Part 2 — CHAPTER LVIII BOTANY

There are many gardeners and lovers of gardens, but comparatively few have even the most elementary knowledge of botany. How many, for instance, know or remember that in the leaves of plants are situated the kitchens in which they prepare their food, or more than vaguely recognize the presence of a nervous system in plant organisms (Vol. 21, p. 747)? The majority, indeed, ignore the fact that a little study will add a hundred-fold to their enjoyment, and that, unlike most scientific subjects, botany can be studied with a minimum of trouble or toil, and with the simplest apparatus. His own garden, the woods and fields, will give the inquirer ample subjects for his investigations, and, as in every other undertaking, the longer he pursues it the more he will see, and the more intense will be his pleasure in the contemplation of the garden of his cultivation.

Botany is, of course, one branch of an enormous subject. The student will, therefore, do well to familiarize himself with the general articles which cover the science of living matter, as outlined in the chapter on Biology. In that chapter references have in fact already been given to certain sections of the strictly botanical articles. The general arrangement of the subject in the Britannica is as follows:—(i.) articles dealing with the broad aspects of the science; (ii.) articles on “systematic” botany treating of the various families of plants; (iii.) articles describing members of their families.

General Principles

Following the most convenient and at the same time the most logical course, the article Botany (Vol. 4, p. 299) gives a key to the treatment of the whole subject in the Britannica. This is by A. B. Rendle, keeper of the Department of Botany, British Museum, who acted as general adviser to the editor in the arrangement of this branch of biology in the Britannica. The main article on the subject is under the heading Plants (Vol. 21, p. 728), by a number of eminent authorities. The article is divided as follows: Classification, by A. B. Rendle; Anatomy and History and Bibliography, by A. G. Tansley, lecturer in botany in the University of Cambridge; Physiology, by J. R. Green, formerly lecturer on plant physiology, University of Liverpool; Pathology, by H. M. Ward, formerly professor of botany, University of Cambridge; Ecology, which comprises the study of the relations of the individual plant, or species, or the plant community, with its habitat, by C. E. Moss, curator of the Cambridge University Herbarium; Cytology, which treats of the cell structure of plant organisms, by H. W. T. Wager, president of the Botanical section of the British Association, 1905; Morphology, by S. H. Vines, professor of botany, University of Oxford, and president 348of the Linnean Society, 1900–1904; Distribution, by Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, director of the Kew Botanical Gardens. Supplementary to the article Plants are the following, which should all be read carefully: Root (Vol. 23, p. 712), Stem (Vol. 25, p. 875), Leaf (Vol. 16, p. 322), Flower (Vol. 10, p. 553), Fruit (Vol. 11, p. 254). A very important article is that on Palaeobotany (Vol. 20, p. 524), which treats of the distribution, etc., of plant life in prehistoric periods. The contributor is Clement Reid of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, an original investigator in this important field. The advances in the study of minute plant organisms in the past few years have been very great and they receive treatment in the brilliant article Bacteriology (Vol. 3, p. 156), by Prof. H. M. Ward of Cambridge University, and V. H. Blackmann, professor of botany in the University of Leeds.

Other articles in the Britannica which refer to the general principles of the science will be found enumerated at the end of this chapter.

Divisions and Classification

The student must, of course, make himself familiar with the primary divisions of the vegetable kingdom. These are considered in order below. By far the biggest and the most important is that of the Angiosperms. They will be treated first.

Angiosperms: Dicotyledons

The division Angiosperms (Vol. 2, p. 9) includes all those flowering plants whose seeds are enclosed in capsules. This division is again divided into two classes: the Dicotyledons (Vol. 8, p. 185), which are distinguished by the presence of a pair of seed-leaves or cotyledons in the embryo contained in the seed; and the Monocotyledons (see Vol. 2, p. 13), which contain only one. The former embraces most of the flowerbearing plants, and includes the following families:—Boraginaceae (Vol. 4, p. 242) to which order belongs such plants as forget-me-nots, borage, heliotrope, etc. Caprifoliaceae (Vol. 5, p. 290), which include elder, honeysuckle, etc. Caryophyllaceae (Vol. 5, p. 439), with the pinks, carnations, etc. Compositae (Vol. 6, p. 811), which is the largest order in this division and includes one-tenth of the whole number of flowering plants, with such varieties as lettuce, dandelion, artichoke, sunflower, chrysanthemum, etc. Convolvulaceae (Vol. 7, p. 67), among which are the convolvulus, sweet potato, bindweed. Crassulaceae (Vol. 7, p. 380), which include a quantity of African plants. Cruciferae (Vol. 7, p. 521), with the wallflower, stock, mustard, cabbage, radish, nasturtium, etc. Cucurbitaceae (Vol. 7, p. 611), among which are the cucumber, melon, etc. Cupuliferae (Vol. 7, p. 635), with the hazel, oak, beech, alder. Ericaceae (Vol. 9, p. 739), with the rhododendron, arbutus, whortleberry, heather. Euphorbiaceae (Vol. 9, p. 892), which include the castor-oil plant, box, euphorbia, etc. Gentianaceae (Vol. 11, p. 601), with the gentian, yellow-wort, bog-bean, etc. Geraniaceae (Vol. 11, p. 762), whose name is derived from the geranium. Labiatae (Vol. 16, p. 3), with peppermint, marjoram, thyme, sage, ground-ivy. Leguminosae (Vol. 16, p. 381), which embrace gorse, furze, scarlet runner, mimosa, acacia, rest-harrow, etc. Malvaceae (Vol. 17, p. 517), with the mallow, hibiscus, hollyhock. The Moraceae (Vol. 18, p. 814), with the fig, mulberry, banyan, etc. Onagraceae (Vol. 20, p. 104), including the evening primrose, fuschia, etc. Polygonaceae (Vol. 22, p. 26), with dock, rhubarb, buckwheat, etc. Primulaceae (Vol. 22, p. 341), including primrose, cowslip, pimpernel. Ranunculaceae (Vol. 22, p. 895), with the varieties buttercup, clematis, aconite, larkspur, columbine, marsh marigold, anemone. Rosaceae (Vol. 23, p. 722), to which the rose gives the name, and which 349include strawberry, raspberry, apple, pear, plum, spiraea, blackthorn, etc. Rubiaceae (Vol. 23, p. 808), with gardenias, chincona, coffee, madder. Saxifragaceae (Vol. 24, p. 263), saxifrage, japonica, gooseberry, hydrangea. Scrophulariaceae (Vol. 24, p. 485), with veronica, foxglove, snapdragon, etc. Solanaceae (Vol. 25, p. 356), which embrace henbane, tobacco, deadly nightshade, cape gooseberry, capsicum. Umbelliferae (Vol. 27, p. 575), to which belong ivy, carrot, hemlock, celery, caraway, parsley. Urticaceae (Vol. 27, p. 805), which include the nettle tribes.

Angiosperms: Monocotyledons

The Monocotyledons include the Alismaceae (Vol. 1, p. 671), to which belong the arrow-head, the water plantain, the butomus (so called because the leaves cut the tongues of oxen feeding on them), and other water plants. Aroideae (Vol. 2, p. 640), so called from the Arum family. The Bromeliaceae (Vol. 4, p. 632), including pineapple, Spanish-moss. Cyperaceae (Vol. 7, p. 692), with bulrush, cotton grass, etc. Grasses (Vol. 12, p. 369), a most valuable article. Hydrocharideae (Vol. 14, p. 112), which include a number of water plants. Iridaceae (Vol. 14, p. 793), which include besides the iris, the crocus, gladiolus, etc. The Juncaceae (Vol. 15, p. 555), or Rush family; and the Liliaceae (Vol. 16, p. 683), which include asparagus, hyacinth, star of Bethlehem, fritillary, bluebell, etc.

Other Divisions

Another big division is that of the Gymnosperms (Vol. 12, p. 754). These have naked seed pods; that is to say, the seeds are not enclosed in capsules. The best known and largest division of this class contains the conifers: pines, firs, cedars, larches, etc.

Pteridophyta (Vol. 22, p. 605), or spore-producing plants, including the fern families as the largest and most important of its members.

Bryophyta (Vol. 4, p. 700), the second great sub-division of the vegetable kingdom, comprises the mosses and liverworts.

Algae (Vol. 1, p. 585), plants usually devoid of differentiation into roots, stem, and leaf, coming under the general class of Bryophyta, and including sea-weeds as the main group.

Lichens (Vol. 16, p. 578), compound dual organisms, part algae and part fungus, interesting because the dual organism enables the plant to live where neither of its compounds could live alone. Iceland moss, valuable both for its nutritive and medicinal qualities, comes under this division.

Fungi (Vol. 11, p. 333), an enormous class, comprising, according to Saccardo, 32,000 different species.

Bacteria (see Bacteriology, Vol. 3, p. 156), minute organisms, also known as microbes, bacilli, etc., technically called Schizomycetes.

Insectivorous Plants (Vol. 14, p. 644), more correctly termed Carnivorous, belong to a number of distinct natural orders, but agree in the extraordinary habit of adding to the supplies of nitrogenous material offered them by the soil and atmosphere by the capture and consumption of insects and other small animals.

These are the main divisions, and from the articles describing them the student will acquire a sound knowledge of the characteristics which distinguish each. As a matter of fact, interest in botany as a subject is first inspired by the particular rather than the general—that is to say, the love of individual flowers leads to the study of their habits and life history, thence to a comparison which leads to the recognition of similar characteristics in plants having apparently widely different functions, so that the following section of the subject, touching the natural history of plants, though really placed last in a logical course of reading in botany, will contain much that is already 350known to the student who wishes to pursue the subject systematically.

Natural History

In the Britannica from the various articles concerning the natural history of individual plants it is easy to trace back to what family and main division each plant belongs. To the student beginning the subject it will be most suggestive to look up the accounts of the plants which are cultivated in his garden, or which he can find near his home, and find out the family relationship between subjects which appear to differ very widely both in habits and characteristics. From the outline given above in the paragraph devoted to systematic botany an indication will be given him of the surprises which are in store for him as he pursues his investigation. He would not at first suspect, for example, that asparagus and hyacinths were cousins, that roses, apples, and blackthorn are closely related, or that chrysanthemums and artichokes have any connection with one another, let alone cabbage and wallflowers. An excellent scheme to arouse the interest of the young student would therefore be to encourage him to pick out from the list below the names of plants with which he is familiar and of which he can get specimens, and thence work backward until the meanings of the main divisions of the vegetable kingdom are clear to him.

In the natural history section of the following list will be found in alphabetical order the plants which have separate articles in the Britannica. Many plants besides these are of course described. They will be found in the Index, where the volume and page on which a description will be found are given.

CLASSIFIED LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE BRITANNICA ON BOTANY

(For biographies of botanists, see the end of the chapter on Biology)

Botany: General

Acaulescent

Acerose

Acinus

Acorn

Alburnum

Angulate

Ascus

Autogamy

Auxanometer

Axile, or Axial

Bacteriology

Botany

Boll

Bur, or Burr

Caducous

Caespitose

Cane

Capsule

Cataphyll

Chlorosis

Colleter

Corn

Cystolith

Deciduous

Fairy Ring

Flower

Fruit

Galls

Glaucous

Graft

Herb

Herbarium

Humus

Idioblast

Leaf

Marcescent

Meristem

Nut

Palaeobotany

Pin-eyed

Pistil

Plants

Pollination

Root

Ruderal

Sap

Sarcocarp

Sarmentose

Scion

Secund

Seed

Stem

Synanthy

Thorn

Thrum-eyed

Tree

Vegetable

Witch brooms

Botany: Systematic

Acotyledones

Acrogenae

Algae

Alismaceae

Amentiferae, or Amentaceae

Angiosperms

Aroideae (Arum family)

Boraginaceae

Bromeliaceae

Bryophyta

Caprifoliaceae

Caryophyllaceae

Compositae

Convolvulaceae

Crassulaceae

Cruciferae

Cucurbitaceae

Cupuliferae

Cyperaceae

Diatomaceae

Dicotyledons

Dictyogens

Ericaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Fungi

Gentianaceae

Geraniaceae

Grasses

Gymnosperms

Hydrocharideae

Insectivorous Plants

Iridaceae

Juncaceae

Labiatae

Leguminosae

Lichens

Liliaceae

Malvaceae

Moraceae

Onagraceae

Polygonaceae

Primulaceae

Pteridophyta

Ranunculaceae

Rosaceae

Rubiaceae

Saxifragaceae

Scrophulariaceae

Solanaceae

Umbelliferae

Urticaceae

351

Botany: Natural History

Aal

Aaron’s Rod

Abaca

Abutilon

Acacia

Acanthus

Achimenes

Acorus Calamus

Adonis

African Lily

Agave

Agrimony

Ailanthus

Alder

Aleurites

Alexanders

Algum, or Almug Tree

Allamanda

Alliaria officinalis

Allium

Almond

Aloe

Amadou

Amanita

Amaranth

Amaryllis

Ammoniacum, or Gum Ammoniac

Ampelopsis

Anatto

Anemone

Angelica

Animé

Anise

Apple

Apricot

Araucaria

Arbor Vitae

Archil

Aristolochia

Arrowroot

Artichoke

Ash

Asparagus

Aspen

Asphodel

Aspidistra

Aster

Aubergine

Aucuba

Auricula

Avocado Pear

Azalea

Bael Fruit

Balm

Bamboo

Banana

Baneberry

Banksia

Baobab

Barberry

Barley

Bdellium

Bean

Beech

Beet

Begonia

Benzoin, or Gum Benjamin

Betel Nut

Bilberry

Birch

Bird’s Eye

Blackberry

Bladder-wort

Boletus

Borage

Botrytis

Bottle-brush Plants

Bouvardia

Boxwood

Bracket-fungi

Brazil Nuts

Brazil Wood

Bread-fruit

Brooklime

Broom

Broom-rape

Buchu, or Buka Leaves

Buck-bean, or Bog-Bean

Buckthorn

Buckwheat

Bulrush

Burnet

Buttercup

Butter-nut

Butterwort

Cabbage

Cactus

Calabash

Calabash Tree

Calceolaria

Camellia

Campanula

Candytuft

Cannon-ball Tree

Capers

Caraway

Cardamom

Cardoon

Carnation

Carrot

Cashew Nut

Cassava

Cassia

Casuarina

Catalpa

Catha

Cayenne Pepper

Ceanothus

Cecropia

Cedar

Celandine

Celery

Centaurea

Centaury

Chantarelle

Chenopodium

Cherry

Chestnut

Chicory

Chive

Chrysanthemum

Cicely

Cimicifuga

Cinchona

Cineraria

Cinnamon

Citron

Cleavers

Clematis

Climbing Fern

Cloudberry

Clover

Cloves

Coca, or Cuca

Cocculus Indicus

Cock’s-comb

Cocoa

Coco de Mer

Coco-nut Palm

Codiaeum

Coffee

Colchicum

Coleus

Colocynth

Colt’s-foot

Columbine

Compass Plant

Cotton

Copaiba, or Copaiva

Copal

Coriander

Cork

Corn-salad

Correa

Cotoneaster

Cow-tree

Cranberry

Cress

Crinum

Crocus

Crowberry

Cryptomeria

Cucumber

Cumin, or Cummin

Currant

Custard Apple

Cyclamen

Cypress

Daffodil

Dahlia

Daisy

Dame’s Violet

Dammar, or Dammer

Dandelion

Daphne

Darlingtonia

Date Palm

Dewberry

Dividivi

Dock

Dodder

Dogwood

Dracaena

Dragon’s Blood

Dropwort

Duckweed

Dulse

Duramen

Durian

Durra

Earth-nut

Earth-star

Ebony

Edelweiss

Eglantine

Elder

Elecampane

Elephant’s Foot

Elm

Endive

Entada

Esparto, or Spanish Grass

Eucharis

Euonymus

Euphorbia

Evergreen

Everlasting, or Immortelle

Fennel

Fenugreek

Fern

Fig

Filmy Ferns

Finger-and-toe

Fir

Flax

Fool’s Parsley

Forget-me-not

Foxglove

Freesia

Fritillary

Frog-bit

Fuchsia

Fumitory

Funkia

Furze, Gorse, or Whin

Fustic

Gale

Gardenia

Garlic

Genista

Gentian

Geranium

Geum

Gillyflower

Ginger

Gladiolus

Glasswort

Gloriosa

Gloxinia

Golden Rod

Gooseberry

Gourd

Grains of Paradise

Gram, or Chick-pea

Granadilla

Grass of Parnassus

Greenheart

Ground Nut

Groundsel

352Guava

Guelder Rose

Gulfweed

Gum

Gumbo, or Okra

Gutta Percha

Hackberry

Harebell

Hawthorn

Hazel

Heath

Heliotrope, or Turnsole

Hellebore

Hemlock

Hemp

Henbane

Henna

Hickory

Hippeastrum

Holly

Hollyhock

Honey Locust

Honeysuckle

Hop

Horehound

Hornbeam

Horseradish

Horsetail

Houseleek

Huckleberry

Huon Pine

Hyacinth

Hydrangea

Hyssop

Iceland Moss

Ice-plant

Impatiens

Iris

Irish Moss, or Carrageen

Iron-wood

Ivy

Jarrah Wood

Jasmine, or Jessamine

Jew’s Ears

Job’s Tears

Judas Tree

Jujube

Juniper

Jute

Kaffir Bread

Kauri Pine

Kerguelen’s Land Cabbage

Kumquat

Labrador Tea

Laburnum

Lac

Lace-bark Tree

Lancewood

Larch

Larkspur

Lattice Leaf Plant

Laurel

Laurustinus

Lavender

Leek

Lemon

Lentil

Lettuce

Lilac, or Pipe Tree

Lily

Lime, or Linden

Liquidambar, or Sweet Gum

Litchi, or Lee-Chee

Lobelia

Loco-weeds, or Crazy Weeds

Locust-tree

Loosestrife

Loquat

Lotus

Lucerne

Lupine

Lycopodium

Madder, or Dyer’s Madder

Magnolia

Mahogany

Maidenhair

Maize, or Indian Corn

Mallow

Mammee Apple

Mandrake

Mangel-Wurzel

Mango

Mangosteen

Mangrove

Manila Hemp

Manna

Maple

Mare’s-tail

Marguerite

Marigold

Marjoram

Mastic, or Mastich

Maté, or Paraguay Tea

Medlar

Melon

Mesquite, or Honey Locust

Mignonette

Mildew

Milkwort

Millet

Mimosa

Mimulus

Mint

Mistletoe

Moly

Momordica

Moonseed

Moonwort, or Moonfern

Moreton Bay Chestnut

Mucuna

Mulberry

Mushroom

Mustard

Myrobalans

Myrrh

Myrtle

Narcissus

Nasturtium

Nettle

Nettle Tree

Nightshade

Nutmeg

Oak

Oat

Oleander

Oleaster

Olive

Onion

Orach, or Mountain Spinach

Orange

Orchids

Orris-Root

Osier

Oxalis

Paeony

Palm

Palmetto

Pansy, or Heartsease

Papyrus

Parsley

Parsnip

Passionflower

Pea

Peach

Pear

Pellitory

Pennyroyal

Pentstemon

Pepper

Peppermint

Pepper Tree

Persimmon

Petunia

Phlox

Phormium, or New Zealand Flax

Pimento

Pine

Pine-apple

Pink

Pistachio Nut

Pitcher-plants

Plane

Plantain

Plum

Poinsettia

Pokeberry, or Pokeweed

Polyanthus

Polypodium

Pomegranate

Pondweed

Poplar

Poppy

Potato

Potentilla

Primrose

Privet

Puff-ball

Pumpkin

Purslane

Pyrethrum

Quince

Radish

Ramie

Ramsons

Ranunculus

Rape

Raspberry

Reed

Rhododendron

Rice

Richardia

Robinia, or Locust-tree

Rocambole

Rose

Rosemary

Rosewood

Rosin, or Colophony

Royal Fern

Rubber

Rue

Rush

Rye

Sabicu Wood

Safflower

Saffron

Sago

Sainfoin

St. John’s Wort

Salsafy, or Salsify

Salvia

Sapan Wood

Sarracenia

Satin Wood

Saxifrage

Scammony

Scorzonera

Screw-pine

Sea-kale

Seawrack

Sedum

Sequoia

Service Tree

Sesame

Shaddock

Shallot

Sisal Hemp

Skirret

Snake-root

Snapdragon

Snowdrop

Soap-bark

Sorghum

Sorrel

Spanish Broom

Spikenard, or Nard

Spinach

Spruce

Stink-wood

Strawberry

Strophanthus

Sudd

Sumach

Sundew

Sunflower

Sunn, or India Hemp

Sweet Potato

Sweet-sop

Switch Plants

Tallow Tree

Tamarind

Tamarisk

Tea

Teak

353Teasel

Terebinth

Thistle

Thyme

Tiger-flower

Toadstool

Tobacco

Tomato

Tonqua Bean

Toothwort

Traveller’s Tree

Tree-fern

Truffle

Tuberose

Tulip

Tulip Tree

Tumble-weed

Turmeric

Turnip

Vanilla

Vegetable Marrow

Venus’s Fly-trap

Venus’s Looking-glass

Veratrum

Verbena

Vetch

Vine

Violet

Walnut

Water-lily

Water-thyme

Wax-tree

Wheat

Willow

Willow-herb

Wintergreen

Winter’s-bark

Witch-hazel

Woad

Wormwood

Yam

Yew

Yucca

Zinnia