Part 2 — CHAPTER LV CHEMISTRY

We have traveled far since Chemistry had as its simple basis four elements: fire, air, water, and earth, regarded as perfect and complete since they embody every essence of which a body was supposedly capable: for fire was hot and dry; air, hot and wet; water, cold and wet; earth, cold and dry. We have outlived the belief in the philosopher’s stone which animated the Middle Ages. Yet these fallacies are but manifestations of the effort—old as thought—to reduce the manifoldness of matter to primordial elements, from which, in one form or other, every substance should be capable of being built up. The ultimate problem of chemistry is, therefore, the constitution of matter, and the fight around this is waged on the marches of the physical and chemical sciences.

Triumphs of Chemistry

The great commercial triumphs of chemistry are, of course, those due to the conquest of waste, to the utilization of by-products which for thousands of years had been regarded as useless. We are all familiar with the uses to which the by-products of coal-tar are put; we swallow one derivative to relieve headache, we may sugar our tea and flavour our ice-cream with others; with one derivative we clean our clothes which have been dyed with others; and we disinfect them with yet another. Phenacetin, saccharin, synthetic vanilla, benzine, naphthaline, analine dyes, carbolic acid, are only a few of the many substances won to the consumer by the chemist in his laboratory; and this is only one field of research. The chemist is always busy (as now with rubber, camphor, etc.), working at the synthesis of natural products in the hope that he will be able to 335find a means of manufacturing them in quantities at a cost which will make them, commercially possible, and thus lessen the drain on the world’s natural supply. In almost every detail of our lives this science enters so familiarly that we forget that the many things made possible by the chemist do not simply “happen,” but are the result of laborious research in the laboratory.

It is not possible to attain proficiency in any experimental science without laboratory work; but to the student of chemistry the lucid and original articles in the Britannica will provide a most useful commentary on his work with test-tube and burner. The general reader will find in these articles an admirable survey of the subject, and of its bearings on problems of daily life. The main article Chemistry (Vol. 6, p. 33) generally covers the ground, and serves as an introduction to separate articles on important divisions of the subject. Following its arrangement the scheme outlined below suggests a useful course of reading.

(i.) Chemistry, History (Vol. 6, p. 33). Supplementary to this section are the articles Alchemy (Vol. 1, p. 519), Element (Vol. 9, p. 253), Molecule (Vol. 18, p. 654), Atom (Vol. 2, p. 870); and reference may also be made to Medicine, Iatro-chemical School (Vol. 18, p. 50).

(ii.) Chemistry, General Principles (Vol. 6, p. 39), with reference to Valency (Vol. 27, p. 847), Chemical Action (Vol. 6, p. 26), Catalysis (Vol. 5, p. 501), Isomerism (Vol. 14, p. 881), Stereo-isomerism (Vol. 25, p. 890), Radioactivity (Vol. 22, p. 793).

(iii.) Inorganic Chemistry (Vol. 6, p. 44). See also Acid (Vol. 1, p. 145), Alkali (Vol. 1, p. 674), and the list of 138 elements and compounds under this heading below.

(iv.) Organic Chemistry (Vol. 6, p. 47), with all the 240 articles enumerated under this heading below, especially that on Polymethylenes (Vol. 22, p. 29); see also Explosives (Vol. 10, p. 81).

(v.) Analytical Chemistry (Vol. 6, p. 60), with which may be consulted, Blow Pipe (Vol. 4, p. 89), Distillation (Vol. 8, p. 318), Electrolysis (Vol. 9, p. 217), Indicator (Vol. 14, p. 482), Solution (Vol. 25, p. 368), Stoichiometry (Vol. 25, p. 939).

(vi.) Physical Chemistry (Vol. 6, p. 65) supplemented by Energetics (Vol. 9, p. 390), Chemical Action (Vol. 6, p. 26), Thermochemistry (Vol. 26, p. 804), Solution (Vol. 25, p. 368), Distillation (Vol. 8, p. 318), Condensation of Gases (Vol. 6, p. 844), with the important articles Photochemistry (Vol. 21, p. 484), Electrochemistry (Vol. 9, p. 208), Metallurgy (Vol. 18, p. 203), Electrometallurgy (Vol. 9, p. 232), Assaying (Vol. 2, p. 776).

Among the contributors to the chemical department of the Britannica are: Professor Ernest Rutherford, of the University of Manchester; Walter Nernst, professor of physical chemistry in the University of Berlin; W. C. D. Whetham, author of Theory of Solution, etc.; Prof. James Walker of the University of Edinburgh; Johannes Diderik van der Waals, professor of physics, University of Amsterdam; W. R. E. Hodgkinson, professor of chemistry and physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich, perhaps the greatest living authority on explosives.

The following is a classified list of the articles on Chemistry which are contained in the Britannica. For discussions of the application of chemistry to photography, the reader should consult the article Photography (Vol. 21, p. 485), of which the chemical section is by Sir W. de W. Abney, adviser in Science to the English Board of Education.

336

CHEMISTRY—GENERAL

Affinity, Chemical

Alchemy

Alembic

Allotropy

Amorphism

Analysis

Assaying

Atmolysis

Atom

Blowpipe

Catalysis

Chemical Action

Chemistry

Combustion

Condenser

Crystallization

Decolourizing

Desiccation

Dialysis

Dissociation

Distillation

Electrochemistry

Electrolysis

Element

Elixir

Equivalent

Explosives

Flame

Formula

Gas

Hydrolysis

Iatrochemistry

Indicator

Isomerism

Matrass

Molecule

Photochemistry

Pigments

Pyrophorus

Radioactivity

Solution

Stereochemistry

Stereo-isomerism

Stoichiometry

Thermochemistry

Valency

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Acid

Algaroth, Powder of

Alkali

Alkali Manufacture

Alkaline Earths

Alum

Aluminium

Amalgam

Ammonia

Antimony

Argon

Arsenic

Azoimide, or Hydrazoic Acid

Azoth

Barium

Base

Beryllium, or Glucinum

Bichromates and Chromates

Bismuth

Bittern

Borax

Boric Acid, or Boracic Acid

Boron

Brimstone

Bromine

Cadmium

Caesium

Calcium

Calomel

Carbide

Carbon

Carbonates

Carbon Bisulphide

Carbonic Acid

Carborundum

Caustic

Cerium

Charcoal

Chlorates

Chlorine

Chromium

Cobalt

Colcothar

Columbium, or Niobium

Copper

Copperas

Corrosive Sublimate

Didymium

Earth

Epsom Salts

Erbium

Europium

Fluorine

Gadolinium

Gallium

Germanium

Glauber’s Salt

Glucinum

Gold

Gunpowder

Halogens

Hartshorn, Spirits of

Helium

Hydrate

Hydrazine

Hydrochloric Acid

Hydrogen

Hydroxylamine

Hyposulphite of Soda

Ice

Indium

Iodine

Iron

Kelp

Kermes

Lamp-black

Lanthanum

Lead

Lime

Lithium

Magnesium

Manganese

Mercury

Microcosmic Salt

Molybdenum

Nickel

Niobium

Nitre

Nitric Acid

Nitrogen

Ochres

Orpiment

Osmium

Oxide

Oxygen

Oxyhydrogen Flame

Ozone

Palladium

Phosphates

Phosphorus

Plaster of Paris

Platinum

Potashes

Potassium

Radium

Rare Earths

Rhodium

Rouge

Rubidium

Rust

Ruthenium

Sal Ammoniac

Salt

Saltpetre

Samarium

Scandium

Schlippe’s Salt

Selenium

Silica

Silicon

Silver

Sodium

Steam

Strontium

Sulphur

Sulphuric Acid

Tantalum

Tellurium

Terbium

Thallium

Thorium

Tin

Titanium

Tungsten

Ultramarine

Umber

Uranium

Vanadium

Vermilion

Vitriol

Ytterbium (Neo-ytterbium)

Yttrium

Zinc

Zirconium

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Acenaphthene

Acetic Acid

Aceto-acetic Ester

Acetone

Acetophenone

Acetylene

Acid Amides

Acridine

Adenine

Adipocere

Albumin, or Albumen

Alcohol

Alcohols

Aldehydes

Alizarin

Alkahest

Alkaloid

Alkanet

Allantoin

Alloxan

Alloxantin

Allyl Alcohol

Amidines

Amines

Amygdalin

Amyl Alcohols

Amyl Nitrate

Aniline

Anthracene

Anthraquinone

Antipyrine

Argol

Asparagine

Azo Compounds

Azoximes

Benzaldehyde

337Benzene

Benzidine

Benzoic Acid

Benzoin

Benzophenone

Benzyl Alcohol

Berberine

Betaïne

Brucine

Butyl Alcohols

Butyric Acid

Caffeine

Camphors

Carbazol

Carbohydrate

Carbolic Acid, or Phenol

Carvacrol

Cellulose

Chloral

Chloroform

Chlorophyll

Chlorpicrin

Chrysene

Cinnamic Acid

Cinnolin

Citric Acid

Coal-tar

Cocaine

Collodion

Conine

Coumarin

Coumarones

Creosote

Cresols

Crotonic Acid

Cyanamide

Cyanic Acid and Cyanates

Cyanide

Cyanogen

Cytisine

Dextrine

Diazo Compounds

Diphenyl

Durene

Dynamite

Ecgonine

Erythrite

Esters

Ether

Ethers

Ethyl

Ethyl chloride

Ethylene

Eugenol

Eupion

Flavin

Fluoranthene

Fluorene

Fluorescein

Formalin, or Formaldehyde

Formic Acid

Fructose, or Fruit-sugar

Fuchsine

Fulminic Acid

Fumaric and Maleic Acids

Furazanes

Furfurane, or Furane

Fusel Oil

Gallic Acid

Gelatin or Gelatine

Glucose

Glucoside

Glutaric Acid

Glycerin

Glycols

Guanidine

Guncotton

Hippuric Acid

Hydantoin

Hydracrylic Acid

Hydrastine

Hydrazone

Hydrocarbon

Imidazoles or Glyoxalines

Indazoles, or Glyoxalines

Indazoles

Indene

Indigo

Indole

Indulines

Inulin

Iodoform

Isatin

Isoxazoles

Ketenes

Ketones

Lactic Acid

Lactones

Laevulinic Acid

Litmus

Malic Acid

Malonic Acid

Mandelic Acid

Marsh Gas

Mellitic Acid

Mercaptans

Mesoxalic Acid

Methyl Alcohol

Mucic Acid

Murexide

Mustard Oils

Naphtha

Naphthalene

Naphthols

Naphthylamines

Nicotine

Nitrobenzene

Nitro Compounds

Nitroglycerin

Olefine

Oleic Acid

Orcin

Oxalic Acid

Oxazoles

Oximes

Palmitic Acid

Paraffin

Paraldehyde

Phenacetin

Phenanthrene

Phenazine

Phenolphthalein

Phthalazines

Phthalic Acids

Picene

Picric Acid

Pilocarpine

Piperazin

Piperine

Piperonal

Polymethylenes

Primuline

Propiolic Acid

Propyl Alcohols

Prussic Acid

Purin

Pyrazines

Pyrazoles

Pyrene

Pyridine

Pyrimidines

Pyrocatechin

Pyrogallol

Pyrones

Pyrrol

Pyruvic Acid

Quercitron

Quinazolines

Quinoline

Quinones

Quinoxalines

Resorcin

Retene

Saccharic Acid

Saccharin

Safranine

Salicylic Acid

Stearic Acid

Styrolene

Succinic Acid

Sugar

Sulphonal

Sulphonic Acids

Tannin or Tannic Acid

Tar

Tartar

Tartaric Acid

Terpenes

Tetrazines

Tetrazoles

Thiazines

Thiazoles

Thiophen

Thymol

Toluene

Triazines

Triazoles

Triphenylmethane

Tropine

Urea, or Carbamide

Urethane

Uric Acid

Urotropin

Valeric Acid

Verdigris

Veronal

Xanthic Acid

Xanthone

Xylene

BIOGRAPHIES

Abel, Sir Frederick A.

Achard, F. C.

Andrews, Thomas

Baeyer, Adolf von

Balard, Antoine J.

Baumé, Antoine

Becher, J. J.

Bell, Jacob

Bergman, Torbern Olof

Berthelot, M. P. E.

Berthollet, C. L.

Berzelius, J. J.

Black, Joseph

Boussingault

Brande, William Thomas

Brown, S. M.

Bunsen, R. W. von

Calvert, F. Crace

Cannizzaro, Stanislao

Cavendish, Henry

Chevreul, M. E.

Clark, Thomas

Crookes, Sir William

Dalton, John

Daniell, John F.

Davy, Sir Humphry

Dewar, Sir James

Döbereiner, J. W.

Dulong, Pierre Louis

Dumas, J. B. A.

Erdmann, Otto Linné

Fehling, Hermann von

Fischer, Emil

Fittig, Rudolf

Flamel, Nicolas

Fourcroy, A. F., de

Frankland, Sir Edward

Frémy, Edmond

Fresenius, Karl R.

Friedel, Charles

Fuchs, Johann N. von

Gannal, J. N.

Gay-Lussac, J. L.

Geber

Geoffroy, E. F.

Gerhardt, Charles F.

Gibbs, Oliver Wolcott

Gilbert, Sir Joseph H.

Gladstone, John Hall

Glaser, Christopher

Glauber, Johann R.

338Gmelin (family)

Graham, Thomas

Guimet, Jean B.

Guyton de Morveau

Harcourt, W. Vernon

Helmont, Jean B. van

Henry, William

Hofmann, A. W. von

Homberg, William

Kekulé, F. August

Klaproth, M. H.

Kolbe, A. W. Hermann

Kopp, Hermann F. M.

Kunkel von Lowenstjern

Lavoisier, A. L.

LeBlanc, Nicolas

Lemery, Nicolas

Liebig, J. von, baron

Lunge, Georg

Magnus, H. G.

Marggraf, Andreas S.

Marignac, J. C. G. de

Mayow, John

Mendeléeff, Dmitri I.

Meyer, J. Lothar

Meyer, Victor

Mitscherlich, E.

Mohr, K. Friedrich

Moissan, Henri

Mond, Ludwig

Murray, John

Muspratt, J. and J. S.

Newlands, John A. R.

Nobel, Alfred B.

Pasteur, Louis

Pelouze, T. Jules

Perkin, Sir W. H.

Pettenkofer, M. J. von

Plattner, K. F.

Priestley, Joseph

Proust, Joseph Louis

Prout, William

Ramsay, Sir William

Raoult, François M.

Regnault, H. V.

Richter, J. B.

Roebuck, John

Roscoe, Sir H. E.

Rose (family)

Rouelle, G. F.

Sainte-Claire Deville

Scheele, K. W.

Schönbein, C. F.

Schützenberger, P.

Silliman, Benjamin

Stahl, G. E.

Stas, J. S.

Tennant, Charles

Tennant, Smithson

Thénard, L. J.

Thomsen, Julius

Thomson, Thomas

Van’t Hoff, J. H.

Vauquelin, L. N.

Weldon, Walter

Wenzel, K. F.

Williamson, A. W.

Wislicenus, J.

Wöhler, Friedrich

Wollaston, W. H.

Wurtz, C. A.

Young, James