Part 1 — CHAPTER XXX FOR NAVAL OFFICERS

The scope of a naval officer’s professional interests is so broad that the present chapter of this Guide could not, without duplicating other chapters, indicate all the aspects of the Britannica with which he is directly concerned. And he will find that his use of the Britannica is simplified by the subdivisions about to be specified, which virtually present his subjects under four different heads. Of course he may be called upon, in the exercise of his duties, simultaneously to think and to act in all his capacities, to concentrate upon the swift solution of one problem his knowledge of warfare, of shipbuilding, of navigation and of mechanical engineering; but his reading upon these topics naturally divides itself into these four parts.

Three Other Relevant Chapters

Inasmuch as army officers, even when they are at sea, are passengers, and, save in relation to the discipline of their troops, have nothing to do with the ship’s management, it could not be assumed that the present chapter would appeal to them. But naval officers, when co-operating in a land expedition, need to employ every kind of knowledge that is of use to army officers, and as the chapter For Army Officers in this Guide would therefore in any case be read by them, it has seemed convenient to include in it the description of those articles in the Britannica which deal with war in general.

The chapter For Marine Transportation Men in this Guide is also one to which the naval officer should refer, as it deals with ships and navigation in general. The articles Ship and Shipbuilding mentioned in that chapter are (except for the historical section of the former) by Sir Philip Watts, designer of the British “Dreadnoughts” and “Super-Dreadnoughts;” and the article Shipping is by Douglas Owen, of the Royal Naval War College at Portsmouth. Obviously these and many other articles described in that chapter are of the greatest importance to naval officers.

The chapter For Engineers in this Guide describes the articles dealing with steam engines, internal combustion engines, electrical machinery and fuels of all kinds; and it would be a waste of space to repeat in this chapter a summary of the Britannica treatment of these subjects.

All three of the chapters mentioned should therefore be treated as forming constituent parts of the general plan of this present chapter, in which the naval officer will find no repetition of their contents.

The Key Article

The article to which he will naturally first turn is Navy and Navies (Vol. 19, p. 299), by David Hannay, author of A Short History of the Royal Navy. This article is equivalent to 60 pages of this Guide in length. It contains:

169Naval Personnel.

Sketches of the Administrative History of navies: Athenian; Roman; Byzantine; Medieval; British, with special attention to the period since the Restoration, and the reforms under James II when Samuel Pepys was secretary;

French—modern navy dating from the time of Richelieu;

Spanish—a great navy without an organization before the 18th century;

Dutch—good seamen and well-fed, led by able admirals, but unorganized, and unimportant after the 17th century;

United States—the first great extra-European power on the sea;

Russian—dating from the reign of Peter the Great, when it was organized and led by foreigners.

The Balance of Navies in History: influence of sea-power—“when Napoleon fell, the navy of Great Britain was not merely the first in the world; it was the only powerful navy in existence.” Modern Rivalry between Italy and Germany (1871), United States (1890), Japan; England and the Dual Alliance—“naval scares” since 1874; British Naval Defence Act of 1889; Russia’s navy crushed (1904); new navies rivalling Great Britain and France,—Italy, Germany, United States, Japan.

Latest developments: “Dreadnoughts”; Building Programmes.

Bibliography (about 1800 words).

Naval Strategy and Tactics.

Historical evolution: inter-relation of the ship’s capacity and armament.

Early history: ramming demanded oars for propulsion; small warships, large fighting crews,—no blockade, short cruises;

Greek and Roman methods: boarding introduced by Romans; “bearding,” that is, fortifying with iron bands across the bows, an early form of armor plate.

Sailing ships: ramming discarded; “line ahead” formation displaces “line abreast”; principles of fighting tactics—order at beginning to be kept throughout, thus no advantage taken of enemy’s disorder; Clerk’s theories (1790–97)—not maximum safety but immediate mêlée the desideratum; Suffren, Rodney and Howe and their disregard of accepted tactics.

Improved shipbuilding and modern times: New problems—steam propulsion, its gain in speed, but its dependence on fuel; fleet in being; risk of transporting troops while enemy is unbeaten; ramming and pell-mell battles forbidden by torpedoes; searchlight as check to torpedoes; failure of attempts to “bottle up” harbours; gun-fire still the great factor; position; speed; submarines still an unknown factor.

Bibliography.

Naval Administration

The first part of this article Navy and Navies should be supplemented by the article Admiralty Administration (Vol. 1, p. 195), by Admiral Sir R. Vesey Hamilton, and, for the United States, the late Admiral W. T. Sampson. The American part of this article describes the divisions and the working of the Navy Department, its bureaus, judge advocate-general, office of naval intelligence, boards etc.; and there is additional information on the subject in such articles as Dockyards, and United States Naval Academy.

For the legal side of naval administration the reader should study the article Admiralty Jurisdiction (Vol. 1, p. 205), by Sir Walter Phillimore, former president of the International Law Association (and author of the Britannica article Admiralty, High Court of), and, for the United States, by J. Arthur Barrett; and also the general articles International Law (Vol. 14, p. 694), by Sir Thomas Barclay, author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy, and International Law, Private (Vol. 14, p. 701), by Dr. John Westlake, formerly professor of international law, Cambridge University, and member for the United Kingdom 170of the International (Hague) Court of Arbitration; as well as such special articles as Search (Vol. 24, p. 560), by Sir Thomas Barclay, and Sea Laws (Vol. 24, p. 535), by Sir Travers Twiss.

Policy, Strategy, Tactics

It has already been noticed that the closing part of the article Navy and Navies dealt with strategy and tactics in a general way. This subject is treated in fuller detail by Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge, G.C.B. (former Director of Naval Intelligence, British Navy, author of Sea-Power and other Studies) in two articles Sea-Power (Vol. 24, p. 548) and Sea, Command of the (Vol. 24, p. 529). Each of these articles will be of great value and interest to the naval officer as a summary and criticism of the theories of Captain A. T. Mahan and Vice-Admiral P. H. Colomb; and this will be made evident by the brief outline of the two articles which follows.

Article, Sea-Power—Use of the term to mean (1) a state pre-eminently strong at sea; and (2)—as in this article—the various factors in a state’s naval strength. Thucydides as a forerunner of Mahan; he makes Pericles in comparing Athenian resources with those of her enemies comment on the importance of “sea-power.”

The meaning of sea-power can only be learned historically. Although there have been more land-wars, “the course of history has been profoundly changed more often by contests on the water.” Salamis saved Greece and held back Oriental invasion. The loss of the Peloponnesian War by Athens was due to her weakening sea-power. The First Punic War, Roman rather than Carthaginian control of the Mediterranean, was won by Roman naval predominance. Mahommedan conquest spread west in Africa only with the creation of a navy. The crusades could not have continued had not Mahommedan naval power sunk as the Venetian, Pisan, and Genoese grew. The defeat of Genoa by Venice gave the latter a right to perform the ceremony of “wedding the sea” with a ring as token of “perpetual sway.” Lepanto (1571) the end of Turkish sea-power.

Spanish and Portuguese sea-power crushed by English growth and the loss of the Armada. Early English naval history: the importance of the battle of Dover in 1217. Appearance of standing navies. The New World and its influence on sea-power. The sea-power of the Dutch; its sudden rise; its basis in foreign trade; the Dutch wars with England resulted in England’s becoming the first great naval power, but did not crush the United Provinces because of their sea-power. Torrington and the “Fleet in Being” in 1690. Change in naval operations in 17th century—the scene thereafter in the enemy’s waters, not near the coast of England.

The 18th century. Rise of Russia’s sea-power—an artificial creation. Seven Years’ War and its gains to Great Britain. War of American Independence: British mistakes—the enemy’s coast not considered the frontier. Wars of the French Revolution and Empire: Great Britain’s advantage not in organization, discipline or “science,” but in sea-experience.

The War of 1812. “The British had now to meet the élite of one of the finest communities of seamen ever known.... In any future war British sea-power, great as it may be, should not receive shocks like those that it unquestionably did suffer in 1812.”

Later Manifestations of Sea-Power. American Civil War—“By dominating the rivers the Federals cut the Confederacy asunder; and, by the power they possessed of moving troops by sea at will, perplexed and harassed the defence, and facilitated the occupation of important points.” Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78—Turkish control of Black Sea forced Russians to invade by land through the difficult Balkans. Chilean Civil War of 1891—an army defeated by a navy. Chino-Japanese War of 1894–95—Japanese navy in transport work and in crushing last resistance. Spanish-American War: “Spaniards 171were defeated by the superiority of the American sea-power.”

Article, Sea, Command of the—Sketch of Sovereignty of the Sea; Command different from Sovereignty or Dominion.

Attempts to gain Command: Dutch Wars.

Strategic Command or Control—largely the power of carrying out considerable over-sea expeditions at will. Seeking the enemy’s fleet. Temporary command in smaller operations.

Special Historical Articles

As for the army officer, so the Britannica has for the naval officer many separate articles on wars, campaigns, battles, generals, commanders. The following list of articles will serve as a guide to a course of reading constituting a history of naval warfare, furnishing the concrete separate facts on which are based the articles already described.

Ancient History.

Greece: articles Salamis, Themistocles, Xerxes I, Peloponnesian War, Pericles.

Rome: articles Punic Wars, Carthage, Pompey, Actium.

Medieval History.

Crusades; Swold; Dover, Battle of; Sluys, Battle of; Espagnols sur Mer (and article Edward III), Chioggia (and articles Venice and Genoa).

16th Century.

Lepanto (and article Don John of Austria).

Armada (and articles on Howard, Hawkins, Drake, Frobisher, Raleigh, Richard Grenville, and the other heroes of this first bright glow of England’s naval glory).

The Era of Sailing Vessels.

Dutch Wars (and articles Tromp, Robert Blake, Ayscue, De Ruyter, Cornelius De Witt, William Penn, George Monk, Sir John Lawson, James II, Prince Rupert, First Earl of Sandwich, Abraham Duquesne).

Grand Alliance, Naval Operations (and articles Earl of Torrington, and Beachy Head, Battle of; La Hogue, Earl of Oxford [Edward Russell] and Tourville).

Spanish Succession, Naval Operations (and Château-Renault, Benbow, Rooke, Cloudesley Shovel, Duguay-Trouin, Forbin).

Austrian Succession, Naval Operations (and the articles Edward Vernon, Lord Anson, Toulon, Battle of, and Thomas Mathews, marking the official sanction in England of an absurd formal system of tactics).

Seven Years’ War, Naval Operations (and Boscawen, Byng, Hawke, Pocock, Quiberon).

American War of Independence, Naval Operations (and Esek Hopkins, John Paul Jones, Comte d’Estaing, Suffren St. Tropez, Thomas Truxtun, Lord Howe, John Byron, Hotham, Hyde Parker, Rodney, Guichen, Comte de Grasse).

French Revolutionary Wars, Naval Operations (and First of June, Battle of, Howe, Villaret de Joyeuse, Lord Bridport, Lord Hood, Earl of St. Vincent [John Jervis], St. Vincent, Battle of, Lord Keith, Lord Duncan, Nile, Nelson, Sir Thomas Troubridge).

Napoleonic Campaigns, Naval Operations (and Baron de Saumarez, Copenhagen, Battle of, Sir Hyde Parker, Sir Robert Calder, Villeneuve, Trafalgar, Lord Collingwood).

American War of 1812 (and John Rodgers, Isaac Hull, William Bainbridge, Stephen Decatur, David Porter, Oliver Hazard Perry, Sir Philip Broke, Thomas Macdonough).

And Lissa (1811), closely resembling Trafalgar, and Navarino, decisive for Greek Independence.

The Era of Steam.

American Civil War (and Hampton Roads, Andrew Hull Foote, New Madrid, D. G. Farragut, D. D. Porter, W. B. Cushing).

172Chile-Peruvian War.

Chilean Civil War.

Chino-Japanese War (and see Ito).

Spanish-American War (and see the articles W. T. Sampson, W. S. Schley, George Dewey, Pascual Cervera y Topete Cervera).

Russo-Japanese War (and Togo, Dogger Bank, Tsushima).

Armaments

The subject of armaments is treated in the articles Ship and Shipbuilding (see chapter For Marine Transportation Men), Armour Plates, with illustrations, by Major William Egerton Edwards, late lecturer at the Royal Naval War College, Greenwich, Ordnance, Ammunition, Torpedo, etc.

The following is an alphabetical list of articles in the Britannica of especial interest to naval officers or other students of naval warfare.

Actium

Admiral

Admiralty Administration

Admiralty Jurisdiction

American Civil War

American War of Independence

American War of 1812

Ammunition

Anson, Lord

Armada

Armour Plates

Arms and Armour

Ayscue

Bainbridge, William

Beachy Head

Benbow

Beresford

Blake, Robert

Boscawen

Bridport, Lord

Broke, Sir Philip

Byng

Byron, John

Calder, Sir Robert

Camperdown

Carthage

Casemate

Case-shot

Cervera

Château-Renault

Chile-Peruvian War

Chilean Civil War

Chino-Japanese War

Chioggia

Coaling Stations

Coast Defence

Coast Guard

Codrington

Coligny

Collingwood, Lord

Colomb

Commodore

Copenhagen, Battle of

Crusades

Cushing, W. B.

Decatur, Stephen

d’Estaing

De Ruyter

De Saumarez, Baron

Dewey, George

De Witt, Cornelius

Dockyards

Dogger Bank

Dover, Battle of (1217)

Drake

Duguay-Trouin

Duilius

Duncan, Lord

Duquesne, Abraham

Dutch Wars

Edward III

Espagnols sur Mer

Farragut, D. G.

Fireship

First of June

Flagship

Fleet

Flying Column

Foote, Andrew Hull

Forbin

French Revolutionary Wars

Frigate

Frobisher

Genoa

Grand Alliance

Grasse, Comte de

Grenville, Richard

Greek Independence

Guardship Perry,

Guichen

Hampton Roads

Hawke

Hawkins

Hood, Lord

Hopkins, Esek

Hotham

Howard

Howe, Lord

Hull, Isaac

International Law

James II

Jones, John Paul

Keith, Lord

La Hogue

Lawson, Sir John

Lepanto

Liner

Lissa (1811, 1866)

Macdonough, Thomas

Madrid, New

Mahan

Marines

Mathews, Thomas

Meloria

Miaoulis

Midshipman

Monk, George

Napoleonic Campaigns

Nauarchia

Naucrary

Naval Operations

Navarino

Navy and Navies

Nelson

Nile, Battle of the

Ordnance

Oxford, Earl of

Parker, Hyde

Parker, Sir Hyde

Peloponnesian War

Penn, William

Pepys

Pericles

Perry, Oliver Hazard

Piracy

Pocock

Pompey

Porter, David

Porter, D. D.

Privateer

Punic Wars

Quiberon, Battle of

Raleigh

Range-finder

Rodgers, John

Rodney

Rooke

Rupert, Prince

Russo-Japanese War

Saint-Bon

Saint Vincent

Saints, Battle of the

Salamis

Sampson, W. T.

Sandwich, 1st Earl of

Schley, W. S.

Sea, Command of the

Sea Laws

Seamanship

Sea-Power

Search

Seven Years’ War

Ship, Shipbuilding

Shovel, Cloudesley

Sluys

Spanish-American War

Spanish Succession

Squadron

Submarine Mines

Suffren, St. Tropez

Swold

Themistocles

Togo

Torpedo

Torrington

Toulon, Battle of

Tourville

Trafalgar

Tromp

Troubridge, Sir Thomas

Truxtun, Thomas

Tsushima

U. S. Naval Academy

Venice

Vernon, Edward

Villaret de Joyeuse

Villeneuve

Xerxes I

173