Front matter (continued 17)

See Captain William Jesse, Life of Brummell (London, 1844, revised edition 1886); Percy H. Fitzgerald, Life of George IV. (London, 1881); R. Boutet de Monvel, Beau Brummel (trans. 1908).

BRUNCK, RICHARD FRANÇOIS PHILIPPE (1729-1803), French classical scholar, was born at Strassburg on the 30th of December 1729. He was educated at the Jesuits' College at Paris, and took part in the Seven Years' War as military commissary. At the age of thirty he returned to his native town and resumed his studies, paying special attention to Greek. He spent considerable sums of money in publishing editions of the Greek classics. The first work which he edited was the Anthologia Graeca or Analecta veterum Poetarum Graecorum (1772-1776), in which his innovations on the established mode of criticism startled European scholars; for wherever it seemed to him that an obscure or difficult passage might be made intelligible and easy by a change of text, he did not scruple to make the necessary alterations, whether the new reading were supported by manuscript authority or not. Other works by him are:—Editions of Anacreon (1778), several plays of the Greek tragedians, Apollonius Rhodius (1780), Aristophanes, with an excellent Latin translation (1781-1783), Gnomici poetae Graeci (1784), Sophocles (1786), with Latin translation, his best work, for which he received a pension of 2000 francs from the king. He also published editions of Virgil (1785), Plautus (1788) and Terence (1797). At the outbreak of the French Revolution, in which he took an active part, he was imprisoned at Besançon, and lost his pension, being reduced to such extremities that he was obliged to sell a portion of his library. In 1802 his pension was restored to him, but too late to prevent the sale of the remainder of his books. He died on the 12th of June 1803.

BRUNDISIUM (Gr. Βρεντέσιον, mod. Brindisi), an important harbour town of Calabria (in the ancient sense), Italy, on the E.S.E. coast. The name is said to mean "stag's head" in the Messapian dialect, in allusion to the shape of the harbour. Tradition varies as to its founders; but we find it hostile to Tarentum, and in friendly relations with Thurii. With a fertile territory round it, it became the most important city of the Messapians, but it was developed by the Romans, into whose hands it only came after the conquest of the Sallentini in 266 B.C. They founded a colony there in 245 B.C., and the Via Appia was perhaps extended through Tarentum as far as Brundisium at this period. Pacuvius was born here about 220 B.C. After the Punic Wars it became the chief point of embarkation for Greece and the East, via Dyrrachium or Corcyra. In the Social War it received Roman citizenship, and was made a free port by Sulla. It suffered, however, from a siege conducted by Caesar in 49 B.C. (Bell. Civ. i.) and was again attacked in 42 and 40 B.C. Virgil died here in 19 B.C. on his return from Greece. Trajan constructed the Via Trajana, a more direct route from Beneventum to Brundisium. The remains of ancient buildings are unimportant, though a considerable number of antiquities, especially inscriptions, have been discovered here: one column 62 ft. in height, with an ornate capital, still stands, and near it is the base of another, the column itself having been removed to Lecce. They are said to have marked the termination of the Via Appia.

See Ch. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie, iii. (1899), 902; Notizie degli Scavi, passim. Also Brindisi.

(T. As.)

BRUNE, GUILLAUME MARIE ANNE (1763-1815), marshal of France, the son of an advocate, was born at Brives-la-Gaillarde (Corrèze), on the 13th of March 1763. Before the Revolution he went to Paris to study law, and here he became a political journalist, a Jacobin and a friend of Danton. He was appointed in 1793 to a superior command in the army direct from civil life, and as a general of brigade he took part in the fighting of the 13th Vendémiaire. In 1796 he fought under Bonaparte in Italy, and was promoted general of division for good service in the field. In 1798 he commanded the French army which occupied Switzerland, and in the following year he was in command of the French troops in Holland. His defence of Amsterdam against the Anglo-Russian expedition under the duke of York was completely successful; the invaders were defeated, and compelled, after a miserable retreat, to re-embark. He rendered further good service in Vendée and in Italy, and was made a marshal by Napoleon on the assumption by the latter of the imperial title in 1804. In 1807 Brune held a command in North Germany, but he was not afterwards employed during the First Empire. It is said that he was accused of venality, and on that account disgraced, but of this there is no proof. He was recalled to active service during the Hundred Days, and as commander of the army of the Var he defended the south of France against the Austrians. He was murdered by royalists during the White Terror at Avignon on the 2nd of August 1815.

See Notice historique sur la vie politique et militaire du maréchal Brune (Paris, 1821), and Vermeil de Conchard, L'Assassinat du maréchal Brune (Paris, 1887).

BRUNEAU, ALFRED (1857- ), French musical composer, was born in Paris. His parents were devoted to music, and he was brought up to play the 'cello, being educated at the Paris Conservatoire. He played in Pasdeloup's orchestra, and soon began to compose, writing a cantata, Geneviève de Paris, at an early age. In 1884 his Ouverture héroïque was performed, followed by the choral symphonies, Léda (1884), La Belle au bois dormant (1886) and Penthésilée. But he is best known as a dramatic composer. In 1887 his first opera, Kérim, was produced; and in 1891 his successful opera Le Rêve, with a libretto founded on Zola's story. Another subject from Zola resulted in the opera L'Attaque du moulin (1893), and libretti by Zola himself were written for his next operas Messidor (1897) and L'Ouragan (1901). Among Bruneau's other works may be mentioned his Requiem (1896), and his two collections of songs, Lieds de France and Chansons à danser. He was decorated with the Legion of Honour in 1895. His musical criticisms, published in several volumes, are remarkable for literary quality and vigour.

See Arthur Hervey's volume on Bruneau (1907).

BRUNEI, a state situated in the north-west of Borneo. It has been so diminished in area since the beginning of the 19th century as to have become in comparison with the other states of Borneo territorially insignificant. It formerly included the whole of northern Borneo and southern Palawan, and stretched down the west coast as far as Sambas. What remains of this once powerful sultanate is a triangular-shaped territory, the base of the triangle being represented by 80 m. of coast-line, and the two sides by the frontiers of Sarawak. The area is calculated to be about 1700 sq. m. This great reduction of the extent of the territory has been brought about by the cession on successive occasions of strips of territory to Sarawak and to the British North Borneo Company on condition of annual payments of money. In 1888 the state was placed under British protection. On the 2nd of January 1906 a treaty was made whereby the sultan of Brunei agreed to hand over the general administration of his state to a British resident. The sultan Mahommed Jomal-ul-alam, born in 1889, succeeded his father in May 1906. He receives an allowance of 12,000 dollars a year from state funds, and his two principal ministers receive allowances of 6000 dollars a year each. The interior people have for centuries been subject to petty oppression, and there is too much of the old spirit left among the Malays to avoid acrimonious dispute and rebellion.

The bulk of the inhabitants, who consist of Malays, Kadayans, Orang Bukits and a few Muruts, are to be found in and about the capital—also called Brunei—the population of the city being estimated at about 15,000, and the population of the whole territory being about 25,000. The city is prettily situated on the river, with a background of cleared hills, and in the distance heights clothed with magnificent forest. The dwelling-houses are built over the river on slender piles obtained from the Nibong palm which resists the action of the water for several years. Though there are practically no exports and imports, there is a certain amount of inland commerce, the Brunei Malay usually earning a living by trading with the interior tribes of Sarawak and British North Borneo. Some of them are skilled workers of brass, and the Brunei women make very beautiful cloth, interwoven and embroidered with gold thread. Sago is worked in the important river-valleys of the Tutong and the Balait, but only a small quantity of rice is cultivated.

The history of this ancient and decaying sultanate is of some interest. Brunei, or, as it is called by the natives Bruni or Dar-ul-Salam (city of peace), possesses a historic tablet of stone upon which, in A.H. 1221 (1804), was engraved in Malay characters the genealogy of the sovereigns who have ruled over the country. The engraving was the work of Datu Imaum Yakub, the high priest at the time, who received the genealogy from the lips of Merhoum Bongsu, otherwise Sultan Muadin, and Sultan Kemal-Udin, who ordered this record of their forefathers to be written. This stone tablet now stands on the tomb of Sultan Mahommed Jemal-ul-Alam at the foot of Panggal hill, in the city of Brunei. The Selesilah, or book of descent, is kept in the palace by the sultan. The other heirlooms, which are also kept in the sultan's palace, and which descend to each sultan in turn, are the "Nobab Nagara" (two royal drums) from Johore and Menang-Kabau, and the "Gunta Alamat" (bells), the gift of Sultan Bahkei of Johore or Malacca. The first sultan of Brunei was Alak-ber-Tata, who was probably of Bisaya stock, and governed the country before the introduction of Islam, in the 15th century. He assumed the name of Mahommed on his conversion to Islam, which was brought about during a visit to the Malay peninsula. Brunei, at this time, was a dependency of Majapahit (Java), and paid a yearly tribute of a jar of areca juice obtained from the young green nuts of the areca palm, and of no monetary value. The Hindu kingdom of Menjapahit was destroyed by the Mahommedans in 1478, and Brunei is mentioned in the history of Java as one of the countries conquered by Adaya Mingrat, the general of Angka Wijaya. Sultan Mahommed's only child was a daughter. His brother Akhmed married the daughter of Ong Chum Ping, a Chinese officer said to have been sent by his emperor to obtain a jewel from Mount Kinabalu in North Borneo, and was the successor of Sultan Mahommed in the sovereignty of Brunei. He was succeeded by Sultan Berkat, an Arab sherif of high rank, from the country of Taif in Arabia, who had married Sultan Akhmed's only child. Sultan Berkat built a mosque and enforced Mahommedan law, and with the assistance of the Chinese built the stone wall, which is still in existence between the islands of Kaya Orang and Chermin, by sinking forty junks filled with rock across the mouth of the Brunei river. This work was completed before the arrival of Pigafetta in 1521. In the reign of Sultan Bulkeiah Magellan's squadron anchored off the mouth of Brunei river in August 1521, and Pigafetta makes mention of the splendid court and the imperial magnificence of the Borneo capital. Sultan Bulkeiah was otherwise known as Nakoda Ragam; he was the greatest warrior of Brunei and made military expeditions to Java, Malacca, Luzon and all the coasts of Borneo. His tomb, which is handsomely built of stone, is still to be seen in Brunei, and is constantly visited by Malays, who leave money and various articles on the tomb as offerings to his memory. Others, again, come and take away anything they can find, which they keep as charms and mementoes. The Spaniards captured Brunei in 1580, the reigning sultan and his court retiring to Suai in the Baram district. The invaders were compelled to evacuate the place, however, in consequence of the heavy losses they sustained in the numerous attempts made for its recovery. The golden age of Brunei was nevertheless at an end, and there is little more of importance to record. Disputed successions and civil war, maladministration and the untrustworthiness of the Malay character, caused a steady decline in prosperity. The East India Company started a factory in the town in the 18th century, but commerce had already decayed and the establishment was abandoned. In the early part of the 19th centuiy Brunei was but a resort for pirates and a market for the slave trade. During the 'forties Admiral (then Captain) Keppel and other officers of the British navy suppressed piracy in the neighbourhood. Sarawak was handed over to Raja Brooke, and, after the capture and temporary occupation of Brunei by Sir Thomas Cochrane, Labuan was ceded to the British empire. From this island it was possible to exercise a certain control over the townspeople, and a consul was stationed there to watch affairs. Nowadays the political consequence of Brunei largely arises from the existence there of valuable seams of coal, leased to the Sarawak government.

(C. H.)

BRUNEL, ISAMBARD KINGDOM (1806-1859), English engineer, only son of Sir M.I. Brunel, was born at Portsmouth on the 9th of April 1806. He displayed in childhood singular powers of mental calculation, great skill and rapidity as a draughtsman, and a true feeling for art. At the age of fourteen he was sent to Paris, to study at the Collège Henri Quatre. In 1823 he entered his father's office as assistant-engineer, just at the time when the project of the Thames Tunnel was beginning to take shape; and during the later portion of the time, from 1825, when the work was begun, till 1828, when it was stopped by an irruption of the river, he was both nominal and actual resident engineer. In November 1829 he sent in designs and plans for the projected suspension bridge over the Avon at Clifton, but in consequence of objections raised by Thomas Telford, the referee of the bridge committee, his plans were rejected. But a new design which he sent in on a second competition in 1831 was accepted, and he was appointed engineer. The works were begun in 1836, but owing to lack of funds were not completed until 1864, after Brunel's death; his design, however, was closely adhered to, and the chains employed came from the old Hungerford suspension bridge (London), which he had built in 1841-1845, but which was displaced in 1862 by the Charing Cross railway bridge.

In March 1833 Brunel, at the age of twenty-seven, was appointed engineer of the newly-projected Great Western railway. For several years his energies were taxed to the utmost by the conflict with obstructive landowners and short-sighted critics; but he showed himself equal to the occasion, not only as a professional man, but as a persuasive negotiator. Among the engineering triumphs on that railway are the Hanwell viaduct, the Maidenhead bridge and the Box tunnel, at the time the longest in the world. The famous "battle of the gauges" took its rise from his introduction of the broad (7 ft.) gauge on that line. In 1846 he resigned his office as engineer of the Great Western railway. In 1844 he had recommended the adoption of the atmospheric system on the South Devon railway, but after a year's trial the system was abandoned. The last and greatest of Brunel's railway works was the Royal Albert bridge over the river Tamar at Saltash. This work, sanctioned by parliament in 1845, was constructed between 1853 and 1859.

In addition to the arduous labours of railway engineering Brunel took a leading part in the systematic development of ocean steam navigation. As early as October 1835 he had suggested to the directors of the Great Western railway, that they should "make it longer, and have a steamboat to go from Bristol to New York, and call it the 'Great Western.'" The project was taken up, and the "Great Western" steamship was designed by Brunel, and built at Bristol under his superintendence. It was much longer than any steamer of the day, and was the first steamship built to make regular voyages across the Atlantic. While the vessel was building a controversy was raised about the practicability of Brunel's scheme, Dr D. Lardner asserting dogmatically that the voyage could not be made, and backing his assertion with an array of figures. His view was widely accepted, but the work went on, and the voyage was accomplished in 1838. Brunel at once undertook a still larger design in the "Great Britain," which was the first large iron steamship, the largest ship afloat at that time, and the first large ship in which the screw-propeller was used. She made her first voyage from Liverpool to New York in August and September 1845; but in the following year was carelessly run upon the rocks in Dundrum Bay on the coast of Ireland. After lying there nearly a year without material damage she was got off and was employed in the Australian trade. Brunel soon after began to meditate a still vaster project, the construction of a vessel large enough to carry all the coal required for a long voyage out, and if coal could not be had at the out port, then to carry enough also for the return voyage. It seemed to him, further, that a great increase of size would give many advantages for navigation. During his connexion as engineer with the Australian Mail Company he worked out into a practical shape his conception of a "great ship"; and in 1852 his scheme was laid before the directors of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company. It was adopted, the projector being appointed engineer, and after much time occupied about contracts and specifications the work was begun in December 1853. Immense difficulties in the progress of construction caused delays from time to time. The operation of launching was several times attempted in vain; but at length the gigantic vessel, the "Great Eastern," was got afloat on the 31st of January 1858. Much remained to be done to complete the ship; and her engineer, overworked and worn out with worry, broke down and did not see her begin her first voyage on the 7th of September 1859. On the 5th he was brought home from the ship suffering from a paralytic stroke, and on the 15th he died at his house in Westminster.

In addition to the great works already described, Brunel was employed in the construction of many docks and piers, as at Monkwearmouth, Bristol, Plymouth, Briton Ferry, Brentford and Milford Haven. He was a zealous promoter of the Great Exhibition of 1851, and was a member of the committee on the section of machinery and of the building committee. He paid much attention to the improvement of large guns, and designed a floating gun-carriage for the attack on Kronstadt in the Russian War (1854); he also designed and superintended the construction of the hospital buildings at Erenkeni on the Dardanelles (1855). He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1830, and in 1858 declined the presidency of the Institution of Civil Engineers through ill-health. He received the degree of D.C.L. from Oxford in 1857. In his work he was singularly free from professional jealousy, and was always ready to commend and help others, though, himself a man of remarkable industry and energy, he demanded a high standard of faithful service from his subordinates.

See The Life of I.K. Brunel, C.E. (1870), by his son, Isambard Brunel.

BRUNEL, SIR MARC ISAMBARD (1769-1849), British inventor and engineer, was born at Hacqueville in Normandy on the 25th of April 1769. His father, a small landowner and farmer, intended him for the church, but his taste for mathematics and mechanics inclined him to another career, and he obtained a nomination for the navy, in which he served for six years. When his ship was paid off in 1792 and he returned to France, he found the Revolution at its height, and owing to his pronounced royalist opinions he was obliged to leave the country. Reaching New York in September 1793 he began to practise as an architect and civil engineer. His first employment was in land-surveying and canal-engineering. Later he submitted a highly ornamental design for the National Capitol at Washington, which, however, was not accepted, and was engaged to design and superintend the construction of the Bowery theatre, New York, burnt down in 1821. He fitted novel and ingenious machinery in the arsenal and cannon factory which he was commissioned to erect in New York, and he was asked to supply plans for the defences of the Narrows between the upper and lower bays of that port. Early in 1799 he sailed for England in order to submit to the British government his plans for the mechanical production of ships' blocks, in substitution for the manual processes then employed. After the usual difficulties and delays his proposals were adopted, largely through the recommendation of Sir Samuel Bentham, and about 1803 the erection of his machines was begun at Portsmouth dockyard. They were constructed by Henry Maudslay, and formed one of the earliest examples of a complete range of machine tools, each performing its part in a long series of operations. Not only was the quality of the product much improved but the cost was greatly diminished, and the saving effected in the first year in which the machines were in full work was estimated at £24,000, of which about two-thirds was awarded to Brunel. A little later he was occupied in devising improved machines for sawing and bending timber, and in 1811 and 1812 he was employed by the government in erecting saw-mills at Woolwich and Chatham, carrying out at the latter dockyard a complete reorganization of the system for handling timber. About 1812 he devised machinery for making boots which was adopted for the purposes of the army, but abandoned a few years later when, owing to the cessation of war, the demand became less and the supply of manual labour cheaper. At the same time he interested himself in the establishment of steam navigation on the Thames between London and Ramsgate. In 1814 he succeeded in persuading the admiralty to try steam-tugs for towing warships out to sea. The experiments were made at his own expense, for a few months after undertaking to contribute to the cost the admiralty revoked its promise on the ground that the attempt was "too chimerical to be seriously entertained." Another vain enterprise on which he wasted much time and money was an attempt to use liquefied gases as a source of motive power. His round stocking-frame or tricoteur was patented in 1816, and among his other inventions were machines for winding cotton-thread into balls, for copying drawings, for making small wooden boxes such as are used by druggists, and for the manufacture of nails, together with processes of preparing tinfoil for decorative purposes and improvements in stereotype plates for printing.

In 1821, partly as the result of the damage done by fire in 1814 to the saw-mills he owned at Battersea, and partly because his commercial abilities were far from equal to his mechanical genius, he got into financial difficulties and was thrown into prison for debt, only regaining his freedom through a grant of £5000 which his friends obtained for him from the government. Subsequently his attention was mainly devoted to projects of civil engineering, the most noteworthy being the Thames Tunnel. In 1820 he had prepared plans of bridges for erection in Rouen and St Petersburg and in the island of Bourbon. In 1823 he designed swing-bridges, and in 1826 floating landing-stages, for the port of Liverpool. A company, which was supported by the duke of Wellington, was formed in 1824 to carry out his scheme for boring a tunnel under the Thames between Wapping and Rotherhithe. The work was begun at the beginning of 1825, the excavation being accomplished by the aid of a "shield," which he had patented in 1818. Many difficulties were encountered. The river broke through the roof of the tunnel in 1827, and after a second irruption in 1828 work was discontinued for lack of funds. Seven years later it was resumed with the aid of money advanced by the government, and after three more irruptions the tunnel was completed and opened in 1843. Aided by his son, Brunel displayed extraordinary skill and resource in the various emergencies with which he had to deal, but the anxiety broke down his health. He recovered sufficiently from one paralytic stroke to attend the opening ceremony, but he was able to undertake little more professional work. A second stroke followed in 1845, and four years later he died in London on the 12th of December 1849. He received the order of the Legion of Honour in 1829 and was knighted in 1841.

See Richard Beamish, Memoirs of Sir Marc Isambard Brunel (1862).

BRUNELLESCHI (or Brunellesco), FILIPPO (1379-1446), Italian architect, the reviver in Italy of the Roman or Classic style, was born at Florence in 1379. His father, a notary, had destined him for his own profession, but observing the boy's talent for all sorts of mechanism, placed him in the gild of goldsmiths. Filippo quickly became a skilled workman, and perfected himself in the knowledge of sculpture, perspective and geometry. He designed some portions of houses in Florence, and in 1401 he was one of the competitors for the design of the gates of the baptistery of San Giovanni. He was unsuccessful, though his work obtained praise, and he soon afterwards set out for Rome. He studied hard, and resolved to do what he could to revive the older classical style, which had died out in Italy. Moreover, he was one of the first to apply the scientific laws of perspective to his work. In 1407 he returned to Florence, just at the time when it was resolved to attempt the completion of the cathedral church of Santa Maria del Fiore. Brunelleschi's plan for effecting this by a cupola was approved, but it was not till 1419, and after innumerable disputes, that the work was finally entrusted to him. At first he was hampered by his colleague Ghiberti, of whom he skilfully got rid. He did not live to see the completion of his great work, and the lantern on the summit was put up not altogether in accordance with the instructions and plans left by him. The great cupola, one of the triumphs of architecture, exceeds in some measurements that of St Peter's at Rome, and has a more massive and striking appearance. Besides this masterpiece Brunelleschi executed numerous other works, among the most remarkable of which are the Pitti palace at Florence, on the pattern of which are based the Tuscan palaces of the 15th century, the churches of San Lorenzo and Spirito Santo, and the still more elegant Capella del Pazza. The beautiful carved crucifix in the church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence is also the work of Brunelleschi. He died in Florence on the 16th of April 1446, and was buried in the cathedral church of his native city.

See Manetti, Vita di Brunelleschi (Florence, 1812); Guasti, La cupola di Santa Maria del Fiore (Florence, 1857); von Fabriczy, Filippo Brunelleschi (Stuttgart, 1892).

BRUNET, JACQUES CHARLES (1780-1867), French bibliographer, was born in Paris on the 2nd of November 1780. He was the son of a bookseller, and in 1802 he printed a supplement to the Dictionnaire bibiographique de livres rares (1790) of Duclos and Cailleau. In 1810 there appeared the first edition of his Manuel du libraire et de l'amateur des livres (3 vols.). Brunet published successive editions of his great bibliographical dictionary, which rapidly came to be recognized as the first book of its class in European literature. He died on the 14th of November 1867. Among his other works are Nouvelles Recherches bibliographiques (1834), Recherches ... sur les éditions originales ... de Rabelais (1852), and an edition of the French poems of J.G. Alione d'Asti, dating from the beginning of the 16th century (1836).

See also a notice by Le Roux de Lincy, prefixed to the catalogue (1868) of his own valuable library. A supplement to the 5th edition (1860-1865) of the Manuel du libraire was published (1878-1880) by P. Deschamps and G. Brunet.

BRUNETIÈRE, FERDINAND (1849-1906), French critic and man of letters, was born at Toulon on the 19th July 1849. After attending a school at Marseilles, he studied in Paris at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand. Desiring to follow the profession of teaching, he entered for examination at the École Normale Supérieure, but failed, and the outbreak of war in 1870 debarred him from a second attempt. He turned to private tuition and to literary criticism. After the publication of successful articles in the Revue Bleue, he became connected with the Revue des Deux Mondes, first as contributor, then as secretary and sub-editor, and finally, in 1893, as principal editor. In 1886 he was appointed professor of French language and literature at the École Normale, a singular honour for one who had not passed through the academic mill; and later he presided with distinction over various conférences at the Sorbonne and elsewhere. He was decorated with the Legion of Honour in 1887, and became a member of the Academy in 1893. The published works of M. Brunetière consist largely of reprinted papers and lectures. They include six series of Études critiques (1880-1898) on French history and literature; Le Roman naturaliste (1883); Histoire et Littérature, three series (1884-1886); Questions de critique (1888; second series, 1890). The first volume of L'Évolution de genres dans l'histoire de la littérature, lectures in which a formal classification, founded on the Darwinian theory, is applied to the phenomena of literature, appeared in 1890; and his later works include a series of studies (2 vols., 1894) on the evolution of French lyrical poetry during the 19th century, a history of French classic literature begun in 1904, a monograph on Balzac (1906), and various pamphlets of a polemical nature dealing with questions of education, science and religion. Among these may be mentioned Discours académiques (1901), Discours de combat (1900, 1903), L'Action sociale du christianisme (1904), Sur les chemins de la croyance (1905). M. Brunetière was an orthodox Roman Catholic, and his political sympathies were in the main reactionary. He possessed two prime qualifications of a great critic, vast erudition and unflinching courage. He was never afraid to diverge from the established critical view, his mind was closely logical and intensely accurate, and he rarely made a trip in the wide field of study over which it ranged. The most honest, if not the most impartial, of magisterial writers, he had a hatred of the unreal, and a contempt for the trivial; nobody was more merciless towards those who affected effete and decadent literary forms, or maintained a vicious standard of art. On the other hand, his intolerance, his sledge-hammer methods of attack and a certain dry pedantry alienated the sympathies of many who recognized the remarkable qualities of his mind. The application of universal principles to every question of letters is a check to dilettante habits of thought, but it is apt to detain the critic in a somewhat narrow and dusty path. M. Brunetière's influence, however, cannot be disputed, and it was in the main thoroughly sound and wholesome. He died on the 9th of December 1906.

His Manual of the History of French Literature was translated into English in 1898 by R. Derechef. Among critics of Brunetière see J. Lemaître, Les Contemporains (1887, &c.), and J. Sargeret, Les Grands Corvertis (1906).

BRUNHILD (M.H. Ger. Brünhilt or Prünhilt, Nor. Brynhildr), the name of a mythical heroine of various versions of the legend of the Nibelungs. The name means "the warrior woman in armour" (from O.H. Ger. brunjô, brunja, M.H. Ger. brunige, brünje, brünne, a cuirass or coat of mail, O. Eng. byrnie, and O.H. Ger. hiltja, hilta, war), and in the Norse versions of the Nibelung myth, which preserves more of the primitive traditions than the Nibelungenlied, Brunhild is a valkyrie, the daughter of Odin, by whom, as a punishment for having against his orders helped a warrior to victory, she has been cast under a spell of sleep on Hindarfjell, a lonely rock summit, until the destined hero shall penetrate the wall of fire by which she is surrounded, and wake her. This is a variant of the widespread myth which survives in the popular fairy-story of "the sleeping beauty." The ingenuity of some German scholars has made of Brunhild a personification of the day, held prisoner upon the hill-tops till in the morning the sun-god comes to her rescue, then triumphing with him awhile, only to pass once more under the spell of the powers of mist and darkness. She is thus by some commentators contrasted with "the masked warrior woman" Kriemhild (q.v.), a personification of the power of night and death. But whatever be the dim original of the character of Brunhild—as to which authorities are by no means agreed—even in the northern versions its mythical interest is quite subordinate to its purely human interest. In the Volsungasaga she is the heroine of a tragedy of passion and wounded pride; it is she who compasses the death of Sigurd, who has broken his troth plighted to her, and then immolates herself on his funeral pyre in order that in the world of the dead he may be wholly hers. In the Nibelungenlied, on the other hand, she plays a comparatively colourless rôle. She still possesses superhuman attributes: like Atalanta, she can only be won by the man who is able to overcome her in trials of speed and strength; but, instead of a valkyrie sleeping on a lonely rock, she is, when Sigfrid goes to woo her on behalf of Gunther, queen of Îslant (Îsenlant), living in a castle called the Isenstein. In the tragedy of the death of Sigfrid her part is completely overshadowed by that of "the grim Hagen," and from the moment that the murder is decided on she drops almost completely out of the story. The poet of the Nibelungenlied evidently knew nothing of the tale of her self-immolation; for, though he has nothing definite to say about her after Sigfrid's death, he keeps her alive in a sort of dignified retirement. In the last 5000 lines or so of the poem Brunhild is only mentioned four times and takes no active part in the story. (See further under Nibelungenlied.)

(W. A. P.)

BRUNHILDA (Brunechildis), queen of Austrasia (d. 613), was a daughter of Athanagild, king of the Visigoths. In 567 she was asked in marriage by Sigebert, who was reigning at Metz. She now abjured Arianism and was converted to the orthodox faith, and the union was celebrated at Metz; on which occasion Fortunatus, an Italian poet, who was then at the Frankish court, composed the epithalamium. Chilperic, brother of Sigebert, and king of the west Frankish kingdom, jealous of the renown which this marriage brought to his elder brother, hastened to ask the hand of Galswintha, sister of Brunhilda; but at the instigation of his mistress Fredegond, he assassinated his wife. Sigebert was anxious to avenge his sister-in-law, but on the intervention of Guntram, he accepted the compensation offered by Chilperic, namely the cities of Bordeaux, Cahors and Limoges, with Béarn and Bigorre.

This treaty did not prevent war soon again breaking out between Sigebert and Chilperic. So long as her husband lived, Brunhilda played a secondary part, but having been made captive by Chilperic after her husband's assassination (575), she succeeded in escaping from her prison at Rouen, after a series of extraordinary adventures, by means of a marriage with Merovech, the son of her conqueror. From this time on, she took the lead; in Austrasia she engaged in a desperate struggle against the nobles, who wished to govern in the name of her son Childebert II.; but she was worsted in the conflict and for some time had to seek refuge in Burgundy. After the death of Childebert II. (597) she aspired to govern Austrasia and Burgundy in the name of her grandsons Theudebert and Theuderich II. She was expelled from Austrasia, and then stirred up Theuderich II. against his brother, whom he defeated at Toul and Tolbiac, and put to death. Theuderich II. died shortly after this victory, and Brunhilda caused one of her great-grandchildren to be proclaimed king. The nobles of Austrasia and Burgundy, however, now summoned Clotaire II., son of Fredegond, and king of Neustria, to help them against the queen. Brunhilda was given up to him, and died a terrible death, being dragged at the heels of a wild horse (613).

Brunhilda seems to have had political ideas, and to have wished to attain to the royal power. She was a protectress of the Church, and Pope Gregory I. (590-604) addressed a series of letters to her, in which he showered praises upon her. She took it upon herself, however, to supervise the bishoprics and monasteries, and came into conflict with Columban (Columbanus), abbot of Luxeuil. As Brunhilda was a great queen, tradition ascribes to her the construction of many old castles, and a number of old Roman roads are also known by the name of Chaussées de Brunehaut.

Authorities.—Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, bks. iv.-x.; the so-called Chronicle of Fredegarius; Aug. Thierry, Récits des temps mérovingiens (2 vols., Paris, 8th ed., 1864); G. Kurth, "La Reine Brunehaut," in the Revue des questions historiques, vol. xxvi. (1891).

(C. Pf.)

BRUNI, LEONARDO (1369-1444), Italian scholar, author of the History of Florence, was born at Arezzo, and is generally known as Leonardo Aretino. He was secretary to the papal chancery under Innocent VII. and John XXII. From 1427 to his death in 1444 he was chancellor to the republic of Florence. He was buried at the expense of the state in Sta Croce, where his laurelled statue is still to be seen. He was the first to free the history of Florence from its fabulous elements, but his book, though not unintelligent, only repays very laborious study. The only Latin edition is Historiarum Florentinarum libri xii ... exempto in lucem edit. stud, et op. Sixti Brunonis (Argentor. 1610, fol.). A translation into Tuscan was published by Donato Acciajuoli in 1476 at Venice, was republished at Florence in 1492, and again, with Sansovino's continuation, at Venice in 1561.

BRÜNN (Czech Brno), the capital of the Austrian margraviate and crownland of Moravia, 89 m. N. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 108,944, of whom 70% are Germans and 30% are Czechs. Brünn is situated for the most part between two hills at the confluence of the Schwarzawa and the Zwittawa, and consists of the old town and extensive suburbs. On one of the hills, known as the Spielberg (945 ft.), stands a castle which has long been used as a prison, famous for its connexion with Silvio Pellico, who was confined within its walls from 1822 to 1830. The fortifications of the old town have now been entirely removed, giving place to handsome gardens and well-built streets, which put it in communication with its adjoining suburbs. The old town, although comparatively small, with narrow and crooked but well-paved streets, contains the most important buildings in the city. The Rathaus, which dates from 1511, has a fine Gothic portal, and contains several interesting antiquities. The ecclesiastical buildings comprise the cathedral of St Peter, situated on the lower hill; the fine Gothic church of St Jacob, built in the 15th century, with its iron tower added in 1845, and a remarkable collection of early prints; the church of the Augustinian friars, dating from the 14th century; and that of the Minorites, with its frescoes, its holy stair and its Loretto-house. Amongst the new buildings are the hall of the provincial diet, opened in 1881; a handsome new synagogue; the national museum of Moravia and Silesia and several high educational establishments, including a technical academy and a theological seminary, which are the remnants of the former university of Brünn. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop and of a Protestant consistory. Brünn, which is sometimes styled "the Austrian Manchester," is one of the most industrial towns of Austria and the chief seat of the cloth industry in the whole empire. Other important branches of industry are: the manufacture of various woollen, cotton and silk goods, leather, the machinery required in the textile factories, brewing, distilling and milling, and the production of sugar, oil, gloves and hardware. It is also an important railway junction and carries on a very active trade.

Brünn probably dates from the 9th century. In the 11th century it was bestowed by Duke Wratislas II. on his son Otto. A place of great strength, it held out successfully against sieges—in 1428 by the Hussites, in 1467 by King George of Bohemia, in 1645 by the Swedish general Torstenson, and in 1742 by the Prussians. In 1805 it was the headquarters of Napoleon before the battle of Austerlitz.

See Trautenberger, Die Chronik der Landeshauptstadt Brünn (Brünn, 1893-1897, 5 vols.).

BRUNNER, HENRY (1840- ), German historian, was born at Wels in Upper Austria on the 22nd of June 1840. After studying at the universities of Vienna, Göttingen and Berlin, he became professor at the university of Lemberg in 1866, and in quick succession held similar positions at Prague, Strassburg and Berlin. From 1872 Brunner devoted himself especially to studying the early laws and institutions of the Franks and kindred peoples of western Europe, and on these subjects his researches have been of supreme value. He also became a leading authority on modern German law. He became a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1884, and in 1886, after the death of G. Waitz, undertook the supervision of the Leges section of the Monumenta Germaniae historica. His chief works are: Die Entstehung der Schwurgerichte (Berlin, 1872); Zeugen und Inquisitionsbeweis der karolingischen Zeit (Vienna, 1866); Das anglonormännische Erbfolgesystem, nebst einem Excurs über die älteren normännischen Coutumes (Leipzig, 1869); Zur Rechtsgeschichte der römischen und germanischen Urkunde (Berlin, 1880); Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1887-1892); Mithio und Sperantes (Berlin, 1885); Die Landschenkungen der Merowinger und Agilolfinger (Berlin, 1885); Das Gerichtszeugnis und die fränkische Königsurkunde (Berlin, 1873); Forschungen zur Geschichte des deutschen und französischen Rechts (Stuttgart, 1894); Grundzüge der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1901).

BRÜNNOW, FRANZ FRIEDRICH ERNST (1821-1891), German astronomer, was born in Berlin on the 18th of November 1821. Between the ages of eight and eighteen he attended the Friedrich-Wilhelm gymnasium. In 1839 he entered the university of Berlin, where he studied mathematics, astronomy and physics, as well as chemistry, philosophy and philology. After graduating as Ph.D. in 1843, he took an active part in astronomical work at the Berlin observatory, under the direction of J. F. Encke, contributing numerous important papers on the orbits of comets and minor planets to the Astronomische Nachrichten. In 1847 he was appointed director of the Bilk observatory, near Düsseldorf, and in the following year published the well-known Mémoire sur la comète elliptique de De Vico, for which he received the gold medal of the Amsterdam Academy. In 1851 he succeeded J. G. Galle as first assistant at the Berlin observatory, and accepted in 1854 the post of director of the new observatory at Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A. Here he published, 1858-1862, a journal entitled Astronomical Notices, while his tables of the minor planets Flora, Victoria and Iris were severally issued in 1857, 1859 and 1869. In 1860 he went, as associate director of the observatory, to Albany, N. Y.; but returned in 1861 to Michigan, and threw himself with vigour into the work of studying the astronomical and physical constants of the observatory and its instruments. In 1863 he resigned its direction and returned to Germany; then, on the death of Sir W. R. Hamilton in 1865, he accepted the post of Andrews professor of astronomy in the university of Dublin and astronomer-royal of Ireland. His first undertaking at the Dublin observatory was the erection of an equatorial telescope to carry the fine object-glass presented to the university by Sir James South; and on its completion he began an important series of researches on stellar parallax. The first, second and third parts of the Astronomical Observations and Researches made at Dunsink contain the results of these labours, and include discussions of the distances of the stars α Lyrae, σ Draconis, Groombridge 1830, 85 Pegasi, and Bradley 3077, and of the planetary nebula H. iv. 37. In 1873 the observatory, on Dr Brünnow's recommendation, was provided with a first-class transit-circle, which he proceeded to test as a preliminary to commencing an extended programme of work with it, but in the following year, in consequence of failing health and eyesight, he resigned the post and retired to Basel. In 1880 he removed to Vevey, and in 1889 to Heidelberg, where he died on the 20th of August 1891. The permanence of his reputation was secured by the merits of his Lehrbuch der sphärischen Astronomie, which were at once and widely appreciated. In 1860 part i. was translated into English by Robert Main, the Radcliffe observer at Oxford; Brünnow himself published an English version in 1865; it reached in the original a 5th edition in 1881, and was also translated into French, Russian, Italian and Spanish.

See Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society, lii. 230; J. C. Poggendorff's Biog. Lit. Handwörterbuch, Bd. iii.; Nature, xliv. 449.

BRUNO, SAINT, founder of the Carthusians, was born in Cologne about 1030; he was educated there and afterwards at Reims and Tours, where he studied under Berengar. He was ordained at Cologne, and thence, in 1057, he was recalled to Reims to become scholasticus, or head of the cathedral school, and overseer of the schools of the diocese. He was made also canon and diocesan chancellor. Having protested against the misdoings of a new archbishop, he was deprived of all his offices and had to fly for safety (1076). On the deposition of the archbishop in 1080, Bruno was presented by the ecclesiastical authorities to the pope for the see, but Philip I. of France successfully opposed the appointment. After this Bruno left Reims and retired, with six companions, to a desert among the mountains near Grenoble, and there founded the Carthusian order (1084). After six years Urban II. called him to Rome and offered him the archbishopric of Reggio; but he refused it, and withdrew to a desert in Calabria, where he established two other monasteries, and died in 1101. He wrote Commentaries on the Psalms and the Pauline Epistles, to be found in Migne, Patr. Lat. clii. and cliii.; some works by namesakes have been attributed to him.

His Life will be found in the Bollandists' Acta Sanctorum (6th of October). The best study on St Bruno's life and works is Hermann Löbbel, Der Stifter des Karthäuser-Ordens, 1899 (vol. v. No. 1 of "Kirchengeschichtliche Studien," Münster).

(E. C. B.)

BRUNO, or Brun (925-965), archbishop of Cologne, third son of the German king, Henry I., the Fowler, by his second wife Matilda, was educated for the church at Utrecht, where he distinguished himself by his studious zeal. In 940 his brother, King Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto the Great, appointed him chancellor, and some years later arch-chaplain, and under his leadership the chancery was reformed and became a training ground for capable administrators. He rendered valuable assistance to his brother Otto in his efforts to suppress the risings which marked the earlier part of his reign, services which were rewarded in 953 when Bruno was made archbishop of Cologne, and about the same time duke of Lorraine. Bruno is chiefly renowned as a scholar and a patron of learning. He consorted eagerly with learned foreigners, tried to secure a better education for the clergy, and was mainly instrumental in making his brother's court a centre of intellectual life. He built many churches, and, aided by the tendency of the time, sought to purify monastic life. He died at Reims on the 11th of October 965, and was buried in the church of St Pantaleon at Cologne.

See Ruotger, "Vita Brunonis archiepiscopi Coloniensis," in the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptures, Band iv. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892); E. Meyer, De Brunone I. Archiepiscopo Coloniensi (Berlin, 1867); J.P. Pfeiffer, Historisch-Kritische Beitrage zur Geschichte Bruns I. (Cologne, 1870); K. Martin, Beitrage zur Geschichte Brunos I. von Koln (Jena, 1878).

BRUNO, GIORDANO (c. 1548-1600), Italian philosopher of the Renaissance, was born near Nola in the village of Cicala. Little is known of his life. He was christened Filippo, and took the name Giordano only on entering a religious order. In his fifteenth year he entered the order of the Dominicans at Naples, and is said to have composed a treatise on the ark of Noah. Why he submitted to a discipline palpably unsuited to his fiery spirit we cannot tell. In consequence of his views on transubstantiation and the immaculate conception he was accused of impiety, and after enduring persecution for some years, he fled from Rome about 1576, and wandered through various cities, reaching Geneva in 1579. The home of Calvinism was no resting-place for him (T. Dufour, Giordano Bruno à Genève, Geneva, 1884), and he travelled on through Lyons, Toulouse and Montpellier, arriving at Paris in 1581. Everywhere he bent his energies to the exposition of the new thoughts which were beginning to effect a revolution in the thinking world. He had drunk deeply of the spirit of the Renaissance, the determination to see for himself the noble universe, unclouded by the mists of authoritative philosophy and church tradition. The discoveries of Copernicus were eagerly accepted by him, and he used them as the lever by which to push aside the antiquated system that had come down from Aristotle, for whom, indeed, he had a perfect hatred. Like Bacon and Telesio he preferred the older Greek philosophers, who had looked at nature for themselves, and whose speculations had more of reality in them. He had read widely and deeply, and in his own writings we come across many expressions familiar to us in earlier systems. Yet his philosophy is no eclecticism. He owed something to Lucretius, something to the Stoic nature-pantheism, something to Anaxagoras, to Heraclitus, to the Pythagoreans, and to the Neoplatonists, who were partially known to him; above all, he was a profound student of Nicolas of Cusa, who was indeed a speculative Copernicus. But his own system has a distinct unity and originality; it breathes throughout the fiery spirit of Bruno himself.

Bruno had been well received at Toulouse, where he had lectured on astronomy; even better fortune awaited him at Paris, especially at the hands of Henry III. He was offered a chair of philosophy, provided he would receive the Mass. He at once refused, but was permitted to deliver lectures. These seem to have been altogether devoted to expositions of a certain logical system which Bruno had taken up with great eagerness, the Ars Magna of Raimon Lull. With the exception of a satiric comedy, Il Candelajo, all the works of this period are devoted to this logic—De Umbris Idearum, Ars Memoriae, De compendiosa architectura et complemento artis Lullii, and Cantus Circaeus. To many it has seemed a curious freak of Bruno's that he should have so eagerly adopted a view of thought like that of Lull, but in reality it is in strict accordance with the principles of his philosophy. Like the Arabian logicians, and some of the scholastics, who held that ideas existed in a threefold form—ante res, in rebus and post res—he laid down the principle that the archetypal ideas existed metaphysically in the ultimate unity or intelligence, physically in the world of things, and logically in signs, symbols or notions. These notions were shadows of the ideas, and the Ars Magna furnished him with a general scheme, according to which their relations and correspondences should be exhibited. It supplied not only a memoria technica, but an organon, or method by which the genesis of all ideas from unity might be represented intelligibly and easily. It provided also a substitute for either the Aristotelian or the Ramist logic, which was an additional element in its favour.

Under the protection of the French ambassador, Michel de Castelnau, sieur de Mauvissière, Bruno passed over in 1583 to England, where he resided for about two years. He was disgusted with the brutality of English manners, which he paints in no flattering colours, and he found pedantry and superstition as rampant in Oxford as in Geneva. Indeed, there still existed on the statute a provision that "Masters and Bachelors who did not follow Aristotle faithfully were liable to a fine of five shillings for every point of divergence, and for every fault committed against the logic of the Organon." But he indulges in extravagant eulogies of Elizabeth. He is generally said to have formed the acquaintance of Sir Philip Sidney, Fulke Greville and other eminent Englishmen, but there has been much controversy as to the facts of his life in London. It seems probable that he lived in the French embassy in some secretarial or tutorial position. He may conceivably have met Bacon, but it is quite incredible that he met Shakespeare in the printing shop of Thomas Vautrollier. In Oxford he was allowed to hold a disputation with some learned doctors on the rival merits of the Copernican and so-called Aristotelian systems of the universe, and, according to his own report, had an easy victory. The best of his works were written in the freedom of English social life. The Cena de le Ceneri, or Ash Wednesday conversation, devoted to an exposition of the Copernican theory, was printed in 1584. In the same year appeared his two great metaphysical works, De la Causa, Principio, ed Uno, and De l'Infinito, Universo, e Mondi; in the year following the Eroici Furori and Cabala del Cavallo Pegaseo. In 1584 also appeared the strange dialogue, Spaccio della Bestia Trionfante (Expulsion of the Triumphant Beast), an allegory treating chiefly of moral philosophy, but giving the essence of Bruno's philosophy. The gods are represented as resolving to banish from the heavens the constellations, which served to remind them of their evil deeds. In their places are put the moral virtues. The first of the three dialogues contains the substance of the allegory, which, under the disguise of an assault on heathen mythology, is a direct attack on all forms of anthropomorphic religion. But in a philosophical point of view the first part of the second dialogue is the most important. Among the moral virtues which take the place of the beasts are Truth, Prudence, Wisdom, Law and Universal Judgment, and in the explanation of what these mean Bruno unfolds the inner essence of his system. Truth is the unity and substance which underlies all things; Prudence or Providence is the regulating power of truth, and comprehends both liberty and necessity; Wisdom is providence itself in its supersensible aspect—in man it is reason which grasps the truth of things; Law results from wisdom, for no good law is irrational, and its sole end and aim is the good of mankind; Universal Judgment is the principle whereby men are judged according to their deeds, and not according to their belief in this or that catechism. Mingled with his allegorical philosophy are the most vehement attacks upon the established religion. The monks are stigmatized as pedants who would destroy the joy of life on earth, who are avaricious, dissolute and the breeders of eternal dissensions and squabbles. The mysteries of faith are scoffed at. The Jewish records are put on a level with the Greek myths, and miracles are laughed at as magical tricks. Through all this runs the train of thought resulting naturally from Bruno's fundamental principles, and familiar in modern philosophy as Spinozism, the denial of particular providence, the doctrine of the uselessness of prayer, the identification in a sense of liberty and necessity, and the peculiar definition of good and evil.

In 1585-1586 he returned with Castelnau to Paris, where his anti-Aristotelian views were taken up by the college of Cambrai, but was soon driven from his refuge, and we next find him at Marburg and Wittenberg, the headquarters of Lutheranism. There is a tradition that here or in England he embraced the Protestant faith; nothing in his writings would lead one to suppose so. Several works, chiefly logical, appeared during his stay at Wittenberg (De Lampade combinatoria Lulliana, 1587, and De Progressu et Lampade venatoria logicorum, 1587). In 1588 he went to Prague, then to Helmstadt. In 1591 he was at Frankfort, and published three important metaphysical works, De Triplici Minimo et Mensura; De Monade, Numero, et Figura; De Immenso et Innumerabilibus. He did not stay long at Prague, and we find him next at Zürich, whence he accepted an invitation to Venice from a young patrician, Giovanni Mocenigo. It was a rash step. The emissaries of the Inquisition were on his track; he was thrown into prison, and in 1593 was brought to Rome. Seven years were spent in confinement. On the 9th of February 1600 he was excommunicated, and on the 17th was burned at the stake.

For more than two centuries Bruno received scarcely the consideration he deserved. On the 9th of June 1889, however, as a result of a strong popular movement, a statue to him was unveiled in Rome in the Campo dei Fiori, the place of his execution.

To Bruno, as to all great thinkers, philosophy is the search for unity. Amid all the varying and contradictory phenomena of the universe there is something which gives coherence and intelligibility to them. Nor can this unity be something apart from the things; it must contain in itself the universe, which develops from it; it must be at once all and one. This unity is God, the universal substance,—the one and only principle, or causa immanens,—that which is in things and yet is distinct from them as the universal is distinct from the particular. He is the efficient and final cause of all, the beginning, middle, and end, eternal and infinite. By his action the world is produced, and his action is the law of his nature, his necessity is true freedom. He is living, active intelligence, the principle of motion and creation, realizing himself in the infinitely various forms of activity that constitute individual things. To the infinitely actual there is necessary the possible; that which determines involves somewhat in which its determinations can have existence. This other of God, which is in truth one with him, is matter. The universe, then, is a living cosmos, an infinitely animated system, whose end is the perfect realization of the variously graduated forms. The unity which sunders itself into the multiplicity of things may be called the monas monadum, each thing being a monas or self-existent, living being, a universe in itself. Of these monads the number is infinite. The soul of man is a thinking monad, and stands mid-way between the divine intelligence and the world of external things. As a portion of the divine life, the soul is immortal. Its highest function is the contemplation of the divine unity, discoverable under the manifold of objects.

Such is a brief summary of the principal positions of Bruno's philosophy. It seems quite clear that in the earlier works, particularly the two Italian dialogues, he approached more nearly to the pantheistic view of things than in his later Latin treatises. The unity expounded at first is simply an anima mundi, a living universe, but not intelligent. There is a distinct development traceable towards the later and final form of his doctrine, in which the universe appears as the realization of the divine mind.

Bruno's writings had been much neglected when Jacobi brought them into notice in his Briefe über die Lehre Spinozas (2nd ed., 1879). Since then many have held that Descartes, Spinoza and Leibnitz were indebted to him for their main principles. So far as Descartes is concerned, it is highly improbable that he had seen any of Bruno's works. Schelling, however, called one of his works after him, Bruno.

Bibliography.—The chief edition of the Latin works is that published at the public expense by F. Fiorentino, F. Tocco and H. Vitelli (Naples, 1879-1891), which superseded that of A.F. Gfrörer (Stuttgart, 1834, incomplete). The Italian works were collected by A. Wagner (Leipzig, 1830), and a new edition was published by P. de Lagarde (Göttingen, 1888-1889); also Opere Italiane, ed. Croce and G. Gentile (1907 foll.), with notes by the latter. In Germany, Gesammelte Werke, trans. L. Kuhlenbeck (1904 foll.). English translations:—The Spaccio, by Morehead, not as has been supposed by J. Toland (dated 1713, but probably printed earlier and very rare); of the preface to De l' Infinito (J. Toland in posthumous works); Eroici Furores, L. Williams (1888). There are also French and German translations.

The chief English work on Giordano Bruno is that of J. Lewis M^cIntyre (London, 1903), containing life, commentary and bibliography. See also C. Bartholmess, J. Bruno (Paris, 1846-1847); Domenico Berti, Giordano Bruno da Nola (2nd ed., 1889); H. Brunnhofer, Giordano Brunos Weltanschauung (Leipzig, 1883); M. Carrière, Philosophische Weltanschauung der Reformationszeit, pp. 411-494 (2nd ed., 1887); F.J. Clemens, Giordano Bruno und Nicolaus von Cusa (Bonn, 1847); Miss I. Frith, Life of Giordano Bruno the Nolan (London, 1887); C.E. Plumptre, Life and Works of Giordano Bruno (London, 1884); Chr. Sigwart, in Kleine Schriften, 1st series, pp. 49-124, 293-304; A. Riehl, G. Bruno (1889, ed. 1900; Eng. trans. Agnes Fry, 1905); Landsbeck, Bruno, der Martyrer der neuen Weltanschauung (1890); Owen, in Sceptics of the Italian Renaissance (London, 1893); C.H. von Stein, G. Bruno (1900); R. Adamson, Development of Modern Philosophy (Edinburgh and London, 1903); G. Louis, G. Bruno, seine Weltanschauung und Lebensauffassung (1900); O. Juliusberger, G. Bruno und die Gegenwart (1902); J. Reiner, G. Bruno und seine Weltanschauung (1907). The most important critical works are perhaps those of Felice Tocco, Le Opere Latine di Giordano Bruno (Florence, 1889), Le Opere Inedite di Giordano Bruno (Naples, 1891), Le Fonti piu recenti della filos. del Bruno (Rome, 1892). See also H. Höffding, History of Modern Philosophy (Eng. trans., 1900); J.M. Robertson, Short History of Freethought (London, 1906); G. Gentile, Giordano Bruno nella Storia della cultura (1907). For other works see G. Graziano, Bibliografia Bruniana (1900).

(R. Ad.; J. M. M.)

BRUNO (Brun, Bruns) OF QUERFURT, SAINT (c. 975-1009), German missionary bishop and martyr, belonged to the family of the lords of Querfurt in Saxony. He was educated at the famous cathedral school at Magdeburg, and at the age of twenty was attached to the clerical household of the emperor Otto III. In 996 he accompanied the emperor to Rome, and there gave up his post and entered the monastery of SS. Alexius and Bonifacius on the Aventine, taking "in religion" the name of Bonifacius. When the news reached Rome of the martyrdom of Adalbert, bishop of Prague (997), Bruno determined to take his place, and in 1004, after being consecrated by the pope as archbishop of the eastern heathen, he set out for Germany to seek aid of the emperor Henry II. The emperor, however, being at war with Boleslaus of Poland, opposed his enterprise, and he went first to the court of St Stephen of Hungary, and, finding but slight encouragement there, to that of the grand prince Vladimir at Kiev. He made no effort to win over Vladimir to the Roman obedience, but devoted himself to the conversion of the pagan Pechenegs who inhabited the country between the Don and the Danube. In this he was so far successful that they made peace with the grand prince and were for a while nominally Christians. In 1008 Bruno went to the court of Boleslaus, and, after a vain effort to persuade the emperor to end the war between Germans and Poles, determined at all hazards to proceed with his mission to the Prussians. With eighteen companions he set out; but on the borders of the Russian (Lithuanian) country he and all his company were massacred by the heathens (February 14, 1009).

During his stay in Hungary (1004) Bruno wrote a life of St Adalbert, the best of the three extant biographies of the saint (in Pertz, Mon. Germ. Hist. Scriptores, iv. pp. 577, 596-612), described by A. Potthast (Bibliotheca hist. med. aev.) as "in the highest degree attractive both in manner and matter."

A life of St Bruno was written by Dietmar, bishop of Merseburg (976-1019). This, with additions from the life of St Romuald, is published in the Bollandist Acta Sanctorum (June 19), vi. 1, pp. 223-225. See further U. Chevalier, Répertoire des sources historiques, Bio-Bibliographie (Paris, 1904), s.v. "Brunon de Querfurt."

BRUNSBÜTTEL, a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, on the N. bank of the Elbe, 60 m. N.W. from Hamburg. Pop. (1905) 2500. Brunsbüttel is the west terminus of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, which is closed there by double locks. Here also are an inner harbour, 1640 ft. long and 656 ft. wide, a coaling station, and a small harbour for the tugs and other vessels belonging to the canal company.

BRUNSWICK, KARL WILHELM FERDINAND, Duke of (1735-1806), German general, was born on the 9th of October 1735 at Wolfenbüttel. He received an unusually wide and thorough education, and travelled in his youth in Holland, France and various parts of Germany. His first military experience was in the North German campaign of 1757, under the duke of Cumberland. At the battle of Hastenbeck he won great renown by a gallant charge at the head of an infantry brigade; and upon the capitulation of Kloster Zeven he was easily persuaded by his uncle Ferdinand of Brunswick, who succeeded Cumberland, to continue in the war as a general officer. The exploits of the hereditary prince, as he was called, soon gained him further reputation, and he became an acknowledged master of irregular warfare. In pitched battles, and in particular at Minden and Warburg, he proved himself an excellent subordinate. After the close of the Seven Years' War, the prince visited England with his bride, the daughter of Frederick, prince of Wales, and in 1766 he went to France, being received both by his allies and his late enemies with every token of respect. In Paris he made the acquaintance of Marmontel; in Switzerland, whither he continued his tour, that of Voltaire; and in Rome , where he remained for a long time, he explored the antiquities of the city under the guidance of Winckelmann. After a visit to Naples he returned to Paris, and thence, with his wife, to Brunswick. His services to the dukedom during the next few years were of the greatest value; with the assistance of the minister Féronce von Rotenkreuz he rescued the state from the bankruptcy into which the war had brought it. His popularity was unbounded, and when he succeeded his father, Duke Karl I., in 1780, he soon became known as a model to sovereigns. He was perhaps the best representative of the benevolent despot of the 18th century—wise, economical, prudent and kindly. His habitual caution, if it induced him on some occasions to leave reforms uncompleted, at any rate saved him from the failures which marred the efforts of so many liberal princes of his time. He strove to keep his duchy from all foreign entanglements. At the same time he continued to render important services to the king of Prussia, for whom he had fought in the Seven Years' War; he was a Prussian field marshal, and was at pains to make the regiment of which he was colonel a model one, and he was frequently engaged in diplomatic and other state affairs. He resembled his uncle Frederick the Great in many ways, but he lacked the supreme resolution of the king, and in civil as in military affairs was prone to excessive caution. As an enthusiastic adherent of the Germanic and anti-Austrian policy of Prussia he joined the Fürstenbund, in which, as he now had the reputation of being the best soldier of his time, he was the destined commander-in-chief of the federal army.

Between 1763 and 1787 his only military service had been in the brief War of the Bavarian Succession; in the latter year, however, the Duke, as a Prussian field marshal, led the army which invaded Holland. His success was rapid, complete and almost bloodless, and in the eyes of contemporaires the campaign appeared as an example of perfect generalship. Five years later Brunswick was appointed to the command of the allied Austrian and German army assembled to invade France and crush the Revolution. In this task he knew that he must encounter more than a formal resistance. He was so far in acknowledged sympathy with French hopes of reform, that when he gave an asylum in his duchy to the "comte de Lille" (Louis XVIII.) the revolutionary government made no protest. Indeed, earlier this year (1792) he had been offered supreme command of the French army. As the king of Prussia took the field with Brunswick's army, the duke felt bound as a soldier to treat his wishes as actual orders. (For the events of the Valmy campaign see French Revolutionary Wars). The result of Brunswick's cautious advance on Paris was the cannonade of Valmy followed by a retreat of the allies. The following campaign of 1793 showed his perhaps at his best as a careful and exact general; even the fiery Hoche, with the "nation in arms" behind him, failed to make any impression on the veteran leader of the allies. But difficulties and disagreements at headquarters multiplied, and when Brunswick found himself unable to move or direct his army without interference from the king, he laid down his command and returned to govern his duchy. He did not, however, withdraw entirely from Prussian service, and in 1803 he carried out a successful and diplomatic mission to Russia. In 1806, at the personal request of Queen Louise of Prussia, he consented to command the Prussian army, but here again the presence of the king of Prussia and the conflicting views of numerous advisers of high rank proved fatal. At the battle of Auerstadt the old duke was mortally wounded. Carried for nearly a month in the midst of the routed Prussian army he died at last on the 10th of November 1806 at Ottensen near Hamburg.

His son and successor, Friedrich Wilhelm (1771-1815), who was one of the bitterest opponents of Napoleonic domination in Germany, took part in the war of 1809 at the head of a corps of partisans; fled to England after the battle of Wagram, and returned to Brunswick in 1813, where he raised fresh troops. He was killed at the battle of Quatre Bras on the 16th of June 1815.

See Lord Fitzmaurice, Charles W.F., duke of Brunswick (London, 1901); memoir in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1882); and, for an interesting sketch of his military character, A. Chuquet, Les Guerres de la Révolution—La Premiére Invasion prussienne (Paris, N.D.).

BRUNSWICK, a city and the county-seat of Glynn county, Georgia, U.S.A., and a port of entry, on St Simon Sound, about 12 m. from the Atlantic Ocean, and about 100 m. S. of Savannah. Pop. (1890) 8459; (1900) 9081, of whom 5184 were of negro descent; (1910 U.S. census) 10,182. It is one of the seaports of Georgia, the Federal government having dredged a channel in the inner harbour 21 ft. deep at mean low water and a channel across the outer bar 19.3 ft. deep at mean low water—there is a rise of 7.2 ft. at high tide. St Simon Island and Jekyl Island (a winter resort of wealthy men), lying between the ocean and the mainland, protect the harbour. The city is served by the Southern, the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic, and the Atlantic Coast Line railways; it is also connected by lines of steamboats with various ports along the coast, including New York and Boston. Brunswick's growth has been retarded by the successful rivalry of other cities, notably Savannah; but it has a considerable export trade, principally in lumber, cross-ties and naval stores—its exports were valued at $13,387,838 in 1908—and various manufactories, including planing mills, cooperage works and oyster canneries. It was settled about 1772, and received a city charter in 1856.

BRUNSWICK (Ger. Braunschweig), a sovereign duchy of northern Germany, and a constituent state of the German empire, comprising three larger and six smaller portions of territory. The principal or northern part, containing the towns of Brunswick, Wolfenbüttel and Helmstedt, is situated between the Prussian provinces of Hanover and Saxony to the south-east of the former. The western part, containing Holzminden and Gandersheim, extends eastward from the river Weser to Goslar. The Blankenburg, or eastern portion, lies to the south-east of the two former, between Prussia, the duchy of Anhalt and the Prussian province of Hanover. The six small enclaves, lying in the Prussian provinces of Hanover and Saxony, are the districts Thedinghausen, Harzburg and Kalvörde, and the three demesnes of Bodenburg, Olsburg and Ostharingen. A portion of the Harz mountains was, down to 1874, common to Brunswick and Prussia (Hanover) and known as the Communion Harz. In 1874 a partition was effected, but the mines are still worked in common, four-sevenths of the revenues derived from them falling to Prussia and the remaining three-sevenths to Brunswick.

The northern portion of the duchy has its surface diversified by hill and plain; it is mostly arable and has little forest. The other two principal portions are intersected by the Harz mountains, and its spurs and the higher parts are covered with forests of fir, oak and beech. The greatest elevations are the Wurmberg (3230 ft.), and the Achtermannshöhe (3100 ft.), lying south of the Brocken. Brunswick belongs almost entirely to the basin of the river Weser, into which the Oker, the Aller and the Leine, having their sources in the Harz, discharge their waters. The climate is mild in the north, but in the hilly country raw and cold in winter, and in autumn and spring damp. The area of the duchy is 1424 sq. m., and of this total fully one-half is arable land, 10% meadow and pasture, and 33% under forest. The population in 1905 was 485,655. The religion is, in the main, that of the Lutheran Evangelical church; but there is a large Roman Catholic community centred in and round Hildesheim, the seat of the bishopric of North Germany. The Jews have several synagogues, with a rabbinate in Brunswick. The birth-rate is 35.3, and the death-rate 21.6 per thousand inhabitants. In the rural districts, broad Low German is spoken; but the language of the upper and educated classes is distinguished by its purity of style and pronunciation.

The land devoted to agriculture is excellently farmed, and cereals, beet (for sugar), potatoes and garden produce of all kinds, particularly fruit, obtain the best market prices. The pasture land rears cattle and sheep of first-rate quality, and great attention is paid to the breeding of horses, in which the famous stud farm at Harzburg has of late years been eminently conspicuous. Timber cutting, in the forests of the Harz, employs a large number of hands. But agriculture, which, until recently, formed the chief wealth of the duchy, has now given way to the mining industry, both in point of the numbers of inhabitants employed and in the general prosperity distributed by it. The chief seat of the mining industry is the Harz, and its development annually increases in extent and importance. Coal (bituminous), iron, lead, copper, sulphur, alum, marble, alabaster, lime and salt are produced in large quantities, and the by-products of some of these, particularly chemicals and asphalt, constitute a great source of revenue. The manufactures embrace sugar (from beet), spinning, tobacco, paper, soap machines, glass, china, beer and sausages. The last are famous throughout Germany. The principal articles of export are thread, dyes, cement, chicory, beer, timber, preserves, chemicals and sausages. The railways, formerly belonging to the state, were, in 1870, leased to private companies and in 1884 purchased by Prussia, and have a length of about 320 m. The roads, of which one quarter are in the hands of the state, are excellently kept, and vie with those of any European country.

The constitution is that of a limited monarchy, and dates from a revision of the fundamental law on the 12th of October 1832. The throne is hereditary in the house of Brunswick-Lüneburg, according to the law of primogeniture, and in the male line of succession, but the rightful heir, Ernest, duke of Cumberland, was not allowed to take possession. The parliament of the duchy (Landes- or Ständeversammlung) is an assembly of estates forming one house of 48 deputies, of whom 30 are elected by municipal and rural communities, while the remainder represent the Evangelical church, the large landed proprietors, manufacturers and the professions. The house, however, has little power in initiating legislation, but it can refuse taxation, impeach ministers and receive petitions. The executive functions of the administration and government reside in the ministry (Staatsministerium) consisting of three responsible ministers, assisted by a council of the holders of the other chief offices of state. The public debt amounts to about 3¼ millions sterling, and the civil list to about £56,000 a year, mostly derived from the revenues of the state domains. By virtue of a convention with Prussia, of March 1886, the Brunswick contingent to the imperial forces forms a part of the Prussian army and is attached to the X. army corps. The convention can be rescinded only after a two years' notice.

History.—The lands which comprise the modern duchy of Brunswick belonged in the 10th century to the family of the Brunos, whence the name Brunswick is derived, of the counts of Nordheim, and the counts of Supplinburg. Inherited during the 12th century by Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, and a member of the family of Welf, they subsequently formed part of the extensive Saxon duchy ruled by his son, Henry the Lion.

When Henry was placed under the imperial ban and his duchy dismembered in 1181, he was allowed to retain his hereditary possessions, which consisted of a large part of Brunswick and Lüneburg. The bulk of these lands came subsequently to Henry's grandson, Otto, and in 1235 the emperor Frederick II., anxious to be reconciled with the Welfs, recognized Otto's title and created him duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg. Otto added several counties and the town of Hanover to his possessions, and when he died in 1252 was succeeded by his sons Albert and John. In 1267 these princes divided the duchy, Albert becoming duke of Brunswick, and John duke of Lüneburg. The dukes of Lüneburg increased the area of their duchy, and when the family died out in 1369 a stubborn contest took place for its possession. Claimed by Magnus II., duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, this prince was forced by the emperor Charles IV. to abandon his pretensions, but in 1388 his sons succeeded in incorporating Lüneburg with Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. In 1285 the duchy of Brunswick had been divided between Duke Albert's three sons, whose relations with each other were far from harmonious, and the lines of Wolfenbüttel, Göttingen and Grubenhagen had been established. The Wolfenbüttel branch died out in 1292, but was refounded in 1345 by Magnus I., a younger member of the Göttingen family; the elder Göttingen branch died out in 1463, and the Grubenhagen branch in 1596. Magnus I., duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel from 1345 to 1369, was the ancestor of the later dukes of Brunswick. His grandsons, Frederick, Bernard and Henry, secured Lüneburg in 1388, but in 1428 Bernard, the only survivor of the three, was forced to make a division of the duchy, by which he received Lüneburg, while his nephews, William and Henry, obtained Brunswick, which in 1432 they divided into Calenberg and Wolfenbüttel. In 1473, however, William, who had added Göttingen to his possessions in 1463, united these lands; but they were again divided from 1495 to 1584. In 1584 Brunswick was united by Duke Julius, and in 1596 Grubenhagen was added to it. Duke Frederick Ulrich, however, was obliged to cede this territory to Lüneburg in 1617, and when he died in 1634 his family became extinct, and Brunswick was divided between the two branches of the Lüneburg family.

The duchy of Lüneburg, founded by Bernard in 1428, remained undivided until 1520, when Duke Henry abdicated and his three sons divided the duchy. Two of the branches founded at this time soon died out; and in 1569, after the death of Ernest I., the representative of the third branch, his two sons agreed upon a partition which is of considerable importance in the history of Brunswick, since it established the lines of Dannenberg and of Lüneburg-Celle, and these two families divided the duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in 1635. The dukes of Lüneburg-Celle subsequently took the name of Hanover, and were the ancestors of the later kings of Hanover (q.v.). After the acquisition of 1635 the family of Dannenberg took the title of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, and ruled in the direct line until 1735. It was then followed by the family of Brunswick-Bevern, which had split off from the parent line in 1666 and ruled until 1884.

Brunswick has not played a very important part in German politics. Many counties were added to its area, but it was weakened by constant divisions of territory, and during the period of the Reformation some of the princes took one side and some the other. The treaty of Westphalia in 1648 made little difference to its prestige, but its subsequent position was greatly affected by the growth of Prussia. During the Seven Years' War Brunswick supported Frederick the Great, and in return was severely ravaged by the French. Duke Charles I., who accumulated a large amount of debt, sought to discharge his liabilities by sending his soldiers as mercenaries to assist England during the American War of Independence. The succeeding duke, Charles William Ferdinand, brought order into the finances, led the Prussian troops against Napoleon, and died in 1806 from wounds received at the battle of Auerstadt. Napoleon then declared the ducal family deposed and included Brunswick in the kingdom of Westphalia. In 1813 it was restored to Duke Frederick William, who was killed in 1815 at the battle of Quatre Bras. His son, Charles II., while a minor, was under the regency of George, afterwards the English king George IV., who ruled the duchy through Ernest, Count Münster-Ledenburg (1766-1839), assisted by Justus von Schmidt-Phiseldeck (1769-1851). A new constitution was granted in 1820, but after Charles came of age in 1823 a period of disorder ensued. The duke, who was very unpopular with his subjects, quarrelled with his relatives, and in 1830 a revolution drove him from the country. The government was undertaken by his brother William, and in 1831 Charles was declared incapable of ruling, and William was appointed as his successor. The ex-duke, who made a fine collection of diamonds, died childless at Geneva in August 1873. William's long reign witnessed many excellent and necessary reforms. A new constitution was granted in 1832, and in 1844 Brunswick joined the Prussian Zollverein. Trial by jury and freedom of the press were established, many religious disabilities were removed, and measures were taken towards the freedom of trade.

Brunswick took very little part in the war between Prussia and Austria in 1866, but her troops fought for Prussia during the Franco-German War of 1870-71. The duchy joined the German Confederation in 1815, the North German Confederation in 1866, and became a state of the German empire in 1871.

In 1866 the question of the succession to Brunswick became acute. Duke William was unmarried, and according to the existing conventions it would pass to George, king of Hanover, who had just been deprived of his kingdom by the king of Prussia. In 1879, however, the duke and the estates, with the active support of Prussia, concluded an arrangement for a temporary council of regency to take over the government on William's death. Moreover, if in this event the rightful heir was unable to take possession of the duchy, the council was empowered to appoint a regent. William died on the 18th of October 1884, and George's son, Ernest, duke of Cumberland, claimed Brunswick and promised to respect the German constitution. This claim was disregarded by the council of regency, and the Bundesrat declared that the accession of the duke of Cumberland would be inimical to the peace and security of the empire on account of his attitude towards Prussia. In the following year the council chose Albert, prince of Prussia, as regent, a step which brought Brunswick still more under the influence of her powerful neighbour. Albert died in September 1906, and after some futile negotiations with the duke of Cumberland, the Brunswick diet chose Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1857) as regent in May 1907.

See O. von Heinemann, Geschichte Braunschweigs und Hannovers (Gotha, 1882-1892); W. Havemann, Geschichte der Lande Braunschweig und Lüneburg (Göttingen, 1853-1857); H. Sudendorf, Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte der Herzöge von Braunschweig und Lüneburg und ihrer Lande (Hanover, 1859-1883); H. Guthe, Die Lande Braunschweig und Hannover (Hanover, 1890); J. Beste, Geschichte der braunschweigischen Landeskirche von der Reformation bis auf unsere Tage (Wolfenbüttel, 1889); A. Köcher, Geschichte von Hannover und Braunschweig 1648-1714 (Leipzig, 1884).

BRUNSWICK, a city of Germany, capital of the duchy of that name, situated in a fertile and undulating country, on the Oker, 37 m. S.E. from Hanover and 53 N.W. from Magdeburg, on the main line of railway from Berlin. Pop. (1900) 128,226; (1905) 136,423, of which number about 9000 were Roman Catholics and 1000 Jews. Brunswick is an interesting place and retains much of its medieval character. The fortifications which formerly environed it were dismantled in 1797, and have given place to a regular circle of gardens and promenades, which rank among the finest in Germany. Within them lies the old town, with somewhat narrow and crooked streets, remarkable for its numerous ancient houses, with high gables and quaintly carved exteriors. In picturesqueness it vies with Lübeck and Lüneburg among North German towns. Among its churches, the cathedral, St Blasius, or Burgkirche, a Romanesque structure begun by Henry the Lion about 1173 and finished in 1194, is of interest. The chancel is decorated with 12th-century frescoes by Johannes Gallicus, and contains the tombs of the founder and his consort, with beautiful effigies in relief, and also that of the emperor Otto IV. In the vault beneath rest the remains of the Guelphs of the Brunswick line (since 1681). Remarkable among other churches are the Magnikirche (consecrated in 1031; the present edifice being built between the 13th and 15th centuries and restored in 1877); the Martinikirche, with Romanesque towers, originally a Romanesque basilica (1180-1190), enlarged in the 13th century in early Gothic by the addition of vaulted aisles and a choir (1490-1500), and remarkable further for the splendid late Gothic Annenkapelle (1434) and three magnificent portals; the Katharinenkirche, with a fine tower, begun by Henry the Lion in 1172, added to in 1252 and finished (choir) in 1500; the Brüderkirche (1361-1451, restored 1869-1870), formerly the church of a Franciscan house, the refectory of which (1486) is now used for military stores; the Andreaskirche (1200, 1360-1420), partly transitional, partly late Gothic, with a tower 318 ft. high; and the Aegidienkirche (1278-1434), now used for exhibitions and concerts.

In secular buildings, both ancient and modern, Brunswick is also rich. The most noticeable of these is the town hall (14th and 15th centuries), a gem of Gothic architecture. In front of it is a beautiful Gothic leaden fountain of the early 15th century. Close by the cathedral is the Dankwarderode, a two-storeyed Romanesque building, erected in 1884 on the site of the ancient citadel of the same name which was destroyed by fire in 1873; the cloth merchants' hall (Gewandhaus) of the 13th century, with a richly ornamented facade in Renaissance style, now occupied by the chamber of commerce; the restored Huneborstelsche Haus with its curious and beautiful oak carving of the 16th century. The ducal palace is a fine modern structure, erected since 1865, when most of the previous building, which dated only from 1831, was destroyed by fire. The famous Quadriga of Rietschel, which perished at the same time, has been replaced by a copy by Georg Howaldt (1802-1883). The theatre lies on a spacious square close to the ducal gardens, and immediately outside the promenades; to the south is the handsome railway station. Among other numerous buildings of modern erection may be mentioned the new town hall (1895-1900) and the ministry of finance, both in early Gothic style. The scientific and art collections of Brunswick are numerous. The ducal museum contains a rich collection of antique and medieval curiosities, engravings and pictures. There are also a municipal museum, a museum of natural history, a mineralogical collection, a botanical garden and two libraries. The educational and charitable institutions of Brunswick are many. Of the former may be mentioned the Collegium Carolinum, founded in 1745, the technical high school, two gymnasia and an academy of forestry. Among the latter are a deaf and dumb institution, a blind asylum, an orphanage and various hospitals and infirmaries. A monument, 60 ft. high, to Duke Frederick William, who was slain at Quatre Bras, gives its name to the Monumentsplatz. Another to the south-east of the town perpetuates the memory of Schill Ferdinand (1776-1809) and his companions. There are also statues of Franz Abt, the composer, of Lessing and of the astronomer K.F. Gauss.

The industries of the town are considerable. Especially important are the manufacture of machinery, boilers, gasometers, pianos, preserves, chemicals, beer and sausages. Brunswick is also a leading centre of the book trade. The communications between the inner town and the extensive suburbs are maintained by an excellent service of electric tramways.

Brunswick is said to have been founded about 861 by Bruno, son of Duke Ludolf of Saxony, from whom it was named Brunswick (from the Old High German Wich, hamlet). Afterwards fortified and improved by Henry the Lion, it became one of the most important cities of northern Germany. For a long time its constitution was rather peculiar, as it consisted of five separate townlets, each with its own walls and gates, its own council and Rathaus—a condition traces of which are still evident. In the 13th century it ranked among the first cities of the Hanseatic League. After this era, however, it declined in prosperity, in consequence of the divisions of territory among the branches of the reigning house, the jealousy of the neighbouring states, the Thirty Years' War, and more recently the French occupation, under which it was assigned to the kingdom of Westphalia. During the time of the Reformation the sympathies of the citizens were with the new teaching, and the city was a member of the League of Schmalkalden. In 1830 it was the scene of a violent revolution, which led to the removal of the reigning duke. In 1834 it attained municipal self-government.

See F. Knoll, Braunschweig und Umgebung (1882); Sack, Kurze Geschichte der Stadt Braunschweig (1861); and H. Dürre, Geschichte der Stadt Braunschweig im Mittelalter (1875).

BRUNSWICK, a village of Cumberland county, Maine, U.S.A., in the township of Brunswick, on the Androscoggin river, 9 m. W. of Bath, and 27 m. N.N.E. of Portland. Pop. of the township (1900) 6806; (1910) 6621; of the village (1900) 5210 (1704 foreign-born); (1910) 5341. Brunswick is served by the Maine Central railway, and by the Lewiston, Brunswick & Bath, and the Portland & Brunswick electric railways. Opposite Brunswick and connected with it by a bridge is the township of Topsham (pop. in 1910, 2016). The village of Brunswick lies only 63 ft. above sea-level, shut within rather narrow bounds by hills or bluffs, from which good views may be obtained of the island-dotted sea and deeply-indented coast to the south and east and of the White Mountains to the west. The river falls in three successive stages for a total distance of 41 ft., furnishing good water-power for paper and cotton mills and other manufactories; the first cotton-mill in Maine was built here about 1809. The settlement of the site of Brunswick was begun by fishermen in 1628 and the place was called Pejepscot; in 1717 Brunswick was constituted a township under its present name by the Massachusetts general court, and in 1739 the township was regularly incorporated. The village was incorporated in 1836.

Brunswick is best known as the seat of Bowdoin College, a small institution of high educational rank. There are eleven buildings on a campus of about 40 acres, 1 m. from the riverbank at the end of the principal village thoroughfare. The chapel (King Chapel, named in honour of William King, the first governor of Maine), built of undressed granite, is of Romanesque style, and has twin towers and spires rising to a height of 120 ft.; the interior walls are beautifully decorated with frescoes and mural paintings. The Walker Art Building (built as a memorial to Theophilus W. Walker) is of Italian Renaissance style, has mural decorations by John la Farge, Elihu Vedder, Abbott H. Thayer and Kenyon Cox, and contains a good collection of paintings and other works of art. Among the paintings, many of which were given by the younger James Bowdoin, are examples of van Dyck, Titian, Poussin and Rembrandt. The library building is of Gothic style, and in 1908 contained 88,000 volumes (including the private library of the younger James Bowdoin). Among the other buildings are an astronomical observatory, a science building, a memorial hall, a gymnasium and three dormitories. The building of the Medical School of Maine (1820), which is a department of the college, is on the same campus. Bowdoin was incorporated by the general court of Massachusetts in 1794, but was not opened until 1802. It was named in honour of James Bowdoin (1726-1790), whose son was a liberal benefactor. The college has been maintained as a non-sectarian institution largely by Congregationalists, and is governed by a board of trustees and a board of overseers. Among the distinguished alumni have been Nathaniel Hawthorne, Franklin Pierce, Henry W. Longfellow, John P. Hale, William P. Fessenden, Melville W. Fuller, and Thomas B. Reed.

BRUNSWICK-BEVERN, AUGUST WILHELM, Duke of (1715-1781), Prussian soldier, son of Ernst Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick-Bevern, was born at Brunswick in 1715, and entered the Prussian army in 1731, becoming colonel of an infantry regiment in 1739. He won great distinction at Hohenfriedeberg as a major-general, and was promoted lieutenant-general in 1750. He was one of the most experienced and exact soldiers in the army of Frederick the Great. He commanded a wing in the battle of Lobositz in 1756, and defeated the Austrians under Marshal Konigsegg in a well-fought battle at Reichenberg on the 21st of April 1757. He took part in the battles of Prague and Kolin and the retreat to Görlitz, and subsequently commanded the Prussians left behind by Frederick in the autumn of 1757 when he marched against the French. Bevern conducted a defensive campaign against overwhelming numbers with great skill, but he soon lost the valuable assistance of General Winterfeld, who was killed in a skirmish at Moys; and he was eventually brought to battle and suffered a heavy defeat at Breslau on the 22nd of November. He fell into the hands of the Austrians on the following morning, and remained prisoner for a year. He was made general of infantry in 1759, and on the 11th of August 1762 inflicted a severe defeat at Reichenbach on an Austrian army endeavouring to relieve Schweidnitz. Bevern retired, after the peace of Hubertusburg, to his government of Stettin, where he died in 1781.