Volume 1 / Part 3 — CHAPTER I.

OF THE RELIGION OF THE PARSIÁN.

This chapter is divided into fifteen sections.

Sect. I. of the religious tenets and ceremonies of the Sipásíán.

Sect. II. of the distinguished men amongst the Sipásíán. Pg 5

Sect. III. of the ordinances contained in the book revealed to Abád.

Sect. IV. of the Jemsháspián.

Sect. V. of the Samrádíán.

Sect. VI. of the religion of the Khodáníán.

Sect. VII. of the tenets of the Rádîan.

Sect. VIII. of the religion of the Shídrangíán.

Sect. IX. of the belief of the Pykeríán.

Sect. X. of the tenets of the Miláníán.

Sect. XI. of the doctrines of the Aláríán.

Sect. XII. of the religious opinions of the Shídábíán.

Sect. XIII. of the religion of the Akhshíán.

Sect. XIV. of the belief of the Zerdushtián.

Sect. XV. of the doctrine of the Mazdakíán.

Pg 147

SECTION III.

The third section of the Dabistan explains the laws of the Paímán-i-Farhang (excellent covenant) and the Hirbed Sár (the pure Highpriest).

The Paiman-i-Farhang is the code of Máhábád, of which many translations have been made; one of them is that made by Faridun, the son of Abtin: another; that of Buzurg-Mihr[350] for the use of Nushirvan, the son of Kobad; some extracts from these have been given in the present work. The Yazdanian, “godly,” who are also called Sahi Kesh, “flourishing faith,” and Sipásî, “adorers,” maintain that the most exalted of the prophets, the mightiest of kings, and the sire of the human race which exists in this cycle was Máhábád, whom they also call Azar Hushang, “the fire of wisdom.” They also say that it is thus recorded in the code of this venerable personage, which is the word of God; and that moreover, this mighty prince has himself expressly announced that the Divine Essence, which has no equal, is totally devoid and divested of all form and figure; incapable of being the object of Pg 148 conception or similitude: also that the tropes of the most eloquent orators, the illustrations of the most enlightened and profound geniuses, are utterly unable to convey a clear idea of the light, which has neither perceptible color nor sign: the sublime speculations of the learned and the discriminating understandings of the sage are too feeble to comprehend the substance of the pure essence of that light, which is without equal, quality, color, or model: also that all existences have proceeded from the bounty and wisdom of the Almighty, and are consequently his creation: that not a single atom in this world, nor even the motion of a hair on the body of a living creature escapes his knowledge: all which propositions are proved by evident demonstrations deduced from various premises, and accompanied by excellent commentaries, the enumeration of which this abridged treatise cannot admit. Also that the cognizance of the self-existent God extends alike to the most minute particles of matter and the entire universe.

Description of the great Angels of the first order.—In the code of the great apostle Máhábád it is thus stated; the work of God is above the power of the tongue, and infinitely exceeds the calculations to which the inhabitants of this lower elemental world have recourse: the operations of the Eternal are from eternity to eternity: they assign the name Pg 149 of Bahman[351] to the first Angel whom the Almighty invested with the mantle of existence, and through the medium of whom it was communicated to others. The planets, fixed stars, and heavens have each their peculiar conservative Angel; also the four elements below the lunar sphere have four conservative Angels, and in like manner all productions connected with them: for example, in minerals there are many precious stones, such as rubies, sapphires, and emeralds of every kind, which are under the dominion of their good, munificent, protecting Angel: and so on with respect to all species of vegetable and animal productions. The name given to the conservative angel of mankind is Farun Faro Vakhshúr.[352]

Pg 150 Description of the second order of Angels.—The code of Máhábád states that the second rank is assigned to the Angels connected with bodies: that is, every heaven and every star has a simple uncompounded spirit, bare of matter, as it is neither a body nor material: also that all living beings in the world have an uncompounded soul.

Description of the third order of Angels.—It is stated in the code of Máhábád, that angelic beings of the third rank are the same as the superior and inferior bodies. The superior bodies are those of the sphere and the stars; and the inferior the four (guhar) elements. The most noble of all bodies are those of the sphere.

Description of the gradations of Paradise.—The code of Máhábád states thus: “In the Mînú or ‘azure heaven’ there are many gradations, we shall first enumerate the gradations of Paradise in this lower world. The first gradation consists of minerals, such as rubies, sapphires, emeralds, and the like; the second of vegetation, such as plane trees, cypress, gardens, etc.; the third of animals, such as the Arab horse, the camel, and such like; the fourth consisting of selected individuals amongst men, such as princes and those connected with that class, persons in the enjoyment Pg 151 of health, the contented, and such like; all which gradations they call Mînú Sár, ‘celestial abode,’ and Bîst Lád,[353] that is, Feróden feró, ‘the low foundation.’” In these states there is a retrospect; for example, there is one man who in relation to his deeds gradually descends to the animal state; whilst the terrene particles of virtuous men’s bodies change either to the vegetable state or that of the choicest minerals, however without the existence of an incorporeal soul in either of them. On ascending from this state, the change is called Lim Sar, or “dwelling on high;” the first is the lunar step; for in the soul of the exalted moon are the forms of all those beings into which the elements enter. A person on arriving there remains in it, becoming the regent of all the lower world, and in proportion to his knowledge and the habits resulting from his laudable qualities, assumes a better form. On arriving at a higher rank than this, he finds augmented delight as far as the solar step; for the sun is the Pirah-i-Yazdan, or “the ornament of God,” that is, the viceroy of the Lord and sovereign of the stars, whose gracious influence pervades both high and low. On leaving this and passing through the various gradations to the empyreal heaven, every step becomes more delightful and excellent. On Pg 152 ascending beyond the great sphere, he arrives at the curtain[354] of the great Angels and contemplates the Lord of the light of lights surrounded by angels: no state can surpass the beatitude and glory of this gradation, which is called the Mînúiván Mînú, or “heaven of heavens.”

Description of the infernal regions.—The code of Máhábád states thus: Hell is situated under the sphere of the moon:[355] the first step consisting of minerals in mis-shapen masses, or stones without worth; of plants, thorny and vile and poisonous herbage; of living creatures, such as ants, serpents, and scorpions; and of men labouring under indigence, sickness, feebleness, ignorance, and disgrace: in this step man is punished for whatever evil actions he has committed, and escapes not without due retribution. However, the severest gradation of the infernal regions is that of mental anguish, which is appropriated to the irreligious philosophers, for when his elemental body is dissolved, they do not assign him another; so that he finds not his way to heaven, but remains in the lower elemental world, consumed by the flames of anguish: besides, in consequence of his detestable qualities, his tormentors pounce Pg 153 upon him in the shape of serpents, scorpions, and other such plagues. This state they denominate Puchán-i-Púch, or “the hell of hells.”

The code of Máhábád also states, that whatever occurs in this elemental world proceeds entirely from the planets; so that their adoration, next to that of the Almighty, becomes an indispensable duty: for these luminaries approach near the palace of the Almighty, and the chiefs of the court of eternity. In this world, whoever draws near the seat of grandeur, must have a friend to sound his praise, which is a measure much to be commended. The person who undertakes a journey cannot do without a guide, and he who goes to a city where he has no friend, meets with difficulty: consequently, the worship tendered to these dignities is much to be commended. The stars are truly many in number, but amidst these multitudes, the influences of the seven planets are the most evident: also of all the starry hosts the sun is the sovereign lord. It is therefore necessary to form seven images, and to raise that of the sun above the others; the temples built by the Abadîán princes were open on all sides, so that when the sun shone they were exceedingly bright in the interior; not like the Hindoo idol-temples, in which they walk about with lamps, even in the day time: the roofs of the Abadîán temples were also rather elevated. The emperors and princes are Pg 154 individuals of the most select description, on which account the king should find repose in the fourth sphere, which is one of the solar regions. As it is evident that the stars are set by God for the due government of the world, in like manner it is clear that it is not every individual indiscriminately who attains to the regal dignity, but only a royal personage, not opposed to the Farhang-Abád, or the law of Azar Húshang: as otherwise he would be undeserving of the supreme power. Of the qualifications indispensably requisite in a monarch, the first is conformity to the faith above described, and firmness in adhering to it. In the next place, if on the side of both parents, which means Hasab va Nasab, “accomplishments and genealogy,” he were of royal descent, it would be more advantageous: the meaning of royal birth is to be the possessor of the kingdom of justice; if every external qualification be united with the supreme power, it is much more agreeable, so that the king should not say, “I am more excellent than my father, and he than his ancestors:” on the contrary, he styles his father “highly distinguished,” and his grandfather “far superior.” Moreover, if any one should praise him on this account, he should order that person to be chastised. Azizi, “a distinguished man,”[356] has said: “The following is what Pg 155 we mean by this principle; that as one sire is superior to another, if a son should imagine himself the greater, then each child would reckon himself superior to his father, and there would then be no acknowledged ruler.”

A king must also be provided with a distinguished mathematician as prime minister, to whom the calculators and astronomers should be subject; in every city there should be an astronomer or surveyor; and an Arshiya,[357] or accountant, should act as vizir, one well versed in the amount of rents paid by the Rayas; he must also have commissaries; and as there are attached to every city many villages and hamlets, the king’s private property, to which the local director attends, that officer is called the Vizhak. Also with every vizir, whether absent or present, there should be two Ustuwars or supervisors, and two Shudahbands, or recorders of occurrences; the same rule is to be observed with all administrators, and the Samán Sálár, or head steward, the chief reporters and inspectors should also be each accompanied by two Ustuwars and two Shudahbands. Dustoor, or prime minister, means the person to whose department the public revenue is attached: the copies of the registers of all the vizirs should be regularly kept at the seat Pg 156 of government, as well as the papers of the Shudahbands.

The king also requires military commanders, in order that they may keep the soldiers in due discipline. The first dignity consists of the chiefs of a hundred thousand cavalry; the second, of the commanders of thousands; the third, of the commanders of hundreds; the fourth, of the rulers over tens; and the fifth, of those accompanied by two, three, four, or five persons. Thus in this assemblage every ten persons have an officer and every hundred a Sipahdar, called in the popular language of Hindustan Bakhshi, “pay-master,” in that of Iran, Lashkar Navîs, or “army-registrar,” and in Arabic, Ariz, or “notary:” a similar arrangement must be observed in the infantry. In like manner, when the military in regular succession are in attendance on the king, there is at court a Bárnîgárî, or “registrar,” to set down those who are absent as well as those present; in the popular language of India this officer is styled Chauki Navîs, or “register keeper;” they are accompanied by a Shudahband, an Ustuwar, and sentinels, so that they may not go to their homes nor give way to sleep until their period of duty is terminated: there are also different sentinels for day and night. It is also so arranged that there should be always four persons together on each watch, two of whom may indulge in sleep Pg 157 whilst the other two remain awake. In every city where the king is present there ought to be a Shudahband, to report to the king whatever occurs in the city: the same rule should be observed in the other cities also: this functionary they call, in India, Wakia-Navis, “news-writer.” There should also be a Shahnah, or “intendant of police,” styled Farhang-i-roz, “registrar of the day,” who is to conduct all affairs with due prudence, and not suffer people to inflict injury on each other. He is to have two Shudahbands and an Ustuwar or “confidential secretary.” In like manner, among the troops of the great nobles there must be two Shudahbands; and in all provinces a Shahrdar, or governor; and in every city a Bud-andoz, or collector-general, a Sipah-dar, that is a Bakhshi, and an intendant of police, or Shahnah; it is to be noted that among the Yezdánían, a Kázî and Shuhnah were the same, as the people practised no oppression towards each other. The Shudahband, the Návand (writer), and the Rávand (courier), or those who conveyed intelligence to the king, had many spies set over them secretly by his majesty, and all those officers wrote him an account of whatever occurred in the city. If the Sipahdars did not give the men their just dues, these officers called them to account: also if a superior noble acted in a similar manner towards his inferiors, they instituted an inquiry into his Pg 158 conduct: they also took note of the spies; so that if any secret agent made himself known as such, he was immediately dismissed. If any one kept the due of the soldier or of the cultivator, in the name of the king, and did not account for it, they inflicted chastisement on him. The officers were obliged to delineate the features of every one employed in the cavalry or infantry, and also to furnish a representation of his horse, and to give the men their regular pay with punctuality. Previous to the Gilsháhian dynasty, no one ever branded the king’s horses, as this was regarded as an act of cruelty towards the animal: most of the soldiers also were furnished with horses by the king, as the sovereigns of Ajem had many studs. On the death of a horse, the testimony of the collectors and inspectors was requisite. Every soldier who received not a horse from the king, brought his own with him: they also took one out of twenty from the Rayas. However, under the Sassanian princes, the Rayas requested “to take from them one out of ten:” and as this proposition was accepted, it was therefore called Baj-i-hamdastani, or voluntary contribution, as having been settled by the consent of the Rayas.

The Omras and the great of the kingdom, near and far, had not the power to put a guilty man to death; but when the Shadahband, “recorder,” brought a case before the king, his majesty acted Pg 159 according to the prescriptions of the Ferhang-abad, unless in the case of executing a dangerous rebel, when, from sparing him until receiving the king’s will, a great evil would arise to the country.

They laid down this royal ordinance: that if the king sent even a single person, he was to bring back the head of the commander of a hundred thousand; nay, that person never turned aside from the punishment. For example, when such a commander in the time of Shah Máhbúl had put an innocent man to death, the prince sent a person who was to behead the criminal on a day on which the nobles were all assembled: and of this there are innumerable examples. Also in the time of Shah Faridún, the son of Abtin, the son of Farshad, the son of Shá-î Gilîv, a general named Máhlád was governor of Khorosan: and he having put to death one of the village chiefs, the Shudahbands reported to the king all the public and private details of the fact, on receiving which the king thus wrote to Máhlád: “Thou hast acted contrary to the Farhang Abad.” When Mahlád had perused the king’s letter, he assembled the chief men of the province, and sending for the village chieftain’s son, put a sword in his hand that he might cut off his head: the son replied: “I consent to pass over my father’s blood.” Máhlád, however, would not agree to this, and insisted so earnestly, that the young man cut off his Pg 160 head, which was sent to the court. The king greatly commended this conduct, and according to his usual practice conferred Máhlád’s office on his son. In the same manner, the Moghúls submitted implicitly to the commands of the Lord strengthened by the Almighty, that is, to Jenghiz Khan;[358] and the tribes of Kazl-Básh[359] were equally obedient to Ismail Safavi during his reign. But the kings of Ajem were averse to the infliction of capital punishments, so that until a criminal had been declared deserving of death, according to the Abádían code, the order for his execution was not issued.

The kings and chieftains of Iran never addressed harsh language to any one; but whenever a person deserved chastisement or death, they summoned the Farhangdar, or “judge,” and the Dad-sitani, or “mufti;” on which, whatever the code of Farhang-abad enjoined in the case, whether beating with rods or confinement, was carried into effect: but the beating and imprisonment were never executed Pg 161 by low persons. Whatever intelligence was communicated by spies was submitted to a careful examination, in which they took great pains; and that unless reports made by two or more spies coincided, they carried nothing into execution. The princes and young nobles, like all others, began by personal attendance on the king: for example, the routine of Hash-o-bash, or “presence and absence” at court, was enjoined them in rotation, that they might better understand the state of humbler individuals: they even attended on foot, that they might more easily conceive the toils of the foot-soldier.

Bahzad the Yasanian, in one of his marches having proceeded a short distance, alighted from his horse,[360] on which a distinguished noble, named Naubar, thus remarked: “On a march it is not proper to remain satisfied with so short a journey.” On this, Bahzad Shah, leaving the army in that place, said to the commander Naubar, “Let us two make a short excursion.” He himself mounted on horseback, and obliged the other to advance on foot. They thus traversed mountain and plain, until Naubar became overpowered by fatigue, on which Bahzad said: “Exert thyself, for our halting place is near;” but he having replied, “I am no longer able to move,” the king rejoined; “O oppressor! as Pg 162 thou art no longer able to proceed, dost thou not perceive that those who are on foot experience similar distress from performing too long a march?”

The military, in proportion to their respective ranks, had assigned to them costly dresses, vigorous steeds with trappings and saddles inlaid with precious stones, equipments, some of solid gold and silver, and others plated with gold or silver, and helmets. The distinguished men were equally remote from parsimony and profuseness. The nobles of Ajem wore a crown worth a hundred thousand dinars of gold: the regal diadem being appropriated to the king. All the great Amirs wore helmets and zones of gold; they also had trappings and sandals of the same. When the soldiers set out on an expedition, they took with them arms of every description, a flag and a poignard;[361] they were habituated to privations, and entered on long expeditions with scanty supplies: they were never confined within the enclosure of tents and pavilions, but braved alike the extremes of heat and cold. In the day of battle, as long as the king or his lieutenant stood at his post, if any one turned his back on the foe, no person Pg 163 would join him in eating or drinking, or contract alliance with him, except those who like himself had consigned their persons to infamy and degradation. Lunatics, buffoons, and depraved characters found no access to the king or chieftains.

On the death of a person who had been raised to dignity, his post was conferred on his son, or some one of his legitimate connections adequate to its duties; thus no innocent person was ever deprived of office, so that their noble families continued from the time of Sháî Kilîv to that of Sháî Mahbul. When king Khusró, the son of Faridún, the son of Abtin, the son of Forzad, the son of Shái Kiliv, had sent Gurgin[362] the son of Lás to a certain post, that dignity remained in his family more than a thousand years; and when, in the reign of the resplendent sovereign, king Ardeshir, Madhur the descendant of Gurgin had become a lunatic, the king confined him to his house, and promoted his son Mábzád to the government; and similar to this was the system of Shah Ismail Safavi. But if an Amir’s son were unfit for governing, he was dismissed from office, and had a suitable pension assigned him. Nay, animals, Pg 164 such as the cow, ass, and horse, which were made to labor when young, were maintained by their masters in a state of ease when they grew old; the quantity of burden which each animal was to carry was defined, and whoever exceeded that limit received due chastisement. In like manner, when any of the infantry or cavalry grew feeble, infirm, or old, although he might not have performed effective service, they appointed his son to succeed him; and if the latter was not yet of mature age, they settled on him a daily allowance from the royal treasury. But if he had no son, they assigned him during his life such an allowance as would keep him from distress, which allowance was continued after his decease to his wife, daughter, or other survivors. Whatever constitutes the duty of a parent was all performed by the king; if, in the day of battle, a soldier’s horse fell, they bestowed on him a better and finer one. It has already been said that most of the cavalry horses were supplied by the king, and the military were at no expense save that of forage. If a soldier fell in battle, they appointed the son with great distinction to his father’s post, and also conferred many favors on his surviving family; they also greatly exerted themselves in teaching them the duties of their class, and in guarding their domestic honor inviolate: as, in reality, the king is the father, and the kingdom the common mother. Pg 165 In like manner, when a soldier was wounded, he received the greatest attentions. Similar notice was taken of workers in gold and of merchants who had failed and become impoverished, their children being adopted by the government: so that, within the circuit of their dominions, there was not found a single destitute person. The Sardár of each city took cognizance of every stranger who entered it: in the same way, all friendless travellers were received into the royal hospital, where physicians gave themselves up to the curing of the sick: in these there were also Shudahbands to take care that none of those employed should be backward in their respective offices. The blind, the paralytic, the feeble, and destitute were admitted into the royal hospital, where they passed their time free from anxiety. Now the royal Bîmárastán, or hospital was a place in which they gave a daily allowance to the feeble and indigent: thus there were no religious mendicants or beggars in their dominions; whoever wished, embraced a Durvesh’s life and practised religious austerities in a monastery, a place adapted for every description of pious mortifications: a slothful person, or one of ill repute, was not permitted to become a Durvesh, lest he might do it for the purpose of indulging in food and sleep: to such a character they enjoined the religious exercises suitable to a Durvesh, which, if he performed with zeal, it was Pg 166 all well; but, otherwise, he was obliged to follow his inclinations in some other place.

The king had also confidential courtiers, well skilled in the histories of the righteous men of olden time, which they recited to his majesty. There was also an abundance of astrologers and physicians, so that, both in the capital and in the provinces, one of each, agreeably to the royal order, should attend on every governor; and their number was such in every city, that men might consult them on the favorable and unfavorable moments for every undertaking.

In every city was a royal hospital, in which were stationed physicians appointed by the king; there were separate hospitals for women, where they were attended by skilful female physicians, so that the hospitals for men and women were quite distinct. In addition to all this, the king stands in need of wise Farhangs, “judges,” well versed in the decisions of law and the articles of faith, so that, aided by the royal influence and power, they may restrain men from evil deeds, and deliver the institutes of Farhang, “the true faith,” to them.[363] The king also requires writers to be always in his presence. Pg 167 A great Mobed must be acquainted with all sciences; a confidential courtier, conversant with the narratives and histories of kings; a physician, profound in medical science; an astrologer in his calculations of the stars; an accountant, accurate in his accounts; and a Farhangí, or lawyer, well versed in points of law: moreover, the study of that portion of the code contained in the Páiman-i-Farhang, or in the “covenant of the Farhang,” is incumbent on all, both soldiers, Rayas, and those who practise the mechanic arts, and on other people. In like manner, persons of one rank were not wont to intermeddle with the pursuits of another: for example, that a soldier should engage in commerce, or a merchant in the military profession: on the contrary, the two employments should not be confounded, so that one should at the same time be a military man and a servant, or in any employment; and having become a commander, should again take up the trade.

They also permitted in every city such a number of artificers, conductors of amusements, merchants, and soldiers as was strictly necessary; to the remainder, or surplus, they assigned agricultural occupations; so that, although many people may know these arts, yet no more than is required may be occupied with them, but apply themselves wholly to the cultivation of the soil. If any officer made even a trifling addition to the import on any business which Pg 168 brought in a revenue to the king, so far from its being acceptable, they, on the contrary, ordered that ill-disposed person to be severely punished.

The king gave audience every day: but on one day of the week in particular, he acted as Dádsitán, or “Mufti,” when every person who was wronged had access to the sovereign; also, once a year, he gave a general audience, when everyone who pleased came into his presence; on this occasion, the king sat down at table with the Ráyás, who represented to him, without the intervention of another, whatever they thought proper.

The sovereign had two places of audience; one the Rózistán, or “day-station,” in which he was seated on an elevated seat; which place they also called the Tábsár, or “place of splendor;” around which the nobles and champions stood in their respective ranks; the other was the Shabistán, or “night station,” which had also an elevation, on which the king took his seat. Men of distinction stood on the outside; those of royal dignity were at the door; and next the king was a company standing with weapons of war in their hands. Every one, indiscriminately, had not the privilege of laying his hand on the royal feet; some only kissed the slipper and walked around it; others, the sleeve of the royal mantle which fell on the throne: that person must be in high favor at court who was permitted to kiss Pg 169 the king’s feet, or the throne, or perform a circuit around it.

As a brief account has been given of the exterior place of reception, and of the Rózistán, or “day station,” we now proceed to write a few particulars concerning the interior place of reception, or the secret night station, or the Harem, which is also called the “golden musk-perfumed pavilion.” In the code of Azar Húshang, or Máhábád, it has been thus laid down: whatever be the number of the king’s women, there must be one superior in dignity to all the rest: her they style “the Great Lady;” but she possessed not such absolute power that the right of loosing or binding, inflicting the bastinado, or putting to death within the night station should be conferred on her: or that she could put to death whomsoever she pleased without the king’s consent, a power quite opposed to law.

The Shudahbands also report to the royal presence all the transactions of the Great Princess and of the night station, just as they transmit accounts of those persons who live out of its precincts. If the king’s mother be alive, the supremacy is of course vested in her, and not in the Great Princess. Salárbárs, or “ushers with silver maces,” Jádárs, or “superintendants of police,” Gáhnumás or Shudahbands, astrologers and such like professions, were also met with in the interior residence.

Pg 170 Of these women and princesses not one had the smallest degree of authority over the rest of their sex who lived outside of the precincts, nor did they possess the power of issuing any order whatever; nay they seldom made mention of them in the royal Rozistan; neither were they called by any fixed title; nor, without urgent necessity, did they ride out in public.

The king also, on visiting the interior apartment, is not wont to remain long with the women; nor do they ever entertain any wishes which have not reference to themselves; such as the mode of speaking when enjoining an officer to perform some service, or increasing the dignity of the great warriors. The same system was followed by every Amir in his own house; but in the dwelling of every Amir, whether near or remote, there was an aged matron or Atuni, deputed on the king’s part, with the office of Shudahband, to report the exact state of affairs to the Great Princess, or to send from a distance a written report for being brought before the king.

To the king’s Harem, or to that of an Amir, no males had access, except boys not come to maturity, or eunuchs; but criminals only were qualified for the latter class, who were never after admitted to any confidential intimacy; and no individual in their empire was allowed from motives of gain to have recourse to that operation.[364]

Pg 171 Every year, on certain occasions, on some great festivals, the wives of the Amirs waited on the Great Princess, and the women of the city came to the general levee; but the king never saw these women, as on such days he did not enter the musk-perfumed pavilion, but departed to some other place, so that his eyes might not fall on a strange female. The motives of the ladies’ visit to the king was this: that if any were oppressed by their husbands, it might be reported to the king, who after proper investigation was to enjoin the punishment awarded by the court of justice.

The great king partook not of reason-subduing strong drinks, as he was a guardian, and as such should not be in a state of helplessness; on which account not one of those kings who were styled guardians ever polluted his lips with wine or other intoxicating beverage before the Gilshaiyan dynasty. The cup-bearers of the king’s sons and other nobles were always females, and these were Pg 172 called Bádeks:[365] no beardless males were admitted to the feast: even eunuchs were excluded from the banquets of the Gilshaiyan princes, and they were waited on by beardless youths under ten years of age; and at the time of taking wine even they were not allowed to be present. The ancients, or those previous to the Gilshaiyan dynasty, had appointed seasons for drinking wine, which occurred when the physicians prescribed it for the removal of some infirmity, on which occasions they conformed to the above-mentioned rules. If any one, and the king in particular, labored under a malady the cure of which could only be effected by wine, and the invalid should be altogether reluctant to the drinking of it, in that case, as the cure was confined to the use of wine, the patient was obliged to comply with the prescription: for things forbidden under other circumstances, become lawful when taken for medicinal purposes: but with this reservation, that no injury should accrue to any innoxious animal.

Along the roads frequented by travellers in this realm, there were many caravansaries, between every two of which were posted sentinels, so that the voice of a person reached from one to the next. In every halting-place was a Shudahband, a physician, and a Tîmárî; and the inns were also constructed Pg 173 near each other. Now a Tîmárî is one appointed by the king to protect the helpless, such as persons of tender years and the infirm. Aged women brought out from the Haram all the requisite supplies (for these establishments), which they transferred to aged men, by whom they were conveyed to the attendants.

The soldiers’ wives were not without employment, such as spinning, sewing, and in various works, the making of house-furniture, riding, and in the management of the bow they were as able as men; they were all formed by discipline and inured to toil.

It is evident to all the world that, notwithstanding the extent of their realms was so exceedingly great and spacious, yet in consequence of these arrangements, the kings were necessarily informed of every event which occurred: in addition to what has been stated, pursuant to decrees influential as those of Heaven, villages were erected at every stage and halting-place, at each of which the king’s horses were picketted, and men appointed whom they called Ravand, or “couriers.” When the Shudahband day by day delivered the report of whatever had occurred into the hand of a courier, the one near the city delivered it into the custody of another, and so on, from the couriers of the stage to those of the villages, until the report reached the capital. The Pg 174 king observed the same system in corresponding with the Umras; at one time appointing an individual who was with great caution to communicate the royal despatches without entrusting them into the hands of another; a courier of this description mounted at every stage the king’s post-horses which were picketted at the different halting-places until he completed his object: this description of courier they call Nuwand; the Umras also despatched Nuwands to the king’s court; but the couriers belonging to royalty or the nobility were not empowered to seize any individual’s horse, or practise oppression, as they would in that case meet with due retaliation: there were besides, at the different villages, persons stationed as guards, who were liable to be called to account if a traveller suffered oppressive treatment from any quarter. Shadahbands also were there. Azar Húsháng, that is, Máhábád, thus enjoined: “Let there be no exactions practised towards the Rayas: let him afford what he well can, and nothing more;” they therefore only took such an amount as maintained both soldiers and rayas in tranquillity.

All the king’s devoted servants entertained this belief, that the performance of whatever was agreeable to the king was attended with advantage in both worlds; also that the royal command was the interpretation of the word of God, and that it was highly Pg 175 praiseworthy to meet death in the path of obedience to the Great King: nay, they accounted death, with the prospect of royal approbation, which is the bestower of paradise, as far superior to life; but he must be a king who acts in conformity with the Paiman-i-Farhang, or “excellent code.” In short, the system of inquiry was such, that the inspectors used to question the soldiers, whether they were satisfied or not with their chief.

With respect to keeping guard, it was thus settled; that out of the four persons acting in concert with each other, two went to sleep and the other two stood up armed; again, when the sleepers arose the others went to rest; and on the expiration of the night, other troops came to keep watch: the night sentinels, however, did not depart but by order of their officer. These inspected the men three times during the night. In that manner each person had, every week, one day’s watch: and when they retired from keeping guard, proclamation was made to this purport by the king’s command: “If any have cause of complaint against their inspector or chief, let them not keep it concealed.”

In like manner every month the inspectors, whether near or remote, looked into the state of the military; if they found any individual, without sufficient cause, deficient in the requisites for service, they ordered him to be punished, unless he adduced Pg 176 a satisfactory excuse and testimony; in which case they accepted his reasons: and if they proceeded from overpowering necessity, they had regard to it.

To whomsover they had assigned land, Jaghir or Mukásá, they gave daily or monthly pay with the greatest punctuality, never permitting any deficiency to occur.

If any were deficient in the performance of duty, for example, being absent one watch without sufficient cause, besides inflicting the due punishment, they deducted the pay of that watch, but not of the whole day. When, for some good reason, he applied for a furlough, he obtained it.

The prime minister was obliged to institute an inquiry into any affair of which he got the necessary information. The Rais sufid, “chieftain,” must produce a Khushnúdí namah, or “a certificate,” purporting that he had given the due to his people, and that they were satisfied with him; also that whatever revenue had been received was delivered over to the inspector, in the presence of the Anim and Shudahband: the inspectors also produced, in the royal presence, certificates stating that they had practised no oppression towards the military: and although the spies made a report of all particulars every week, still the king inquired besides of the soldiers, as to the truth of this approbation.

Pg 177 The Yazdaníans never attempted a thing mentioned with abhorrence in the Farhang code, in which every fault had its fixed punishment. When any one was convicted of a crime, the king’s near attendants never made intercession for him: for example, pursuant to this code, and by the king’s command, the son inflicted punishment on the father, and the father on his son, so that even princes of the blood had not the power of breaking this law; if they were guilty of injustice, the kings themselves inflicted the allotted punishment: for example, Jai Alád had a son called Húdah, whom he himself beheaded for having put to death the son of a villager. The king’s devoted servants raised themselves to distinction by their excellence and exertions to obtain praise and titles: whoever swore falsely by the royal family was expelled from all intercourse with them.

There were peculiar places assigned for the combat of elephants, lions, and other wild beasts, the backs and sides of which places were so elevated, that people might behold from every part, without the possibility of sustaining injury from the elephants and other wild animals: the king being all the while seated on a lofty throne. They never created embarrassments in bazars or populous places with furious elephants or fierce lions, but kept them in remote situations and secure places such as before-mentioned, from whence they could easily remove them. Pg 178 It is recorded that, in the time of Shírzád Shah, the Yassánian, an elephant having broken out of the place where he was tied up, killed some one; on which the king, in retaliation for the deed, put the elephant to death, and also inflicted capital punishment on the elephant-keepers and the door-keepers of the elephant-stables, who had left the door open. The king never listened to tales of fiction, but solely to true statements: the military and the rayas also never averted their necks from executing the king’s commands: and if a traveller invoked the king’s name and entered into any house, the inmates not only washed his feet, but even drank the water in which they performed the operation, as a sovereign remedy, and sedulously showed all due attentions to their guest.

On the day of battle, the soldiers were drawn up in right, centre, and left columns, an arrangement which they never violated in any engagement: as when once dissolved, the restoration of that combined order would be impossible: when the troops had been arrayed in this manner, they gave the enemy battle; and in proportion to the necessity, the bazar, or “market” of assistance followed them: even after victory they observed the same arrangement.

On the day of triumph, when the enemy fled and the foe dispersed, the entire army did not give themselves Pg 179 up to plunder; but the king appointed for the service a certain detachment, accompanied by Shudahbands and Binandahs, or inspectors and supervisors, whilst the rest of the army remained prepared for battle and ready to renew the engagement; not one of them raising the dust of plunder or departing to their homes, lest the enemy, on discovering their dispersion in pursuit of plunder, might return and gain the victory. When they had made themselves masters of the spoil, the king ordered them to set apart the choicest portion for the indigent and the erection of religious foundations: he next distributed an ample share to the men proportioned to their exertions; after which he gave each of his courtiers a portion; and he lastly conferred a suitable portion on the great officers; but no part of this division entered into the account of the allowances settled on the military class: last of all, the king drew the pen of approbation over whatever was worthy of the royal majesty. Some of the ancient kings and all the princes of the remote ages, far from taking any part of the spoil to their own share, even made good every injury which happened to the army in executing the royal orders, as the loss of horses and such like.

After the victory, they never oppressed the helpless, the indigent, merchants, travellers, or the generality of the inhabitants, and the Rayas. Those Pg 180 who were guilty of such acts were, after conviction, punished. They divided among them whatever the enemy had in their flight left on the field of battle: but whatever in the different realms belonged to the conquered prince and his near connexions, they submitted to the royal pleasure. They never slew or offered violence to the person who threw down his arms and asked for quarter.

This class of the obedient followers of the Azar Hushang code were styled Farishtah, “angelic;” Surúsh, “seraphic;” Farishtah manish, “angel-hearted;” Surúsh manish, “seraph-hearted;” Sipásí, “adorers;” Sahí dín, “upright in faith;” and Zanádil, “the benevolent;” opposed to whom are the Ahriman, the Dîvs, and the Tunádil, or “fierce demons.”

The Divs are of two kinds; the one class subject to the king of the angels, who, through fear of that prince, have been compelled to desist from injuring animated beings; the second kind consists of Dîvs in the realms of other kings, who break through the covenants of the law, and slay animals: these in truth are no other than wolves, tigers, scorpions, and serpents.

They record that in the time of Ardeshír, the son of Azád, the son of Babegán, the son of Nushirván, there was a Jaiyanian champion by name Farhád, the son of Alád, who were both ranked among the Pg 181 distinguished leaders: Alád, when in a state of intoxication, having slain a sheep with his sword, his son Farhád, on ascertaining this, made him pass under the sharp-edged scimitar; the people held him in detestation, and said: “Thou shouldst have sent thy father to the king.” He replied, “My father had committed two criminal actions; the first, in taking so much wine as to lose his senses; the second in destroying a sheep. Although it would have been proper to send him to the king, I could not suffer any delay to intervene in punishing his crimes: at present I confess myself guilty of transgressing the Abadián code, for not submitting the details of this affair to the king.” He then ordered himself to be put in chains, and brought in that state before the king: but his majesty drew the pen of forgiveness over his crime, and elevated the apex of his dignity.

Moreover it was necessary to drink wine in a secret place, as they inflicted due punishment on whoever was found intoxicated in the public bazar. In truth, permission to drink wine was only given in cases of malady, as from the time of the very ancient sovereigns of the Mahabad dynasty, until that of Yássán Ajam, no person partook of wine or strong drinks, except the invalids who were ordered by the physicians to have recourse to them; and even they partook of them according to the established Pg 182 rules: but among the ancient kings, i. e. from Kaiomars’ to Yezdagird, they at first indulged secretly in wine for the purpose of sensual enjoyment, under color of conforming to medical ordinances. At last matters terminated in this, that wine was openly produced at the banquets, and the champions in attendance on the king partook of it; but it was not permitted to be drunk openly in the bazars or streets.

The king gave audience every day, being seated on an elevation, that is a Tábsár, or elevated window: in the same manner he took his seat in the Roz-Gáh, which is a place where, on his rising from the Tábsár, he seated himself on a throne: on which occasion the nobles in attendance were drawn out in their proper gradations: note, that by giving audience is meant, turning his attention to the concerns of mankind. Every decree issued by the king from the rozistán or shabistán of the interior or exterior, was transcribed by the Shudahband and again submitted to the royal presence, and when its promulgation was ratified, it was laid before his majesty a second time.

Whenever a traveller entered a caravanserai or city, the secretaries of the place, in the presence of witnesses and notaries, made out a statement of his wealth and effects, which they gave him; and the same at the time of sale; so that if he should afterwards Pg 183 declare that his stock had been diminished or some part had been abstracted, they could ascertain its value and quantity: there was also a fixed price assigned to every commodity and article, and also a certain rate of profit prescribed to each vendor.

The following was their mode of hunting: the army being drawn out in array, in right, centre, and left columns, the nobles and eminent warriors took their several posts according to rank, and during a period of forty or fifty days formed a circle around both mountains and plains. If the country abounded in wood, they formed the whole of it into well secured piles: the king then directed his steps towards that quarter, and his train by degrees drove in the game, keeping up a strict watch that no beast of prey should escape out of the circle: on this the king, his sons, and relations dispatched with arrows as many as they could; after this the king, surrounded by the most distinguished courtiers, sat on a throne placed on an eminence, formed of strong timbers so fastened together that no animal could get up there: the generals, and then the whole of the soldiery charged into the centre, so that not a trace remained of ferocious animals, that is, of lions and such noxious creatures: they next counted the numbers of the slain, and having piled them in one place, formed a hillock of their carcases. If they discovered a harmless animal amongst the slain, they ordered Pg 184 vengeance to be inflicted on its destroyer, and cast his body among those of the ferocious animals.

They record that in the reign of Yássán, the son of Sháh Mahbúl, an elk had been slain by some tyrannically-inclined person, on beholding which the father of the insane criminal, with the ruthless sword, immediately dissevered his son’s head from his shoulders. Also in the reign of Núshirvan, the fortunate descendant from the Sháíyán dynasty, at one time whilst in the pursuit of game, an arrow shot intentionally from the bow of a noble champion named Fartúsh, wounded a deer so that it fell dead: his son, Ayín Túsh, was perfectly horror-struck, and in retaliation with an arrow pinned his father’s body to that of the slaughtered deer; so that, in future, there should be no infringement of the Farhang law.

As soon as a lofty mound had been formed of slaughtered noxious creatures, which either walk, fly, or graze, then by the king’s command a Mobid ascended the eminence and said: “Such is the recompense of all who slay harmless creatures; such the retribution which awaits the destroyers of animals free from crimes.” He then said to the harmless creatures: “The equitable king of kings, in order to destroy the noxious animals which cause you so many calamities, has come forward in his own precious person, and taken vengeance for the misdeeds of these wicked creatures: now depart in Pg 185 peace; behold the vengeance inflicted on your sanguinary foes; and commit no sin before the protector of your species.” They then left a road open for the innoxious animals to escape and hasten to their mountains and deserts. This kind of hunting they called Shikár-i-dád or Dád-shikár; i. e.: “the hunt of equity,” or “the equity-hunt.” The royal governors also in their respective provinces adopted a chase of the like description. Whenever the sovereign was of such a character as not to deviate from the Farhang code, if any person declined rendering allegiance to the prince chosen by him for his successor, that person was immediately destroyed by the people.

In the reign of Sháh Gilív, a champion having beheld in a vision, that the king had raised to the throne one of the princes who met not his approbation, immediately on awaking put himself to death. Sháh Gilív, on hearing this, said to the son of the deceased: “When a person is awake, rebellion is to be abhorred; but not in a state of sleep, as it is then involuntary.”

Also in the reign of Bahman, the son of Isfendiar, the son of Ardashír, the son of Azad Shai,[366] one of the Pg 186 generals, Bahram by name, governor of Khorasan, having made arrangements for revolt and rebellion, the soldiers on learning his designs put him to death, and offering up his flesh after the manner of the Moslem sacrifice, divided it and ate of it, saying, “He is a noxious animal.”

In the same reign, a champion, by name Gilshásp, saw in a trance that he had rebelled against Bahman: on relating the dream to his soldiers, they for answer drew forth their swords and shed his blood, saying: “Although there is no blame to be attached to the vision, yet he is the genius of evil for publishing it abroad.”

Ayín Shakíb, a Móbed, who saw in a vision that he was uttering imprecations against Ardíshír, the son of Babagán, the son of Azád the Jaiyánían, immediately on awaking cut out his tongue: such was their devotedness to their kings.

They moreover say, in the case of every prince who was adorned with sound doctrine, good works, and noble descent; who promoted the interests of the military and the happiness of the Ráyás, and who never deviated from the covenant of the law; that when any one proved refractory to his commands, that person’s life and property were confiscated with justice. The kings made trials of their sons’ capacities, and conferred the royal dignity on whichever was found the most deserving; not Pg 187 making the one king whom they regarded with the greatest natural affection. They also said: “Sovereign power becomes not the monarch who transgresses this blessed law; neither should any prince give way to the disposition to deviate in the slightest degree from any of its covenants, lest from their esteeming one branch of the law as of no importance, they might regard the whole as of trifling obligation.” The adorable and almighty God so gave his aid to these praise-worthy sovereigns that they decked the bride of dominion with the ornaments of equity, benevolence, and impartial justice. Merchants, travellers, and scholars moved about in perfect security; during their reigns there existed no annoyance from the payment of tolls, customs, and other exactions; and in the caravanserais was neither rent nor hire.

The kings had the covenants of the law transcribed, which they always kept near them, and had read over to them daily by some confidential courtier: on great festivals they were communicated to the military and the rayas, with strong injunctions to store them up in their recollection. The Umras also pursued the same system, and recited the law to their dependants. In like manner, the princesses of the Shabistán, “night-apartment,” observed the same rule.

They moreover say that every prince who, through Pg 188 the suggestions of his own mind or of his minister’s, adopted any measures except in conformity to this law, bitterly repented of it.—Jai Alad has said: “Whoever in the king’s presence utters a word contrary to the covenants of the law, or persuades him to do so; the king may rest assured that the object of that person is to throw the kingdom into confusion.”

When the Yezdáníán princes and rulers gave audience, there lay before them a book, a scourge, and a sword; the book contained the covenants of the law; and every affair which was submitted to them being considered according to the view taken of it in the book, they then gave a decision.

In the royal dynasty which preceded the Gilsháíán kings, there was no violation whatever of this code; but under later princes some disorder crept into its observance. They also say, that whenever they violated the commands, decrees, maxims, rules, and decisions of this covenant, they became associated with regret and repentance. Whenever a sovereign sustained any injury, it arose principally from inattention to this standard; and whenever a monarch lived in prosperity, it proceeded from his scrupulous observance of the most minute details of this code. The ancient sovereigns, that is, the Abádíán, the Jaiyán, the Shaiyán and the Yassánían, who are the most renowned of kings, never lost sight of the Farhang Pg 189 Abád, that is, they did every thing according to its dictates: this code they also called Hirbud Sár, or “sacerdotal purity.” During this period no enemy arose, and no foe obtained the supremacy; the military and the rayas enjoyed undisturbed repose. Amongst the Gilsháíyán kings, Hushang, Tahmúras, Faridun, Minuchahar, Kaikobád, Kaikhusró, Lohorasp, Bahman, Ardashir Babágán, and the others, had this code transcribed in secret characters, which they employed as mental amulets and spiritual charms. Náshirván also, having procured a transcript of this law, kept it by him. Although all the sovereigns conformed to this rule, yet none observed it in so high a degree as the ancient sovereigns of the Abádíán, Jaiyán, Shaiyán, and Yassáníán dynasties: as in the belief held by the Yazdanians, or “theists,” their dignity so far transcends that of the Gilsháíyáns, that we can institute no comparison between them. The Gilsháíyán princes also exerted themselves to prevent the slaughter of harmless animals; although the people did not pay the same respect to their orders as to those of the ancient sovereigns, yet, as compared with their successors, people were more exact in the performance of duty than in later periods.

They say that Rustam,[367] the son of Zaul, at the moment Pg 190 of abandoning the robes of mortality, having heaved a deep sigh, the king of Kabúl said to him: “O Rustam! art thou alarmed at death?” the hero replied: “God forbid! for the death of the body is to the spirit the bestowing of life; and the issuing forth under the sphere is the being born from the maternal womb; when the cloud of the body is removed, the sun of spirit shines more resplendently: but my grief proceeded from this reflection, that when Kaús commanded Tús to put me to the ignominious death of the gibbet,[368] I refused to submit to the punishment. Although Kaús, Pg 191 in violation of the Farhang code, had passed a sentence opposed to the decisions of Mahabád, and even the interests of Kaús were ultimately advanced by my rebellious conduct, I am at present afflicted on that account, lest, perhaps, any thing opposed to the Farhang code may have proceeded from me. In like manner Isfendiar was slain by my hand,[369] and I refused to be put in chains; although it became him not to exact compliance, nor was it in accordance with the Farhang code.” Dastan (Zaul) also lived in regret, Pg 192 saying: “Why did I utter a word in opposition to Kai Khusran, on the day when he chose Lohorasp as his successor, although my sentiments were expressed by way of counsel?”[370] When Bahman, the son of Isfendiar, made preparations for laying waste Sistan, notwithstanding the people urged Dastan to give the invaders battle, he approved not of it, but said: “Never more will I break through the Farhang code.” He then came on foot into the presence of Bahman, by whose orders he was thrown into chains: but he finally attained the king’s unbounded esteem, and was released; whilst his son Faramarz, contrary to the Farhang code, gave the king battle, and, being taken prisoner, suffered the ignominious death of the gibbet:[371] his son was Pg 193 also put to death on the same account. The implicit obedience of the son Minufarad to Kobad,[372] the father of Nushirvan, is also well known; although that prince was not strictly entitled to obedience according to the Farhang covenant, yet the devotedness of his subjects is highly celebrated.

The fourth section of the Dabistan contains an account of the Jamshaspian sect. The Yekanah-binan, “seers of unity,” also called the Jamshaí, who form another great body of the Parsees, are the followers of Jamshasp, the son of Jemshid, the son of Tahmúras: in their speech there is much that is enigmatical, and endless subtilty. Jamshasp never invited any one to follow his tenets, but he was of such exemplary life and so great a sage, that the Pg 194 people bore him great affection, and wrote down his sayings, until by degrees great numbers voluntarily adopted them as articles of faith. According to them, the world has no external existence; they hold that whatever exists is God, and that naught exists besides him: a holy man has said:

They hold that all the intelligences, souls, angels, heavens, stars, elements, the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms exist within his knowledge, and are not external to it: which sentiment king Jamshid explained to Abtin, saying: “Know, O Abtin, that the Almighty conceived in idea the first intelligence; in like manner the first intelligence conceived three objects, namely, the second intelligence, the soul of the upper sphere, and the body of the same heaven: in like manner, the second intelligence conceived three objects, and so on in succession to the elements and their combinations: and this is exactly as when we form an idea of a city, with its palaces, gardens, and inhabitants, which in reality have no existence external to our imagination; so that, consequently, the existence of this world is of the same description.” The Abadian regard these sayings as enigmatical, although Pg 195 Jamshid composed many philosophical works, which the Yekanah Binan admit without any commentary: many of the Parsees adopt this creed, and particularly the ascetics of that class. The belief of these sectaries is illustrated by the following tetrastich from Subahani:

On this subject they have composed various works, the most celebrated of which is, the “Testament of Jamshid addressed to Abtin,” compiled by Farhang Dostoor. Shídah, Suhráb, Mízan, and Jamshásp, who, under the profession of mercantile pursuits, travelled along with Shídósh, the son of Anósh, were of the Yekanah Binan sect.

The fifth section of the Dabistan describes the Samrádián sect.—In common language Samrád means imagination and thought; and the sects thus named are of many descriptions; the first is that of the followers of Fartósh, who lived about the commencement of the Serpent-shouldered Zohak’s reign: Fartósh followed mercantile pursuits, and his faith was as follows: this elemental world is merely idea; the remainder, the heavens, the stars, and the simple uncompounded beings actually exist. Pg 196 The holders of this opinion are called the Fartoshíán.

The second are the Farshídíyah, so called from Farshíd, the son of Fartósh: he asserted that the heavens and the stars are also ideal, and that the simple uncompounded beings only have actual existence.

The next are the Farírajíyah, so called from Faríraj, the son of Farshid: his opinion was that the simple uncompounded beings, that is, intelligences and souls, also have no existence, which is the attribute of the necessarily self-existent God alone, and that all besides is ideal, appearing only to exist in consequence of the essence of that sole existence.

The next are the Faramandíyah, thus named from Faramand, the disciple of Faríraj: he says, if any person exists, that person knows that the elements, heavens, stars, intelligences, and souls are the Almighty; and what people call the necessarily self-existent God has no being, although we, through imagination (idea), suppose him to exist; which he certainly does not. According to the testimony of the sage Amr Khaiam:

They said to him: “How dost thou prove this idea?” he answered:

Pg 197 Thus, according to them, the Almighty is only an idea of the imagination: the people of this sect are now mixed up with the Moslems, and go about in the garb of the faithful: according to them a person named Kámkár, one of the ascetics of this sect, who lived in the reign of sultan Mahmud of Ghiznah,[373] composed a poetical treatise, and compiled narratives, proofs, and revelations conformable to his tenets; assigning to his faith a superiority over all other systems, after this manner: that, whatever devout persons have recorded in their respective creeds concerning the existence of God, the greatness of the empyreal sphere, the extent of the angelic world, or concerning paradise, hell, the bridge of judgment, the resurrection of the dead, the interrogatory and reply,[374] the appearing before God, the rejection of tradition, eternity, and the creation of the world, is all correct in this creed; as all becomes evident to the idea of their professor through the existence of idea; with respect to which they thus express themselves: “by means of idea, they Pg 198 behold the ideal.” In proof of his system, he farther says: “Self cannot be ignorant of self.” But in truth they are ignorant of their own identity, and understand not in what “self” consists: some of them maintain, that the being called man and endowed with voice and speech, is an incorporeal essence joined to the body; the relations of thought and action resulting merely from its entrance or descent into body: notwithstanding this principle, they differ greatly among themselves respecting the eternity and creation of their own souls. In like manner, some have also denied the simple uncompoundedness of the intellectual soul, and have spoken largely against that doctrine; consequently, as they are unacquainted with their own identity, what can they know about the heavens, stars, intelligences, and God? and it becomes not that one should know nothing about himself, but that he exists not. Kámkár, in his treatise, has collected many amusing anecdotes respecting the Samrádián sect, of which the following is an instance: a Samradian once said to his steward: “The world and its inhabitants have no actual existence; they merely have an ideal being.” The servant, on hearing this, took the first favorable opportunity to conceal his master’s horse, and when he was about to ride, brought him an ass with the horse’s saddle. When the Samrádián asked, “Where is the horse?” the servant replied, Pg 199 “Thou hast been thinking of an idea: there was no horse in being.” The master answered, “It is true:” he then mounted the ass, and having rode for some time, he suddenly dismounted, and taking the saddle off the ass’s back, placed it on the servant’s, drawing the girths on tightly; and having forced the bridle into his mouth, he mounted him and flogged him along vigorously. The servant, in piteous accents, having exclaimed: “What is the meaning of this conduct?” the Samrádián replied: “There is no such thing as a whip; it is merely ideal; thou art only thinking of some illusion:” after which the steward repented and restored the horse.

In another tale it is recorded that a Samrádián, having obtained in marriage the daughter of a wealthy lawyer, she, on finding out her husband’s creed, proposed to have some amusement at his expense. One day the Samradian brought in a bottle of pure wine, which during his absence she emptied of its contents and filled it up with water; when the time for taking wine came round, she poured out water instead of wine into a gold cup which was her own property. The Samrádián having observed, “Thou hast given me water instead of wine,” she answered, “It is only ideal; there was no wine in existence.” The husband then said: “Thou hast spoken well; present me Pg 200 the cup, that I may go to a neighbour’s house and bring it back full of wine.” He therefore took out the gold cup, which he sold, and concealing the money, instead of the gold vase brought back an earthen vessel full of wine. The wife, on seeing this, said, “What hast thou done with the golden cup?” he replied, “Thou art surely thinking about some ideal golden cup:” on which the woman greatly regretted her witticism.

As to those sectaries who assert that the world exists only in idea, the author of this work saw several in Lahore, in the year of the Hejirah 1048, A. D. 1637. The first was Kám Jóí, who composed the following distichs on Faríraj:

It is to be noted that Samrád and Samwád are applied to fancy or idea. Ismail Sufi, of Ardistan[375] has poetically expressed himself to the same purport in what is styled the mixed Persian:

Pg 201 The second person treated of in the Samrad Namah of Kámkár was Nék Khoy; the third was Shád Késh; and the fourth, Máhyár: they were all engaged in commercial pursuits, and styled Moslem or true believers.

The sixth section of the Dabistan describes the tenets of the Khodaiyan.—This sect are followers of Khodádád, a Mobed, who lived during the decline of Jemshid’s power and the usurpation of Zohak. Khodádád held intelligences and souls to be simple uncompounded beings, and the stars and heavens to be the companions of God; each of which, in proportion to its proximity to the Almighty beyond other created beings, is so much more elevated in dignity: notwithstanding which we are not to account any being, whether the simple uncompounded or material, as a mediator or promoter between us and God; neither is there any occasion for prophets, because through the medium of reliance, the seeking out of God is attained, and we are to serve God alone. Among those who held these opinions in Lahore, in the year of the Hejirah 1049 (A. D. 1639) were seen Kamus and Fartúsh, both merchants.

The seventh section of the Dabistan describes the system of the Rádíán.—The chief of this sect was Rád Gúnah, one of the eminently brave, a lion-like Pg 202 hero, who, to beneficent acts and abstinence from cruelty to animals, joined the dignity of knowledge; he enjoyed distinguished honor and rank about the end of Jamshíd’s reign and the commencement of Zohák’s usurpation: his opinion is, that God is the same as the sun, whose bounty extends to all beings; and that the fourth heaven, by reason of its constituting the true centre of the seven heavens, is the seat of his glory and as his essence is pure good, his place must also be regarded as a proof of his goodness: besides this, his grace extends alike to all bodies, whether superior or inferior: moreover, as the heart, which is the sovereign of the body, is settled in the midst of the breast, such is also the rule and custom observed by renowned princes to fix the seat of government in the centre of their realms, so that their bounty as well as severity may be equally extended over the whole community; and, by such a measure, the repose of the people and the due regulations of the Rayas may be promoted. He asserted that the spirit of the heavens, the stars, and the three kingdoms of nature proceed from the solar spirit, and that their bodies return to the light of his body; that is, the virtuous return to him or some of the stars approximating to his glory, whilst sinners remain in the elemental world. He at first communicated these opinions secretly to his friends, but promulgated them fearlessly during the Pg 203 reign of Zohák. In the year of the Hejirah 1052 (A. D. 1642), the author, whilst journeying from Panjab to Kabul, met at the station of Ráwal Bundí two persons of this creed, and whose names were Hormuzd and Tírah Késh, who were skilled in all arts, abstinent, and remote from hurting any living being.

The eighth section of the Dabistan treats of the Shídrangíán creed.—Shídrang, a champion of Iran, who in battle was regarded as the acknowledged chief of the marshallers of armies, and joined profound knowledge in science to bravery in the field, always turned away most studiously from doing injury to the creatures of God. He appeared about the middle of Zohák’s reign, and soothed the serpents between the usurper’s shoulders. Shídrang unceasingly invited the people to adopt his faith, and had many followers: he maintained that Khoy and Manish, “disposition and constitution” or nature, to be God; according to his system, the state of man and other animals resembles that of herbage, which, when scattered about or dissolved, grows up again. A merchant, named Píl Ázár, who belonged to this sect, was met by the author in Kashmir in the year of the Hejirah 1040 (A. D. 1631).

The ninth section explains the Paikárián creed.—Paikár Pg 204 was a virtuous sage from Iran, who appeared about the middle of Zohák’s reign. He thus addressed his disciples: “The Almighty is the same as fire, from the effulgence of which stars have been formed, and the heavens from its smoke; as fire is both hot and dry, from its heat proceeded the air, which is hot and humid; and from the humidity of the air came water, which is cold and humid; also from the coldness of water proceeded the earth, which is cold and dry; and from these conjointly came the compound productions, both perfect and imperfect.” Two individuals of this sect, Paikár Pazhuh and Jahan Navard, who were unequalled in drawing out astronomical tables, painting, and inlaying, were met by the writer in the year 1059 (A. D. 1649) in Gujarát, in the district of Panjab.

The tenth section of the Dabistan explains the Míláníán system.—Mílán was one of the brave champions of Iran and contemporary with Paikár; he exhorted many people to adopt his faith, which was as follows: “The air is the truly self-existent God, as it is both hot and humid; from its heat proceeded fire, and from its humidity, water; from the effulgence of fire came forth the stars; from its smoke the heavens (as before mentioned); and from the frigidity of water proceeded the Pg 205 earth.”[376] One of this sect was Rohám, who passed under the designation of a draughtsman; he was in truth a painter possessed of European skill; the hand of Bahzad[377] and the finger of Mani,[378] who never remained Pg 206 long in one place. In the year of the Hejirah 1040 (A. D. 1630) the author beheld him in Kashmir, in the house of Shídosh.

The eleventh section describes the system of the followers of Álár.—Alar was a native of Iran, celebrated for his extensive knowledge, who lived in reputation and dignity about the end of Zohák’s reign, under whose command he distinguished himself in the erection of forts and other architectural works. His belief was, that God is the same as water, from the ebullition of which proceeded fire; from the fire came forth the heavens and the stars (as before stated); from the humidity of water proceeded the air, and from its frigidity, the earth. To this sect belonged Andarímán, who was well skilled in the management of the bow, archery, wielding the lance, horsemanship, and other military accomplishments; he gave instructions in these sciences to the sons of great men, in which occupation he passed his life. In the year of the Hejirah 1040 (A. D. 1630) the author met him in Kashmir at the house of Shidosh. To this sect also belonged Mílád, who possessed consummate skill in writing, and was held in great respect by men of high station: he was in truth Pg 207 unequalled in the recitation of histories, the narration of stories and romantic tales. The author enjoyed his society also in Kashmir.

The twelfth section treats concerning the Shidabian faith.—Shádíb who lived about the end of Zohák’s reign, was an eminent physician of Iran, held in great estimation by nobles and princes. He maintained that the self-existent lord is the same with the earth, from the dry propensity of which was produced fire; and from fire the heavens and stars, as before mentioned; from its frigidity proceeded water; from the humidity of which was formed the air; and when the four elements were mixed together, the three kingdoms of nature were then manifested. The physician Mihrán was also of this sect. In the year 1018 of the Hejirah (A. D. 1638) the author joined him, and travelled in his society from Lahore to Kashmir. Among those who held these tenets was one named Khákí, who followed the profession of a merchant and possessed great wealth: him the author met in Lahore. In that same year and in the same place, he became acquainted with a young man named Shír, who excelled in writing the Nishki and Taalik characters, and was one of the chosen followers of Shídáb.

The thirteenth section describes the system of Pg 208 the Akhshíyán sect.—The Mobed Akhshí was by origin a Persian, possessed of great knowledge, and full of kindness towards the creatures of God; he was contemporary with Shídáb, and promulgated his sentiments openly, inviting all men to embrace his faith: he maintained God to be the essence of the elements; so that when people say, “God is not visible,” this implies the elemental essence, which presents no form to the sight; when they assert the ubiquity of God, they style that the essence, as he is every where under his fourfold form; their proposition of all things excepting God being perishable, means that the elements admit of change, but that their essence remains for ever in the same state. They hold the sun to be the source of fire and of the other stars, such as the falling and shooting stars, comets with tails, etc. One of those sectaries was a person named Shídáb, whom the author met in the costume of a merchant, in Kashmir in the year of the Hejirah 1040 (A. D. 1631), and from whom he heard what has now been written, and which was partly recited out of the book of Akshí. The same Shídáb, called also Shams-ud-dîn, or “the sun of faith,” composed a treatise entitled Rázábád in proof of his system, which he demonstrated by texts of the Koran and the traditions. According to these sectaries, which became known after the Radiyán, there is no resurrection nor return to life but after Pg 209 this manner: the seminal principle being derived from food, when the body of a living creature is dissolved, it becomes grass and constitutes the food of some other animal: as to future rewards and punishments, they enter not into the faith or practice of this sect: their paradise consists in having fine raiment, in carousing, riding, sensual enjoyments, and such like pleasures, which alone they esteem the chief good; torment, according to them, consists in being separated from such objects: however, the founders and followers of this faith carefully avoid all kind of cruelty towards living creatures.

According to them, intercourse with daughters, sisters, mothers, maternal aunts, and their children is allowable;[379] as there can exist no antipathy between Pg 210 the source and what is derived from it: no degree of relationship in their opinion should be a bar to the intercourse of the sexes: nay, on the contrary, it is highly to be commended, as the nearer the degree of consanguinity, the greater will be the friendship between the parties.[380] They however regard adultery as highly criminal, unless the husband should willingly sacrifice his wife’s honor. They in fact maintain that marriage between any two parties, however nearly related, is perfectly allowable if the parties agree among themselves. They also regard the ceremonial ablutions enjoined by the law as absurd and unnecessary.[381] They also say, that men assume a particular nature by means of laws and institutions, and on that account regard good as evil, and evil as good. When they desire to make a sacrificial offering, they kill some harmless animal and count it not a foul crime. Nay, some religionists who partake of swine’s flesh, scrupulously avoid that of cows, and vice versâ. Whoever shall appeal to the intelligence, which is the gift of God, will be convinced that our discourse is true; that is, all we Pg 211 have narrated from the fifth chapter to the present. The professors of this belief are mixed up with the Muhammedans, and travel about under that mask, assuming the name of true believers, but having a distinct appellation for their peculiar creed; they are scattered over Iran and Turan, remote from and averse to the fire-worshippers.

The fourteenth section of this chapter of the Dabistán treats of the followers of Zardúsht.[382]—Farzanah Pg 212 Bahram, the son of Farhad, the Yazdanian, thus relates in the Sharistan: The Behdín sages relate, that the Almighty, on creating the holy spirit of Zardúsht, Pg 213 attached it to a tree, when he commenced the creation of contingent beings in the highest starry heavens: this signifies the primary intellect, which is as a tree, the leaves and fruits of which are all contingent existences; and their assertion concerning the spirit of Zardúsht being attached to it, means that his intellectual soul is a ray of the primary intellect, the perfections of Zardúsht being also an effulgence proceeding from that same tree. The Mobed Sarúsh, the Yazdánián, relates: “The teachers of the Behdín faith have thus said: The father of Zardúsht had a cow which went forth every morning to the pasture: having one day come accidentally to some trees, the fallen leaves of which had become dried up, she partook of them, and after that occurrence, never fed on any other provender except the Pg 214 withered leaves of that grove. Zardúsht’s father partook of the milk supplied by this cow, and the influence of it being communicated to his wife Dughduyah, she conceived Zardúsht.”[383] The object of the above narrative is to show, that by eating the green foliage, the vegetable spirit is afflicted; for which reason the cow fed only on dry leaves, so that no injury could result to any spirit whatever: although, in fact, the vegetable spirit is incapable of receiving either pleasure or pain, it also shows, that unless a cow be milked, she feels great pain in the udder, whilst, at the time of milking, no pain ensues from the operation; also, that the Almighty formed his prophet’s body out of milk, which in its essence implies no injury to any living creature. This much being premised, Zaratusht Bahram, a Mobed of the religion of Zardusht,[384] says: When the world had been thrown into confusion by the wicked, and was entirely at the mercy of the demon, God willed to raise up a prophet of an exalted dignity, which the Pg 215 family of Faridun was alone worthy of filling. In those days lived a man, by name Purshásp, the son of Patirásp, descended from Faridun;[385] and his wife’s name was Doghduyah, a virtuous matron, who was also of the family of Faridun. These two persons were selected by the Almighty as the shells for enclosing the pearl of Zardusht. When five months of Doghduyah’s pregnancy had elapsed, she one night beheld in a dream her house enveloped in a dark cloud, which concealed the splendor of the sun and moon; and from this cloud were raining down the noxious and rapacious creatures of earth and air; the boldest of these animals having rent open Doghduyah’s womb, took out the infant, which he held in his talons, and the other wild beasts gathered around him. Doghduyah in her alarm wished to cry out, but Zardusht prevented her, saying: “the just God befriends me; entertain no apprehensions.” She consequently held her Pg 216 peace. That instant she beheld a shining mountain which descended from heaven and rent the black cloud asunder; on which the noxious animals began to fly away. When the mountain approached nearer, there came forth from it a youth shining all over, bearing in one hand a luminous branch, and in the other the volume sent by the just God. He next hurled that volume towards the beasts, on which they all departed from the house, excepting three; a wolf, a lion, and a tiger: the youth then smote these with the luminous branch, so that they were consumed by fire; after this, taking Zardusht, he restored him to his mother’s belly, and said to her: “Fear not! grieve not! for God himself is thy son’s guardian: this honored child shall be the prophet of the just God!” The youth then disappeared, and Doghduyah awaking, rose up that gloomy night, and hastening to a neighbouring seer who was skilled in the interpretation of dreams, related her vision.[386] The interpreter answered: “Through this sun-resembling child, the world shall be filled with thy fame; depart, and bring hither the calculation of thy nativity for my inspection.” She performed his command; and the interpreter on examining it said: “During three Pg 217 days keep this secret concealed from all; return hither on the fourth day, and receive the answer to thy demands.” She did so; and on the fourth day came to the astrologer, who smiled on beholding her, and having carefully considered the sidereal influences, turned to the interpretation of the dream, saying: “The night on which thou beheldest that vision, the unborn child had completed five months and twenty-three days; on his issuing forth to the couch of existence, his illustrious name shall be Zardusht; by him shall the enemies of the faith be destroyed; but they will previously oppose him in battle, and put in practice every hostile measure; from the evil doers thou shalt feel much affliction, such as thou didst witness from the wild beasts of the vision.

Next thou beheldest a youth descending from the sixth heaven with the glittering branch of a tree; that was Farrah-i-Izad, ‘the splendor of God,’ the warder of evils from thy son; the written volume in his hand is the emblem of the prophetic office, by which he is to obtain the victory over all foes; the three wild beasts which remained behind are the type of a powerful evil-disposed enemy, who by wiles will endeavour to destroy Zardusht, but who shall be finally discomfited; Pg 218 and there shall be a prince to promulgate the faith: through his might shall Zardusht become sovereign of this world and the next. O Doghduyah! paradise is the recompense of obedience to Zardusht, and hell is the reward of those who avert the face from him. Would to heaven that I could live in the days of his mission, to exhibit my zeal for his eminent dignity.” Doghduyah then said to the interpreter and astrologer: “How hast thou found out the circumstance of the exact period of my pregnancy?” To this he replied: “Through the power of knowledge of the stars, and the perusal of ancient records, which give an account of his auspicious existence.” Doghduyah, on her return home, told this event to Purshasp, that he might communicate it to Patírasp; on which both parents joined in praising the Almighty. Zaradusht, on issuing forth into the abode of existence, laughed aloud at the moment of his birth,[387] so that the women of the neighbourhood who were there assembled heard the sound of his laugh, and even his father, Purshasp,

Pg 219 He then gave him the name of Zaratusht,[388]

All the women became jealous at the laugh of Zaradusht, and this wonderful occurrence was spread abroad, until it came to the hearing of Darán Sarún, the king of that region, who gloried in the practice of magic and the worship of Ahriman. He had information of the appearance of Zaratusht, and it was known from the historians and astronomers that he will reveal a better religion and destroy that of Ahriman. He therefore hastened to the pillow of Zaradusht, and commanding him to be taken out of the cradle, and putting his hand to his sword, prepared to cut off the child’s head; but that instant his hand was dried up, so that he left the house in pain and affliction; on which all the magicians and worshippers of Ahriman (the only worship which prevailed at that time) became quite alarmed. The magicians then formed a mountain of wood, naphtha, and sulphur, and having set it on fire, threw into the midst of it Zaradusht, whom they had by force taken from his father, and hastened with this intelligence to their king: but, through the aid of God,

Pg 220 On learning this, Zaradusht’s mother hurried to the desert, and taking her honored son out of the embers, bore him secretly home. After many days, when the account of his deliverance was published abroad, the magicians, evil spirits, and demons again bore Zardusht away, and threw him into a narrow place, a thoroughfare for the passage of oxen, that he should be exposed to be bruised and trampled under foot. Through the goodness of God, a powerful cow came in front, and, standing still, took Zardusht between her fore feet, and drove off with her horns whatever cow came in that direction: when the whole had passed, she also went to join them; and Doghduyah, after great search, having discovered her honored son, took him home: when this intelligence came to Dúransarún, he commanded them to expose Zardusht in a far narrower defile through which horses were to pass; but, owing to divine aid, a mare advanced before the others, and standing at the child’s head kept a strict watch over him, and Doghduyah, after encountering great hardship, bore her fortunate offspring home. On learning this occurrence, Dúransarún ordered persons to repair to the dens of the ravening wolves, and having slaughtered their cubs, then expose Zardusht in the same place, in order that the dams out of revenge might tear him to pieces. At night, when the troop of wolves returned to their lairs, Pg 221 they beheld their cubs slaughtered and weltering in blood, and at the same time finding an infant crying out, they all hurried towards him; the chief wolf and the boldest of them, having rushed on to devour Zardusht, his mouth became as sewn up: at this miracle the wolves were altogether alarmed, and seated themselves like so many nurses around the infant’s head; at the same time there also came two sheep from the mountain region, which applied their teats filled with milk to the lips of Zardusht: thus the sheep and the wolf lay down in one place. With the morning dawn, his mother, after anxious seeking and searching, came to that frightful place, raised up the exalted prophet, and having poured out her gratitude to God, proceeded with exultation to her home.[389] The magicians, on hearing this miracle, became quite despondent; they assembled to devise some remedy, and formed a council for the purpose of deliberating, when a celebrated magician named Purtarúsh and Parantarúsh[390] said to them: “Zardusht is not to be destroyed by your plans, for God befriends him, and the angel Far-i-Izad ‘the splendor of God,’ is ever with him. Bahman Pg 222 (who is the same as Jabriîl) has borne Zardusht to the presence of the Almighty; and God having imparted to him the knowledge of all the secrets of existence, sends him forth as a prophet. A just sovereign will co-operate with him in promulgating his faith, and every vestige of enchanters and Deeves shall be cut off from the earth.” The father of Zardusht said one day to Partarúsh: “Give me some account of Zardusht’s star and its rise; tell me also why he laughed at the time of his birth”. Partarúsh replied: “Thy son Zardusht is to be a chief, as all the happy spheres afford him aid; this offspring of auspicious career will conduct the creatures of God in the true way; promulgate the Zandavasta;[391] destroy the demon Pg 223 and enchanters, and finally king Gushtasp shall embrace his faith.” This announcement gave great delight to Purshasp.

Pg 224 At this time there lived an aged saint named Barzinkaroos, of profound experience and clear discernment; this sage having come to the house of Purshasp, Pg 225 entreated that he might be allowed to bring up Zardusht, and acquire glory by his education. Purshasp consented to this proposal, and entrusted the infant to the holy sage.

Pg 226 When Zardusht had attained his seventh year, Purtarush, the chief of the magicians, came along with Duransanun to the child’s abode; and made Pg 227 so great a display of enchantments, terrific, and fearful sights, that all the people fled out of the house; but Zardusht, through the aid of God, felt no alarm and moved not, so that the magicians went away filled with affright and disappointment. After some time Zardusht became ill, at which news all the magicians were greatly delighted; their chief Partarósh came, with enchantments and medicine mixed up with mina,[392] to Zardusht’s pillow and said: “The swallowing of this medicine will render thy body tranquil and deliver thee from pain.” The illuminated mind of Zardusht saw through the machination, and taking the medicine from him, poured it on the ground, and at the same time telling him about the mina mixed up with the portion, said:

The magicians consequently again returned back mortified at the results of their wicked plot. They say that in those times they accounted no system superior to that of magic, and that the demon held public intercourse with persons of that class so that they obtained it from Iblis without the intervention of enchantment.

Pg 228 Nay, Purshásp, the father of Zardusht, followed that path; one day having invited Duránsarún, Párántárúsh, and many more magicians to a feast, he made the suitable arrangements, and when the repast was ended, he said to Párántárúsh, the chief of the magicians: “Through the excellence of enchantment, whereby our hearts are gladdened and our necks exalted, thy noble person at this period is the spiritual guide of all magicians.” Zardusht, being indignant at this speech, said to his father: “Abandon this erroneous way, and turn to the faith of God: hell must finally be the abode of magicians and enchanters.” These words greatly incensed Purtarúsh, who replied: “Of what consequence art thou before thy father! The intelligent of the earth, and the great men of the habitable world dare not address such insolence to me! Art thou not afraid of me? Dost thou not know me? For this thy insolence I shall spread amongst mankind such calumnies and lies respecting thy creed, that thou must remain in obscurity. What is thy power that, without courtesy, thou darest slight my dignity!