Part 1 — THE SPECIAL MILITARY SCHOOLS OF FRANCE.

SCHOOL FOR ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS AT METZ.

HISTORY AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION,

The first French Artillery School was founded in the time of Louis XIV. (in 1679) at Douai. It had but a short existence: and it was only in 1720 (under the Regency,) when the Royal Regiment of Artillery received a new organization, that schools of theory were permanently founded in each of the seven towns where there were garrisons of artillery. But no academy properly so called was established before that founded by D’Argenson at La Fère, in 1756, with a staff of two professors of mathematics, and two of drawing. This was transferred to Bapaume, near the Flemish frontier, in 1766, re-transferred to La Fère, and suppressed, among other schools, at the beginning of the Revolution.

Of early Engineer Schools there was only one, the very distinguished School of Mézières, near the northern frontier. This was founded in 1749, also under the ministry of D’Argenson; Monge was a professor there; and it had a very high reputation down to its suppression in the Revolution.

When the wars of the Revolution broke out, Provisional Schools for giving a brief course of rapid instruction was established at Metz for the engineers, and at Chalons-sur-Marne for the artillery. These had to supply, at a great disadvantage, the officers needed for the protection of the invaded frontier.

It was intended originally that the Polytechnic, established in 1794, should send engineers direct to the army; but it was quickly found to be a better plan to allow the pupils destined for this service first to spend some little time at Metz; which thus, in October, 1795, became a School of Application for Engineers. The artillery pupils in like manner went to Châlons. This separate system of two Schools of Application continued till 1802, when the establishment at Châlons was united with that of Metz, and Metz became what it has since continued to be, the seat of the United School of Application for the two services. The Polytechnic students who select the Artillerie de terre, Artillerie de mer, or the Génie militaire, enter here to receive the special and professional instruction deemed requisite to fit them for actual employment.

The students quitting the Polytechnic in the manner described in the account of that school, at the average age of twenty-one, enter the School of Application, with the provisional rank, the uniform, and the pay of sub-lieutenants (sous-lieutenants.) The ordinary term of residence is two years. Under special circumstances this may be shortened; and in case of illness or want of application individual students are occasionally retained for a third year. Each new body of students, each admission or promotion, is classified at the end of the first year, and the students composing it are arranged in order of merit in accordance with the reports of the professors, but without an examination; at the close of the second year they pass a final examination before the Board of Officers, and are definitively placed in the corps they have chosen, the artillery or engineers, according to the order of merit. They are allowed to count, as regards retirement from the service and towards military decorations, four year’s service on account of the two years passed at the Polytechnic School, and of the time passed in preparing for admission to it, reckoning from the day of their admission to the School of Application.

Metz is a fortified place on the Prussian frontier, the seat of war at the time of the school’s first foundation; it is on the line of railway to Mannheim, about thirty miles from the point where this branch diverges from the main line to Strasburg. The Moselle flows through the town, and is employed, with its little affluent the Seille, in the military defenses. The garrison numbers 10,000 men; there is an Arsenal, a school of Pyrotechny for the manufacture of rockets, two Regimental Schools, one of Artillery and the other of Engineers. The School of Application occupies buildings erected on the site, and partly the original buildings themselves, of a suppressed Benedictine monastery. Three sides of the cloistered monastic quadrangle are devoted to the offices, lecture-rooms, galleries and halls of study. A fourth, formerly the ancient church, is converted into a salle des manœuvres. There is an adjoining residence for the commandant; and a separate modern building, four stories in height, affords lodging to the young men.

The salle des manœuvres is a large area under a lofty roof, rising to the whole height of the buildings of the quadrangle; it contains artillery of various descriptions, mortars, field and siege guns placed as in a battery, and is amply large enough to allow cannon to be moved and exercises performed when the state of the weather may make it desirable.

The amphitheaters or lecture rooms, much on the same system as those at the Polytechnic, are two in number, one for each of the two divisions. Officers of the artillery and engineers who are in garrison, are entitled, if they please, to attend the lectures, and other officers also may be admitted by permission.

The galleries, partly on the ground floor, partly on the first floor, contain very good collections of models of artillery, ancient and modern, of sets of small arms, of tools, of locks, barrels and other portions of muskets in various stages of the process of their manufacture, of specimens of carpentry and roofing, of minerals, of models of fortifications, bridges, coffer-dams, locks, &c.

The library on the first floor has an adjoining reading room; and near it is the examination room, of which further mention will be made. The three halls of study (salles d’étude) on the first floor are on a different plan from those of the Polytechnic, each one being large enough to accommodate a whole division (seventy students.) Three rooms are also provided for the professors to prepare their lectures in.

The barracks, on the opposite side of the open space used for drill and exercises, form a lofty and handsome building, entered by separate staircases, the ground-floor rooms of each being assigned to a servant, who undertakes to provide attendance for all the young men lodging in the rooms above. The rooms are comfortable, mostly double-bedded, the bedroom serving also as a sitting room, and a small adjoining closet being used for washing, &c. Twenty or twenty-two appear to be thus accommodated on each staircase; there are lodgings altogether for one hundred and forty-five. A certain number of the senior sub-lieutenants would, probably, on the arrival of the new cadets from the Polytechnic, be removed to lodge in the town.

There is a riding-school adjoining the court; stables, for thirty-three horses, which are kept for the use of the pupils, and lodgings for the attendants are provided in the neighborhood.

The mere description of the buildings shows at once that the system is different in many respects from that of the Polytechnic. Young men of twenty-one and twenty-two years of age, already holding provisional commissions in the service, receiving the pay and wearing the uniform of sub-lieutenants, are naturally allowed much greater freedom of action. They live, and partly also study, not in the halls of study, but in their own rooms; they take their meals in the town, where they frequent the cafés and restaurants of their choice. The rappel summons them every morning to rise and attend a roll-call at half-past five or six; military exercises, riding, or interrogations, similar to the interrogations particulières, require the presence of a portion of the number, but the rest are free to return to their rooms. At ten they have to attend either the day’s lecture, followed by employment in the halls of study, till four o’clock P.M., or they proceed at once to the halls of study, and set to work on the drawings, designs, projects, &c., which are described hereafter in the account of the studies. From four to half-past five P.M.; drill, exercises, and riding occupy a portion of the number, probably those who were not called for in the morning. After half-past five they are left to themselves.

This ordinary routine of studies is interrupted in the summer months by the occurrence of expeditions for making surveys, and for measuring and sketching machines in manufactories. The young men are sent, two together, to survey (lever à boussole;) singly for the reconnaissance sketch (lever à vue ;) and generally, a certain number are distributed about a district not too large for an officer to make his round in it, and see each day that all are at work. The railways afford considerable facilities; the expeditions never occupy more than ten days at a time, but they may be extended as far as Strasburg.

There are no répétiteurs in the school; but the system of interrogations particulières is carried on; and an examination by the professor and an assistant professor takes place after, about, every eight or ten lectures.

THE STAFF AND GOVERNMENT.

The Staff of the Institution consists of—

1 General Officer, at present a General of Brigade of Artillery, as Commandant.

1 Colonel or Lieutenant-Colonel, Second in Command and Director of Studies, at present a Lieutenant-Colonel of Engineers.

1 Major of Artillery.

1 Major of Engineers.

5 Captains of Artillery.

8 Captains of Engineers.

1 Surgeon (Médecin-Major.)

The Commandant is taken alternately from the Artillery and Engineers, and the command lasts for five years only.

The Second in Command is always chosen from that arm of the service which does not supply the Commandant.

The inferior officers of each rank are taken in equal numbers from the two arms.

The Staff of Instructors is as follows:—

1 Professor of Artillery, at present a Captain of Artillery.

1 Assistant ditto also a Captain of Artillery.

1 Professor of Military Art, charged also with the Course of Military Legislation and Administration (a Captain of Engineers.)

1 Professor of Permanent Fortification and of the Attack and Defense of places (a Captain of Engineers.)

1 Assistant ditto ditto (a Captain of Engineers.)

1 Professor of the Course of Topography and Geodesy (a Captain of Engineers.)

1 Professor of Sciences applied to the Military Arts.

1 Professor of Mechanics applied to Machines (a Captain of Artillery.)

1 Professor of the Course of Construction (a Captain of Engineers.)

1 Assistant ditto.

1 Professor of the German language (a civilian.)

1 Professor of Veterinary Art and Riding (a Captain of Artillery.)

1 Assistant ditto (a civilian.)

1 Drawing Master, Chief of the Drawing Department (a civilian.)

In all, nine Professors, four Assistant Professors, and one Drawing Master.

The School employs in addition an administrative staff, consisting of—

A Treasurer, A Librarian, both of whom must have been Officers in the Artillery or Engineers.

A Principal Clerk.

An Assistant Librarian.

Two Storekeepers, intrusted with the materiel belonging to the two arms.

One skilled Mechanic.

One skilled Lithographer.

One Fencing Master.

Clerks and draughtsmen are provided as required.

The school is under the general superintendence of two hoards or councils, the Superior Council and the Administrative Council.

The Superior Council consists of the General Commandant, as President, the Second in Command, the Director of Studies, as Vice-President; the Major of Artillery, and the Major of Engineers, as permanent members; two Captains of the Establishment, one of each arm; two Military Professors, one of each arm; and one Captain of the Establishment; these five last being all removable at the General Inspections.

The Superior Council has the duty of drawing up the programme of the studies of the year, of suggesting changes in the regulations relating both to studies and discipline, all subject to the approval of the Minister of War; of preparing at the end of the year the classified list of the students, drawn up according to their conduct and progress in their studies, and of pointing out to the Jury of Examiners any students who should go again through the courses of the year, and stay in consequence an additional year at the school.

When questions relating to the instruction are brought before the Superior Council, the whole body of military professors attend and take part in the proceedings, and the Council is thus said to be constituted as a Board or Council of Instruction. Improvements are here suggested, and are subsequently submitted to the Jury of Examiners, and to the Minister of War; the value to be attached, in the system of marks or credits, to each particular course of study is determined; a statement is drawn up showing what printed works, models, &c., are wanted. The budget itself, to be submitted to the Minister of War, is finally drawn up by the Superior Council in its ordinary sittings.

The Administrative Council, composed of the Second in Command as President, the two Majors of Artillery and of Engineers, one Captain and one Military Professor, and the Treasurer as Secretary without the right of voting, takes cognizance of all the financial and other business matters of the school.

SUBJECTS AND METHOD OF STUDY.

The studies at Metz consist of topography and geodesy, including military drawing and surveying under special circumstances; field fortification, military art and legislation, permanent fortification, and the attack and defense of fortified places, accompanied by a sham siege, without, however, executing the details practically on the ground; architecture, as applicable to military buildings and fortifications; the theory and practice of construction, and artillery. The programmes of these studies are inserted at length in the Appendix.

The instruction is given principally (as at the Polytechnic) by means of a series of lectures, and the knowledge which the students have acquired is first directly tested by requiring them to execute various kinds of surveys of ground, either with or without the use of instruments; to prepare drawings of buildings, workshops, and machines in full detail (plan, elevation, and s) from the measurements they have recorded in their note-books or on their sketches, and to accompany such drawings with descriptive memoirs of all particulars and calculations that may be necessary to exhibit their purpose or efficiency; to draw up projects and lay out works of field and permanent fortification, or of those of attack or defense of a particular place on certain given data, or according to the nature of the ground; to design a military building, bridge, machine, or piece of ordnance, accompanied by estimates and descriptive memoirs, showing in what manner the instructions and conditions under which it was drawn up have been complied with; and to prepare a project for the amelioration of the works of defense of a specified portion of a fortified place known to be defective in some respects.

The instruction during the first year’s residence is common to the two arms; and the time is appropriated in the following manner, namely:—

Days.

Military art and legislation, 33

Topography and geodesy, 47

Field fortification, 39

Permanent fortification, 88

Theory and practice of construction, 77

Total, 284

The sous-lieutenants who complete their first year’s work are allowed nearly a month’s vacation during November.

The instruction given to the Artillery and Engineers during the second year’s residence is not entirely the same, as will be seen by comparing the accompanying table of the year’s study:—

Artillery. Days. Engineers. Days.

Military art and legislation, 2 2

Topography and geodesy, 28 28

Attack and defense of places, 44 44

Permanent fortification, 44 129

Artillery, machines, &c., 81 —

Theory and practice of construction, 46 42

245 245

Brought forward from first year, 284 284

Total, 529 529

We should not omit to state that there is a short course on the Veterinary Art.

The lectures, as before said, begin at 10 A.M., and they last usually an hour and a half, and are followed by work in the halls of study. It would appear, however, that very frequently the day’s occupation consists simply of work in the halls of study (or occasionally out of the school buildings, when the students are sent on some excursion;) and, accordingly, in giving the account of the studies, a day or day’s work will sometimes mean a lecture followed by drawing or other employment, sometimes this drawing or other employment without any lecture preceding. Taking a general average, the proportion appears to be about two lectures to five séances, i.e., sittings without lectures.

The system will be better understood by referring to the accompanying tables, which are translated from the Project for the Employment of Time for the year 1851–2, submitted for the approval of the Minister of War. The dates in the first column indicate the days of the commencement of each particular study. The school year, it should be said, begins on the 1st of December.

EMPLOYMENT OF TIME FOR THE YEARS 1851–1852.

Att Attendances.

LbW Lectures before Work.

TL Total of Lectures.

Month and Date. Second Division. First Year’s Instruction. Number of

Att LbW TL

December 1 December 2 Lectures on Military Art in Topography—Conventional Tints, 2

December 4 Study of Hill Drawing (in sepia with contour lines,) 2

December 6 Military Art, Plate 1 . . . 5 Plate 2 . . . 5 Plate 3 . . . 5 Plate 4 . . . 5 Plate 5 . . . 9 29 4 39

January 12 Front of Cormontaige 24 3 13

February 9 Project of Field Fortification, Plate 1. Plan of the whole, . . . 3 Plate 2. Organization of a work, . . . 8 Plate 3. Details of Construction, . . . 4 Memoir . . . 4 19 5 7

March 3 Plan of Stability of Revetments, &c., 9 9 9

March 13 Study of the Drawing showing the effect, 8 1 1

March 23 Plan of a Building, Out-of-door work, . . . 9 Laying down and drawing, Memoir, . . . 23 32

April 29 Topographical Triangulation, 4 4 6

May 5 Defilement and Profiling on the Ground, 3

Project of a Building, Sketches, . . . 14 Drawing, . . . 24 Memoir, . . . 4 Estimate, . . . 3 45 12 22

June 28 Survey with a plane-table, Out-of-door work . . . 0 Laying down and drawing, . . . 3 13 1

One day free in case of bad weather, 1

July 14 To find the Variation of the Needle, 1 1

July 17 Survey of Ground with the Compass, Out-of-door work, . . . 8 Laying down and drawing, . . . 2 10 1

One day free in case of bad weather, 1

August 2 Reconnaissance Plan—Out-of-door work, 6 1

One day free in case of bad weather, 1

August 10 Study of Shaded Drawing (Hachures and colored.) 8 1

August 18 Laying down and drawing the Survey made with the Compass, 2

August 20 Project of Fortification on Level Ground, Plate 1 . . . 6 Plate 2 . . . 30 Memoir, . . . 6 42 3 19

September

October 8 Project of Fortification on Hilly Ground, Plate 1 . . . 19 Memoir, . . . 3 22 8 10

Nov. 3 Last day of week,

Nov. 6 Leave for their Vacation,

There remains therefore in this division:—1st. Three free days in case of bad weather; one after each survey. 2nd. Two days at the end of the year, the 4th and 5th November. Total five free day.

Total of the days employed 279 + 5 days free, 284

EMPLOYMENT OF TIME FOR THE YEAR 1851–1852.

Month and Date. First Division. Second Year’s Instruction. Number of

Att LbW TL

Brought forward, 284

Dec. 6 Laying down the First Survey by Reconnaissance, 8

Dec. 16 Attack and Defense:—Plate, Batteries, with Plan and Sections of Detail, 4 5 6

Dec. 20 Ditto, Plate 1, . . . 25 Journal, . . . 2 Plate 2 . . . 13 40 6 20

January

Feb. 7 Designs and Constructions of Revetments, Arches, &c., 9 9 9

Feb.18 Project and Permanent Fortification in Hilly Ground, Plate 1 . . . 19 Memoir, . . . 3 Plate 2 . . . 8 30 8 19

SPECIAL WORKS.

ARTILLERY. ENGINEERS.

March 25 Measurement and Drawings of a Cannon, Project of Fortification in hilly ground, Plate 2 cont. 12

April 8 Measurement of a Workshop, Out-of-door Work, 9 30 30

April 19 Laying down the Measurement, . . . 28 Laying down the Measurement, . . . 24

May 18 Project of Fortification in hilly ground, Plate 3, . . . 14 97 2 2

May 24 Project for Machines, . . . 14

June 4 Abstracting and calculating Measurements, . . . 3

June 8 Plate 4, . . . 11

June 9 Questions in Artillery, . . . 5

1st. Measurement of Matériel, Gun Carriages, &c., . . . 8 Register of the removal of Earth, . . . 3

Laying down ditto, . . . 10 Estimate, . . . 2

Memoir, . . . 2

Project for Improvements, Plate 1 . . . 30 Plate 2 . . . 6 Memoir, . . . 2

July 6 2nd. Measurement of Matériel, . . . 8

July 15 Project for a Cannon, . . . 24

August 12 Second Reconnaissance Survey,

Out-of-door Work and Tracing of the Lines on the Reconnaissance Plan, 7

One day free in case of bad weather, 1

August 21 Geodetical Calculations, 4

August 26 Laying down the Reconnaissance Survey, 8

Sept. 4 Memoir on Entrenched Lines, 1

Sept. 6 Tracing or laying out Camps, 1

Sept. 7 Operations of a Sham Siege, 13

One day free, 1

Sept.19 Preparing for the Examination,

October

Nov. 1 Examination for leaving,

Total of the days employed, 522 + 7 days free 529

EXAMINATION AND CLASSIFICATION.

FINAL EXAMINATION.

About six weeks of free or voluntary study is allowed, immediately prior to the Final Examination, for the sub-lieutenants to prepare for their last effort.

The examination which takes place prior to their leaving the School of Application, is entirely conducted by a board of six officers, under the presidency of a general officer alternately of the artillery or engineers, the remaining members of the board consisting of a general officer of each corps and three field officers of these corps; the last three being specially charged with the duty of examining. It takes place in a room set apart for the purpose, with a small interior room in connection with it, into which the members of the board retire to deliberate at the end of each student’s examination. The jury assembles each year at the period fixed by the minister of war.

The three examining members conduct the examination of the students in three different branches of study; the first more particularly relating to artillery science, the second to engineering science, and the third to mechanical science in its connection with the art of war. The whole of the students who are to leave the school are first examined in such one or other of these branches of study as may be determined on.

The student under examination is specially questioned by the examining officer in his subject, and occasionally by the president or any other member of the board that may wish to do so, for three-quarters of an hour. As soon as the examination of the student has been concluded, the board retire to the adjoining room and compare their notes of the credits they have severally awarded to the student under examination, and they also examine his drawings, sketches, and memoirs relating to the subjects on which he has been questioned, and prepared during his two years of residence in the school. They severally note the credits to which they consider him to be entitled for them, and adopt the general mean.

As soon as the examination of the whole of the students in this particular study has been finished, the examination in the next branch is commenced, so that five or six days elapse between the first and second examinations of the same student; and the same interval of time occurs between the second and third examinations.

The credit allotted to each student by the board of examiners represents, on the scale of 0 to 20, the manner in which he has replied to the questions, or executed the drawings, sketches, memoirs, &c., belonging to each course. The importance attached to each particular branch of study is estimated very nearly by the amount of time allowed for its execution divided by 20; and the definitive marks which each student obtains for that branch of study is obtained from the products of the numbers respectively representing the credit for answering, and that for the importance of the subjects on which he has been examined.

The final classification of the order of merit, in each arm of the service, is arranged after a comparison of the total of the marks obtained by each student. This total is the sum of the definitive marks gained by each student in the sciences bearing on artillery, engineering, and mechanics in connection with the art of war, for the talent displayed in drawing, sketching, and writing memoirs, and for skill in practical exercises, as determined by the results of the examination conducted by the jury of examiners, added to the marks due to the previous classification in the school, with the weight or influence equal to one-third of that allowed for the examination by the jury.

The co-efficients of influence for the present year are—

For those particularly relating to Artillery Science, 39.29

For those particularly relating to Engineering Science, 53.75

For those particularly relating to Mechanical Science, 43.00

For talent in drawing, sketching, writing memoirs, &c., 6.80

For practical exercises, 16.75

Previous classification in the school, 45.30

So that the examination conducted by the jury of examiners exercises an influence on the position of the students very nearly approaching to two-thirds of the whole amount.

It is this final classification which determines their seniority in the respective services. We were permitted to be present during the examination, which was entirely oral, of two of the sous-lieutenants, before the jury of examiners.

The questions were replied to with great fluency and readiness, but it seemed to us that the examination was somewhat limited for the object in view, viz., that of awarding a credit representing the progress which each student had made in the particular science on which he had been questioned, especially as that credit would have very great weight in determining the candidate’s future position.14

On quitting the School of Application at Metz, the sub-lieutenants of artillery and engineers respectively join the regiments, to which they are then definitely assigned as second lieutenants, and continue to be employed in doing duty, and in receiving practical instruction with them, until they are promoted.

SUBSEQUENT INSTRUCTION AND EMPLOYMENT.

The lieutenants of the artillery are employed on all duties that will tend to make them efficient artillery officers, and fully acquainted with all details connected with the drill, practice, and manœuvres of the artillery, and also with the interior economy and discipline of a regiment of artillery.

After the officers of artillery are promoted to the rank of second captain, but not before, they are detached from their regiments and successively sent into the various arsenals, cannon foundries, powder mills, and small arm manufactories, pyrotechnic establishments, and workshops, in order that they may become practically acquainted with the whole of the processes connected with the manufacture and supply of artillery, rockets, small arms, powder, material of all kinds, tools, &c., and also with the construction and repair of the buildings and factories required for these purposes. Sometimes they are employed as assistants in these establishments. The inspectors of the arms of regiments are selected from among those who have become acquainted with the manufacture of small arms.

When promoted to first captains they again rejoin their regiments, so that they may not lose the qualifications and knowledge required from a good practical artillery officer.

Field-officers of artillery are employed as superintendents and directors, and captains as sub-directors, of the important works intrusted to their arm.

In time of war, the officers of artillery have the construction of their own batteries, and the direction of the ordnance in battles and sieges, together with the formation of movable bridges and passages by boats.

It must be noticed, in contradistinction to the practice which prevails in England, that the artillery and engineer services manufacture their own tools.

The young engineer officers are employed with the men of their regiments, and with them pass through courses of practical instruction in the field, in sapping, mining, field fortification, sham-sieges, bridges, and castrametation. During this practical instruction one of the lieutenants belonging to each company is always present, and the captain of the company visits the work once in the course of the day.

The duties of the officers of engineers in time of peace are the construction, preservation, and repairs of fortresses and military buildings, and the command and instruction of the engineer soldiers.

In time of war, the officers of engineers are intrusted with the construction of works of permanent fortification, of the general works in the attack and defense of fortresses, and the reconnaissance connected therewith.

They may also be charged—

With the construction of such works of field fortifications as the commander-in-chief or the generals of division consider necessary; such as épaulments, trenches, redoubts, forts, blockhouses, bridgeheads, intrenched camps, as well as the opening of communications, the establishment of bridges resting on fixed supports, and the formation and destruction of roads.

After the officers of engineers have been promoted to the rank of second captain, and not before, they are mostly employed apart from their regiments, on the état major of the engineers in fortified towns and places, either in charge of the existing military buildings and fortifications, or with the duty of carrying on, or assisting to carry on, such new works as are in course of construction from time to time.

We have already stated that by the law in France one-third of the officers of the army is obtained from the military schools; one-third from the non-commissioned officers who have been raised to that grade from the ranks; while the remaining third is placed at the disposal of the supreme executive power. As regards the artillery and engineers this last third is in actual practice obtained, like the first third part, from the Polytechnic School, so that only one-third of the officers of those arms are promoted from among the non-commissioned officers, and these seldom rise above the rank of captain. Much attention is, however, paid to the improvement of the education of these latter officers, and we found that four officers of engineers and one officer of artillery so promoted were, by order of the minister of war, on the recommendation of the inspectors-general, passing through the School of Application at Metz, the course of instruction for them being modified on their account. And it was confidently expected that a large number of those officers who had been promoted in this way during the war would be ordered to the School of Application at Metz.

We should not omit to mention that occasional exchanges of service take place, during the first year of residence at Metz, among the pupils destined for the artillery, and those destined for the engineers.

The pay of officers of the artillery and of the engineers is the same. A small additional allowance is granted to officers of artillery when mounted.

REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.

ARTILLERY REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.

There are ten regimental artillery schools established in places or towns that are usually garrisoned by the troops of this arm, and one of these schools exists at Metz.

ENGINEER REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS.

The soldiers of the engineers appear to be very well taught in their regimental schools, of which there are three, one for each regiment, established at Metz, Arras, and Montpellier, where the regiments are usually in garrison. The strength of each regiment is 4,500 men.

The instruction given in these schools has for its object to afford, to its full extent, to the officers, sous-officiers, and soldiers of the engineers, the requisite theoretical and practical knowledge to enable them satisfactorily to fulfill the duties of their various ranks, and to qualify them for promotion to higher rank.

It is so regulated that at the end of the first year the men have learnt the nature of the service and duties of a soldier; and that at the close of the second year, the practiced sapper is cognizant of mining, and the practical miner is acquainted with sapping.

In the lowest classes the men begin with learning to read and write; this if followed by arithmetic, grammar, writing from dictation, and composition. The next subjects are special mathematics, landscape, plan, topographical and architectural drawing. We attended a class in which a corporal of sappers was explaining to the mathematical teacher (a civilian) the theory of the inclined plane, and we saw a large number of their drawings, topographical and architectural, many of which were very well executed.

The theoretical instruction is given between the months of November and March, the practical instruction in the field, (already noticed) occupies the rest of the year. The combined courses are completed in two years.

REGULATIONS AND PROGRAMMES OF INSTRUCTION OF THE IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF APPLICATION FOR THE ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS AT METZ.

(Abridged.)

I. POLICE REGULATIONS.

The chief Regulations for the Police of the Establishment are as follows:—

I. Barracks.—The Students are lodged in Barracks in the School, under the command of a Captain of the Staff, with the title of Commandant of the Quarter. They take their meals, however, out of the Barracks, in the town. They are allowed free egress and ingress from and to their Barracks, from the call at 6 in the morning to 10 at night, excepting during the hours devoted to lectures and the studies in the rooms. During these hours they must give special notice o£ their times of going out and coming in.

II. Organization into Brigades and Sections.—Each Division is arranged in Brigades of thirty Students at the utmost, and each Brigade in two s. The Students of Artillery and those of the Engineers constitute, as far as possible, separate Brigades. A Captain of the Staff is attached to each Brigade for its superintendence. The students in these Brigades and Sections are arranged in the order of merit which they held on entrance, and the first Student on the list of each Brigade and of each of a Brigade is called its Chief. This arrangement is preserved at their messes, which are held at the Restaurateurs’, each of fifteen having its own table, and its chief being the head of the mess. Private bills or private additions to the mess are forbidden, the maximum price for the daily fare being fixed by the Commandant of the School.

III. Conduct of the Students.—All games of chance are forbidden; and any debts discovered are punished. If a Student continues long without paying such, he is reported to the Minister of War.

IV. Inspection of Work Done Within the House.—No work or drawing may be done out of the rooms of study, except in cases of illness.

All works to be executed by the Students are considered as service ordered to be done, which must be completed at the hours and within the period fixed in the order of the day. Students who are in arrears of work at the end of their first year are required to finish them during the time of vacation.

V. Superintendence of out-of-door Work.—After describing facilities afforded to the Students for working in the country, and stating minutely the method to be followed, the directions add that “on bringing back their plans, Students must present their sketches, and all the notes taken by them, in their rough state, to the Officer of the Staff intrusted to inspect them. They can not begin to put their work into shape till this Officer’s visa has been affixed to the sketches, notes,” &c.

VI. Vacation.—There is one vacation at the end of the first year. Any class, or any single student, under punishment, may be deprived of this. Any work to which the Professor gives a mark below 7, must be considered incomplete, and to be done again. Students are kept up in vacation to finish their work; but if it is done within fifteen days, and marked by the Professor’s visa, they are allowed to go away for the rest of the vacation.

Young Officers, after their final examination, are subject to all the Regulations of the School, down to the moment of their leaving the town.

II. REGULATIONS FOR ESTIMATING THE VALUE OF THE WORK EXECUTED.

The time devoted to each of the courses in the School, to the works of every kind which belong to it, to the exercises, drill, theoretical instructions, &c., is fixed in accordance with programmes approved by the Minister of War; and the Table similar to that given at pages 180–181, exhibiting the employment, is each year submitted for his approbation by the Superior Council of the School.

Every kind of work, such as the out-door operations, sketches, drawings, memoirs, calculations, interrogations, manipulations, manœuvres, drill, &c., is valued by the Professor or Officer of the Staff charged with its direction, by the product of two numbers, one representing the merit of its execution, and the other the importance of the work.

The numbers representing the merit of the execution or instruction are regulated by the scale of 0 to 20, as at the Polytechnic School.

The co-efficient of importance is found by dividing the number representing the maximum value allowed for the execution of any work by 20, the maximum credit for merit; and the number representing the maximum value, allowed for the execution of any work has reference to all the circumstances bearing upon its execution. It is regulated by the number of hours appropriated to its execution; and in estimating this number of hours, regard is had, not only to the time occupied in making the drawing, but also to that which is necessary for the calculations, essays, and sketches indispensable to its execution. The lectures are reckoned at one and a half hours, and the sittings in the Halls of Study at four and a half hours.

The number of hours inserted in the Table giving the distribution of the time employed, being insufficient for the composition of the memoirs, specifications, estimates, &c., the value given for this kind of work, of which a great part is performed out of the Halls of Study, is fixed at twice the number of hours inserted in the Table showing the distribution of the time employed.

The interrogations are the subject of a special credit, the maximum being equal to the number of hours devoted to the lectures, multiplied by one and a half hour, the length of each lecture.

The credit given for a work performed outside the school is divided into two parts: one, equal to one-third of the total credit, is in the hands of the Officer charged with the superintendence of the work, who estimates the zeal and aptitude of the student; the other, equal to two-thirds, is applied by the Professor, and given according to the merit of the work.

The sum of the credits, given for work of all kinds in a course of study, forms the maximum credit for the course.

The method of fixing the credit for the execution of works, according to the time devoted to them, is equally applicable to the exercises, practice, and drill.

When the time granted for the execution of any work has expired, the Director of Studies sends this work to the Professor for his examination, who establishes the number or credit, showing its importance, and returns it to the Director of Studies.

Every work which has been finished and examined, is marked by the Professor by a number representing its merit, which number may be fractional.

This is multiplied by the number representing its importance, and the nearest whole number resulting from this product expresses the value of the examined work.

Every unfinished work receives a provisional value, and is then returned to the person executing it, and as soon as it has been completed a second evaluation is made, but only two-thirds of the difference between the first and second evaluations is added to the first; the same principle is applied to the works which have been valued below seven, or to those which have been amended or recommenced.

Every work which has not been executed by the student is marked 0; but the grounds for its non-execution are placed before the Jury of Examination.

In the event of two papers being so similar that it is evident one must have been copied from the other, and that it is not possible to decide which has been copied from the other, both are marked 0.

And on the other hand, if it is proved that there was no complicity between the authors of the two papers, the copied paper is the only one canceled.

At the end of each year’s study, the Council of the School makes a classification of the students of the two divisions.

Each of these classifications is formed of the following elements:—

1st. Notes of conduct given by the General commanding and the Colonel Second in Command.

2nd. Notes of appreciation given by the General Commanding, and the Colonel Second in Command, and by the Officers of the Staff of the School.

3rd. Tables of credits given by two Field Officers of the Artillery and Engineers on the theoretical and practical instruction with which they are charged.

4th. Tables of credits given by each Professor for the works of all kinds, interrogations, &c., of his course.

The classification of the first year comprehends all the works, drill, and practice, executed during the first year, which have been valued, as well as the notes of appreciation and of conduct.

The number appropriated to these notes at the end of the first year is equal to the moiety of the total number allowed for the two years of study.

The classification of the students of the second year presents the reunion of the works executed by them since their entrance into the school.

The maximum number of credits appropriated to all the Officers of the Staff, as a note of appreciation, is equal to one-sixth of the total of all the courses taken together.

The same number, divided into two equal parts, is assigned to the notes of appreciation given by the General commanding and the Second in Command.

Lastly, the notes of conduct given by the General commanding and the Second in Command form one-fiftieth of the total value.

For the classification of each division the Director of Studies abstracts into a Table, for each arm, all the elements which should enter into this classification. Below the name of each student are inserted all the credits which belong to him, and the total, reduced in the ratio of the maximum 20, is the definitive number of the classification of each student.

The Director of Studies appends to these Tables a report containing everything which affords a means of estimating the work, the conduct of each student, the delays, and the causes, &c. In giving the names of the students whose credits are less than 7, he proposes, conformably with the Regulations, the measures that should be taken with regard to them.

The Superior Council of the School being assembled, the different Tables furnished by the Professors and by the Officers of the Staff, as well as those in which they are summed up, are collated, and the list of classifications for each division and for each arm is fixed separately, with the definitive numbers representing the credits.

These classified lists indicate for each arm the new rank of the Students, their rank at admission to the School of Application and of passage to the first division, the sum of the values for the works executed by them, and all the elements which would tend to enable a proper judgment to be formed of their merits and conduct.

The Superior Council adds to it, if there be any necessity for it, notes, exposing the grounds which have contributed to the principal alterations in the relative position of the Student, and points out those whose credit is less than 7, as well as those who by their bad conduct deserve to become the object of exceptional measures.

Examination for Leaving.

Each year the General commanding the School determines by lot, at least one month in advance, the order in which the examinations for the promotions in the Artillery and Engineers are to take place. The Students belonging to the same arm can change among themselves, but eight days after the lots have been drawn the list of the order of examination is definitely closed. The General commanding the School makes known at the same period the order of the examinations and the division of the subjects between these examinations.

The General commanding the School places before the General of Division, President of the Jury of Examination, the following:—

1st. The division of the subjects between the three examinations.

2nd. The order of examination of the Arms, and of the students of each Arm.

3rd. The provisional classification of the students of the first division made by the Superior Council.

4th. The particular reports relating to each student made by the General commanding the School.

5th. The list of the propositions made by the Superior Council and the proceedings of the sitting at which it was agreed to.

6th. The classification of the Students of the second Division.

7th. Tables of questions established for each course.

8th. The abstracts of the sittings of the Superior Council held since the last examination.

The Student Sub-lieutenants are successively examined in all the branches composing the theoretical and practical instruction of the School. The theoretical knowledge is grouped in three series, each of which is the object of a particular trial.

The drill and practice are executed in the presence of the Jury, who cause the command to be given to the Sub-lieutenant, in order to satisfy themselves of the amount of their instruction, and to assign marks of merit to them individually.

The subjects of the three examinations are divided in the following manner:

First. Examination, made by the Field Officer of Artillery in the—

Course of Military Art.

Course of Artillery.

Course of Veterinary Art.

Sham Siege (part relating to Artillery.)

Course of Military Law and Administration.

Second. Examination, held by the Field Officer of Engineers.

Course of Permanent Fortification and the Attack and Defense of Places.

Course of Construction.

Sham Siege (part relating to the Engineering.)

Third. Examination, held by the third Examiner, taken either from the Artillery or Engineers, in the—

Course of Mechanics.

Course of Applied Sciences.

Course of Topography and Geodesy.

German Language.

Every Student, on presenting himself before the Examiners, submits for their approbation the drawings and manuscripts relating to the subjects on which the examination is to bear. Independent of the questions which are placed before him by the Examiners, the Student Sub-lieutenant must reply to any objections or questions which the members of the Jury may think fit to address to him.

The German Master directly questions the Students, if the Jury wish it. The Professors or their Assistants must be present at the examinations relating to their course.

As soon as the examination is ended, the members of the Jury retire to an adjoining room with closed doors, to determine on the amount of marks to be given to the Student examined.

When the trials of all kinds are finished, the Jury proceed to the definitive classification of the Students belonging to each arm. In making this classification, regard is had to the following considerations:—

1st. Each examination has a co-efficient of importance equal to the sum of all the different courses which are included in it.

2nd. The co-efficient of importance for drawing is equal to the 1/20 of the sum of the co-efficients of the three examinations.

3rd. The co-efficient of importance of the practice, drill, &c., is, as for the courses, the sum of the co-efficients appropriated to the works taught in the School.

By multiplying the co-efficients of importance by the mean number of marks of merit obtained by the Students in the different examinations, the definitive credit which must be assigned to each Student in the Table of Classification is obtained.

The classification of the School enters into the definitive classification for a value equal to one-third of the total number of the three examinations, without comprising the valuation of the drawings; this value is added to the credits determined above.

The Jury give an account of the proceedings of the examinations in a “procès-verbal” addressed to the Minister by the General acting as President.

III. PROGRAMME OF THE ARTILLERY COURSE.

FIRST PART.—INTRODUCTION.

Twenty-six Lectures common to Students of both Arms.

First Lecture.—(1.) Definition of the word Artillery. Material, personnel, science. Object and division of the course.

FIRST SECTION.—EFFECTS OF POWDER.

Ideas on the origin of powder and its use in fire-arms; mealed or pulverized powder; powder in grain. General conditions which powder ought to satisfy; action of each of its component parts. Proportion of component parts used in France. Fulmi-ligneux.

Considerations on the physical properties of powder. Size of the grains expressed by the number of grains to the gramme. Density of the grains and specific density of the powder; circumstances causing them to vary. Effects of damp upon powder.

Second Lecture.—(2.) Combustion of powder. Different modes of ignition of powder. Research respecting the laws of its combustion, process of observation employed, laws discovered. Influence of the density, the composition, the mode of manufacture, the damp, the tension and temperature of the surrounding gases.

Combustion of the grains of powder. Calculation applied to the spherical grain. The formula is applicable to the irregular grains of ordinary powder.

Calculation of the density of the gases of powder in a fixed space, on the hypothesis of a simultaneous ignition of the grains. Discussion of the formula obtained; influence of the density of the grains, of the duration of their combustion and of the space in which the powder is inclosed.

Inquiry into the rapidity of ignition of charges of powder. Experiments made upon trains of powder, and upon gun-barrels filled with powder. Conclusions drawn from the results obtained.

Third Lecture.—(3.) Calculation of the density of the gases of the powder on the hypothesis of successive ignition.

Results of the application of the formula to charges of a spherical and a truncated form.

Tension of the gases of powder. Impossibility of determining it by considerations of a purely theoretical nature. Experimental solution of this question. Experiments by Rumfort; description of his apparatus. Results obtained. Formula representing them. Observations on these results.

Fourth Lecture.—(4.) Effects of powder in a fixed space.

Hollow projectiles. The readiest bursting of a hollow sphere takes place in the direction of the plane of a great circle. Determination of the minimum bursting charge; law by which this charge varies with the thickness of the envelope. Influence of the fuse-hole of hollow projectiles; weakening of the envelope of the shell, diminution of the charge; loss of gas, increase of the charge. Effects of the shock of the exploding gases; means of estimating it. Influence of the vivacity of the powder in burning. Number and rapidity of the explosions.

Hollow cylinders burst more easily longitudinally than transversely. Consequences of this principle relatively to the employment of a fibrous metal for the manufacture of arms. Thickness necessary to resist bursting.

Fifth Lecture.—(5.) Effects of powder in cannon.

Analytical theory of the effects of powder in cannon.

Equation of the problem. General expressions of the quantity of force exercised by the expansion of the gases,—of the density of the different s of gas and of their tension. Differential equations of the motion of the gases, of the projectile, and of the gun. Equation of condition leading to the establishment of the general formula which determines the position of a stratum of gas in the terms of the function of its original position, and of the other data of the question. General relations between the velocity of the projectile and that of the gun.

Density of the stratum of gas at a given moment. Position of the stratum which has a maximum density.

Sixth Lecture.—(6.) Approximative solution applicable to the cases ordinarily met with in practice. Hypothesis relating to the velocity and the tension of different strata of gas.

Relations between the velocity of the projectile and that of the gun. Approximate expression of the amount of force due to the expansion of the gases; line to be followed in the execution of the arithmetical calculations. Formula serving to determine the velocity of the projectile. General considerations on the state of the gases of powder during the burning of the charge. Influence of the motions of the projectile and of the bottom of the bore on the distribution of the gases at each instant. Influence of the successive generation of the gases combined with the enlargement of the space which incloses them on their density throughout the whole duration of the phenomenon.

Seventh Lecture.—(7.) Influence of the vent and of the windage of the projectile on the effects of powder in cannon.

Determination of the loss of velocity occasioned by the windage of the projectile. Influence of the weight of the piece upon the velocity of the projectile. Influence of the weight of the projectile on tension of the gases and upon the velocities of the two bodies set in motion. Influence of the weight of the charge of powder. Charge giving the maximum of velocity. Influence of the size and density of the grains of the powder as well as other circumstances which cause a variation in the law of generation of the gases. Advantage of very rapid combustion in short pieces and of slower combustion in long ones.

Eighth Lecture.—(8.) Influence of the length of bore; circumstances which modify it; length corresponding to the maximum of velocity. Comparison of the quantities of motion of the projectile and of the gun. Trial of a formula fitted to represent their relation. Determination of this relation with the help of the balistic pendulum.

Mean pressure exercised on the projectile during its passage through the bore. Injuries produced in guns by firing; enlargement of metal and cracks; lodgment and percussion of the projectile.

Different effects of the percussion; means tried to prevent injuries (in general.) Considerations on the metals employed in the manufacture of ordnance. Charging with elongated cartridge; use of wooden bottoms and wads.

Ninth Lecture.—(9.) Examination of the proper means for measuring the effects of powder. Eprouvettes of different sorts. Experimental processes founded on the measure of the velocity of the projectile. Grobert’s rotatory machine. Process of Colonel Debooz. Process based on the employment of an electric current. Method by ranges (mentioned here by way of note.)

Balistic pendulum. Pendulum of Robins, of d’Arcy, of Hutton. Improvements introduced in France into the construction of these apparatus. Description of the pendulums in use at the present day; cannon pendulum; musket pendulum.

Tenth Lecture.—(10.) Analytical theory of the balistic pendulum.

1. Receiver pendulum; formula which gives the velocity of the projectile. Determination of the elements which enter into the formula, and the degree of approximation necessary. Simplification of the calculation of the velocities in the case of firing several times consecutively.

2. Cannon pendulum. Amount of recoil in the gun. Percussion of the knife-edges of the pendulum. Case where there is none. Means of correcting the position of the center of percussion.

Eleventh Lecture.—(11.) Examination of the effects of the recoil upon guns and their carriages. The question may be considered as resolving itself into two others.

1. Percussions of the carriage upon the points supporting it; analytical solution. Determination of the percussions and of the force of the recoil in the case of carriages on wheels, and that of mortar beds. Graphic solution of the same question by an analysis of the force which acts upon the bottom of the bore. Modification of the sketch according to the different cases presented by the direction of fire relatively to the ground.

Twelfth Lecture.—(12.) Discussion of points relating to the percussion of the carriage upon its supports, and to the force of the recoil. Influence of the elevation of the line of fire; of the inclination of the ground or of the platform; of the length of the carriage in proportion to its height and of the friction which results from the contact of the trail with the ground. Velocity of recoil of the collective apparatus. Determination of the extent of the recoil on a given ground. Recoil of the different pieces of ordnance in use. Case in which the forepart of the carriage has a tendency to be lifted up; velocity of this motion; determination of the effect resulting from it.

Thirteenth Lecture.—(13.)

2. Percussions produced by the gun upon its carriage. Determination of the amount of percussion of the breech upon the elevating screw, and of that of the trunnions upon the trunnion holes. Discussion of points relative to the effects produced. Influence of the elevation; of the dimensions of the gun, and of the proportion of its weight to that of the entire apparatus.

Effect of the elasticity of the different parts of the apparatus. It diminishes the wear of the parts struck, and renders it necessary to take into account the velocity of the parts striking.

Fourteenth Lecture.—(14.) Effects of powder in mines. Historical notices. Dimensions of the boxes containing the powder. Considerations on the effects of the expansion of the gases in an indefinite or limited compressible medium.

Definitions having reference to craters and chambers of mines. Ordinary charge of the chamber. The old rule for miners; its entire alteration. Table relating to different kinds of medium. Overcharged chamber. Overcharged chamber or “camouflet.” Limit of the effects of compression which result from the action of the chambers. Use of gun cotton. Considerations on the effects of the petard. Dimensions of the cavity reserved for the powder. Means employed or proposed to diminish the charge of powder proportioned to a given effect.

SECOND SECTION.—MOTION OF PROJECTILES IN SPACE.

Fifteenth Lecture.—(15.) Science of projectiles. Historical notices. Utility of an acquaintance with the laws of the motion of projectiles in a vacuum. Definitions relating to the trajectory. Differential equations of the motion in vacuo. Equation of the trajectory. Inclination of its elements. Velocity of the projectile at any one point. Duration of its passage. Determination of the range and of the angle of greatest range. Relations between the ranges; the initial velocities; and the angles of projection. Examination of the cases where the theory of the parabola is applicable.

Preliminary ideas on the resistance of fluids; difficulties inherent in this question. Approximative formula of the resistance, established by the help of the principle of active forces; circumstances not taken into consideration by it.

Sixteenth Lecture.—(16.) Experiments relating to the determination of the resistance of the air.

1. Case of small velocities. Rotatory apparatus; results furnished by them in the case of thin planes; their essential defect. Apparatus with rectilinear movement. Mean value of the co-efficient of the theoretical resistance in the case of thin planes; modification of this value for the case of spheres, &c.

2. Case of great velocities. Direct determination of the resistance of the air by the aid of the balistic pendulum. Experiments of Hutton, their results. Experiments made at Metz in 1839 and 1840. General expression of the resistance based upon the total of the results obtained, and containing a function of the velocity in three terms. Search after a function in two terms fit to replace in each particular case the general expression.

Seventeenth Lecture.—(17.) Theory of the motion of projectiles in the air. Differential equations of the motion. Hypothesis on the relation of the element of the trajectory to its projection. Calculations based on this hypothesis, and leading to the final equation of the arc of the trajectory. Inclination of the element of the trajectory. Velocity of the projectile at a given point. Duration of the passage.

Eighteenth Lecture.—(18.) Examination of the functions employed in the formulas of the science of projectiles. Formation of the balistic co-efficient, and the series contained in the functions. Relations of the series and the functions to each other. Arithmetical tables designed to give their values. Determination of the relation of an arc of the trajectory to its projection. Error resulting from the introduction of the constant relation in balistic calculations.

Nineteenth Lecture.—(19.) Application of balistic theories to the movement of projectiles thrown at great angles. Analysis of the trajectory, and determination of all the circumstances of the movement. Trajectory of shells considered as a single arc. Solution of several problems involved in this hypothesis. Determination of the range. Velocity corresponding to a given range and angle of projection. Angle of projection corresponding to a known initial velocity and range. Angle of greatest range. Variation of the velocity of the projectile during the whole of its passage. Limit of velocity of projectiles falling vertically in the air.

Twentieth Lecture.—(20.) Application of balistic theories to the motion of projectiles thrown at low angles. Case where the relation of the arc to its projection can be supposed sensibly equal to unity. Problems relative to direct fire; distinction established between the angle of projection and the angle of fire. In ordinary cases in practice the angle of fire is very nearly independent of the height of the object aimed at. Relations between the angle of projection, the angle of elevation of the object aimed at, and the angle of descent. Problems relating to plunging fire. (Ricochet fire.) Determination of the initial velocity and the angle of projection for a projectile which has to pass, firstly, through two given points; secondly, through one given point, the trajectory having at this point a known direction. Case of practical impossibility.

Twenty-first Lecture.—(21.) Relations between the velocities, the spaces traversed, and the durations of passage in the rectilinear movement of projectiles. They are applicable to direct fire, and are independent of the function of the velocity which enters into the expression of the resistance of the air. Case where the resistance of the air can be supposed proportional to the square of the velocity. Establishment of balistic formulas in this hypothesis. Application of the formulas to the resolution of one of the problems connected with a plunging fire. Comparison of the results obtained with those arrived at by the use of general formulas. Indication of methods applicable to the resolution of several questions in projectiles.

Twenty-second Lecture.—(22.) Examination of disturbing causes which influence the motion of projectiles.

1. Disturbing causes acting on the projectile during its passage through the bore. Imperfections of form, such as want of straightness in the bore, faulty position of the line of sight and the trunnions.

Influence of the windage of the projectile and of the percussions which result from it. Deviation from the original direction; its consequence in the different kinds of fire. Effect of the recoil and the vibrations of the barrel in the fire of small-arms.

Influence of the various causes which are capable of modifying the initial velocity.

2. Disturbing causes acting upon the projectile during its passage through the air. Influence of the rotatory motion which results from the last percussion within the bore. Effects of the eccentricity of projectiles. Case where the rotation occasions no deviation. Influence of the proximity of the ground. Deviation produced by the wind (air in motion.) Influence of atmospheric changes.

THIRD SECTION.—MOTION OF CARRIAGES.

Twenty-third Lecture.—(23.) Importance of the question. Preliminary ideas. Resistance due to the motion of a carriage and determination of the effort necessary for drawing it in the case of uniform motion. Two-wheeled carriage on level ground; the effort of draught in a direction parallel to the ground; first, resistance referable to the friction of the wheels on the axle; secondly, resistance referable to their revolution upon the ground. Influence of the weight of the carriage. Advantage of large wheels over small ones, demonstrated in the two cases of a yielding soil and a hard soil scattered over with obstacles. Expression of the power of draught necessary to overcome the two resistances united.

Twenty-fourth Lecture.—(24.) General expressions of the effort of draught necessary for two-wheeled and four-wheeled carriages; case of a locked wheel. Influence of the direction of the traces and of the inclination of the ground upon the draught. Advantage of rolling over dragging for the transport of burdens. Examination of resistances which are developed in the passage from repose to motion. Considerations on the position of the fillet in the box, and determination of the co-efficient of friction for the case of the revolution of the wheel about the axle.

Influence of the length of the nave on the frictions when the axle is thrown out of a horizontal position.

Twenty-fifth Lecture.—(25.) Turning of carriages considered successively in the case of two-wheeled and four-wheeled carriages. Center and angle of the turn in four-wheeled carriages. Calculations of the angle of the turn and of the space required by the carriage to execute a half turn. Examination of the dimensions of the carriage which influence the angle of the turn. Diameter of the fore-wheels and height of the body of the carriage; distance between the wheels and breadth of the body of the carriage; position of the point of reunion of its fore and hind parts. Examination of the circumstances favorable or unfavorable to the action of the horse. Relation between the forces to which he is subjected, and the pressure of his feet on the ground. Sliding of the feet; influence of the weight of the animal; of the co-efficient of friction; and of the direction of the traces. Lifting of the fore-hand; influence of the weight of the horse, and of the increased distance between the points on which he rests; of the position of his center of gravity; and of the direction of the traces.

Twenty-sixth Lecture.—(26.) Considerations on the mode of action of the draught-horse. Effect of his weight, and of the inclination of the traces. Effort of draught of which the horse is capable, both momentarily and continuously; results of experiments. Composition of artillery harness. Harness à limonière (with shafts and cross-bar,) or on the French system; on the German system, with pole and support. Use and discontinuance of swing bars. Arrangement of the traces. General arrangement of harness. Bât-saddle.

SECOND PART.

CLASSIFIED ACCOUNT OF SMALL ARMS AND OF ARTILLERY MATERIAL.

Twenty Lectures, of which Fourteen are common to the Students of both Arms and Six confined to Artillery Students.

FIRST SECTION.—SMALL ARMS.

Twenty-seventh Lecture.—(1.) Classification of small arms. Arms not fire-arms. Classification of hand-weapons. Considerations on the profile and outline of cutting weapons. Effect of the curve. Division of the mass. Form of the hilt.

Considerations on the profile and outline of thrusting weapons.

Position of the center of gravity; form of the point. Description of arms other than fire-arms now in use. Sabres and swords. General ideas respecting their component parts; blade, hilt, and scabbard. Regimental arms. Infantry sword. Sword-bayonet of the artillery and chasseurs, cavalry sword; peculiar requisites. Sword of cavalry of reserve, of cavalry of the line, and of light cavalry. Horse artillery sword.

Officers’ and non-commissioned officers’ arms. Cavalry lance. Camping axe. Side-arms in use in the navy. Sword, pike, boarding-axe, dirk.

Defensive armor. Cuirassiers and carabineers’ cuirasses. Cuirass and helmet of the sapper.

Twenty-eighth Lecture.—(2.) Fire-arms. Historical notices. First attempts in fire-arms. Hand cannons. Arquebuses, culverines, &c. Poitrinal, matchlock, firelock, pistol, and blunderbuss.

Means employed successively for loading and ignition of the charge. Twisted match, wheel-lock, flint-lock, percussion-lock, (the two last mentioned here by way of note.) Classified account of fire-arms now in use. Muskets. Considerations on the weight and principal dimensions of muskets. Detailed description of the infantry musket. Action of the flint and the percussion lock.

Twenty-ninth Lecture.—(3.) Comparison of the flint and the percussion musket. Voltigeur’s, dragoon’s, and double-barreled musket. Gendarmerie and cavalry carbine. Cavalry and gendarmerie pistol. Arms in which precision of aim is studied. Means employed to prevent the deviations caused by the windage of the projectiles and their rotatory-movement in the air. Diminution and suppression of the windage; straight grooves in the barrel, spiral grooves, rifled arms. Rotation of the ball about its axis of flight.

Principles of arrangement of rifled arms. Charge of powder and inclination of the grooves; two modes of solution, powerful charge and long spiral, weak charge and short spiral. Length of the barrel: conditions which determine it; number and form of the grooves.

Thirtieth Lecture.—(4.) Loading of rifled arms; ramming the ball home; loading at the breech. Different methods tried. Loading with a flattened ball; effect of the flattening of the ball. Examination of the successive improvements to which this idea has served as a basis. Chambered arms; use of the short bottom and the patch. Arms à tige. Elongation of the ball; shortening of the spiral groove; diminution of the charge: advantages resulting from it. Pointed cylindrical ball; principles of its outline; effect of the notches of the ball; superiority of this projectile over the spherical balls. Summary examination of the different models of rifled arms which have been successively in use. Versailles rifles.

Wall-piece, pattern 1831. Common rifle, pattern 1842. Wall-piece, pattern 1840. Bored-up wall-piece, pattern 1842. Pistols for officers of cavalry and gendarmerie. Rifles à tige, pattern 1846, and artillery carbine à tige. Description of these two arms. Superiority of the rifle à tige over the arms for precise aim previously adopted. Trial relating to a new improvement in the construction of rifled arms. Disuse of the “tige.” Ball with cup. Comparative notice of the fire-arms of the different European powers.

SECOND SECTION.—PROJECTILES AND CANNON.

Thirty-first Lecture.—(5.) Principles of construction of projectiles.

Considerations on the substances which may be chosen for the manufacture of projectiles. Essential conditions, density, hardness, tenacity, cheapness. Projectiles of stone, lead, cast-iron, iron, copper, gun-metal. Forms of projectiles.

Exterior form; conditions which serve to determine it. The spherical form preferable to any other in the actual state of artillery. Advantage of elongated projectiles. Conditions relating to their use. First attempts. Interior form of hollow projectiles; howitzer shells, bombs, and grenades. Thickness of the metal; fuse-hole; charging-hole of naval hollow projectiles; lugs or handles of shells. Density of projectiles. Recapitulation of the balls; howitzer shells; shells and grenades in use, their nomenclature, dimensions, weight. Cannon-balls. Choice of metal and weights. Different arrangements for the use of shot, case-shot, canister or naval grape-shot. Spherical case; conditions relating to their use. Charge of spherical case. Bar-shot. Rescue shells.

Thirty-second Lecture.—(6.) Cannon. Historical ideas on the subject. Principle of arrangement of ancient arms and machines of war. Motive force employed; its inferiority compared to that furnished by the combustion of powder. Earliest cannon.

Historical view of the different systems of ordnance which have been successively in use in France.

1. Cannon. Calibres in use in the 16th century. Edict of Blois, 1572. Cannon employed in the reign of Louis XIV. Regulation of 1732. System of Vallière. Modifications introduced by Gribeauval in 1765. Cannon of the year XI. Cannon in use at the present day.

2. Ordnance adapted to hollow projectiles. Difficulties inseparable from the throwing of hollow projectiles; first attempts. Mortars. Double fire. Ancient calibres. Mortars in use at the present day. Stone mortar. Howitzers, their first use in the French artillery; howitzers of 1765; of the year XI. Calibres in use at the present day. Considerations on the calibres of different kinds of cannon. Siege, garrison, field, coast, and naval ordnance. Siege, garrison, field, mountain, coast, and naval howitzers. Mortars and stone mortars. Considerations on the metals which may be employed in the manufacture of cannon for siege, garrison, field, coast, and naval purposes. Interior form of ordnance.

1. Part of the bore traversed by the projectile, transverse ; trial of rifled cannon, longitudinal .

2. Part of the bore occupied by the charge; influence of its form; the spherical, cylindrical, truncated form. Chambers of mortars; reason for their adoption. Cylindrical and truncated chambers; comparison of their effects. Spherical chamber; pyriform chamber: interior form of the naval mortar à semelle (cast in one piece with the bed.) Chamber of howitzers; experiments with reference to their adoption for field howitzers. Dimension. Howitzers without chamber. Chamber of carronades. Junction of the chambers with the rest of the bore: form of the bottom of the bore or of the chamber.

Thirty-third Lecture.—(7.) Vent; its object, its dimensions. Bushes inserted before casting, (masses de lumière;) after casting, (grains de lumière.) Considerations on the position of the vent relatively to the charge. Experiments made with the infantry musket, and with 24 and 16 pounder guns.

Arrangement of the vent in guns of 1732; portfire chamber. Vent of mortars. Priming pans. Windage of projectiles; conditions which determine it for the different services. Rules received with respect to ancient guns. Dimensions in use at the present day. Different characteristics resulting from the windage of projectiles. Length of the bore. Question of the length of the bore considered with reference to the projectile effect of the powder. The length of ordnance is determined by considerations unconnected with this effect.

Length of bore of siege and defensive artillery, of field, coast, and naval guns. Length of bore of mortars, and of the stone mortar. Length of bore of howitzers. Thickness of metal and external outline. Cannon:—Theoretical determination of the external outline necessary for resistance to the effect of the gases of the powder. Co-efficient of resistance, its value in the guns in use. Thickness in the chase necessary for resistance to the percussions of the projectile.

Swell or moulding of the muzzle. Thickness at the position occupied by the trunnions. Thickness of metal of the different systems of cannon which have been successively in use in France. Thickness of metal in howitzers. Form resulting from the diminution of internal diameter, at the position occupied by the chamber. Exceptional form of the siege howitzer. Outline of the interior of mortars.

Thirty-fourth Lecture.—(8.) Line of sight; its object and arrangement. Considerations on the inclination of the line of sight relatively to the axis of the gun. Trunnions; object and arrangement of trunnions and their shoulders. Position of trunnions relatively to the center of gravity of the gun. Preponderance of the breech over the chase; manner of estimating it; preponderance allowed in the different guns in use. General principle serving as the basis for its adoption. Position of trunnions relatively to the axis of guns. Reasons for their depression; circumstances which cause it to vary. Trunnions of mortars; their reinforces. Dolphins of ordnance. Weight of ordnance; necessary relation between the weight of a gun, and the quantity of movement of its projectile. Conditions serving to determine the weight of the different species of cannon, howitzers, and mortars in use. Examination of the weights adopted for the pieces of ordnance of all sorts, which have been successively employed. General recapitulation of the different species of ordnance in use. Nomenclature. Dimensions, weight. Land artillery. Siege, garrison, and field guns. Siege, garrison, field, and mountain howitzers, mortars, and stone mortars. Naval artillery. Cannon, carronades, howitzers, mortars, stone mortar, blunderbuss. Observations on ordnance. Exceptional ordnance. Villantroy’s howitzers. Belgian mortar of 60 c., &c. Description of the artillery petard.

THIRD SECTION.—WAR AND SIGNAL ROCKETS.

Thirty-fifth Lecture.—(9.) Historical ideas on the subject. Cause of the motion of rockets. Their exterior and interior form. Relation which should exist between the law of generation of the gases and the orifice for their escape. Measure of the tension of the gases in rockets. Results of experiments. Motion of the rocket. Variation of the velocity during its passage. Means of regulating the motion; effect of the directing stick. Influence of the wind upon the trajectory of the rocket.

Description of rockets in use.—1st. War rockets; calibres employed; body of the rocket; arrangement of the stick. Projectiles fitted to the head of the rocket; rockets without stick. 2d. Signal rockets; their calibres and composition.

FOURTH SECTION.—CARRIAGES.

Thirty-sixth Lecture.—(10.) Historical ideas on the subject. Arrangements originally in use for the service of ordnance. Successive improvements. Carriages on wheels. Introduction of limbers. General conditions which gun-carriages should satisfy.

General principles of their construction:—1st. With reference to the act of firing. 2dly. With a view to transport.

Mortar carriages. Particular requisites. Description of the carriages in use. Siege carriages; particular conditions. General arrangement of ancient siege carriages. Detailed description of the present siege carriage and its limber; its weight and different characteristics. Field carriage; particular requisites; general arrangement of the carriages employed before 1765. Field carriages of the system of Gribeauval; its defects. General arrangement and detailed description of the present field carriage and of its limber. Weight and different characteristics. Mountain carriages; particular requisites; description of the carriage and of the arrangement of its shafts (limonière.)

Thirty-seventh Lecture.—(11.) Garrison and coast carriages; particular requisites; object of the platform for the two systems; its principal dimensions; position of the pintle or working bolt (cheville ouvrière.) General arrangement of ancient garrison and coast gun-carriages. Description of the present garrison carriage; change of the carriage into a movable one on four wheels; weight and different characteristics. Replacement of the platform by a directing transom bed under certain circumstances of the service. Casemate carriage. Iron carriages; inconveniences of this kind of construction for siege purposes and on the field of battle; its advantages for the armament of coasts. Description of the coast carriage actually in use; weight and different characteristics. Naval carriages; particular requisites. General arrangement of naval carriages in use. Carriage on four small wheels for cannon. Bracket carriage (à échantignolle,) and carriage with double pivot platform for howitzers. Carronade carriage. Mortar bed, cast in one piece with the mortar, (à plaque.) Exceptional methods of construction. Depressing gun carriages for a very plunging fire. Villantroy’s howitzer beds, those of the Belgian mortar of 60 c., &c.

FIFTH SECTION.—CARRIAGES AND OTHER PARTS OF AN ARTILLERY TRAIN. ARTILLERY OF FOREIGN POWERS.

Thirty-eighth Lecture.—(12.) Battery carriages. Ammunition wagon. Historical ideas on the subject. Requisites for carriages used for the transport of munitions of war. General arrangement and description of the present ammunition wagon. Principles of arrangement of the ammunition chest. Loading of the chest with munitions of various kinds. Mountain ammunition chest. Loading of the chest with howitzer ammunition and infantry cartridges.

Battery wagon; object of this carriage; patterns successively adopted. Description of the wagon, pattern 1833. Field forge; object of this carriage. Description of the forge in use. Arrangement and play of the bellows. Mountain forge. Description and loading of it.

Thirty-ninth Lecture.—(13.) Park carriages and machines.

Park wagon. General arrangement and description of the park wagon and its limber. Carriages destined to the transport of heavy burdens. Ancient gun wagon. Truck. Block carriage. General arrangement and description of the carriage. Siege cart; its object and description. Devil carriages. Arrangement of the ancient devil carriages with perch and with screw. Devil carriage with roller. Description of the carriage and of its mechanism. Gin. General arrangement of the different patterns successively employed. Description of the gin at present in use. Handscrew; its use, general arrangement, and description.

Fortieth Lecture.—(14.) Pontoon equipages. Conditions which military pontoon equipages should satisfy. Considerations on the nature of the supports to be employed. Reserve pontoon equipage. Boat of the reserve equipage; its general form and dimensions. Description of the boat and skiff; use of the boat for navigation; its weight and different properties.

Tackle and machines employed for bridge-making. Balks, moorings, chesses, blocks, and balk collar. Framework, with movable head; different kinds of piles. Means of anchorage. Common anchor; its properties. Anchor basket and chest. Buoy. Cordage. Ideas on its arrangement and on the measure of its resistance. Capstan. Windlass. Tackling. Handscrew. Pile driver. Hand rammer. Grapnel and hooks.

General arrangement of the boat carriage. Description. Its weight and properties. Light equipage.

Forty-first Lecture.—(15.) General ideas on the artillery of the different European powers, and comparison with the French material.

Ordnance; description, species, and calibres. Gun-carriages, carriages, and other parts of the train. General arrangement; facility of movement; modes of harnessing, &c.

SIXTH SECTION.—DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION OF GUN CARRIAGES AND ARTILLERY CARRIAGES, AND MEANS OF PRESERVATION OF MATERIAL.

Forty-second Lecture.—(16.) Knowledge of woods. Preliminary ideas. Structures and general properties of woods. Diseases and defects of woods. Description and properties of the principal substances employed in the construction of the material; uses to which the different kinds of wood are specially destined. Selection of standing timber; felling; transport; reception of woods; cubature. Cutting up in large and small sizes. Observations on the shrinking of wood. Preservation of woods. Drying in the air. Round, squared, and blocked-out timber. Preservation in store; preservation in water. Steeping. Influence of the contact of woods with other woods, and with metals.

Forty-third Lecture.—(17.) General considerations on the substances employed in the manufacture of gun and artillery carriages. Different properties of metals. Choice of kinds of wood; effects of their being dried. Classified account of axles and wheels. Axles; substance employed, their forms and dimensions. Wheels; essential requisites. Importance of the elasticity of wheels. Effects of the dishing of a wheel, form of the spokes, coupling of the spokes with the nave and the felloes. Tires. Form and number of the felloes determined by the effects of the drying. Form of the nave. Wheel-boxes.

Forty-fourth Lecture.—(18.) Means employed for the connection of the pieces which enter into the composition of gun-carriages, carriages, and other furniture of the train. Nails, clinch nails, rivets, bolts, screws, &c. Examination of the joinings employed in the construction of gun-carriages, carriages, and other furniture of the train.

General principles. Joinings of gun-carriages. Joint plates (“rondelles d’assemblage.”) Mortar beds, siege, field, and garrison carriages.

Forty-fifth Lecture.—(19.) Joining of other carriages and furniture. Hind parts, ammunition wagon, battery wagon, forge, park wagon, block carriage, cart, devil carriage, and drays. Boat and wherry. Fore parts, particular requisites. Fore parts of the field and siege carriage, of the park wagon, devil carriage, and drays. Barrels and cases.

Forty-sixth Lecture.—(20.) Means employed for the preservation of the material. Cost price of the principal parts of the material. Ordnance, projectiles, powder, carriages, and other furniture of the train. Small-arms. Preservation of ordnance in gun-metal and cast-iron. Preservation of projectiles. Formation and counting of piles. Rust-cleaning machine. Preservation of gun-carriages, carriages, and other furniture of the train. Different methods of stacking in use. Preservation of powder and made-up ammunition; stacking in powder magazines. Means proposed for avoiding the danger of explosion. Preservation of small-arms. Armories. Preservation of iron and cut wood.

THIRD PART.

FIRE OF ORDNANCE AND PORTABLE FIRE-ARMS. EFFECTS OF PROJECTILES.

Forty-seventh Lecture.—(1.) Fire of ordnance. Kinds of fire in use with ordnance. Choice of charges of powder. Charges of powder formerly in use; their progressive reduction. Charges of field, siege, garrison, coast, and ships’ cannon; of howitzers and mortars.

Arrangement of the charge. Shot cartridge for field guns. Loading of the other kinds of guns, of howitzers, mortars, and the stone mortar. Loading for fire with red-hot shot. Armaments for the service of ordnance. Methods of igniting the charges of powder; tubes formerly in use, friction tubes. Percussion system; Swedish tube. Ignition of the charge of hollow projectiles, fuses of hollow projectiles, fuse with several pipes for the fire of spherical case, hand grenade fuse. Rapidity of fire. Laying of ordnance. Principal methods of laying guns; laying them by the help of the line of sight. Determination of the elevation. Instruments in use to obtain elevations. Negative elevations, means of using them. Laying guns for fire parallel to the ground; for breaching fire at a short distance.

Forty-eighth Lecture.—(2.) Determinations of elevations by experiment; construction of practice tables. Laying guns when the axis of the trunnions is not horizontal. Laying guns with the help of the plumb-line and quadrant; plunging fire, rectification of the aim.

Fire of mortars, means for directing it in use; use of pickets, of the line, of the quadrant. Laying pieces in the case of a defective platform. Means of laying them for night-firing. Laying naval ordnance; use of the front sight. Initial velocities of projectiles with the different charges in use. Angles of sight, and point-blank ranges of ordnance. Ranges at different sights. Maximum ranges.

Forty-ninth Lecture.—(3.) Probabilities in the fire of ordnance; known laws, facts ascertained by experiment. Distribution of projectiles over an object aimed at of indefinite extent. Mean point of impact. Fire of canister; effects of the dispersion.

Fire of spherical case. Effects of the bursting of the projectile; dispersion of the balls and of the explosions. Fire of the stone mortar; use of mortars for the same purpose.

Fire of small arms: charges of powder adopted. Ball cartridge. Initial velocities of balls with the different arms. Angles of sight and point-blank ranges. Rules for fire according to distances, for muskets, carbines, and pistols. Fire of rifled arms; use of the tangent scale. Probability of the fire of small-arms; comparison of arms with smooth-bored and rifled barrels. Different means employed for the estimation of distances.

Fiftieth Lecture.—(4.) Effects of projectiles on the different substances fired at. Effects of concussion and penetration. Effects on earth. Theory of the penetration of a projectile into a resisting medium. Formula to express the penetration, based on the results of calculation and experiment. Effects of penetration into wood. Effects on metals, cast-iron, iron, lead. Effects on masonry and on rock. Application to a breaching fire delivered in a regular direction relatively to the revetment. Effects of the shock of projectiles upon living bodies. Effects of hollow projectiles bursting in different media; earth, wood. Method of bursting employed against troops.

Effects of spherical case. Incendiary effects. Effects of war rockets. Explosive rockets. Incendiary rockets. Effects of concussion.

FOURTH PART.

TRACE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERIES.

Six Lectures, common to the Students of both Arms.

Fifty-first Lecture.—(1.) Definitions. Meaning attached to the word “battery.” Different denominations given to batteries: first, according to the circumstances of the war in which they are employed; secondly, according to their mode of construction; thirdly, according to the kind of ordnance with which they are armed; fourthly, according to the kind of fire for which they are intended; fifthly, according to the direction of their fire.

Principles of construction. General considerations on the elements which constitute the different kinds of batteries which have reference to them. Epaulment; its length, height, and thickness in different cases. Section of the epaulment. Ground-plan of the epaulment of the different kinds of batteries; returns at its extremities. Case where the battery is in advance of a parallel. Epaulment with redans; its trace.

Embrasures opened in the epaulment; their construction in different cases; slope of the bottom; interior opening; exterior opening; form of the cheeks.

Genouillère; fixing of its height for the different kinds of fire. Limit of the obliquity of the embrasures.

Fifty-second Lecture.—(2.) Terre-Plein; its position relatively to the ground; its length for the different kinds of batteries. Disposition of the part unoccupied by the platforms. Terre-plein of garrison, field, coast, and barbette batteries.

Ditch; cases in which it is employed. Its position with reference to the epaulment. Depth, breadth, , and plan of the ditch.

Communications between the battery and the works, in its neighborhood; parallels or trenches; plan and construction. Communication between the battery and its ditch.

Powder magazines: their object. Discussion respecting their site and capacity with a view to the different kinds of batteries, viz., siege, garrison, and field batteries.

Traverses of crownwork and garrison batteries. Width between them and dimensions.

Fifty-third Lecture.—(3.) Details of construction. Different materials employed in the construction of batteries. First, materials for revetments, fascines, gabions, hurdles, sods, bags of earth, withy-bands, stakes, &c. Secondly, materials for platforms; hurtoir, sleepers, planks, beams, pickets. Construction of revetments of different kinds employed in batteries. First, revetment of the interior slope of a battery upon the natural ground. Secondly, revetment in use when the terre-plein is more or less sunken. Ordinary siege battery, battery in a parallel, battery in a crownwork. Third, revetment of the checks of embrasures in the different cases met with in practice; direct batteries with point-blank range; ricochet, breaching, garrison, and field batteries.

Fifty-fourth Lecture.—(4.) Construction of platforms. Ordinary siege platforms, movable platforms (à la Prussienne,) garrison and coast platforms, ordinary mortar platforms, platforms for coast mortars of great range. Peculiar case where the fire has to be elevated or greatly depressed. Construction of the communications from the battery to the parallel and to its fosse. Construction of powder magazines in batteries. Magazines of siege batteries, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4. Case of breaching batteries; garrison battery and field battery. Magazines. Degree of resistance offered by blinded magazines. Modifications adopted for the strengthening of magazines whose construction is already fixed.

Fifty-fifth Lecture.—(5.) Number of workmen to be employed on the construction of the different parts of batteries: revetments, platforms, communications, powder magazines. Earthworks.

Duration of the total labor necessary for the construction of each kind of battery. Duration of the duty for the different parts of the personnel employed upon the construction; officers, gunners, assistants. Definitive number of workmen necessary for the construction of the different kinds of batteries. Tools of different kinds.

Simultaneous execution. Preliminary operations. Reconnaissance. Prolongations. Sketch of the plan of a battery. Formation of the working party. Transport of materials. Plan of the battery. First, battery having its terre-plein on the level of the ground. Disposition of the working party. Work of the first night, of the following day, of the second night. Second, a battery sunk outside a parallel. Third, battery in a parallel or trench of some kind already established. Day labor, night labor.

(4.) Particular case of crownwork batteries.

Fifty-sixth Lecture.—(6.) Exceptional constructions. Blinded batteries for cannon or howitzers; for mortars. Batteries of earth-bags. Batteries on stony ground, on the rock, or marshy soil. Floating batteries. Construction on sites deficient in space. Case where the fire of the place is too dangerous. Coast batteries. General arrangement.

Instruction preparatory to working at the plans of batteries. (Course.)

FIFTH PART.

UNIFORM ORGANIZATION AND SERVICE OF THE ARTILLERY.

Ten Lectures common to Students of both Arms.

FIRST SECTION.—UNIFORM ORGANIZATION OF THE ARTILLERY.

Fifty-seventh Lecture.—(1.) Historical résumé. Progress of modern artillery, from its origin down to our time. Artillery of Charles VII. and of Louis XI. Progress under Francis I. Effects of the wars of religion. Edict of Blois, 1572. Improvements by Sully. Creation by Gustavus Adolphus. State of the artillery under Louis XIV. Employment of artillery on the field of battle at the commencement of the 18th century. Regulation of 1732. Introduction of howitzers into the French artillery. Regimental pieces. Progress of the artillery in Prussia and in Austria in the Seven Years’ War. Reorganization of the French artillery in 1765. Résumé of the improvements owing to Gribeauval. System of the year XI. Present system.

Historical ideas on the personnel of the artillery. State of the personnel at the commencement of the use of fire-arms. Masters and grand-masters of the artillery, &c. Personnel employed originally on the service, and the guard of ordnance. Creation by Louis XIV. Account of the successive modifications in the personnel from this epoch down to 1765. Organization of 1765. Horse artillery. Pontoneers. Artillery train. Artillery of the Imperial Guard. Organization of 1829. Present state of the personnel. Regiments of artillery. Composition of the personnel of the different kinds of batteries. Companies of pontoneers, workmen, armorers, veteran gunners. Driver-corps (“train de pare.”) Naval artillery.

Fifty-eighth Lecture.—(2.) Committee and central depôt of artillery. Organization of artillery commands. Establishments for the instruction of the personnel; artillery schools. Creation in 1679. Present schools; personnel attached to them. Central school of military pyrotechnics. Establishments for the preservation of the material. Importance of the material of artillery. Its state in France at different epochs. Artillery directions. Division of the territory of France. Personnel of the directions.

Establishments for the manufacture of the material. Ideas on the subject of their management. Arsenals; their object, management, number, personnel. Forges; their object, management, districts, personnel, inspection. Foundries for land artillery; their number, management, personnel, inspection. Naval foundries. Manufactures of arms; their special management, number, personnel, inspection. Branch of the service connected with gunpowder and saltpetre. Powder manufactories and refineries; management, personnel. Direction of the service. Establishments existing in France. Percussion cap manufactory.

SECOND SECTION.—SERVICE OF THE ARTILLERY IN THE FIELD. ORGANIZATION OF THE FIELD ARTILLERY TRAIN, ETC.

Selection of ordnance, conditions which determine it; cannon, howitzers, relation between them. Proportion of the number of pieces of ordnance to that of the combatants. Mean proportion received in France; circumstances which may lead to a modification of it. Organization of ordnance in batteries. Account of the arrangements formerly adopted. Present system. Distribution of the batteries in the army. Principles received. Application of these principles to the artillery train of an army of a given strength. Infantry divisional batteries; cavalry divisional batteries; reserve batteries. Case of the formation of army corps. Composition and supply of batteries. Principles and details of the supply of batteries with ammunition for the guns and for the troops. Second supply distributed amongst the parks.

Fifty-ninth Lecture.—(3.) Field parks. Their composition, in carriages of all kinds. Application of the principles to the artillery train of an army of a given strength. Approximate relation of the number of the carriages and of the horses of the train to that of the pieces of ordnance. Means of renewing the supply of the parks.

Personnel of the field train. Personnel of the batteries; working companies. Companies forming part of the train. Personnel attached to the parks. Staff. Particular conditions, having reference to war in a mountainous country. Selection of pieces of ordnance. Proportion between their number and that of the combatants. Composition of some artillery trains employed in our African expeditions. Composition and supply of the mountain battery. Lading of the mules. Composition of pontoon trains. Reserve train, boats, wherries, tackle, carriages, and horses. Personnel of the train. Light train: material, personnel.

Sixtieth Lecture.—(4.) Marches of the artillery. Reception of a battery or of a park. Precautions to be taken before the departure. March at a distance from the enemy. Order of march. Distribution of the personnel; halts. Case of an accident to a carriage; ascents; descents; deep-bedded roads; passage through inhabited places; passage of bridges; of fords. Passage over ice. Night march. Transport of mountain artillery. March of pontoon trains. Transport of the trains by water; navigation by convoys; by isolated boats. Transport of ordnance, powder and projectiles in the boats. Transport of artillery trains by sea.

March in the vicinity of the enemy. Isolated convoys; rule with reference to their command; order of march; general measures of security; precautions to be taken during halts; manner of receiving an attack. Case where resistance becomes impossible; arrangements for the night.

Artillery in the march with other troops. Order of march. Relation of the different corps to each other. Exceptional difficulties which may occur on marches; privations of all kinds; bad weather; bad state of the roads; instances. March among high mountains; passes strongly occupied by the enemy; examples.

Encampments and bivouacs. Choice of ground convenient for a camp; disposition of the artillery camp. Establishment of artillery bivouacs. Disposition of the park; precautions relating to the superintendence. Different measures to be taken on arriving on the place of encampment or of bivouac. Attention to be paid to the horses: special precautions for the mules of the mountain artillery. Precautionary measures variable according to circumstances.