Part 2 — CHAPTER LVI GEOLOGY

The Province Geology or Sermons in Stones

Shakespeare tells us that “there are sermons in stones.” No science, except possibly astronomy, appeals more to the imagination or carries one further away from our present workaday world than geology. While geology “claims as its peculiar territory the rocky framework of the globe,” its object is, says the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Vol. 11, p. 638) “to trace the structural progress of our planet from the earliest beginnings of its separate existence through its various stages of growth down to the present condition of things.” It goes back millions and hundreds of millions of years to the first beginnings of things and unravels complicated processes by which the earth and each of the continents on it has been built up.

“It follows, even into detail, the varied sculpture of mountain and valley, crag and ravine.” It shows “that the present races of plants and animals are the descendants of other and very different races which once peopled the earth. It teaches that there has been a progressive development of the inhabitants.” Dead and cold though the rocks seem, they are filled, to one who can read their secret, with the tragedy of past life. Parts of Florida are but the graves where millions of corals, now crushed into massive limestone, once lived and died; the coal of Pennsylvania tells of ferns and other terrestrial plants matted together into a bed whence they originally grew; “the snails and lizards which lived and died within a hollow tree, the insects which have been imprisoned within the exuding resin of old forests, the footprints of birds and quadrupeds, the trails of worms 339left upon former shores—these and innumerable other pieces of evidence” tell of the tragedies of former times and “enable the geologist to realize in some measure what the faunas and floras of successive periods have been.”

The foundation for the study of the whole subject in the Britannica is the article Geology (Vol. 11, p. 638), equivalent to 125 pages of this Guide. It is by the highest authority in the world, Sir Archibald Geikie, long director general of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, and director of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. It deals with the general principles and gives an outline of the subject matter of the science. In particular it treats of,

The historical development of geological science;

The cosmical aspects of geology;

Geognosy;

Dynamical Geology;

Geotectonic or Structural Geology;

Palaeontological Geology;

Stratigraphical Geology;

Physiographical Geology.

Age of the Earth

While the student will doubtless be interested equally in each of these departments, the general reader will be especially interested in the historical development which—it is worthy of note—is almost the only concise account of geological history hitherto published in English. Especially interesting is the question, fully discussed, of the age of the earth. Lord Kelvin (Vol. 11, p. 653) declared some few years ago that the time “was more than twenty and less than forty millions of years and probably much nearer twenty than forty.” But the trend of later investigations, and especially the study of radio-activity, has led to the belief that the period must have been much longer. Sir Archibald Geikie sums up the evidence as follows (Vol. 11, p. 653): “In the present state of science it is out of our power to state positively what must be the lowest limit of the age of the earth, but we cannot assume it to be less, and it may possibly have been much more than one hundred millions of years.”

Geological Formations

The general reader will find of interest, too, the table (Vol. 11, p. 670) representing the geological record or order of succession of the formations of the earth’s crusts from the earliest Archean, through Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous to the Post-glacial or Human of to-day. A separate article is to be found on each of these different formations, namely: Archean (Vol. 2, p. 360); Cambrian (Vol. 5, p. 86); Silurian (Vol. 25, p. 109); Devonian (Vol. 8, p. 124); Carboniferous (Vol. 5, p. 309); Permian (Vol. 21, p. 176); Triassic (Vol. 27, p. 258); Jurassic (Vol. 15, p. 567); Cretaceous (Vol. 7, p. 414); Eocene (Vol. 9, p. 661); Oligocene (Vol. 20, p. 81); Miocene (Vol. 18, p. 565); Pliocene (Vol. 21, p. 846); Pleistocene (Vol. 21, p. 835); Recent, Post-glacial or Human under article Quaternary (Vol. 22, p. 718).

Full local geological information is found in geographical articles. See, for instance, in the article United States, the section on Geology (Vol. 27, pp. 624–632), by Professors R. D. Salisbury and T. C. Chamberlin of the University of Chicago; the section Geology in the article England (Vol. 9, pp. 415–416), by H. R. Mill, editor of The International Geography; the section Geology in the article Africa (Vol. 1, pp. 323–325), by Walcot Gibson, author of Mineral Wealth of Africa, etc. These special treatments are accompanied by sketch maps. Similarly, the articles on each of the different states of the Union has a section giving information on the geology, the flora and fauna, the climate, and the geography of the state. And in such articles on geographic topics as Great Salt Lake, Niagara, by G. Karl Gilbert, 340and Grand Canyon, by R. S. Tarr, there is valuable geological information.

Other important articles which the reader should consult are Petrology (Vol. 21, p 323), equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide, largely illustrated, by Dr. J. S. Fleet, petrographer to the Geological Survey of Great Britain; Mineralogy (Vol. 18, p. 509), equivalent to 25 pages of this Guide, by L. J. Spencer, editor of the Mineralogical Magazine; Mineral Deposits (Vol. 18, p. 504), equivalent to 15 pages of this Guide, by James F. Kemp, professor of geology of Columbia University, and geologist to the United States and New York Geological Surveys; Crystallography (Vol. 7, p. 569), equivalent to 60 pages of this Guide, also by L. J. Spencer; Mining (Vol. 18, p. 528), equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide, by Henry Smith Munroe, professor of mining, Columbia University, New York; Palaeontology (Vol. 20, p. 579), profusely illustrated, equivalent to 35 pages of this Guide, by Prof. Henry Fairfield Osborn of Columbia University, and president of the American Museum of Natural History of New York; Palaeobotany (Vol. 20, p. 524), profusely illustrated, equivalent to 100 pages of this Guide, written by three of the leading geological writers of the day: Dr. D. H. Scott, president of the Linnean Society, author of Studies in Fossil Botany; A. E. Steward, professor of botany of the University of Cambridge; and Clement Reid, author of Fossil Flora of Tegelen.

Of more popular interest are the three articles, Earthquake, Seismometer and Volcano. The article Earthquake is in two parts. The first (Vol. 8, p. 817) is an historical account telling of the extent and damage done by many earthquakes, including the terrible San Francisco earthquake of April 18, 1906, and that of Calabria and Sicily, December 28, 1908, by F. W. Rudler, president of the Geologists’ Association; the other part (Vol. 8, p. 820), by Dr. J. Milne, late professor of geology in the Imperial University of Tokio, deals with the physical theory of earthquakes. The article Volcano (Vol. 28, p. 178), equivalent to 45 pages of this Guide, is by F. W. Rudler, and gives us the reasons for and the history of volcanic disturbances. It is of interest both to the scholar and to the casual reader. Thus we learn that “while Herculaneum was buried beneath a flood of mud swept down from Vesuvius” in 79 A.D., Pompeii “was overwhelmed in great measure by loose ashes, capable of removal with comparative ease.” Nearly everyone of middle age remembers the famous eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 and the famous sunsets of that year. Concerning this the Britannica article tells us (p. 180):

Enormous quantities of dust ejected from Krakatoa in 1883 were carried to prodigious distances, samples having been collected at more than a thousand miles from the volcano; whilst the very fine material in ultramicroscopic grains which remained suspended for months in the higher regions of the atmosphere seems to have enjoyed an almost world-wide distribution, and to have been responsible for the remarkable sunsets at that period.

The article Dust (Vol. 8, p. 713), by John Aitken, inventor of the machine for counting particles of dust, explains the mechanical causes of this suspension. Besides there is much concrete information about volcanoes in articles on volcanic regions: for instance, on volcanoes in the possessions of the United States, see articles Hawaii, Alaska, Philippines.

The student should read also the articles on the different minerals, many of them long and important and all by well-known authorities. Thus the article Diamond (Vol. 8, p. 158), illustrated, equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide, is by Henry Alexander Miers, editor of the Mineralogical Magazine. Besides dealing with the general character of this stone, the article pays particular attention to diamond mining in South Africa, the text being illustrated by 341plates showing the Kimberley and DeBeers workings. The article Gem (Vol. 11, p. 560), is equivalent to 25 pages of this Guide. The article Gem, Artificial (Vol. 11, p. 569) is by the well-known chemist and physicist, Sir William Crookes. It tells of the changes induced by radioactive emanations and of the artificial production of the diamond, ruby, sapphire, Oriental emerald, amethyst and topaz. The reader will be interested, too, in the article Lapidary and Gem Cutting (Vol. 16, p. 195), by Dr. George F. Kunz, gem expert for Messrs. Tiffany & Co., New York.

There are special biographical articles in the Britannica on all the well-known geologists, and in these articles special stress has been laid on the part played by the subject of the memoirs in promoting the science. This is well shown, for instance, in the articles Agassiz (Vol. 1, p. 367); Hutton (Vol. 14, p. 16) and Lyell (Vol. 17, p. 158).

Geology, by its study of earth deposits, age of rocks, etc., and by its estimate of the date of certain extinct animals like the mammoth and hairy elephant, or of the time when certain animals, e.g., the elephant and reindeer, were found in parts of the world where they no longer occur, is an important adjunct to the science of anthropology, especially in the question of the antiquity of man. On this see the section of antiquity of man in the article Anthropology (Vol. 2, p. 114), and, in general, the chapter in this Guide on Anthropology and Ethnology.

From one point of view geology is only a branch of geography and the student of geology should consult the elaborate article on Geography in the Britannica, especially all parts dealing with physical geography or physiography. For a clue to this part of the book see the chapter in this Guide on Geography.

The following is a list of the more important articles on Geology in the Encyclopaedia Britannica:

LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO STUDENTS OF GEOLOGY

Abich, O. W. H. von

Abraum salts

Acadian

Acmite, or Aegirite

Agalmatolite

Agate

Agglomerate

Agricola, Georg

Aikin, Arthur

Alabaster

Albertite

Albian

Albite

Alexandrite

Allophane

Allport, Samuel

Alluvium

Almandine

Alquifou

Alunite, or Alumstone

Amazon Stone, or Amazonite

Amber

Amblygonite

Amethyst

Amianthus

Amphibole

Amphibolite

Amygdaloid

Analcite

Anatase

Andalusite

Andesine

Andesite

Anglesite

Anhydrite

Ankerite

Annabergite

Anning, Mary

Anorthite

Ansted, David Thomas

Anthracite

Apatite

Aphanite

Aplite

Apophyllite

Aptian

Aquamarine

Aragonite

Archean System

Archiac, vicomte d’

Arenig Group

Argentite

Argyrodite

Asbestos

Assise

Asteria, or Star-stone

Atacamite

Atherstone, W. G.

Augite

Autunite

Aventurine, or Avanturine

Avonian

Axinite

Aymestry Limestone

Azurite, or Chessylite

Bagshot Beds

Baily, William Hellier

Bain, Andrew Geddes

Bajocian

Bakewell, Robert

Bala Series

Barrande, Joachim

Barrett, Lucas

Barrois, Charles

Barton Beds

Barytes

Barytocalcite

Basalt

Basin

Batholite

Bathonian Series

Bathvillite

Bauxite

Bed

Beecher, C. E.

Belt, Thomas

Bembridge Beds

Benett, Etheldred

Benitoite

Bernician Series

Beryl

Beryllonite

Beudant, François S.

Beyrich, H. E. von

Bigsby, J. J.

Binney, E. W.

Biotite

Bismuthite

Bitumen

Blanford, W. T.

Blende, or Sphalerite

Bloodstone

Boase, Henry Samuel

Bole

Bomb

Bone Bed

342Bonney, Thomas George

Boracite

Born, I. von

Borolanite

Bort, or Boart

Bostonite

Boucher de Crévecoeur de Perthes, J.

Boué, Ami

Boulder

Boulder Clay

Bournonite

Bovey Beds

Bowerbank, J. S.

Bracklesham Beds

Bradford Clay

Brander, Gustavus

Breccia

Breislak, Scipione

Bristow, H. W.

Brocchi, G. B.

Brochant de Villiers, A. J. F. M.

Brochantite

Brodie, P. B.

Brogger, W. C.

Bromlite

Brongniart, Alexandre

Bronn, Heinrich Georg

Bronzite

Brookite

Brucite

Brückmann, Franz Ernst

Buch, Baron von

Buckland, William

Bunter

Bytownite

Cainozoic

Cairngorm

Calamine (Smithsonite)

Calcite

Callovian

Cambrian System

Cancrin, F. L. von

Caradoc Series

Carbonado

Carboniferous System

Carnelian

Cassiterite

Cat’s-eye

Cave

Celestine

Cerargyrite

Cerussite

Chabazite

Chalcedony

Chalk

Chalybite

Charnockite

Childrenite

Chlorite

Chromite

Chrysoberyl

Chrysocolla

Chrysolite

Chrysoprase

Cinnabar

Cinnamon Stone

Clarke, William B.

Clay

Clay-with-Flints

Clinoclastite

Clintonite

Close, Maxwell H.

Cobaltite

Colemanite

Columbite

Concretion

Conglomerate

Connellite

Conybeare, W. D.

Copalite, or Copaline

Cope, Edward D.

Copper-glance

Copper-pyrites, or Chalcopyrite

Coprolites

Corallian

Cornbrash

Corundum

Cotta, Bernard von

Covellite

Crater

Credner, C. F. H.

Cretaceous System

Crocidolite

Crocoite

Croll, James

Crosskey, Henry W.

Cryolite

Crystallite

Crystallography

Culm

Cumming, Joseph G.

Cuprite

Cyanite

Dacite

Dalradian

Dana, James D.

Danburite

Datolite

Daubeny, Charles G. B.

Daubree, G. A.

Davidson, Thomas

Dawson, Sir John W.

Dechen, E. H. K. von

De la Beche, Sir H. T.

Delesse, A. E. O. J.

Deluc, Jean Andre

Demantoid

Des Cloizeaux, Alfred

Descloizite

Deshayes, G. P.

Deslongchamps, J. A. E.

Desmarest, Nicolas

Desnoyers, J. P. F. S.

Desor, P. J. E.

Devonian System

Diabase

Diallage

Diamond

Diaspore

Dick, Robert

Diluvium

Diopside

Dioptase

Diorite

Dolerite

Dolomieu

Dolomite

Dopplerite

Drift

Dufrenoy, O. P. A. P.

Dumont, André Hubert

Dumortierite

Duncan, Peter Martin

Durocher, J. M. E.

Earth pillar

Earthquake

Eclogite

Egerton, Sir P. de M.

Ehrenberg, C. G.

Eichwald, K. E. von

Elaterite

Elie De Beaumont

Emerald

Emery

Emmons, Ebenezer

Enniskillen, 3rd earl of

Enstatite

Eocene

Epidiorite

Epidosite

Epidote

Erubescite

Erythrite

Escher von der Linth

Esker

Etheridge, Robert

Ettingshausen, Baron

Euclase

Fall-line

Farey, John

Faujas de Saint-Fond

Fault

Favre, Jean Alphonse

Felsite

Felspar

Fitton, William Henry

Flint

Fluor-spar

Flysch

Fold

Forbes, David

Forchhammer, J. G.

Foster, Sir C. le Neve

Fouque, F. A.

Fournet, J. J. B. X.

Fox, Robert Were

Franklinite

Freestone

Freieslebenite

Fulgurite

Fuller’s Earth

Fumarole

Gabbro

Galena

Garnet

Gaudry, Jean Albert

Gault

Geikie, Sir Archibald

Geikie, James

Geinitz, H. B.

Gem

Geology

Gesner, Abraham

Geyser

Giebel, C. G. A.

Gilbert, Grove K.

Gilsonite

Glacial Period

Glauconite

Gneiss

Godwin-Austen, R. A. C.

Goldfuss, G. A.

Goniometer

Göthite, or Goethite

Granite

Granulite

Graphite

Gravel, or Pebble Beds

Green, A. H.

Greenockite

Greenough, G. B.

Greensand

Greisen

Greywacke

Griffith, Sir Richard J.

Groth, P. H. von

Guettard, J. E.

Gumbel, K. W. von

Guyot, A. H.

Gypsum

Haast, Sir J. F. J. von

Haematite

Haidinger, W. K. von

Hall, James

Hall, Sir James

Halleflinta

Harkness, Robert

Harmotome

Hatchettite

Hauer, F. von

Haughton, Samuel

Hausmann, J. F. L.

Hayden, F. V.

Hebert, Edmond

Heddle, M. F.

Heer, Oswald

Heim, A. von St. Gallen

Helmersen, Gregor von

Hemimorphite

Henslow, John Stevens

Henwood, William Jory

Heulandite

Hicks, Henry

Hiddenite

Hitchcock, Edward

Hochstetter, F. C. von

Holocene

Hone

Hopkins, William

Hornblende

Horner, Leonard

Hornes, Moritz

Hornfels

Hulke, J. W.

Humite

Hunt, Robert

Hunt, T. Sterry

Hutton, James

343Hyacinth

Hypersthene

Idrialin

Ijolite

Ilmenite

Iolite

Itacolumite

Jade

Jameson, Robert

Jargoon

Jarosite

Jasper

Jet

Joints

Jones, T. Rupert

Jukes, J. B.

Jurassic System

Kaolin

Karrer, Felix

Karsten, K. J. B.

Kayser, F. H. E.

Kenngott, G. A.

Keuper

Kidd, John

Kimeridgian

King, Clarence

Kirwan, Richard

Kjerulf, Theodor

Kobell, W. X. F. von

Koenig, K. D. E.

Koksharov, N. I. von

Koninck, L. G. de

Kunzite

Labradorite

Laccolite

Lacroix, A. F. A.

Lamprophyres

Lapilli

Lapis Lazuli

Lapparent, A. A. C. de

Lapworth, Charles

Lasaulx, A. C. P. F. von

Laterite

Laumont, F. P. N. G. de

Lava

Leadhillite

Le Conte, Joseph

Lehmann, J. G.

Lepidolite, or Lithia-Mica

Lesley, J. Peter

Leucite

Lévy, A. M.

Lewis, Henry Corvill

Lias

Lignite

Limburgite

Limestone

Limonite

Lindstróm, Gustaf

Liroconite

Lister, Martin

Llandeilo Group

Llandovery Group

Llwyd, Edward

Loess

Logan, Sir William E.

London Clay

Lonsdale, William

Lory, Charles

Ludlow Group

Lyell, Sir Charles

McCoy, Sir Frederick

Macculloch, John

Maclure, William

Magnesite

Magnetite

Malachite

Mallet, Robert

Manganite

Mantell, G. A.

Marble

Marcasite

Marcou, J. B.

Marl

Martin, William

Meek, F. B.

Meerschaum

Melaconite

Mesozoic

Metamorphism

Metasomatism

Meteorite

Meyer, C. E. H. von

Mica

Mica-schist

Microcline

Micropegmatite

Miller, Hugh

Miller, W. H.

Millerite

Millstone Grit

Mimetite

Mineral deposits

Mineralogy

Miocene System

Mispickel

Mocha Stone

Mofetta

Mohs, Friedrich

Mojsisovics von Mojsvar, J. A. G. E.

Moldavite

Molybdenite

Monazite

Monzonite

Moonstone

Morris, John

Münster, Georg, count zu

Murchison, Sir R. I.

Muschelkalk

Muscovite

Mylonite

Napoleonite

Natrolite

Naumann, G. A. C. F.

Neck

Neocomian

Nepheline

Nepheline-syenite

Nephelinites

Neumayr, Melchior

Newberry, J. S.

Niccolite

Nicholson, H. A.

Nicol, James

Nitre

Noeggerath, J. J.

Obsidian

Oldham, Thomas

Oligocene System

Oligoclase

Olivenite

Olivine

Omalius d’Halloy, J. d’

Onyx

Oolite

Opal

Oppel, C. A.

Orbigny, A. D. d’

Ordovician System

Orthoclase

Osborn, H. F.

Oxfordian

Ozokerite, or Ozocerite

Palaeozoic

Parisite

Parkinson, James

Peach, C. W.

Pegmatite

Pendleside Series

Pengelly, William

Peperino

Peridot

Peridotite

Perlite

Permian System

Perovskite

Petalite

Petrology

Pharmacosiderite

Phenacite

Phillips, John

Phillips, William

Phillipsite

Phlogopite

Phonolite

Phosgenite

Phosphates

Phosphorite

Phyllite

Picrite

Pictet, de la Rive, F. J.

Pitchblende, or Uraninite

Pitchstone

Plagioclase

Pleistocene System

Pliocene System

Plot, Robert

Plumbago

Pneumatolysis

Pollux, or Pollucite

Porphyry

Portlandian

Portlock, J. E.

Powell, J. W.

Pre-Cambrian

Prehnite

Prestwick, Sir Joseph

Prévost, Constant

Proustite

Psilomelane

Pumice

Purbeckian

Puy

Pyrargyrite

Pyrites

Pyrolusite

Pyromorphite

Pyrope

Pyrophyllite

Pyroxene

Pyroxenite

Pyrrhotite

Quartz

Quartzite

Quartz-porphyry

Quarternary

Quenstedt, F. A. von

Rammelsberg, K. F. A.

Ramsay, Sir Andrew C.

Rath, Gerhard von

Reading Beds

Realgar

Renard, A. F.

Renevier, Eugène

Retinite

Reusch, Hans Henrik

Reuss, A. E. von

Rhaetic

Rhodochrosite

Rhodonite

Rhyolite

Rock

Rock-crystal

Roemer, F. A.

Rogers, H. D.

Rome de l’Isle, J. B. L.

Roth, J. L. A.

Rubellite

Ruby

Russell, Israel Cook

Rutile

Rutley, Frank

Salt

Salter, John William

Sand

Sandberger, K. L. F. von

Sandstone

Sapphire

Sard

Sardonyx

Satin-spar

Savi, Paolo

Scapolite

Scheelite

Schists

Schlotheim, Baron von

Schorl

Scolecite

Scoria

Scrope, G. J. Poulett

Sedgwick, Adam

Seismometer

Selwyn, A. R. C.

Sénarmont, H. H. de

Serpentine

344Sharpe, Daniel

Sill

Sillimanite

Silurian System

Sinter

Slate

Smaltite

Smith, William

Smithson, James

Smyth, Sir W. W.

Sodalite

Soffioni

Solfatara

Sorby, Henry C.

Speeton Beds

Sphene

Spherulites

Spinel

Spodumene

Spratt, Thomas A. B.

Stalactites

Stannite

Staurolite

Steno, Nicolaus

Stephanite

Stibnite

Stilbite

Stoliczka, Ferdinand

Stone

Stoppani, Antonio

Stratigraphy

Strickland, Hugh E.

Strontianite

Studer, Bernhard

Suess, Edward

Sunstone

Syenite

Sylvanite

Sylvite

Symonds, William S.

Szabó von Szentmiklos

Tachylytes

Talc

Tate, Ralph

Tchihatcheff, P. A. de

Tertiary

Tetradymite

Tetrahedrite

Theralite

Thorianite

Thorite

Tonalite

Topaz

Torbernite

Torell, Otto Martin

Torridonian

Tourmaline

Trachyte

Trass

Tremolite

Triassic System

Tridymite

Trimmer, Joshua

Tuff

Turquoise

Vanadinite

Variolite

Variscite

Veins

Verneuil, P. E. P. de

Vesuvianite

Vivianite

Vogt, Karl C.

Volcano

Waagen, W. H.

Wachsmuth, Charles

Wad

Walcott, Charles D.

Waltershausen

Wavellite

Wealden

Webster, Thomas

Wenlock Group

Werner, A. G.

Whiteaves, J. F.

Whitney, J. D.

Willemite

Witherite

Wolframite

Wollastonite

Wood, S. V.

Woodward, John

Woodward, Samuel

Woolwich-and-Reading Beds

Wright, Thomas

Wulfenite

Yoredale Series

Zoelites

Zincite

Zircon

Zirkel, Ferdinand

Zittel, Karl A. von

Zoisite