.

Fam. 3. Cynthiidae.—Solitary fixed Ascidians (Fig. 39), sometimes occurring in aggregations, but never forming colonies; usually with leathery or fibrous, opaque test, which is sometimes encrusted with sand; branchial and atrial apertures usually both four-lobed. Branchial sac longitudinally folded (Fig. 36, A); stigmata straight; tentacles simple or compound (Fig. 37); neural gland dorsal to ganglion; gonads attached to body-wall. This family is divided into three sections:—

Fig. 36.—Diagrammatic transverse sections of branchial sacs of Cynthiidae. A, Cynthia; B, Styela; C, Styelopsis; D, Pelonaia. Br.f 1-7, First to seventh branchial fold; d.l, dorsal lamina; end, endostyle; mh, meshes.

Sub-Fam. 1. Styelinae.—Not more than four folds (Fig. 36, B) on each side of branchial sac; tentacles simple (Fig. 37, A). The more important genera are—Styela, Macleay, and Polycarpa, Heller (Fig. 39), with stigmata normal; and Bathyoncus, Herdman, with stigmata absent or modified. There are a very large number of species of both Styela and Polycarpa from all parts of the world, including our own seas. A very abundant British littoral form has been placed in an allied genus under the name Styelopsis grossularia (Fig. 39, A). It is known in some places round our coasts as "the red-currant squirter." This species has only one well-marked fold in the branchial sac (Fig. 36, C). Another exceptional British Styelid is Pelonaia corrugata, Forb. and Goods. (Fig. 39, I), with no branchial folds (Fig. 36, D).

Sub-Fam. 2. Cynthiinae.—More than eight folds in branchial sac (Fig. 36, A); tentacles compound (Fig. 37, B); body sessile or with a short stalk (Fig. 39, F). The chief genus is Cynthia, Savigny, with a large number of species, some of which are British. Rhabdocynthia has echinated calcareous spicules in the mantle (see Fig. 50, D, p. 87).

Forbesella tessellata is a remarkable British species, having the test marked out into plates (Fig. 39, B). It is intermediate in some characters between Styelinae and Cynthiinae.

Fig. 37.—Tentacles of Cynthiidae. A, Simple, in Styelinae; B, Compound, in Cynthiinae.

Fig. 38.—Culeolus wyville-thomsoni, Herdman. A, from left side (half-nat. size); B, part of branchial sac. At, Atrial aperture; Br, branchial aperture; br.f, branchial fold; i.l, internal bar; sp, spicules; tr, transverse vessel. (After Herdman.)

Sub-Fam. 3. Bolteninae.—More than eight folds in branchial sac; tentacles compound; body pedunculated (Fig. 38, A). The chief genera are—Boltenia, Savigny, with the branchial aperture four-lobed, and the stigmata normal; and Culeolus, Herdman (Fig. 38), with branchial aperture having less than four lobes, and the stigmata absent or modified (Fig. 38, B), the branchial sac showing a wide mesh-work of vessels stiffened by branched calcareous spicules. Culeolus is a deep-sea genus discovered by the "Challenger" expedition; eight or nine species are now known from various parts of the world, ranging in depth from 630 to 2425 fathoms. Most of the species are from the Pacific; only one from the North Atlantic. The curiously curved type of spicule found in the branchial sac and other organs is shown at Fig. 50, C (p. 87).

Amongst the Cynthiidae are found most varied conditions of the reproductive organs. The gonads are sometimes on both, sometimes on only one side of the body, sometimes in one or several branched masses, and sometimes distributed as a large number of minute "polycarps" over the inner surface of the mantle.

Fig. 39.—Various Cynthiidae. A, two forms of Styelopsis grossularia, Van Ben.; B, Forbesella tessellata, Forb.; C, Polycarpa aurata, Q. and G.; D, Styela clava, Herdman; E, Polycarpa tinctor, Q. and G.; F, Cynthia formosa, Herdman; G, Polycarpa comata, Alder; H, Polycarpa pedata, Herdman; I, Pelonaia corrugata, Forb. and Goods. (After Herdman.)

The family Cynthiidae is the largest section of the Simple Ascidians. The species range from the size of a pea to that of a large cocoa-nut. They are for the most part opaque, and often richly coloured—reds, yellows and rich browns predominating—and so look very different to the grey gelatinous Ascidiidae, and to the sand-encrusted Molgulidae. They extend from between tide-marks (Styelopsis grossularia), down to the abysses (Styela bythia and S. squamosa at 2600 fathoms). Some genera (Styela and the closely related Dendrodoa), extend far into Arctic seas, but many allied forms (Styela and Polycarpa) are also found in the tropics.

Fig. 40.—Three simple Ascidians with vascular adhering processes from the test (nat. size). A, Ascidiella aspersa, O. F. Müller; B, Ciona intestinalis, Linn.; C, Molgula oculata, Forb.

Fig. 41.—Branchial sacs of Molgulidae showing curved stigmata. A, Ascopera gigantea, Herdman; B, Molgula pyriformis, Herdman; C, Eugyra kerguelenensis, Herdman.

Fam. 4. Molgulidae.—Solitary sessile Ascidians, sometimes not fixed; branchial aperture six-lobed, atrial four-lobed. Test usually encrusted with sand, which is generally attached to branched hair-like processes from the test (Fig. 40, C). Branchial sac longitudinally folded; stigmata more or less curved, usually arranged in spirals (Fig. 41); tentacles compound. The chief genera are—Molgula, Forbes (Fig. 40, C), with distinct folds in the branchial sac (Fig. 41, B), and Eugyra, Ald. and Hanc., with no distinct folds, but merely broad internal longitudinal bars in the branchial sac (Fig. 41, C). In some of the Molgulidae (genus Anurella, Lacaze-Duthiers), the embryo does not become converted into a tailed larva, the development being direct without metamorphosis (see Fig. 42, C). The embryo when hatched gradually assumes the adult structure, and never shows the features characteristic of larval Ascidians, such as the urochord and the median sense-organs. Fig. 42 shows an Ascidiid (A), a Cynthiid (B), and this exceptional Molgulid (C), type of larva, and three forms of Compound Ascidian larvae, the Distomatid (D), the Botryllid (E), and the Diplosomatid (F).

Fig. 42.—Larvae of various Ascidians. A, Ascidia mentula, Linn.; B, Polycarpa glomerata, Alder; C, Anurella roscovita, Lac.-Duth.; D, Distaplia magnilarva, Della Valle; E, Polycyclus renieri, Lamk.; F, Diplosomoides lacazii, Giard. (Mostly after Lahille.)

In the Molgulidae the viscera are characteristic in position and appearance. The alimentary canal lies on the left side of the branchial sac, and the intestine forms a long narrow loop directed in the main transversely. The pericardium and heart are on the middle of the right side, and behind them is placed the single sac-like ductless renal organ, generally occupied by one or more concretions. The gonads are in most cases on both sides of the body, in front of the intestine on the left, and in front of the heart on the right; but in Eugyra there is no gonad on the right side, and in some other forms the gonad on the left side is absent. (For Oligotrema, see p. 111, note.)

There are a number of British Molgulidae, the two commonest of which are—Molgula oculata, Forbes, thickly covered with gravel or broken shells, and forming an ovate mass as large as a walnut; and Eugyra glutinans, Möller, a smaller more globular body, the size of an acorn, and covered with fine sand, except at one circular area near the posterior end, where the leaden grey test shows through. Both these species are obtained by dredging in from 10 to 30 fathoms, and lie freely on the bottom. A rather rarer littoral species Molgula citrina, Hancock, found on some parts of our coast (e.g. in the Firth of Forth, at Arran, and at Port Erin), is exceptional in having the test free from sand, and in being fixed like an Ascidia, generally to the lower surfaces of large stones near low tide.

Specific Characters and Dorsal Tubercle.—The chief points in which the various genera and species of Simple Ascidians differ are the details of the branchial sac (see Figs. 22, 35, 36, 38, and 41), the condition of the tentacles (Fig. 37), the dorsal lamina or languets, and the dorsal tubercle, in addition to form, colour, and other external features.

Fig. 43.—Various forms of dorsal tubercle in Simple Ascidians. 1. Molgula pyriformis; 2. Forbesella tessellata; 3. Ascidia meridionalis; 4. Cynthia formosa; 5. Cynthia papietensis; 6. Ascidia challengeri; 7. Polycarpa tinctor; 8. Cynthia cerebriformis; 9. Ascopera gigantea; 10. Boltenia tuberculata; 11. Ascidia translucida; 12. Culeolus moseleyi; 13. Ascidia pyriformis; 14. Boltenia pachydermatina; 15. Microcosmus draschii; 16. Styela etheridgii; 17. Styela whiteleggii; 18. Polycarpa aurata. (After Herdman.)

Fig. 43 shows some of the more remarkable forms of dorsal tubercle. Starting with a simple circular opening (1) surrounded by a thickened ciliated ring, the anterior border becomes pushed in to form a crescentic slit (2 and 3). The horns of the crescent then grow longer and may be turned in (4 and 5) or out (6 and 7), and so give rise to the many varieties of horse-shoe (such as 6), perhaps the commonest form of dorsal tubercle in Simple Ascidians. In many Cynthiidae the central part of the horse-shoe remains small, while the horns become long and much coiled so as to constitute two prominent spirals (8, 9, 10). In other exceptional forms again the curved slit becomes straightened out, undulating (11), irregularly bent (12 and 13), elaborately folded (14 and 15), or broken up into pieces (16), so that there come to be several or even a large number (17 and 18) of minute openings in place of the original single aperture.

It cannot be said that any form of dorsal tubercle is characteristic of any of the families or genera of Ascidians, and in the case of some species the organ is liable to great individual variation; but still in most species there is found to be a characteristic shape or appearance of tubercle which is a useful diagnostic feature.

Sub-Order 2. Ascidiae Compositae.

Fixed Ascidians which reproduce by gemmation so as to form colonies (Fig. 44) in which the ascidiozooids are buried in a common investing mass (Fig. 45) and have no separate tests—hence "Synascidiae," a name they often receive from foreign writers.

Fig. 44.—Colonies of Compound Ascidians (nat. size). A, Colella quoyi, Hrdn. Antarct.; B, Leptoclinum neglectum, Hrdn.; C, Pharyngodictyon mirabile, Hrdn. Southern Ocean; D, Botryllus schlosseri, Sav. Europe. (After Herdman.)

This is probably a somewhat artificial assemblage formed of those two or three groups of Ascidians which produce colonies, in which the ascidiozooids are so intimately united that they possess a common test or investing mass. This is the only character which distinguishes them from the Clavelinidae, but the property of reproducing by gemmation separates them from the rest of the Ascidiae Simplices. In some cases the atrial apertures of several neighbouring ascidiozooids join to open to the exterior by a common cloacal aperture (Fig. 45, c.c). Such groups of the ascidiozooids of a colony are known as "systems" or coenobia (see Fig. 44, D; also Fig. 53, p. 89).

The Ascidiae Compositae may be divided into seven families, which seem to fall into two well-marked sets:—(1) Merosomata, in which the heart and alimentary and reproductive viscera are placed behind the branchial sac, so as to constitute a more or less extended body divided into at least two regions (Fig. 46, B), and sometimes three (Fig. 46, C)—thorax, abdomen, and post-abdomen; and (2) Holosomata, in which the body of the ascidiozooid is short, compact, and not divided into regions (Fig. 46, A). The latter group comprises the two families Botryllidae and Polystyelidae, which agree both in points of structure and in having the same type of budding, and are probably derived from ancestral Cynthiidae amongst Simple Ascidians; while the Merosomata seem more nearly related to the Clavelinidae.

Fig. 45.—Vertical section through a small part of a compound Ascidian colony. Asc. 1 and Asc. 2, Parts of two ascidiozooids whose cloacas (cl) open into the common cloacal cavity (c.c) of the colony; at.l, atrial lobes; t, t, t, common test of the colony. The structure of the posterior parts of the ascidiozooids would depend upon the family (see Fig. 46). The arrows show the direction of the water currents.

Gemmation takes place in the Compound Ascidians in a variety of ways, being sometimes very different in its details in closely allied forms. There are, however, two main types of budding, to one or other of which most of the described methods may be referred. These are:—

1. The Stolonial, or "epicardiac" type—seen in the Merosomata, typically in Distomatidae and Polyclinidae, and comparable with the gemmation in Clavelinidae, Pyrosomatidae, and Thaliacea outside this group.

2. The Parietal, or "peribranchial" type—seen in the Holosomata, typically in the Botryllidae.

The remarkable process of gemmation seen in the families Didemnidae and Diplosomatidae, where the bud arises from at least two rudiments, the one stolonial or epicardiac in origin, and the other formed by one or more oesophageal or intestinal outgrowths, has been called "entero-epicardiac," but it may probably be regarded as a modification of the stolonial type.

Fig. 46.—A, Ascidiozooid from a Botryllid colony; B, ascidiozooid from a Distomid colony; C, ascidiozooid from a Polyclinid colony. a, Anus; at, atrial aperture; at.l, atrial languet; br, branchial aperture; cl, cloaca; d.l, dorsal languet; ec, ectoderm; end, endostyle; ep.c, epicardiac tube; gl, intestinal gland; h, heart; i, intestine; n.g, nerve-ganglion; oes, oesophagus; ov, ovary; p.c, pericardium; r, rectum; sg, stigmata of branchial sac; sp, spermatic sacs; sph, sphincter; st, stomach; t, tentacle; t.k, terminal ampullae of vessels in test; v, colonial vessels; v.app, "vascular appendage" (stolon).

The marked differences in the appearance of the colonies of Compound Ascidians is largely due to the methods of budding; and even in those of the stolonial type, where the budding is practically the same in essential nature, the results may be very different in superficial appearance, according as the buds are formed on a short stolon close to the parent body, or from the extremity of the post-abdomen (as in the Polyclinidae), or from a long epicardiac tube (as in Colella, Fig. 47), which may extend for some inches from the ascidiozooid. The post-abdomen of the Polyclinidae may be regarded as a stolon invaded by the gonads and the heart (see Fig. 46, C), and traversed by the epicardium in the form of a flattened tube dividing a dorsal blood-sinus containing the gonads from a ventral sinus which has merely the one extremity of the tapering pericardium. The whole of this post-abdomen segments to form the buds, the heart at the extremity being absorbed, and a new one formed from the anterior end of the pericardium.

The epicardium, which supplies the endodermal element to each bud, was first described by E. van Beneden and Julin in the envelopment of Clavelina,^[99] as a structure concerned in the formation of the pericardium and heart—hence its unfortunate name. It grows backwards in the larva, from the posterior wall of the branchial sac, close to the endostyle, as a tube which usually divides into two lateral branches to be united again eventually so as to form the single tubular flattened partition of the stolon in Polyclinidae, Distomatidae, Clavelinidae, etc. In some Compound Ascidians the epicardium is, from its origin, two distinct lateral tubes, which grow back from the inner vesicle of the embryo (later the branchial sac). These unite in the post-abdomen to form the flattened tube, which in its turn forms the inner vesicle of the future buds, and so the endodermal element is handed on from generation to generation. In addition to the epicardium, the stolon contains also a prolongation of the ovary of the parent, or at least a string of migrating germ cells, so that the reproductive elements are also handed on.

It is clear from the recent researches of Hjort, Ritter, Lefevre,^[100] and others, that the development of the bud (blastozooid) and that of the embryo (oozooid) do not proceed along parallel lines. It is evidently impossible to harmonise the facts of gemmation with the germ-layer theory; and attempts to explain budding in Ascidians solely as a process of regeneration by which the organs of the parent or their germ-layers give rise to the corresponding organs in the bud have in many cases failed.

The rudiment of the bud is in typical cases composed of two vesicles, an outer derived from the ectoderm of the parent and enclosing free blood-cells (mesodermal) between its wall and that of the inner vesicle—which is usually of endodermal origin, but in Botryllidae is derived from the peribranchial sac, an ectodermal structure. The inner vesicle, derived in the two cases from different germ-layers, forms the same organs of the bud, and these organs may be of widely different origin in the larva. Moreover, free cells of the blood may play in the bud a very important part, and give rise (Perophora) to such important systems as pericardium and heart, neural tube and ganglion, the gonads and their ducts, some of which are of ectodermal and others of endodermal origin in the larva.

In some cases of precocious budding (blastogenetic acceleration) the young buds begin to appear during the tailed larval stage. The larva may even contain a first blastozooid (bud) with a branchial sac as large as that of the oozooid (derived from the egg); and in the Diplosomatidae the larva (see Fig. 42, F), when it settles down, may be already a small colony of three young ascidiozooids.

The larvae in most Compound Ascidians, in place of adhering papillae, have several or even a considerable number of ectodermal tubes or prolongations from the body (see Fig. 42, E and F) into the surrounding test. These apparently aid in the formation of the common test of the young colony, which grows over and adheres to foreign objects.

There are many irregularities in the larval development of Compound Ascidians, due to the very different amount of food-yolk present in the ova in different genera. In some cases there is even dimorphism, two forms of larvae being found in the same colony.

Compound Ascidians are amongst the most varied and brilliant of sessile animals seen at low tide on our own and most other coasts. Some are stalked and form club-shaped or knob-like outgrowths. Others again form flat gelatinous expansions attached to sea-weeds or stones, and are symmetrically marked with bright spots of colour in the form of circles, meandering lines, or star-like patterns. In such colonies each spot of colour or ray of a star represents an ascidiozooid or member of the colony, equivalent to the whole animal in the case of the solitary Simple Ascidian.

Group A. MEROSOMATA.

Viscera posterior to branchial sac; budding stolonial.

Fig. 47.—A, Colony of Colella pedunculata, Q. and G., nat. size: a, zone of buds; b, zone of young ascidiozooids; c, zone of reproducing adults; d, old decaying adults and incubatory pouches with larvae. B, Ascidiozooid, with incubatory pouch enlarged: At, atrial aperture; Br, branchial aperture; emb, embryos; end, endostyle; ep.c, epicardium; inc.p, incubatory pouch; od, oviduct; od′, its prolongation into inc.p; od″ its termination at tip of inc.p; ov, ovary; p.br, peribranchial opening of inc.p; st, stomach.

Fam. 1. Distomatidae.—Ascidiozooids divided into two regions, a thorax, containing the branchial sac, and an abdomen, with the remaining viscera (Fig. 47, B); testes numerous; vas deferens not spirally coiled. The chief genera are—Distoma, Gaertner, with some British species; Chondrostachys, Macdonald, Cystodytes, v. Drasche, with calcareous plate-like spicules in the test (Fig. 50, A); Distaplia, Della Valle, and Colella, Herdman, forming a pedunculated colony (Fig. 47, A), in which the ascidiozooids (Fig. 47, B) are provided with large incubatory pouches, opening from the peribranchial cavity, but also connected, as Bancroft^[101] has recently shown, with the end of the oviduct (see Fig. 47, B). In these pouches the embryos undergo their development, and are set free by the decay of the top of the colony. The stolons pass from the ascidiozooids in the upper part of the colony down into the stalk, and there produce buds which gradually work up to the top of the stalk, where they take their places as young ascidiozooids. At the top of the colony the old ascidiozooids die and are removed (see Fig. 47, A). Caullery has shown that in this genus there may be dimorphism in the buds, some of them placed deeply in the stalk having a large amount of reserve food-matter in their ectoderm, and remaining dormant until required to regenerate the "head" or upper part of the colony when it is lost. This genus was made known by the "Challenger" expedition. The species are mostly tropical, or from southern seas.

Fam. 2. Coelocormidae.—Colony not fixed, having a large axial cavity with a terminal aperture. Branchial apertures five-lobed. This includes one species, Coelocormus huxleyi, Herdman, which is in some respects a transition-form between the ordinary Compound Ascidians (e.g. Distomatidae) and the Ascidiae Luciae (Pyrosoma, see p. 90).

Fig. 48.—Transverse section of the abdomen of a Distomid. bl.s, Blood-sinus; ec, ectoderm; ep.c, epicardium; gl, intestinal glands; h, heart; i, intestine; l.m, longitudinal muscles; mes, mesoderm; o.d, oviduct; p.c, pericardium; st, stomach; v.d, vas deferens. (After Seeliger.)

Fig. 49.—Section of Leptoclinum colony, showing the distribution of spicules and parts of the ascidiozooids. b, Base of colony; br, branchial aperture; br.s, branchial sac; sp, spicules; st, stomach; tes, testis; v.d, vas deferens.

Fam. 3. Didemnidae.—Colony usually thin and incrusting. Test containing stellate calcareous spicules (Figs. 49 and 50, B). Testis single, large; vas deferens spirally coiled (Fig. 49). The chief genera are—Didemnum, Savigny, in which the colony is thick and fleshy, and there are only three rows of stigmata on each side of the branchial sac; and Leptoclinum, Milne-Edwards, in which the colony is thin and incrusting (Fig. 49), and there are four rows of stigmata. Colonies of Leptoclinum, forming thin white, grey, or yellow crusts under stones at low water, are amongst the commonest of British Compound Ascidians.

Fig. 50.—Calcareous spicules of the Tunicata, enlarged. A, From Cystodytes; B, from Leptoclinum; C, from Culeolus; D, from Rhabdocynthia.

Fam. 4. Diplosomatidae.—Test reduced in amount (Fig. 51), rarely containing spicules. Vas deferens not spirally coiled. In Diplosoma, Macdonald, and other allied genera (Fig. 51), the larva is gemmiparous (Fig. 42, F). Some species are common British forms, especially on Zostera-beds and amongst seaweeds.

Fig. 51.—Section of a colony of Diplosoma (enlarged) to show the small amount of test present. br, Branchial aperture; c.cl, common cloaca; t, test.

Fam. 5. Polyclinidae.—Ascidiozooids divided into three regions—thorax, abdomen, and post-abdomen (Fig. 46, C). Testes numerous; vas deferens not spirally coiled. The chief genera are—Pharyngodictyon, Herdman, with stigmata absent or modified, containing one species, Ph. mirabile (Fig. 44, C), the only Compound Ascidian known from a depth of 1000 fathoms; Polyclinum, Savigny, with a smooth-walled stomach (Fig. 52, A); Aplidium, Savigny, with the stomach-wall longitudinally folded (Fig. 52, B); Morchellium, Giard, with an "areolated" stomach (Fig. 52, D), bearing knobs on the outside; and Amaroucium, Milne-Edwards, in which the ascidiozooid has a long post-abdomen and a large atrial languet, and where the stomach-wall shows longitudinal ridges breaking up into knobs (pseudo-areolated, Fig. 52, C). The last four genera contain many common British species.

Fig. 52.—Various conditions of stomach in Polyclinidae. A, Polyclinum molle, Herdman; B, Aplidium zostericola, Giard; C, Amaroucium proliferum, M.-Edw.; D, Morchellium argus, M.-Edw.

Many of the Compound Ascidians die down in winter; but amongst Polyclinidae, as in Clavelina, a form of hibernation is found, the old ascidiozooids dying, but some of the buds in the basal part of the colony accumulating a large store of reserve-material in their ectoderm, and lying dormant until spring, when they regenerate the colony.

Group B. HOLOSOMATA.

Body short, compact, with viscera by the side of branchial sac; budding parietal

Fam. 6. Botryllidae.—Ascidiozooids grouped in systems round common cloacal apertures (Fig. 53). Ascidiozooids having the intestine and reproductive organs by the side of the branchial sac (Fig. 46, A, p. 82). Dorsal lamina and internal longitudinal bars present in the branchial sac. Neural gland, as in Cynthiidae, dorsal to the ganglion in place of ventral as in the majority of Tunicata. The chief genera are—Botryllus, Gaertn. and Pall, with simple stellate systems (Fig. 53), and Botrylloides, Milne-Edwards, with elongated or ramified systems. There are many species of both these genera, which form brilliantly coloured fleshy crusts under stones and on sea-weeds at low tide. They are amongst the commonest and the most beautiful of British Ascidians. Both genera contain species remarkable for the rich profusion of ectodermal "vessels" which ramify and anastomose in the colonial test. On the margins of the colony these vessels end in knob-like dilatations, the ampullae (Fig. 46, A, t.k), which are said by Bancroft to pulsate rhythmically, and so aid in keeping up the colonial circulation. They are also storage reservoirs for the blood, doubtless help in respiration, and are organs for the secretion of the test-matrix.

Fig. 53.—Two "systems" from a colony of Botryllus violaceus, M.-Edw. cl, Common cloaca of a system; or, branchial apertures of ascidiozooids, magnified. (After H. Milne-Edwards.)

Fig. 54.—Goodsiria placenta, Herdman. A, Colony (half nat. size); B, section of colony showing ascidiozooids. (After Herdman, from Challenger Reports.)

Fam. 7. Polystyelidae.—Ascidiozooids not grouped in systems; branchial and atrial apertures four-lobed; branchial sac may be folded; internal longitudinal bars present. The chief genera are—Thylacium, Carus, with the ascidiozooids projecting above the general surface of the colony; Goodsiria, Cunningham, with the ascidiozooids completely imbedded in the investing mass (Fig. 54); and Chorizocormus, Herdman, with the ascidiozooids united in little groups which are connected by stolons. The last genus contains one species, Ch. reticulatus, in some respects a transition-form between the other Polystyelidae and the Styelinae amongst Simple Ascidians.

Budding in Holosomata—In the Polystyelidae, according to Ritter,^[102] the budding is of the same type as in Botryllidae, the bud arising in each case from the lateral body-wall of the parent.

In Botryllus^[103] the oozooid formed from the larva gives rise at a very early period to the first blastozooid of the future colony. This then forms the two buds of the second generation on its sides (see Fig. 55), and these in their turn form the third, and these the fourth generation, in which there are thus eight blastozooids; and so the process goes on, the buds of each generation arranging themselves in a circle to form a system. As each new generation makes its appearance, the preceding one undergoes degeneration, and is eventually absorbed. Consequently, in a system there can usually be seen, in addition to the adult members, certain older ones in various stages of degeneration and removal, and certain younger ones arising as buds on the sides of their predecessors, or just separated from them, and ready to take their places as young ascidiozooids in the system. Three distinct generations are thus commonly seen in a system. Now and again one or two young ascidiozooids become squeezed by the pressure of their neighbours out of a system into the surrounding test, and so give rise to new systems which add to the extent of the colony.

Fig. 55.—Diagram to illustrate the budding and formation of a system in Botryllus. Ooz; oozooid; Bl 1, first blastozooid; 2, 2, etc., successive generations of buds.

Sub-Order 3. Ascidiae Luciae.

Free-swimming pelagic colonies having the form of a hollow cylinder closed at one end (Fig. 56). The ascidiozooids forming the colony are imbedded in the common test in such a manner that the branchial apertures open on the outer surface and the atrial apertures on the inner surface next to the central cavity of the colony. They are placed with their ventral surfaces towards the closed end (Fig. 56, C). The first ascidiozooids of a colony are produced by gemmation from a stolonic prolongation of an imperfect oozooid or rudimentary larva (the "cyathozooid"), developed sexually. The subsequent ascidiozooids are formed from these as buds on a ventral stolon.

This sub-order includes a single family, the Pyrosomatidae, containing one well-marked genus Pyrosoma, Péron, with about six species. They are found swimming near the surface of the sea, chiefly in tropical latitudes, and are brilliantly phosphorescent. A fully developed Pyrosoma colony may be from an inch or two to upwards of twelve feet in length.

Fig. 56.—Pyrosoma. A, lateral view (nat. size); B, end view; C, diagram of longitudinal section. at, Atrial apertures; br, branchial apertures; c.cl, common cloaca; end, endostyle; t, test; v, velum or diaphragm at terminal opening.

The Colony.—The shape of the colony is seen in Fig. 56, A. It tapers slightly towards the closed end, which is rounded. The opening at the opposite end may be reduced in size (see B and C), by the presence of a membranous prolongation of the common test, which can be contracted or expanded by means of the muscle-bands it receives from the atrial siphons of neighbouring zooids. The branchial apertures of the ascidiozooids are mostly placed upon short (in some cases longer) papillae projecting from the general surface, and many of the ascidiozooids have long conical processes of the test extending outwards beyond their branchial apertures (Fig. 57, t′). There is only a single layer of adult ascidiozooids in the wall of the Pyrosoma colony, as all the fully developed ascidiozooids are placed with their antero-posterior axes at right angles to the surface and communicate by their atrial apertures with the central cavity (Fig. 56, C). Their dorsal surfaces are turned towards the open end of the colony, and the buds are given off from their ventral edges (Fig. 57).

Fig. 57.—Ascidiozooid of Pyrosoma from the right side. a, Anus; At, atrial aperture; at.m, atrial muscles; Br, branchial aperture; br.s, branchial sac; cl, cloaca; d.l, dorsal lamina; d.t, dorsal tubercle; ec, ectoderm; en, endoderm; end, endostyle; Ht, heart; l.o, luminous organ; mes, mass of mesoderm cells; m.f, muscle fibre; n.g, nerve-ganglion; oes, oesophagus; sg, stigmata; st, stomach; stol, stolon; t, test; t′, projection of test near branchial aperture; tes, testis; tn, tentacle; 1, 2, 3, buds.

Anatomy.—The more important points in the structure of the ascidiozooid of Pyrosoma are shown in Fig. 57. A circle of tentacles, of which one, placed ventrally (tn), is larger than the rest, is found just inside the circular branchial aperture. From this point a wide cavity, with a few circularly placed muscle-bands running round its walls, leads back to the large branchial sac (br.s.), which occupies the greater part of the body. The large stigmata are elongated transversely (dorso-ventrally), and are crossed by internal longitudinal bars running antero-posteriorly. The dorsal lamina is represented by a series of eight or ten languets. The nerve-ganglion (on which is placed a small pigmented sense-organ, the unpaired "eye"), the neural gland, the dorsal tubercle, the peripharyngeal bands and the endostyle are placed in the usual positions. On each side of the anterior end of the branchial sac, close to the peripharyngeal bands is a mass of rounded mesodermal gland-cells (l.o), which are the source of the phosphorescence. They are apparently modified leucocytes lying in blood-sinuses. The alimentary canal is placed posteriorly to the branchial sac, and the anus opens into a large peribranchial or atrial cavity, of which only the median posterior part (cl), is shown in Fig. 57. The heart (Ht) lies between the posterior end of the branchial sac and the intestine, close to where the endostyle is prolonged outwards to form the inner tube of the ventral stolon. The reproductive organs are developed from a cord of germinal tissue which forms a part of every budding stolon, and so establishes a continuity of origin between the ova of successive generations of Pyrosoma. On the ventral edge of the body, immediately behind the stolon, with part of which it is continuous, a portion of this germinal tissue gives rise to a lobed testis (tes), and to a single ovum surrounded by indifferent or follicle-cells.

Development and Life-History.—The development takes place within the body of the parent, in a part of the peribranchial cavity. It is a "direct" development, the tailed larval stage being omitted. The segmentation is incomplete or "meroblastic," and an elongated embryo is formed on the surface of a mass of food-yolk. Follicle-cells, or kalymmocytes, migrate into the embryo, where they aid in its nutrition. The embryo (or young oozooid),^[104] after the formation of an alimentary cavity, a tubular nervous system, and a pair of laterally placed atrial tubes, divides into an anterior and a posterior part (see Fig. 58). The anterior and ventral part, or stolon, then segments into four pieces (the tetrazooids or first blastozooids),^[104] which afterwards develop into the first ascidiozooids of the colony, while the posterior part remains in a rudimentary condition, and is what was called by Huxley the "cyathozooid" (Fig. 58, cy). This is really the degenerate oozooid, and eventually atrophies without having completed its development, but having precociously given rise to the budding stolon.

As the four ascidiozooids increase in size, they grow round the cyathozooid and soon encircle it (Fig. 58, B). In this condition the young colony leaves the body of the parent and becomes free. The cyathozooid absorbs the nourishing yolk upon which it lies, and distributes it to the ascidiozooids by means of a heart and system of vessels which have been meanwhile formed. When the cyathozooid atrophies and is absorbed, its original atrial aperture remains and deepens to become the central cavity^[105] of the young colony, which now consists of four ascidiozooids placed in a ring, around where the cyathozooid was, and enveloped in a common test. The test is at first formed by the ectoderm cells of the cyathozooid. Later it becomes invaded by mesoblast cells from the ascidiozooids in the usual manner. The colony gradually increases by the formation of buds from these four original ascidiozooids. The young colony is, in some species, at first male, and only becomes hermaphrodite when it has attained to some size.

Fig. 58.—Development of Pyrosoma colony. A, young stage showing oozooid or cyathozooid, cy, with stolon divided into four blastozooids (I.-IV.): v, vitellus. B, older stage showing the four blastozooids in a ring around the remains of the cyathozooid. (After Salensky.)

Occurrence.—The half-dozen known species of Pyrosoma are widely distributed over the great oceans, although they are probably most abundant in tropical waters. Pyrosoma atlanticum, Péron, and P. giganteum, Lesueur, are the commonest forms. Although sometimes abundant in the Mediterranean and the North Atlantic they have apparently not been found in British seas. P. elegans, Lesueur, is a Mediterranean form allied to the last two; and P. minatum and P. aherniosum, Seeliger, were discovered during the German "Plankton" expedition in the tropical Atlantic. Finally, the enormous P. spinosum, Herdman, was found by the "Challenger" in both North and South Atlantic in 1873; and some years later (Perrier's P. excelsior) by the French "Talisman" expedition in the tropical Atlantic. The late Professor Moseley said of this ("Challenger") species, "I wrote my name with my finger on the surface of the giant Pyrosoma as it lay on deck in a tub at night, and my name came out in a few seconds in letters of fire." Bonnier and Pérez have recently recorded that they saw an enormous profusion of a large Pyrosoma (up to four metres in length) in the Arabian part of the Indian Ocean.

Order III. Thaliacea (Salpians).

Free-swimming pelagic forms of moderate size, which may be either simple or compound, and in which the adult is never provided with a tail or notochord. Consequently the whole body here corresponds to the trunk only of the Appendicularian without the tail. The test is permanent, and may be either well developed or very slight. In all cases it is clear and transparent. The musculature of the body-wall is in the form of more or less complete circular bands, by the contraction of which water is ejected from the body, and so locomotion is effected. The branchial sac has either two large, or many small, stigmata, leading to a single peribranchial cavity, into which the anus also opens. Blastogenesis takes place from a ventral, endostylar stolon. Alternation of generations occurs in the life-history, and may be complicated by polymorphism. The Order Thaliacea comprises two groups, Cyclomyaria (such as Doliolum) and Hemimyaria (such as Salpa).

Sub-Order 1. Cyclomyaria.

Free-swimming pelagic forms which exhibit alternation of generations in their life-history, but never form permanent colonies. The body is cask-shaped, with the branchial and atrial apertures at the opposite ends. The test is moderately well developed, never much thickened. The musculature is mostly in the form of complete circular bands surrounding the body. The branchial sac is fairly large, occupying the anterior half or more of the body. Stigmata are usually present in its posterior part only. The peribranchial cavity is mainly posterior to the branchial sac. The alimentary canal is placed ventrally, close to the posterior end of the branchial sac. Hermaphrodite reproductive organs lie ventrally near the intestine.

This group is clearly distinguished from the second sub-order, the Hemimyaria, by the condition of the muscle-bands and of the branchial sac, and by the life-history. The muscle-bands are complete rings (except in Anchinia), while in the Hemimyaria they are always more or less incomplete. The branchial sac in the Cyclomyaria is a distinct cavity, and communicates with the peribranchial cavity only by small slits or stigmata. The life-history is also very characteristic, as the sexual generation in the Cyclomyaria is always polymorphic, while in the Hemimyaria it consists of one form only.

Fig. 59.—Sexual generation of Doliolum tritonis, Herdman, from left side, × 10. at, Atrial aperture; at.l, atrial lobes; at.m, wall of atrium; br, branchial aperture; br.l, branchial lobes; br.s, branchial sac; d.t, dorsal tubercle; end, endostyle; h, heart; i, intestine; m, mantle; m¹-m⁸, circular muscle-bands; n, nerve; n.g, nerve-ganglion; ov, ovary; p.br, peribranchial cavity; p.p, peripharyngeal bands; sg, stigmata; s.gl, neural gland; s.o, sense-organ; st, stomach; t, test; tes, testis; z, prebranchial zone. (After Herdman.)

Structure of Doliolum.—The single family Doliolidae includes three genera, Doliolum, Quoy and Gaimard, Dolchinia, Korotneff, and Anchinia, Eschscholtz. Doliolum, of which about a dozen species are known, from various seas, has a cask-shaped body (Fig. 59), usually from 1 to 2 cm. in length. The terminal branchial and atrial apertures are lobed, and the lobes are provided with sense-organs. The test is a thin but tough transparent layer, and contains no "test" cells. It is merely a cuticle covering the surface of the squamous ectoderm. The body-wall has eight or nine circular muscle-bands surrounding the body. The most anterior and posterior of these form the branchial and atrial sphincters. The wide branchial and atrial apertures lead respectively into branchial and peribranchial cavities separated by the posterior and postero-lateral walls of the branchial sac which are pierced by a considerable number of small stigmata; consequently there is a free passage for the water through the body along its long axis, and the animal swims by contracting its ring-like muscle-bands so as to force out the contained water posteriorly. When stigmata are found on the lateral walls of the branchial sac (see Fig. 59) there are corresponding anteriorly directed diverticula of the peribranchial cavity. There is a distinct endostyle on the ventral edge of the branchial sac and a peripharyngeal band surrounding its anterior end, but there is no representative of the dorsal lamina along its dorsal edge; and there are neither branchial nor atrial tentacles. The oesophagus commences rather on the ventral edge of the posterior end of the branchial sac, and runs backwards to open into the stomach, which is followed by a curved intestine opening into the peribranchial cavity. The alimentary canal as a whole is to the right of the middle line. The hermaphrodite reproductive organs are to the left of the middle line alongside the alimentary canal. They open into the peribranchial cavity. The ovary is nearly spherical, while the testis is elongated, and may be continued anteriorly for a long distance. The heart is placed in the middle line ventrally, between the posterior end of the endostyle and the oesophageal aperture. The nerve-ganglion lies about the middle of the dorsal edge of the body, and gives off many nerves. Under it is placed the neural gland, the duct of which runs forward and opens into the anterior end of the branchial sac by a simple aperture surrounded by the spirally twisted dorsal ends of the peripharyngeal bands.

Life-History.—The ova produced by the Doliolum of the sexual generation, after a complete or "holoblastic" segmentation, and normal invagination, produce tailed larvae with a relatively small caudal appendage, and a large body in which the characteristic musculature begins to appear (Fig. 60, A). These larvae after metamorphosis lose their tails and develop into oozooids, known as "nurses," which are asexual, and are characterised (Fig. 60, B) by the possession of nine muscle-bands, by the stigmata being few in number and confined to the posterior end of the branchial sac, by an otocyst on the left side of the body, by a ventrally-placed complex stolon or "rosette organ" near the heart, from which primary buds are produced by constriction, and by a dorsal outgrowth ("the cadophore") near the posterior end of the body. The buds (blastozooids) give rise eventually, after further division, to the sexual generation, which is polymorphic—having three distinct forms, in two of which the reproductive organs remain undeveloped.

Fig. 60.—Life-history of Doliolum. A, tailed larval stage; B, "nurse" or oozooid, showing buds (blastozooids) migrating from the ventral stolon to the dorsal process; C, posterior part of much later oozooid to show buds arranged in three rows on dorsal process; D, stolon segmenting; E, young migrating bud; F, trophozooid developed from one of the buds of a lateral row. At, Atrial aperture; b, buds; Br, branchial aperture; cl, cloaca; d.p, dorsal process; end, endostyle; ht, heart; l.b, lateral buds; m.b, median buds; n.g, nerve-ganglion; ot, otocyst; p.c, pericardium; sk, stalk; sto, stolon. (After Uljanin and Barrois.)

The primary buds are constricted off while still very young and undeveloped (Fig. 60, D, B, and E); they migrate from their place of origin on the stolon, over the surface (aided by large amoeboid test-cells which become attached to the buds) (Fig. 60, B), multiply by fission, and become attached (again by the help of amoeboid test-cells and ectoderm cells which form a slight "placenta") in three rows—a median and two lateral—to the dorsal outgrowth (Fig. 60, C) of the body of the nurse. This parent-form by this time has become greatly modified, and its structure is largely sacrificed for the good of the buds or growing zooids, for which it really forms a locomotory organ. Its muscle-bands become greatly developed in width (Fig. 60, C), and the branchial meshwork, endostyle, and alimentary canal disappear.

The three forms produced in the second generation are as follows:—(1) Nutritive forms ("trophozooids") derived from the lateral rows of buds, which remain permanently attached to the oozooid, and are sacrificed for the benefit of the rest of the colony. They serve merely to aid in respiration, and to provide the food for the nurse and the median buds. Their development is arrested; they have the body elongated dorso-ventrally with a large funnel-like branchial aperture (Fig. 60, F), and the musculature is very slightly developed.

(2) Some of the median buds become foster forms ("phorozooids"), which, like the preceding trophozooids, do not become sexually mature, but, unlike them, are eventually set free as cask-shaped bodies having the Doliolum appearance, with eight encircling muscle-bands, and having, moreover, a ventral outgrowth (not a stolon), which is formed of the stalk by which the body was formerly attached to the dorsal process of the oozooid. On this ventral outgrowth the "gonozooids" (3) are attached while still very young buds, and after the phorozooids are set free these reproductive forms gradually attain their complete development, become sexually mature, and are eventually separated off, finally losing all trace of their temporary connexion with the foster-forms. They resemble the foster-forms in having a cask-shaped body with eight muscle-bands, but differ in the absence of a ventral process, and in having the sexual reproductive organs fully developed.

Occurrence.—The best-known member of the genus is Doliolum tritonis, Herdman, which was captured in the tow-nets in thousands by Sir John Murray during the cruise of H.M.S. "Triton" in the summer of 1882 in the North Atlantic. Since then that species, or the closely allied D. nationalis, Borgert, have been found on more than one occasion in the English Channel and other parts of our south-west coast, and so Doliolum may be regarded as an occasional member of the British surface fauna.

It is probable that the occasional phenomenal swarms of Doliolum which have been met with in summer in the North Atlantic are a result of the curious life-history which, under favourable circumstances, allows of a small number of oozooids producing from minute buds an enormous number of phorozooids and gonozooids.

As the result of the careful quantitative work of the German "Plankton" expedition, Borgert thinks that the temperature of the water has more to do with both the horizontal and the vertical distribution of these Thaliacea in the sea than any other factor.

Other Genera.—Anchinia, of which only one species is known, A. rubra, Vogt, from the Mediterranean, has the sexual forms permanently attached to portions of the dorsal outgrowth from the body of the unknown oozooid ("nurse"). The stolon is probably much longer than in Doliolum, and curves round so as to reach and lie along the dorsal outgrowth, upon which it places the buds.

The body of the adult is elongated dorso-ventrally. The test is well developed and contains branched cells. The musculature is not so well developed as in Doliolum. There are two circular bands at the anterior end, two at the posterior, and two muscles on the middle of the body, which unite to form the characteristic S-shaped lateral bands. The stigmata are confined to the obliquely-placed posterior end of the branchial sac. The alimentary canal forms a U-shaped curve. The reproductive organs are placed on the right side of the body. The life-history is still imperfectly known. As in the case of Doliolum the sexual generation is polymorphic, and has three forms, two of which remain in a rudimentary condition so far as the reproductive organs are concerned. They are known as the first and second sterile forms, or "trophozooids." In Anchinia, however, the three forms do not occur, so far as we know, together at the same time on the one outgrowth, but are produced successively, or in different regions, the reproductive forms of the sexual generation being independent of the "foster-forms."^[106]

The third genus, Dolchinia, contains also only a single species, D. mirabilis, found by Korotneff^[107] in the Gulf of Naples. It must have three different forms in its life-history—oozooid, phorozooid, and gonozooid, but the first of these is still unknown. On what must be body processes detached from the oozooid are found phorozooids somewhat like those of Doliolum, bearing sexual forms attached to ventral stalks. Dolchinia is intermediate on the whole between Anchinia, the most simple member of the family, and Doliolum the most complex; and may eventually come to be united with the latter genus.

Sub-Order 2. Hemimyaria.

Free-swimming pelagic forms which exhibit alternation of generations in their life-history, and in the sexual condition form colonies. The body is more or less fusiform, with the long axis antero-posterior, and the branchial and atrial apertures nearly terminal and opposite. The test is well developed but transparent. The musculature of the body-wall is in the form of a series of transversely-running bands which do not usually form complete independent rings as in the Cyclomyaria. These partially-encircling muscles in the Salpidae (see Fig. 61, m.b) are probably to be regarded as modified branchial and atrial sphincters which have spread over the intervening body. The branchial and peribranchial (cloacal) cavities form a continuous space in the interior of the body, opening externally at the ends by the branchial and atrial apertures, and traversed obliquely from the dorsal and anterior to the ventral and posterior end by a long narrow vascular ciliated band, which represents the dorsal lamina, the dorsal blood-sinus, and the neighbouring parts of the dorsal edge of the branchial sac of an ordinary Ascidian. The alimentary canal is placed ventrally. It may either be stretched out so as to extend for some distance anteriorly, or, as is more usual, be concentrated to form along with the testis a rounded opaque mass near the posterior end of the body, known as the visceral mass or "nucleus." The embryonic development is direct, no tailed larva being formed. The embryo is united to the parent for a time by a "placenta."

This sub-order contains, in addition to its typical members, the Salpidae, another still somewhat problematical family the Octacnemidae, including a single very remarkable deep-water genus (Octacnemus), which in some respects does not conform with the characters given above, and exhibits a certain amount of affinity with the primitive fixed forms from which Salpidae have been derived.

Fig. 61.—Salpa runcinata-fusiformis. A, aggregated or "chain" form; B, solitary form. At, Atrial aperture; at.m, atrial muscles; Br, branchial aperture; br.m, branchial muscles; d.l, dorsal lamina or "gill"; d.t, dorsal tubercle; emb, embryo; end, endostyle; m, mantle; m.b, muscle-bands; n.g, nerve-ganglion; p.p, peripharyngeal bands; st, stolon; st″, "chain" of buds; t, test; v, visceral "nucleus."

Fig. 62.—Diagram to show the arrangement and connexion of the aggregated zooids in a young chain of Salps. 1, 3, 5, zooids on the right; 2, 4, 6, zooids on the left. At, Atrial aperture of a zooid; Br, branchial aperture of another; c.t at the top of the figure points to three pairs of connecting tubes; c.t at the foot, to two pairs. Each zooid is united to each of the four neighbours it touches by a pair of connecting tubes, and so has eight such tubes in all.

Occurrence and Reproduction.—The family Salpidae^[108] includes the single genus Salpa, Forskål, which, however, may be divided into two well-marked groups of species—(1) those such as S. (Cyclosalpa) pinnata, in which the alimentary canal is stretched out ("ortho-enteric" condition) along the ventral surface of the body, and (2) those such as S. runcinata-fusiformis, in which the alimentary canal forms a compact globular mass (Fig. 61, v), the "nucleus" ("caryo-enteric" condition), near the posterior end of the body. About fifteen species altogether are known; they are all pelagic in habit, and are found in nearly all seas. Each species occurs in two forms (Fig. 61, A and B), the solitary asexual (proles solitaria), and the aggregated sexual (proles gregaria), which are in most species quite unlike one another, the aggregated form being usually more rounded, ovoid, or fusiform (Fig. 61, A), and the solitary more quadrangular, and often provided with conical processes or projecting points.

Fig. 63.—Diagram to show the relations of the groups of young buds, when first formed on the stolon of Salpa. at, Atrial aperture; br, branchial aperture; el, elaeoblast; end, endostyle; h, heart; n.g, nerve-ganglion; ov, ovum; s, stolon; st, stomach; I, II, III, groups of buds. (After Brooks.)

Fig. 64.—Transverse section through endostyle and young stolon of Salpa pinnata. ec, Ectoderm of parent reflected at ec′ to cover base of stolon; ec″, ectoderm of stolon; end, endoderm of stolon; g, ovary; mes, mesoderm cells; n, nerve-tube of stolon; p.br, peribranchial tubes of stolon. (After Brooks.)

The solitary form gives rise, by gemmation at the posterior end of the endostyle (Fig. 63), to a complex tubular stolon, containing processes from the more important organs of the parent-body, which give rise to an endodermal tube, two peribranchial tubes, a neural tube, two blood-sinuses and mesoblast cells, a genital cord, and over all the ectodermal covering (see Fig. 64). This stolon becomes segmented (Fig. 63) into a series of buds or young "chain" individuals, of which there may be several hundreds. As the stolon elongates (Fig. 61, B, st″), the buds undergo lateral shifting, and rotation round their longitudinal axis, so as to acquire the relations seen in the "chain," which then emerges from the tube in the test through which it has been growing, so as to project to the exterior near the atrial aperture. The buds at its free end which have now become far advanced in their development are set free in groups, which remain attached together by processes of the test, each enclosing a diverticulum from the body-wall (Fig. 62), so as to form "chains." Each member of the chain is a Salpa of the sexual or aggregated form, and when mature may—either still attached to its neighbours or separated from them—produce one or several embryos (Fig. 61, A, emb), which develop into the solitary form of Salpa. Thus the two forms, different in appearance and structure and different in mode of origin, alternate regularly in the life-history of Salpa.

Structure.—The more important points in the structure of a typical Salpa are shown in Fig. 65. The branchial and atrial apertures are at opposite ends of the body, and lead into large cavities, the branchial and peribranchial sac respectively, which are in free communication at the sides of the obliquely-running dorsal lamina or "gill" (d.l). The transparent test is usually thick, and varies from a gelatinous to a stiff cartilaginous condition; it adheres closely to the surface of the mantle (ectoderm and body-wall). The muscle-bands (from 4 to about 20—usually 8 or 10) of the mantle do not in most cases completely encircle the body. They are present dorsally (Fig. 65, mus.bds) and laterally, but the majority do not reach the ventral surface. In many cases neighbouring bands join in the median dorsal line (Fig. 61). The muscle fibres are striated, and have rows of large equidistant nuclei. The anterior end of the dorsal lamina is in some cases prolonged to form a prominent tentacular organ, the languet or dorsal tentacle, projecting into the branchial sac, while near this opens a ciliated funnel corresponding to the dorsal tubercle, but having no connexion in the adult with either ganglion or subneural gland. The conjoined ganglion and subneural gland, the dorsal lamina, the peripharyngeal bands and the endostyle are placed in the usual positions. Eyes in the form either of a continuous horse-shoe-shaped pigmented ridge on the dorsal surface of the ganglion immediately below the ectoderm, or of one larger median and several smaller lateral ocelli are found in the various species of Salpa. These eyes have in most cases a retina formed of elongated cells, and a pigment-layer placed upon the ganglion.

The so-called otocysts of Salpa have been shown by Metcalf to be really glandular organs. They have been called lateral neural glands; they do not open at the dorsal tubercle, but separately into the pharynx. These lateral neural tubular glands have also been regarded as nephridia.

The large spaces at the sides of the dorsal lamina (often called the gill or branchia of Salpa), by means of which the cavity of the branchial sac is placed in free communication with the peribranchial cavity, are to be regarded as gigantic gill-slits formed by the suppression of the lateral walls and small stigmata of the branchial sac. The alimentary canal at the posterior end of the "gill" consists of oesophagus, stomach, and intestine, with a pair of lateral gastric glands or caeca. These viscera along with the reproductive organs, when present, make up the "nucleus" (Fig. 66, v).

Fig. 65.—Diagrammatic sagittal section of a "chain" Salpa. an, Anus; at, atrial aperture; at.m, muscles of atrial aperture; atr.cav, atrial cavity; br, branchial aperture; br.m, muscles of branchial aperture; br.s, branchial sac; d.l, dorsal lamina or "gill"; d.t, dorsal tubercle; end, endostyle; ht, heart; int, intestine; l, sensory languet; mus.bds, muscle-bands; n.g, nerve-ganglion; oc, eye-spot; oe, oesophagus; ov, ovary; p.p.b, peripharyngeal band; s.gl, neural gland; stom, stomach; t, t′, test; tes, testis; z, prebranchial zone. (After Herdman.)

Alternation of Generations.—Fig. 66 represents an aggregated or sexual Salpa, which was once a member of a chain, since it shows a testis and a developing embryo. The ova (always few in number, usually only one) appear at a very early period in the developing chain Salpa, while it is still a part of the gemmiparous stolon in the body of the solitary Salpa. This gave rise to the view put forward first by Brooks that the ovary really belongs to the solitary stolon-bearing Salpa, which is therefore a female producing a series of males by asexual gemmation, and depositing in each of these an ovum, which will afterwards, when fertilised, develop in the body of the male into a solitary or female Salpa. This idea, if adopted, would profoundly modify our conception of Salpa as an example of a life-history showing alternation of generations, but it seems to me to give a distorted view of the sequence of events. The fact that the stolon while in the solitary Salpa contains, along with representatives of other important systems of the body, a row of germinal cells, does not constitute that solitary Salpa the parent of the ova which these germinal cells will afterwards become in the body of an independent bud. We must regard as the parent the body in which the ova become mature and fulfil their function. The sexual or chain Salpa, although really hermaphrodite in its life-history, is usually^[109] protogynous, i.e. the ova mature at an earlier period than the male organ or testis. This prevents self-fertilisation. The ovum is presumably fertilised by the spermatozoa of an older Salpa belonging to another chain, and the embryo is far advanced in its development before the testis is formed. The development takes place inside the body of the parent, and is "direct"—no tailed larval form being produced.

Fig. 66.—Salpa hexagona, Q. and G. Chain form dissected from the left side. a, Anus; at, atrial aperture; br, branchial aperture; d.l, dorsal lamina ("gill"); d.t, dorsal tubercle; emb, embryos; end, endostyle; m.b 2, m.b 7, second and seventh muscle-bands; n.g, nerve-ganglion; v, visceral "nucleus." (After Traustedt.)

Development and Life-history.—The segmentation of the egg is holoblastic, and gives rise to a number of blastomeres, which are for a time masked by the phenomenal activity of certain cells of extraneous origin, the "kalymmocytes," derived from the follicular epithelium surrounding the ovum. These follicular kalymmocytes migrate into the ovum, surround groups of blastomeres, and arrange themselves so as to reproduce the essential structure of the future embryo for which they form what may be termed a scaffolding or temporary support. After a time the blastomeres become active, proliferate rapidly, and finally press upon and absorb the kalymmocytes, and so eventually take their proper place in building up the organs. Some observers regard the kalymmocytes as being passive and nutritive only in function.

Fig. 67.—Young solitary Salpa democratica-mucronata attached to the parent by the placenta. atr.ap, Atrial aperture; br, dorsal lamina; cil.gr, dorsal tubercle; ebl, elaeoblast; end, endostyle; n.gn, nerve-ganglion; oes, oesophagus; or.ap, branchial aperture; peric, pericardium; pl, placenta; rect, intestine; stol, stolon; stom, stomach. (From Parker and Haswell, after Salensky.)

At an early period in the development a part of the surface of the embryo, on its ventral edge, becomes separated off, along with a part of the wall of the cavity ("oviduct"—a diverticulum from the atrium) in which it lies, to form the "placenta" (Fig. 67, pl) in which the embryonic and maternal blood-streams circulate in close proximity, and so allow of the conveyance of nutriment to the developing embryo by means of large migrating placental cells. At a somewhat later stage a number of cells placed at the posterior end of the body alongside the future nucleus become filled up with oil-globules to form a mass of nutrient material—the "elaeoblast" (Fig. 67, ebl)—which is used up later in the development. Many suggestions have been made as to the homology and meaning of the elaeoblast; but it may now be regarded as most probable that it is reserve food-material associated with the disappearing rudiment of the tail found in the larval condition of most Ascidians. The development is direct; and it may be said, then, that this young asexual (solitary) Salpa differs from the corresponding form in the life-history of Doliolum (Fig. 60, A) in that its tail is no longer a locomotory organ, but is represented by a nutritive mass, the elaeoblast, while the body, in place of being free, is attached by its ventral surface to a special organ of nutrition—the "placenta"—in connexion with the blood-stream of the parent.

This embryo sexually produced inside the body of an aggregated form becomes a solitary Salpa (such as Fig. 61, B), which differs in appearance, structure, and habits from its parent, and has no reproductive organs. After swimming for a time, however, it develops the ventral stolon on which buds form which are eventually sexual Salpae. These are set free from the solitary form in sets, still connected together, and they may swim about together for a time as a chain of aggregated Salpae before separating to become the adult sexual individuals (such as Fig. 61, A).

Classification.—Salpa may be divided into the following subgenera:^[110]—Cyclosalpa, Blainville, in which the alimentary canal is ortho-enteric, and the "chain" consists of individuals united in a circle; Iasis, Savigny, with several embryos formed at a time; and Pegea, Sav., Thalia, Blumenbach, and Salpa, Forskål, all with one embryo only, and differing from one another in the condition of the "gill" and other details: all except Cyclosalpa have the alimentary canal caryo-enteric. Cyclosalpa has three species, the best known of which is C. pinnata of the Mediterranean, a form possessing light-producing organs like those of Pyrosoma, but placed along the sides of the body. Salpa has four or five species, one of which, S. runcinata-fusiformis (Fig. 61), has occasionally been found in British seas; Thalia includes the species T. democratica-mucronata, which has been sometimes obtained in swarms in the Hebridean seas, or cast ashore on our southern or western coasts; Pegea has the species P. scutigera-confoederata; and Iasis contains the remaining half-dozen species, the best known of which is I. cordiformis-zonaria, the only other Salpian which has been found in British seas.

Fig. 68.—A, solitary form of Octacnemus bythius (after Moseley); B, diagram of structure of Octacnemus (after Herdman); C, aggregated form of O. patagoniensis (after Metcalf). 1, from outside; 2, with test removed; and 3, with mantle removed. a, Anus; adh, area of attachment; at, atrial, and br, branchial aperture; br.s, branchial sac; end, endostyle; g.s, gill-slits; i, intestine; n.y, nerve-ganglion; oe, oesophagus; ov, ovary; p.br, peribranchial cavity; st, stomach; stol, stolon.

The family Octacnemidae includes the single remarkable genus Octacnemus, now known in a solitary and an aggregated form. It was found during the "Challenger" expedition, and was first described by Moseley. It is apparently a deep-sea representative of the pelagic Salpidae, and may possibly be fixed at the bottom. The body in the solitary form is somewhat discoid, with its margin prolonged to form eight tapering processes, on to which the muscle-bands of the mantle are continued. The alimentary canal forms a compact nucleus, which is attached to an apparently imperforate membrane which stretches across the body, separating the branchial from the atrial cavities. The endostyle is very short, and the dorsal lamina is also much reduced. The reproduction and life-history are entirely unknown. The aggregated form consists of a small number of individuals united by a slender cord composed of test, body-wall, and endodermal tissue. Octacnemus has been found^[111] in the South Pacific from depths of 1070 and 2160 fathoms, and off the Patagonian coast from 1050 fathoms. Two species have been described: O. bythius, Moseley, and O. patagoniensis, Metcalf. Metcalf, who has recently investigated the aggregated form (O. patagoniensis), considers that the genus is more nearly related to the Clavelinidae than to the Salpidae. Possibly its position might be best indicated by a line diverging from near the point (3) in the phylogenetic diagram below.

General Conclusions.

The following diagram is a graphic representation of the genetic affinities, or what is now generally supposed to have been the probable course of phylogeny of the Tunicata. It will be noticed that it shows (1) the Proto-Tunicates arising from Proto-Chordata, not far from the ancestors of Amphioxus (see also, this vol. p. 112); (2) that the Larvacea are regarded as the most primitive section of the group; (3) that the Thaliacea (Doliolidae and Salpidae) are supposed to be derived not directly from primitive pelagic forms, but through the early fixed Ascidians, not far from (4) the ancestral compound Ascidians, which gave rise to the Pyrosomatidae; (5) that the Ascidiidae and other higher Simple Ascidians are derived, like the Compound Ascidians, from ancestral Clavelinidae; and (6), that the Ascidiae Compositae are polyphyletic, the Holosomata (Botryllidae and Polystyelidae) being derived from ancestral Simple Ascidians independently of the Merosomatous families.

The Tunicata are remarkable for the variety in appearance, structure, and life-history which they present. No group illustrates in a more instructive manner so large a number of important biological principles and phenomena. They show solitary and colonial forms, fixed and free, pelagic and abyssal. The development is in some cases larval and with metamorphosis, in others abbreviated and direct. Persistent traces of ancestral characters are seen in the embryonic and larval stages, while the adults present the most varied secondary adaptations to littoral, pelagic, and deep-sea, free-swimming and sessile modes of existence. In the details of their classification they demonstrate both stable and variable species, monophyletic and polyphyletic groups. They exhibit the phenomena of gemmation and of embryonic fission, of polymorphism, hibernation, alternation of generations, and change of function. They have long been known as a stock example of degeneration; but in fact they lend themselves admirably to the exposition of more than one "Chapter of Darwinism."

* * * * *

Note to P. 78.—Oligotrema, Bourne (Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xlvii. Pt. ii. 1903, p. 233), a Molgulid from the Loyalty Islands, has a reduced branchial sac and greatly developed pinnate, muscular branchial lobes, probably used in capturing food.