Part 1 — CHAPTER XII FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF CHEMICALS AND DRUGS

A Factor in All Industries

The chemical and drug industry is not only in itself an enormous business, but it supplies essential materials for almost every branch of manufacturing. Chemical products are employed in our buildings, our clothing, our food; we come into the world and go out of the world with the odour of chemicals about us. The manufacturer or dealer cannot analyze all the influences that affect his market, and when he tries, as he must, to consider the future of the trade, to reckon with the channels of demand that will arise in the course of new applications of chemical products, he is facing all the problems of all the industries.

The variety of raw materials from which chemical products are derived, and the activity with which new sources are discovered and developed, are almost as bewildering. Only a century has passed since coal-tar was first distilled, and to-day no chemist would venture to fix the limits of its industrial possibilities. Electrolysis has been in use since 1804, and yet the future of the world’s wheat supply probably depends upon processes, as yet hardly beyond the experimental stage, of utilizing atmospheric nitrogen.

In connection with so comprehensive an industry, the uses of the Britannica are so manifold that this whole Guide might be devoted to them. Articles on every manufacturing process touch upon the use of chemicals. The articles on countries, states and cities are full of relevant information; and there is hardly a scientific article that would not be helpful. But the 40 general articles on chemistry, the 350 on chemical compounds, and the 75 on manufactured products call most immediately for attention; and, with the aid of other chapters in the Guide, the reader who desires to go further will easily find his way.

Articles on Chemicals

The article Chemistry (Vol. 6, p. 33), equivalent to 135 pages of this Guide, is divided into 6 sections. The first, History, traces the general trend of the science from its infancy to the foundations of the modern theory. The second section, Principles, treats of nomenclature, formulæ, chemical equations and chemical changes. It provides a brief but complete introduction to the terminology and methods of the chemist, and there is not a line in it which will not prove of value in some way or other to the chemical manufacturer. Sections 3 and 4 are devoted to Inorganic and Organic Chemistry, giving a history of the subjects and the principles underlying the structure of compounds, with cross references to all articles dealing with their preparation and properties. Sections 5 and 6 deal, respectively, with Analytical and Physical Chemistry.

Dr. Walter Nernst, professor of physical chemistry, University of Berlin, is the author of Chemical Action (Vol. 6, p. 26), which deals specifically with the nature of chemical forces and deduces the laws of chemical statics and kinetics. Of interest and importance in connection with the manufacture of chemicals is Solution (Vol. 25, p. 368), by W. C. D. Whetham, of Cambridge University, author of Theory of Solution, etc. Another theoretical article which will be found 59widely useful is Thermochemistry (Vol. 26, p. 804), by Prof. James Walker, of Edinburgh University. For further details see the chapter on Chemistry in this Guide.

Manufacture of Chemicals

It is possible here to mention only a small amount of the material dealing with the manufacture of chemicals. At the end of this chapter there is a fuller alphabetical list. It may be noted, however, that the articles on the elements, metallic and non-metallic, give much consideration to their compounds, how these are made and how used in the arts and in medicine. But in addition to this there are many noteworthy contributions dealing with chemical manufacture. For instance, Alkali Manufacture (Vol. 1, p. 674), by Dr. Georg Lunge, professor of technical chemistry, Zurich Polytechnic, 11 pages in length and with 10 illustrations. The chief processes described are the Leblanc, ammonia-soda, and electrolytic, together with others dependent upon them. The facts about the manufacture of the carbonate, hydrate, and sulphate of soda, chlorine, hydrochloric acid, etc., are fully given. Potassium (Vol. 22, p. 197) treats of the commercial compounds of this metal in the same manner. Nitrogen (Vol. 19, p. 714) explains the new process for the commercial manufacture of nitric acid from atmospheric air—a matter of enormous industrial importance—and also the conversion of nitrogen into ammonia, which has been done successfully only within the past few years.

The manufacture of chemical products by the use of electricity is the subject of Electrochemistry (Vol. 9, p. 208), and a still larger field is covered by Electrometallurgy (Vol. 9, p. 232). Both of these valuable articles are by W. G. M‘Millan, formerly secretary of the Institute of Electrical Engineers of Great Britain. Sulphuric Acid (Vol. 26, p. 65), illustrated, by Dr. Lunge, describes the properties, reactions and manufacture of the most important of all chemicals, including the more modern contact processes.

Drugs, Origin and Manufacture

As a key to the subject of the origin and manufacture of drugs, the article Pharmacology (Vol. 21, p. 347), by Dr. Ralph Stockman, professor of materia medica and therapeutics in the University of Glasgow, presents a great amount of interesting and valuable information on the action of chemical substances (apart from foods) on all kinds of animals, from bacteria up to man. A short history of pharmacology is given and a large part of the article concerns the action of drugs. There is also a classification of drugs according to the latest and most scientific methods into twenty-eight groups, describing the effects of each group. An appendix to the article, by Dr. H. L. Hennessy, is entitled Terminology in Therapeutics, and is a general explanation of the common names used in the therapeutic classification of drugs.

Since therapeutics is concerned with the remedial power of drugs and the conditions under which they are to be used, the article Therapeutics (Vol. 26, p. 793), by Dr. Sir Lauder Brunton, of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London, and author of the well-known treatise, Modern Therapeutics, should not be overlooked, nor Poison (Vol. 21, p. 893), by Dr. Sir Thomas Stevenson, lecturer on chemistry and forensic medicine at Guy’s Hospital, London, wherein all poisons are classified and their antidotes are indicated.

Pharmacy (Vol. 21, p. 355), by E. M. Holmes, of the Pharmaceutical Museum, London, is largely historical in its nature, and yields much interesting and valuable information about the pharmacist. We learn that an Egyptian papyrus of the date 2300 B.C. gives direction as to the preparation of prescriptions, and that diachylon plaster, invented by Menecrates 60in A.D. 1, is used for the same purposes to-day. A great deal of curious knowledge about ancient remedies, such as the thigh bone of a hanged man, moss grown on a human skull, the ashes of the head of a coal-black cat, etc., renders this article especially entertaining. Pharmacopœia (Vol. 21, p. 353), also by Mr. Holmes, tells about the pharmacopœias in use in different countries, the standardization of drugs, etc.

In the list at the end of this chapter are noted the numerous separate articles on drugs, their preparation and use that appear in the Britannica. Mention should be made of the articles on the elements, such as Iron (Vol. 14, p. 799), Arsenic (Vol. 2, p. 653), Mercury (Vol. 18, p. 158), Iodine (Vol. 14, p. 725), Bromine (Vol. 4, p. 633), Sodium (Vol. 25, p. 343), Potassium (Vol. 22, p. 200), Magnesium (Vol. 17, p. 321), Bismuth (Vol. 4, p. 11). Separate sections dealing with pharmacology are found in the articles on very many plants, such as Aloe (Vol. 1, p. 720), Anise (Vol. 2, p. 55), Arrowroot (Vol. 2, p. 649), Iceland Moss (Vol. 14, p. 241), Cinchona (Vol. 6, p. 369), Coca (Vol. 6, p. 614), Colchicum (Vol. 6, p. 661), Dandelion (Vol. 7, p. 801), Hop (Vol. 13, p. 678), Horehound (Vol. 13, p. 692), Lobelia (Vol. 16, p. 837), Mint (Vol. 18, p. 557), Mustard (Vol. 19, p. 97), Peppermint (Vol. 21, p. 128), etc.

Biographies of Eminent Scientists

The scientific biographies include not a few subjects which will be of interest, owing to familiarity with the names, to those engaged in the chemical and drug business. Among these are Lister, Baron Joseph L. (Vol. 16, p. 777), to whose work and teaching the present importance of the manufacture of antiseptics is largely due; Pasteur, Louis (Vol. 20, p. 892); Curie, Pierre, and Mme. Marie Curie (Vol. 7, p. 644), the physicists who first announced the existence of radium; Liebig, Baron J. von (Vol. 16, p. 590), the great physiological chemist; Lunge, Georg (Vol. 17, p. 126), the noted expert in technical chemistry, already mentioned as a contributor to the Britannica, and Glauber, J. R. (Vol. 12, p. 114), the German chemist who made a living chiefly by the sale of secret chemical and medicinal preparations.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO THOSE ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE AND SALE OF CHEMICALS AND DRUGS

Abel, Sir Frederick A.

Acacia

Acenaphthene

Acetic Acid

Aceto-Acetic Ester

Acetone

Acetophenone

Acetylene

Achard, F. C.

Acid

Acid Amides

Aconite

Acorus Calamus

Acridine

Adenine

Adipocere

Affinity, Chemical

Albumin, or Albumen

Alcohol

Alcohols

Aldehydes

Alembic

Algaroth, Powder of

Alizarin

Alkahest

Alkali

Alkali Manufacture

Alkaline Earths

Alkaloid

Alkanet

Allantoin

Alloxan

Alloxantin

Allyl Alcohol

Almond

Aloe

Alum

Aluminium

Amidines

Amines

Ammonia

Ammoniacum

Amygdalin

Amyl Alcohols

Amyl Nitrite

Anaesthesia and Anaesthetics

Analysis

Anatto

Andrews, Thomas

Angelica

Aniline

Animé

Anise

Anthracene

Anthraquinone

Antimony

Antipyrine

Antiseptics

Apothecary

Araroba Powder

Archil

Argol

Aristolochia

Arnica

Arrowroot

Arsenic

Asafetida

Asparagine

Aspen

Asphodel

Azo Compounds

Azoximes

Baeyer, Adolf von

Balard, Antoine J.

Balsam

Barium

Base

Baumé, Antoine

Bdellium

Becher, J. J.

Bell, Jacob

Belladonna

Benzaldehyde

61Benzine

Benzidine

Benzoic Acid

Benzoin

Benzophenone

Benzyl Alcohol

Berberine

Bergman, Torbern Olof

Berthelot, M. P. E.

Berthollet, C. L.

Beryllium, or Glucinum

Berzelius, J. J.

Betaine

Betel Nut

Bhang

Bibirine or Bebeerine

Bichromates and Chromates

Bismuth

Bittern

Black, Joseph

Borage

Borax

Boric Acid or Boracic Acid

Boron

Boussingault, J. B. J. D.

Brande, William Thomas

Bromine

Brown, S. M.

Brucine

Buchu

Bunsen, P. W. von

Butyl Alcohols

Butyric Acid

Cadmium

Caesium

Caffeine

Cajuput Oil

Calabar Bean

Calcium

Calomel

Calvert, F. Crace

Camphors

Cannizzaro, Stanislao

Cantharides

Capsicum

Capsule

Caraway

Carbazol

Carbide

Carbohydrate

Carbolic Acid

Carbon

Carbonates

Carbon Bisulphide

Carbonic Acid

Cardamon

Carvacrol

Cassia

Castor Oil

Catalysis

Catechu

Caustic

Cavendish, Henry

Cayenne Pepper

Cellulose

Cerium

Chamomile, or Camomile Flowers

Charcoal

Chemical Action

Chemistry

Chevreul, M. F.

Chloral

Chlorates

Chlorine

Chloroform

Chlorpicrin

Chromium

Chrysene

Cimicifuga

Cinchona

Cinnamic Acid

Cinnamon

Cinnolin

Citric Acid

Clark, Thomas

Cloves

Coal-tar

Cobalt

Coca, or Cuca

Cocaine

Coco-nut Palm

Cod-liver Oil

Colchicum

Colcothar

Collodion

Colocynth

Colt’s-Foot

Columbium

Combustion

Condenser

Conine

Copaiba

Copal

Copper

Copperas

Coriander

Corrosive Sublimate

Coumarin

Coumarones

Creosote

Cresols

Crookes, Sir William

Crotonic Acid

Croton Oil

Crystallization

Cubebs

Cumin

Curie, Pierre

Cyanamide

Cyanic Acid and Cyanates

Cyanide

Cyanogen

Cytisine

Dalton, John

Dammar

Dandelion

Daniell, John F.

Davy, Sir Humphry

Decolourizing

Depilatory

Dessication

Dewar, Sir James

Dextrine

Diazo Compounds

Didymium

Digitalis

Dill

Diphenyl

Disinfectants

Distillation

Dividivi

Döbereiner, J. W.

Dragon’s Blood

Drug

Dulong, Pierre Louis

Dumas, J. B. A.

Durene

Earth

Ecgonine

Elaterium

Elecampine

Electrochemistry

Electrolysis

Electrometallurgy

Element

Elixir

Elm

Epsom Salts

Equivalent

Erbium

Erdmann, Otto Linné

Ergot, or Spurred Rye

Erythrite

Esters

Ether

Ethers

Ethyl

Ethyl Chloride

Ethylene

Eucalyptus

Eugenol

Euphorbium

Eupion

Europium

Fehling, Hermann von

Fennel

Fenugreek

Fig

Filter

Fir

Fischer, Emil

Fittig, Rudolf

Flamel, Nicolas

Flavin

Fluoranthene

Fluorene

Fluorescein

Fluorine

Formalin, or Formaldehyde

Formic Acid

Formula

Fourcroy, A. F., Comte de

Foxglove

Frankland, Sir Edward

Frémy, Edmond

Fresenius, Karl R.

Friedel, Charles

Fructose, or Fruit-sugar

Fuchs, Johann N. von

Fulminic Acid

Fumaric and Maleic Acids

Fumitory

Furazanes

Furfurane

Fusel Oil

Gadolinium

Galangal

Galbanum

Gallic Acid

Gallium

Gamboge

Gannal, J. N.

Garlic

Gay-Lussac, J. L.

Geber

Gelatin

Gelsemium

Gentian

Geoffroy, E. F.

Gerhardt, Charles F.

Germanium

Gibbs, Oliver Wolcott

Gilbert, Sir Joseph H.

Ginger

Ginseng

Gladstone, John Hall

Glaser, Christopher

Glauber, Johann R.

Glauber’s Salt

Glucinum

Glucose

Glucoside

Glutaric Acid

Glycerin, or Glycerol

Glycols

Gmelin (family)

Gold

Graham, Thomas

Grains of Paradise

Greenheart

Guaco, Huaco or Guao

Guaiacum

Guanidine

Guarana

Guelder Rose

Guimet, Jean B.

Gum

Guyton de Morveau, Baron

Harcourt, W. Vernon

Hartshorn, Spirits of

Hashish

Hellebore

Helmont, Jean B. van

Hemp

Henbane

Henna

Henry, William

Herb

Hippuric Acid

Hofmann, A. W. von

Homberg, William

Homoeopathy

62Hop

Horehound

Houseleek

Hydantoin

Hydracrylic Acid

Hydrastine

Hydrate

Hydrazine

Hydrazone

Hydrocarbon

Hydrochloric Acid

Hydrogen

Hydroxylamine

Hyposulphite of Soda

Hyssop

Iatrochemistry

Iceland Moss

Imidazoles, or Glyoxalines

Indazoles

Indene

Indicator

Indigo

Indium

Indole

Indulines

Inulin

Iodine

Iodoform

Ipecacuanha

Iron

Isatin

Isomerism

Isoxazoles

Jaborandi

Jalap

Juniper

Kámalá

Kekulé, F. August

Kelp

Kermes

Ketenes

Ketones

Kino

Klaproth, M. H.

Kolbe, A. W. Hermann

Kopp, Hermann F. M.

Kousso

Kunkel, or Kunckel von Lowenstjern, J.

Lactic Acid

Lactones

Laevulinic Acid

Lanolin

Lanthanum

Laudanum

Lavender

Lavoisier, A. L.

Lead

Le Blanc, Nicolas

Lemery, Nicolas

Lemon

Liebig, Baron J. von

Lime

Linseed

Liquorice

Lister, Baron

Lithium

Litmus

Lobelia

Lunge, Georg

Madder

Magnesium

Magnus, H. G.

Malic Acid

Mallow

Malonic Acid

Malt

Mammee Apple

Mandelic Acid

Mandrake

Manganese

Mangosteen

Manna

Marggraf, Andreas S.

Marignac, Jean C. G. de

Mastic

Mayow, John

Medical Jurisprudence

Medicine

Mellitic Acid

Mandeléeff, Dmitri I.

Mercaptans

Mercury

Mesoxalic Acid

Methyl Alcohol

Meyer, J. Lothar

Meyer, Victor

Microcosmic Salt

Mineral Waters

Mint

Mitscherlich, E.

Mohr, K. Friedrich

Moissan, Henri

Molybdenum

Mond, Ludwig

Morphine

Mucic Acid

Murexide

Murray, John

Musk

Muspratt, J. and J. S.

Mustard

Mustard Oils

Myrrh

Myrtle

Naphtha

Naphthalene

Naphthols

Naphthylamines

Nepenthes

Newlands, John A. R.

Nickel

Nightshade

Niobium

Nitre

Nitric Acid

Nitrobenzene

Nitro Compounds

Nitrogen

Nitroglycerin

Nobel, Alfred B.

Nux Vomica

Officinal

Oils

Olefine

Oleic Acid

Opium

Orcin

Orpiment

Orris-root

Oxalic Acid

Oxazoles

Oxide

Oximes

Oxygen

Oxyhydrogen Flame

Palladium

Palmitic Acid

Paraffin

Paraldehyde

Pasteur, Louis

Pelouze, T. Jules

Pennyroyal

Peppermint

Pepsin

Perfumery

Perkin, Sir W. H.

Pettenkofer, Max J. von

Pharmacology

Pharmacopoeia

Pharmacy

Phenacetin

Phenanthrene

Phenazine

Phenol

Phenolphthalein

Phosphates

Phosphorus

Phthalazines

Phthalic Acids

Picene

Picric Acid

Picrotoxin

Pilocarpine

Pimento

Pine

Piperazin

Piperine

Piperonal

Platinum

Plattner, K. F.

Podophyllin

Poison

Polymethylenes

Pomade

Potashes

Potassium

Priestley, Joseph

Primuline

Propiolic Acid

Propyl Alcohols

Proust, Joseph Louis

Prout, William

Prussic Acid

Pumice

Purin

Purslane

Pyrazines

Pyrazoles

Pyrene

Pyrethrum

Pyridine

Pyrimidines

Pyrocatechin

Pyrogallol

Pyrones

Pyrophorous

Pyrrol

Pyruvic Acid

Quassia

Quercitron

Quinazolines

Quinine

Quinoline

Quinones

Quinoxalines

Radium

Ramsay, Sir William

Raoult, François M.

Rare Earths

Regnault, H. V.

Resorcin

Retene

Rhamnus Purshiana

Rhatany, or Krameria Root

Rhodium

Rhubarb

Richter, J. B.

Roebuck, John

Roscoe, Sir H. E.

Rose

Rouelle, G. F.

Rouge

Rubidium

Ruthenium

Saccharic Acid

Saccharin

Safflower

Saffron

Safranine

Sainte-Claire Deville, E. H.

Sal Ammoniac

Salep

Salicin, Salicinum

Saliscylic

Salt

Saltpetre

Samarium

Sandalwood

Sandarach

Santonin

Sarsaparilla

Scammony

Scandium

Scheele, K. W.

Schlippe’s Salt

Schönbein, C. F.

Schützenberger, P.

Senega

Senna

Sesame

Silica

Silicon

Silliman, Benjamin

Silver

Snake-root

Soap

63Soap-bark

Sodium

Solution

Spectroscopy

Spikenard, or Nard

Spirits

Sponges

Squill

Stahl, G. E.

Stas, J. S.

Stearic Acid

Sterochemistry

Stero-isomerism

Stoichometry

Stramonium

Strontium

Strophanthus

Strychnine

Styrolene

Succinic Acid

Sugar

Sulphonal

Sulphonic Acids

Sulphur

Sulphuric Acid

Sumbul, or Sumbal

Supra-renal extract

Talc

Tamarisk

Tannin or Tannic Acid

Tantalum

Tar

Taraxacum

Tartar

Tartaric Acid

Tellurium

Tennant, Charles

Tennant, Smithson

Terbium

Terpenes

Tetrazines

Tetrazoles

Thénard, L. J.

Therapeutics

Thermochemistry

Thiazines

Thiazoles

Thiophen

Thomsen, Julius

Thomson, Thomas

Thorium

Thymol

Thyroid

Tin

Tincture

Titanium

Toilet Powders

Toluene

Tonqua Bean

Tooth Powders and Pastes

Triazines

Triazoles

Triphenylmethane

Trophine

Tungsten

Turmeric

Upas

Uranium

Urea, or Carbamide

Urethane

Urotropin

Valency

Valerian

Valeric Acid

Vanadium

Vanilla

Van’t Hoff, J. H.

Vaseline

Vauquelin, L. N.

Veratrum

Veronal

Viburnum

Vitriol

Weighing Machines

Weights and Measures

Weldon, Walter

Wenzel, K. F.

Williamson, A. W.

Wine

Wintergreen

Winter’s Bark

Wislicenus, J.

Witch-hazel

Wöhler, Friedrich

Wollaston, W. H.

Wormwood

Wurtz, C. A.

Xanthic Acid

Xanthone

Xylene

Yew

Young, James

Ytterbium

Yttrium

Zinc

Zirconium