PART VIII. MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN GREAT BRITAIN.
Reading edition
X. MILITARY SYSTEM AND EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.
I. MILITARY SYSTEM.
The British army originated in the feudal system, by which the great barons were bound to furnish a contingent to the army of the State; and their vassals were bound to attend them in person, and to furnish each the contributions in men, horses, arms, and other materials of war, for which he was liable by the tenure on which he held his lands. When regal power absorbed the privileges of the great feudatories, the people were expected to provide themselves with arms, and, in case of invasion, to respond to the summons issued through officers commissioned by the sovereign to array the fittest men for service in each county. In the time of Henry VIII, lord-lieutenants and deputy-lieutenants of counties were first appointed as standing officers for assembling and mustering the military forces. For a time, contracts were made with “captains,” who undertook to provide, clothe, and feed a certain number of fighting men for a given money allowance. In the reign of Charles I, the important question arose, whether the King of England did or did not possess the right to maintain a military force without the express consent of Parliament. Charles II, was compelled to abandon all control of the army, except a body guard of 5,000 men, sanctioned by Parliament. These regiments still exist, and are proud of their genealogy. They are the First Foot Guards, Coldstream Guards, Life Guard, Oxford Blues, the Royal Scots, and the Second Queen’s Royals.1 The Declaration of Rights, in the time of William and Mary, settled in positive terms “that the raising and keeping of a standing army in time of peace, without consent of Parliament, is contrary to law.” The first Mustering Act was passed in 1689, to last for six months; but it has been annually renewed ever since, except in three particular years; and it constitutes the only warrant on which the whole military system of England is exercised by the sovereign with the consent of Parliament. For 172 years, with only three interruptions, the ministers of the crown have annually applied to Parliament for permission to raise a military force and for money to defray expenses. The sovereign can make war and bestow military employment and honors; but the House of Commons can refuse supplies.
Military service in England is voluntary, except in rare cases, and then only in the militia. As the chances of promotion from the ranks are small, the recruits are drawn from the most necessitous classes of the community, or the least fitted for industrial pursuits. The system of recruiting, with the bounty and machinery of deception is the most characteristic feature of the British army as compared with those of Europe, and makes the distinction between officers and men more broad than in any other service.
The British army, in its completeness, is theoretically commanded by the sovereign, assisted by the secretary of state for war in some matters, and by the commander-in-chief in others. The component parts are the household troops, the infantry of the line, the ordnance corps, comprising artillery and engineers, and the marines. There are also certain corps, raised and belonging to the principal colonies; the troops in India; the yeomanry cavalry; the dockyard battalions; the volunteer artillery and rifles; the enrolled pensioners, etc. In 1814, the regular army reached 200,000, and at the close of the war, 10,000 officers were retained on half pay. In 1860-61, in the army estimates, provision was made for the following force, viz.:
Home and Colonies. India. Total.
Cavalry 11,667 7,243 18,910
Infantry 103,169 66,345 169,514
Artillery 22,675 5,482 28,157
Engineers 4,730 —— 4,730
Staff & Depot 1,121 13,420 14,541
Total 143,362 92,490 235,852
Under the column “India” are included only troops sent to India, and paid for out of the Indian revenues. Of the total 235,852 forces, 10,459 are officers, 17,670 non-commissioned officers, and 207,723 rank and file. For the use of this army, 24,342 horses are provided. The total expenditure sanctioned by Parliament in 1860 was £14,800,000, viz.:
Military Pay and Allowances, £5,500,000;
Civil Salaries and Wages, £1,800,000;
Stores and Works of every kind, £5,400,000;
Pensions, Retired Pay, &c., £2,100,000.
The military force of various kinds within the United Kingdom, excluding the troops in East India, on the 1st of June, 1860, was 323,259, viz.:
Regulars (service companies,) 68,778;
Regulars (depot companies,) 33,302,
Embodied Militia, 15,911;
Disembodied Militia—Effectives, 52,899;
Yeomanry Cavalry—Effectives, 15,002;
Enrolled Pensioners—Effectives, 15,000;
Volunteer Rifles and Artillery, 122,867.
The total force of the United Kingdom in 1870-71, was as follows:
Total.
Officers on the General and Departmental Staff, 1,239
Regiments. Officers. Non-com., &c. Rank and file.
Royal Horse Artillery, 78 138 1,834 2,050
Life-Guards and Horse-Guards, 81 192 1,029 1,302
Cavalry of the Line, 465 969 7,733 9,267
Royal Artillery, 661 1,550 12,866 15,087
Riding Establishment, 7 13 205 225
Royal Engineers, 539 564 3,879 4,836
Army Service Corps, 8 386 1,801 2,195
Foot-Guards, 237 453 5,220 5,910
Infantry of the Line, 2,934 6,468 51,990 61,392
Army hospital corps, 1 165 694 860
West India Regiments, 104 150 1,680 1,834
Colonial corps, 58 149 1,632 1,839
Total, 6,276 11,197 90,593 108,066
Depots of Indian Regiments.
Cavalry, 27 54 513 594
Infantry, 200 600 5,000 5,800
Total, 227 654 5,513 6,394
Recruiting and Teaching Estab’ts.
Cavalry Riding School, 2 2 — 4
Infantry Depots, 5 9 — 14
Recruiting Establishments, 6 17 — 23
Inst. in Gunnery and Engin’ing, 10 57 62 129
Total, 23 85 62 170
Training Schools and Factories.
Cadet Company, Woolwich, 10 20 9 39
Royal Mil. College, Sandhurst, 17 30 1 48
Regi’al Schools and Factories, 32 281 7 320
Total, 58 331 17 407
The total force of officers and men was 115,037, viz.
General and Department Staff, 239
Regiments, 066
Depots of Indian Regiments 394
Recruiting and Teaching Establishments, 170
Training Schools and Factories, 407
The British forces in India, exclusive of depots at home, comprised the following troops, in 1870-71:
Officers. Non-Com. Men. Total.
Royal Horse Artillery, 200 253 2,680 3,133
Cavalry of the Line, 225 424 3,672 4,321
Royal Artillery and Engineers, 1,016 795 7,936 9,747
Infantry of the Line, 1,500 3,262 41,000 45,762
Total, 2,941 4,734 55,288 63,963
In addition to the troops above mentioned the army estimates include appropriations for four classes of reserved or auxiliary forces, viz.:
1. Disembodied Militia, 128,971 officers and men.
2. Yeomanry Cavalry, 15,435 “ “
3. Volunteers, 25,688 “ “
4. Enrolled pensioners, 31,102 “ “
Total enrolled number, 201,196 “ “
In England and Wales the Militia Establishment comprises 42 regiments, with 5,066 officers; in Scotland, 16 regiments and 670 officers; in Ireland, 48 regiments, with 3,463 officers.
By Act of 1870, in case of invasion, rebellion, or insurrection, or of imminent danger thereof, the Militia, in pursuance of an order of Her Majesty in council, can be called out (the whole or any part) and embodied for actual service; but when so called out, her proclamation must be communicated to Parliament within ten days. By recent Royal Warrant, a lieutenant of the Militia is made eligible to appointment of sub-lieutenant in the Regular Army, and in the localization of the military force of the United Kingdom, the Militia, Yeomanry and Volunteers, are to be brought into closer connection with the Regular Army.
The total cost of the British army, voted by Parliament in 1870-71, was £13,093,500, besides a supplementary vote of £2,000,000 towards defraying the expenses of the military and naval services of the kingdom. Of the regular expenses, it appears from official statements that £893,200 were for the Militia and Inspection service; £81,900 for the Yeomanry; £412,400 for volunteers; and £76,000 for enrolled pensioners and army reserve force.
EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENTS FOR THE ARMY.
The sum of £140,700 was devoted to military education, in the estimates for 1871, when the educational establishments provided for the army were as follows:
Royal Military College at Sandhurst, preparatory for Infantry and Cavalry Officers.
Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, for service in the Artillery and Engineers.
Royal School of Military Engineering at Chatham.
Staff College at Woolwich.
Advanced Class of Artillery Officers at Woolwich.
School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness.
Survey Classes at Aldershot.
School of Musketry at Hythe.
Army Medical School at Netley.
Royal Hibernian Military School at Dublin.
Regimental Schools for Children of Soldiers.
Garrison Schools and Libraries for Adults.
Schools and Asylums for Orphan Children of Soldiers at Dublin and Chelsea.
Training School for Army Schoolmasters in Chelsea Military Asylum.
Military School of Music at Kneller Hall.
II. ROYAL NAVY.
The administration of the Navy of the United Kingdom is vested in the Board of Admiralty, composed of five members, who are styled “Lord Commissioners for executing the office of Lord High Admiral,” which was formerly charged with all naval matters. The First Lord Commissioner is a member of the Cabinet, and dispenser of patronage, and, with his associates, goes out with the Premier.
The effective strength of the Navy in February 1, 1869, was:
Classes of Ships. Steam. Sailing. Total.
AFLOAT. BUILDING. AFLOAT.
Iron. Wood. Iron.
Armor-plated ships, 1st Class, 1 — 1 . . 3
“ “ 2nd “ 3 — 3 . . 6
“ “ 3d “ 5 4 — . . 9
“ “ 4th “ 3 5 — . . 8
“ “ 5th “ 4 — — . . 4
“ “ 6th “ — 2 — . . 2
“ “ Sloops and gun-boats, 3 2 — . . 5
“ “ Special, with turrets, 5 1 5 . . 1
“ “ Floating batteries, 3 1 — 1 5
27 15 9
Total iron-clads, 42 9 1 52
Ships of the line (screw), 43 2 2 47
Frigates (screw), 29 — — 29
Frigates (paddle), 3 — 1 4
Block ships (screw), 1 — 2 3
Corvettes (screw), 24 — — 24
Sloops (screw), 33 — 1 34
Sloops (paddle), 7 — 1 8
Small vessels (paddle), 8 — — 8
Dispatch vessels (paddle), 4 — — 4
Gun vessels (screw and double screw), 50 1 — 51
Gun-boats (screw), 58 1 9 68
Tenders, tugs, &c., (screw), 4 — — 14
Tenders, tugs, &c., (paddle), 8 — — 38
Mortar ships (screw), — — 2 2
Troop and store ships (screw), 1 — — 11
Troop and store ships (paddle), 1 — — 1
Transports for India reliefs (screw), 5 — — 5
Yachts (paddle), 4 1 — 5
Total screw, 0 14 — 324
“ paddle, 5 1 — 66
Grand total, 375 15 18 408
Not included in the above list are several ships for the defense of the colonies. The total naval force, August 30, 1870, was:
In Commission—238 ships, of 57,205 horse-power, 1,984 guns and 314,449 tonnage. In Reserve, &c., 318 ships, 64,286 horsepower, 3,610 guns, and 318,845 tonnage. The total number of officers, seamen, boys and marines, in 1870-71, was 55,430, besides 4,300 in the coast-guard and 1,270 in the Indian service. Among the officers were 143 flag officers; 29 superintending dockyards, and 3,193 other commissioned officers on service.
III. MERCANTILE MARINE.
The Mercantile Marine of the United Kingdom in number of vessels, their registered tonnage, and men employed, together with the value of property and number of passengers transported in them, exceeds that of any other country. The total number of vessels in the home and foreign trade, registered in 1869, was 21,881, with a tonnage of 5,575,303, employing 202,477 men, and freighted with imports and exports to the total value of 532,475,266l.
All matters relating to merchant ships and seamen, and the mercantile marine generally, are committed to the general superintendence of the Board of Trade, which, as constituted in 1786, is composed of certain high officers, (members of the Privy Council), and its President is a Cabinet officer. To this Board all consular officers, all officers of customs abroad, and all local marine boards and shipping masters must make reports in matter and form as required. Inspectors, duly appointed by this Board, may visit any ship, examine any registry, machinery, boats, equipments, &c., to ascertain if they are conformable to law. In every seaport a Shipping Master is appointed by the Local Marine Board, who must keep register of names and character of seamen, facilitate their engagement and discharge, as well as the apprenticeship of boys to sea-service. The Local Board must provide for the examination of persons who intend to become masters or mates according to rules laid down by the Board of Trade. And to such as pass a satisfactory examination as to sobriety, experience, ability, and general good conduct on board ship, shall be given a certificate of competency; and to those who have served as masters or mates, under certain conditions, a certificate of service with specifications must be given. Shipping Masters must assist, when applied to by parents or guardians, or masters of ships, in apprenticing boys to the sea-service. No person can be employed as master or mate, who does not hold a certificate of competency, and under certain conditions, of service. Opportunities of preparing for these examinations are now provided in all the large seaports, in Navigation Schools; and the Government, through the Department of Science and Arts, encourages the study of astronomy, navigation, steam and steam machinery, and other branches, which are serviceable to officers in command of vessels, whether propelled by sails or engines, by making appropriations of money to schools according to the number of pupils who pass satisfactory examinations in these studies.
MILITARY EDUCATION.
The following account of the institutions for military education in England is abridged from an article in Blackwood’s Magazine for November, 1858:
There exist in this country three military seminaries—the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, where youths are educated for service in the Artillery and Engineers; the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, where cadets are prepared for the Infantry and Cavalry; and the Honorable East India Company’s Military School at Addiscombe, which educates simultaneously for the Artillery, Engineers, and Infantry services of the three Presidencies. Supplementary to these are the School of Practical Instruction at Chatham, where passed cadets from Woolwich and Addiscombe learn practical engineering; and the senior department at Sandhurst, supposed to be a Staff school, into which officers of infantry and cavalry are, under certain restrictions, admitted.
I. The Military Academy at Woolwich came into existence in the year 1741. It was created by George II., to supply a want under which the English army then suffered, by giving some instructions in matters connected with their respective arts to officers and men who served in the Artillery and in the Engineers. Its beginnings were of the humblest imaginable order. A single room in a house at Woolwich, where the Board of Ordnance used occasionally to assemble, was set apart by Government as a hall of study; and two masters were appointed to give lectures by rotation, during four consecutive hours, in three days of every week. At first only the officers of the single battalion composing the English Artillery and of the corps of Engineers were required to attend. By and by the room was thrown open to the non-commissioned officers and privates also, and eventually the cadets, of whom five were supposed to be on the strength of each company of Artillery, repaired thither in like manner. But the cadets being the sons of the officers of the corps, as they neither dressed in uniform, nor were under any military control, proved very difficult to manage; and the difficulty led to a great change as well in their condition as in that of the Academy itself.
In the year 1744 the cadets were, for the first time, clothed in uniform, and collected into a distinct company. Two officers, with a drum-major, undertook the management of them; and the arrangement worked, or was supposed to work, so satisfactorily, that by little and little, as the regiment enlarged itself, the numbers composing the Cadet Company were increased also. In 1782 they had grown from twenty to sixty; in 1798 to a hundred; after which steps were taken to lodge and board, as well as to educate and drill them, apart from the residences of their fathers. Hence, after trying for a while to accommodate some in a separate barrack, while others were billeted on private persons at a payment of 2s. a day per head, the pile which now attracts the attention of the passer-by on Woolwich Common was erected. And by the addition of a lieutenant-governor, and a whole host of officers and professors, it grew into the sort of establishment which is familiar to most of us. In 1806 the staff of officers and teachers appointed to the Cadet Company consisted of—
1. Lieutenant-Governor; 2. Inspector; 3. Professor of Mathematics; 4. Professor of Fortification; 5. Mathematical Master; 6. Arithmetical do.; 7. French do.; 8. Fortification do.; 9. Landscape-drawing do.; 10. Figure-drawing do.; 11. Second French do.; 12. Fencing do.; 13. Dancing do.; 14. First Modeller; 15. Second do.: 16. Clerk.
In 1829 the fencing and dancing masters were discontinued, and a chemical lecturer appointed. In 1836 three new masters were added; and in 1857 the staff stood thus:
Military.—A Governor; one Second Captain, commanding; one do. for Practical Class; four First-Lieutenants; one Quartermaster; one Staff-Sergeant; seven Drill-Sergeants; one Paymaster’s Clerk; one Assistant do.; Servants.
Civil or Educational.—A Chaplain; Inspector—a Lieut.-Colonel of Artillery; Assistant do.—Major, R.E.; Professor of Fortification—Lieut.-Col., R.E.; two Assistants—Second Captains; Professor of Mathematics; seven Mathematical Masters; Master of Descriptive Geometry; Master for Geometrical Drawing; Drawing-Master for Landscape; Second do.; Master for Military Plan-Drawing—Brevet-Major, R.A.; Instructor in Surveying and Field Works—Captain, R.E.; Assistant do.—Captain, R.A.; Instructor in Practical Artillery—Second Captain, R.A.; Assistant do.—Second Captain, R.A.; four French Masters; four German do.; Master for History and Geography; Lecturer in Chemistry; Assistant to do.; Lecturer in Geology and Mineralogy; Lecturer in Practical Mechanics, Machinery, and Metallurgy; Lecturer in Astronomy and Natural Philosophy; Clerk; First Assistant do.—a Sergeant; Second do.—Bombardier; one Drill-Sergeant—Practical Class; Modeller, Modelling Smith, Servants, &c.
Admittance to the Academy was, till very lately, obtained only on the nomination of the Master-General of the Ordnance. There was a preliminary examination, it is true; but this all except the dullest might calculate on passing, and the ages of entrance ranged between fourteen and sixteen. In 1835 the minimum age was raised to fifteen, the maximum to seventeen; while candidates were called up to compete for admission in the proportion of four youths for every three vacancies. The arrangement did not avail to produce any radical change in the spirit of the institution. The preliminary examination still proved to be a “pass,” and no more; and so it continued till those political views obtained the ascendant which abolished altogether the office of Master-General and Board of Ordnance, and gave us in their place a Secretary of State for the War Department.
Occasions had arisen, even under the old regime, when young men were permitted to enter the service of the Artillery under what may be called exceptional conditions. During the pressure of the great war of the French Revolution, the demand for officers became at one time so urgent, that it was found necessary to dispense with a regular academical education, and to give commissions to candidates who were pronounced by competent examiners sufficiently conversant with mathematics and physical science to enter upon the practical duties of their profession. Lord Panmure, taking advantage of the precedent thus furnished, threw open Artillery commissions in 1855, and has continued ever since to treat admission into the Royal Military Academy as a prize for which the youth of the United Kingdom may freely compete.
The subjects of study to be pursued in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, not less than the mode of dealing with them, and the text-books to be used, have hitherto been prescribed to the most minute particular by regulation. They embrace Mathematics, Fortification, Descriptive Geometry, French, German, Plan-Drawing, Geometrical Drawing, Landscape Drawing, History and Geography; to which, during his continuance in what are called the “theoretical classes,” the attention of the cadet is confined. When he enters the “practical class,” the student is instructed, over and above, in Practical Artillery, Surveying and Field-Works, and attends lectures in Astronomy, Chemistry, Geology, and Mineralogy. As many as five years may be spent by a young man in going over this course—viz., four years in the “theoretical,” and one year in the “practical” class—though the average period of actual residence does not appear to exceed two years and a half or three years. There are periodical examinations at the end of every half-year, the second of which, by its results, determines whether the young man shall be allowed to go on to a commission, or be removed from the Academy.
The moral tone of this military college has never, we regret to say, been of a very high order. Excellent men have been at the head of it, and the ability of the professors and teachers appointed to instruct admits of no question. Yet few right-minded officers look back upon the years spent in the cadet barracks except with disgust. It is not very difficult to account for the circumstance. Long after Continental nations had seen the absurdity of pressing upon boys the sort of training which belongs to men, we refused to be guided by their experience, and persisted, both at Woolwich and elsewhere, in our endeavor to accomplish an impossibility. “Boys of fourteen, fifteen, and sixteen,” says a very high authority on this subject, “require much personal supervision in order to form their characters, which young officers, very often appointed without any sufficient knowledge of their tempers and habits, cannot be expected to bestow. Such officers may indeed be able to superintend drill, but not moral training. Rarely do they draw the cadets towards them, and become their advisers; more frequently repel them by a harsh dictatorial manner, the cadet being in their eyes a soldier. There has been also, during all the time I have known the Academy, great inconsistency in treating the cadets. Honor is constantly talked of, and yet doubts as to their truthfulness are not unfrequently expressed. I have heard even the lie given in rough and emphatic terms. Confidence is professedly placed, and yet offences are found out in a way that shows that no confidence existed. Hence a contest arises between the officer and cadet, and the latter becomes tricky and disingenuous.”
In these emphatic words Colonel Portlock has struck at the root of most of the evil which has long been felt, and heretofore combated without success, in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich. Whatever is wanting in the morale of that establishment, it owes to the original sin of its constitution. We know how to deal with boys so long as we recognize their boyhood, even while appealing to the point of honor among them. But we no sooner dress them up in uniform, and affect to treat them as soldiers, than we lose all moral control over them. They smoke, drink, swear, and fall into other vices, not because they are overcome by any irresistible temptation, but because they look upon such acts as tokens of manhood. And the corporals, who report readily enough for insubordination, and the officers, who punish for what they call military offences, take little heed of worse things; partly because, in a military point of view, they are scarcely criminal; partly because, not being regarded as such, they are seldom brought under the notice of the superior authorities. How a seminary so conducted and so managed should have given to the Artillery and Engineers a body of officers distinguished, as those of both arms unquestionably are for talent, intelligence, and gentlemanly bearing, would be inexplicable, were not the fact well known, that one of the first lessons taught to the young lieutenant, after quitting the Academy, is to throw off the habits which he had contracted there, and to adopt the high moral tone and excellent habits of his regiment.
It was partly with a view to provide a palliative for this admitted evil, partly to encourage in our young Artillery officers the habit of sustained study, that they were required, by a recent regulation, “to place themselves under the orders of a director of studies for half a year after obtaining their commissions. Meanwhile cadets who are appointed to the Engineers proceed to the training-school for that arm at Chatham; where they go through a somewhat careful course of surveying, and are instructed less elaborately in architecture, civil as well as military, and in mining, sapping, pontooning, and so forth. According to the report of the Commissioners, it does not appear that they reach their new field of instruction over and above well prepared to make the most of it. Indeed, the whole of the Woolwich system is by these gentlemen condemned in terms as decided as is consistent with good breeding.
II. It was not till the year 1804 that the propriety of training young men in ever so slight a degree for the service of the infantry and cavalry, seems to have occurred to any statesman or soldier in this country. Appointments to both arms took place for a time by purchase only, and by and by, when the numbers of the rank and file increased, through the weight of influence, personal, political, or social. Moreover, when the pressure of the great war was at its height, a third door of entrance to military rank was opened, and ensigncies and captaincies, and even lieutenant-colonelcies, became the prize of private gentlemen who were able to bring certain fixed contingents of able-bodied men under the royal standard. So far as the candidates for commissions themselves were concerned, however, the same even-handed justice was meted out to all. Nobody took the trouble to inquire whether the candidates were qualified morally, intellectually, or physically. He might be a pimp and blockhead, or lame, or deaf, or blind; but so long as his patron had the ear of the Government, or the men whom he brought with him were able to pass muster, his commission, whatever it might be, was secure.
The Military College at Sandhurst consisted at first, as it still consists, of two departments—one, called the Junior Department, for cadets—the other, the Senior Department, for officers desirous of qualifying for the Staff. But it had, in its original constitution, this marked advantage over the arrangement which has since been effected, that whereas now cadets and officers occupy portions of the same range of buildings, and come under the instruction of the same professors, they were, in 1804 placed, the one at Marlow, the other at Highwickam—each class of students having its own teachers, though both were subject to the control and management of the same military administration.
As first constituted, the junior department afforded both an asylum and a place of education for the sons of officers exclusively. Youths once admitted ceased to be a burden to their friends, except for the necessary expenses of travelling; they were housed, clothed, and educated at the public expense. But no sooner was the great war ended than Parliament began to slacken in its gratitude to the army, and by little and little the grants for military education fell off, till in the end they ceased altogether. As a necessary consequence, the numbers of persons seeking education at the Military College fell off in like manner. And now the junior department exhibits a muster-roll of 180 cadets only, while the strength of the senior department has dwindled to nine individuals. To be sure, other causes than the withdrawal of public support from the institution have operated to produce this latter result. Whatever it might have been forty years ago, the senior department at Sandhurst is certainly no Staff school now. Indeed, the only science effectively taught there seems to be mathematics; and it is a curious fact, that though the army abounds with officers who have passed through that school, and taken high honors, the instances are rare in which Staff appointments have fallen to the lot of any of them.
Lads are admitted into the junior department at Sandhurst between the ages of thirteen and fifteen. The preliminary examination is of the most trivial kind, and the instruction communicated is, for half the course, that of a common school not of the highest order. No doubt each youth may, if he be disposed, master more than the elements of a good deal of science; for over and above physical geography and history, instruction is given in practical astronomy, dynamics, and statics, practical mechanics, co-ordinate geometry, the differential and integral calculus, trigonometry and mensuration, Euclid’s Geometry, attack and defence of fortresses, practical field-fortification, course of military surveying, the Latin, French, and German languages. Unfortunately, however, there is no compulsion to study, nor any inducement, unless the youth aspire to win for himself a commission without purchase.
III. The Hon. East India Company’s College at Addiscombe approaches nearer in its constitution and objects to what a military school ought to be, than any other of which we can boast in this country. It came into existence in 1818, previously to which date the Directors were in the habit of sending to Woolwich, for instruction, youths to whom they had given cadetships in the Company’s Artillery and Engineers. When first founded, it was intended as a place of training exclusively for these young gentlemen; but the benefits derived from it became so obvious and so great that the Court of Directors gradually enlarged its views, and now young men are educated at Addiscombe not only for the Company’s Artillery and Engineers, but for their infantry also. And herein it is that the Directors have mixed up evil with good. They consider an Engineer cadetship as their great prize, and next to that a cadetship of Artillery; and they select for these appointments, not the youths who may have exhibited special talents for either arm, but the best men, or the men reported as generally best, of their batch. The consequence is, that to the infantry—for good service in which talent is as much required as for either the Artillery or Engineers—the idlers of the College are appointed, while many a clever lad, who would have shone as an infantry officer, becomes an indifferent engineer or gunner, simply because he has been posted to an arm for the practical operation of which he has no genius.
In all other respects the Military School at Addiscombe may be fairly said to surpass both Woolwich and Sandhurst. In the first place, youths enter there almost invariably at a more mature age. Though eligible for admission after completing their fifteenth year, they seldom, if ever, come up for examination till after they have turned seventeen. In the next place, the entrance examination is more severe than either at Woolwich or Sandhurst; and in the third and last place—and this is the most important condition of the whole—cadets must complete their course at Addiscombe in two years, unless for special reasons, such as sickness, they be allowed to prolong their stay one half-year more. Now, lads may linger on at Woolwich four, and even five years, gaining this remarkable advantage from their stupidity, that when forced to compete at last for choice between Artillery and Engineers, they compete with youths who may have had but two years’ training. And at Sandhurst, the course which nominally covers four years, may, if the youth have interest at headquarters, be completed, as far as his appointment to a commission completes it, in four months.
The general education given at Addiscombe is certainly not inferior to that which the cadets receive either at Woolwich or at Sandhurst. It embraces, indeed, almost entirely the same subjects which are set down in the curriculum of the others—including lectures in geology, chemistry, and artillery. But it undeniably falls short in specialties. Hence, after completing his course at Addiscombe, the Company’s cadet intended for the Engineers proceeds to Chatham, where, side by side with young men from Woolwich, he receives practical instruction in his art. For the Artillery cadet, on the other hand, there is no practical school. Like his comrade intended for the service of the Infantry, he proceeds at once from Addiscombe to India, and learns there how to turn to account the theoretical lessons which have been communicated to him at home.
Another distinction deserves to be noted between the constitution of the school of Addiscombe, and that as well of the Royal Military College as of the Royal Military Academy: Though all alike put from them the eleemosynary element, at Addiscombe alone is strict impartiality in the matter of payments observed. The youth who enters there, whether he be the son of an earl or of a subaltern’s widow, must be provided with his £100 a year, besides about £25 more to cover the cost of books, instruments, and uniforms. Both at Woolwich and Sandhurst there is a graduated scale, which exacts more from a general officer than from a subaltern, and more from a civilian than from either. The orphan of an officer dying in poor circumstances is admitted into Woolwich on payment of £20 a year. He pays for similar privileges at Sandhurst £40. The son of a gentleman in civil life pays in both cases £125, a sum more than necessary to cover the expenses of his own board and education, but which is exacted in order that there may be a surplus out of which the deficiencies occasioned by the payments of the sons of officers shall be made good.
Most important changes in the system of Military Education in England have been introduced since 1855, by Lord Panmure and the Council of Military Education, inaugurated under his auspices.
1. Admission to the various Military Schools is now gained by open competitive examination.
2. The order and method of studies, and all examinations for promotion, are governed by an independent Board of competent officers, and men of service, called the Council of Military Education.
3. The amount and order of studies in each school are minutely arranged, and each Professor is kept to the prescribed course by the supervision of a Master of Studies.
4. The development of the Staff School has given completeness to the system.
III. FRENCH VIEW OF ENGLISH MILITARY SCHOOLS.
M. Alphonse Esquiros, in the Révue des Deux Mondes of September 1860, contributes two articles on the military schools and institutions of England, from which we make a few extracts:
THE MILITARY SPIRIT AND PREPARATION OF ENGLAND.
On what foundation is the assertion based that England is only a first-class naval power? Although never numerous, have not the English soldiers sufficed for all the great eventualities of history? Has not the weight of their arms been felt for centuries past in the balance in which are weighed the destinies of the Continent? Each time that it was necessary to conquer, have they not conquered? I will not awaken irritating recollections. I will not mention the name of a great battle so painful to our national self-love; it will suffice to recall the fact, that recently, England, with a handful of men, has reconquered India. Instead of denying history, it were better to ask by what links the British character is connected with the group of martial nations. The Englishman is not warlike from inclination; he does not love war for war’s sake, or maintain an army for the ruinous pleasure of seeing bayonets glitter and banners flaunt. He has an army to defend his territory, his commerce, the immense net-work of his external relations and possessions. Experience has more than once shown him the necessity of placing the pride of riches under the protection of courage. The Englishman has less enthusiasm than coolness. Immovable when attacked, he feels that the responsibility of the labor which has made England an opulent nation rests upon his arms. The military element, therefore, presents in Great Britain peculiar and interesting features. And then, quite recently, besides the regular army, a new independent army has arisen. Yesterday, it existed but as a project; to-day, it fills the towns with the blast of its clarions, passes review in Hyde Park and Holyrood, and covers the plains with the smoke of its skirmishers. I speak of the volunteers, or riflemen. We must investigate the origin of this movement, and the influence it has already exercised on English habits; but before busying ourselves with the army and volunteers, it will be well to study the military schools and arsenals.
REFORMS IN MILITARY EDUCATION AND PROMOTION IN 1856.
The delay and disasters of the operations before Sebastopol aroused the attention of the press and the people to the manner in which officers for the army were trained, appointed, and promoted. The Government was aroused by the emotions of the country, and in 1856, a commission was appointed by Lord Panmure, Secretary of War, to reorganize the education of the officers. That commission visited the different military schools of Great Britain, visited similar institutions in France, Prussia, Austria, and Sardinia, and collected all documents of a nature to enlighten it researches. Its report is a monument of science, and art, and impartiality. The authors of that investigation, Col. Yolland, Col. Mythe, and Mr. Lake, of the Oxford University, pointed out what reform ought to be made in the English system to raise the establishment of military education to the level of the inevitable progress claimed by the present age. They recommended a Council of Military Education, which, placed beyond and above the educating body, should direct the studies of the young men destined for the army. From these various influences—the pressure of public opinion, the commission appointed in 1856 by the Government, and especially the Council of Military Education, arose those happy changes, which we shall endeavor to point out in the military institutions of Great Britain.
ROYAL MILITARY ACADEMY AT WOOLWICH.
Before 1855, the candidates were named by the master-general of ordnance; and although there was an entrance examination, the requisitions were very elementary, and no youth, influentially connected or recommended, was rejected. The results, although the institution furnished some good engineers and artillery officers to the English army, were not satisfactory. Since 1855 the system of appointment and instruction has been re-organized. Appointment on nomination has given place to open competition. A ministerial circular made an appeal to all candidates desirous of entering the academy without distinction of class, or party. Public examinations thrown open to the youth of England, with independent examinations, succeeded the private examinations within the college walls. The axe was laid at the tree of privilege, and personal merit was substituted in its place.
The entrance examinations take place twice, a year, at Chelsea Hospital—the home of disabled soldiers, and the school of orphan soldiers’ children—in a large hall hung with the captured trophies and battle flags of different nations. The programme embraces mathematics, simple and practical; history, geography, and English literature; the Greek and Latin classics; the French language and literature; German, chemistry, and physics; mineralogy and geology; geometrical and landscape drawing. To each subject a certain numerical value is assigned. Each candidate is limited to five subjects, including mathematics, which he may select out of the programme, and on his obtaining an aggregate as well as relative number of marks depends his success. The results are made public, and the unsuccessful candidates are allowed another trial to fill succeeding vacancies. Then examinations exercise an indirect but elevating influence upon the schools of the country which send forth the candidates. Competition has put a check upon ignorance and mediocrity, no matter how well backed by social and political influence.
Another reform, not less important than that of competition, or the system of nominations, was that order of the minister of war, lengthening the age for the admission of candidates. That age was fixed between 16 and 20. The inconvenience of submitting young men too soon to military discipline has been recognized with great wisdom by Gen. Portlock.2 “The character of adolescents exacts,” he says, “a more delicate cultivation than that which must be expected from officers imbued with the command of a military school. In their eyes, no matter how young he is, the pupil is a soldier, and they treat him almost as one. Doubtless they excel in drilling him well; but do they possess the necessary qualities and experience for forming the morals of youth?” Another consequence of the early admissions was the introduction of a sort of confusion and uncertainty in the system of teaching. Now, a distinct line is drawn between the course of studies which precede and which follow admission to the academy. The conclusion was come to that a military academy formed a sort of line of demarcation in life between a good general education which ends, and a professional service which commences. The character, mind, manners of the candidate are supposed to be formed according to the usages of the world; he has reached that age when a man knows himself, and looks out for a career.
It is needless to dwell on the course of instruction, which is now nearly the same in all the great military schools of Europe. There are thirty-five professors, many of them eminent in their respective departments. One leading object, both of instruction and discipline, is to cultivate the habit of self-improvement and self-government. Physical sports are practiced and encouraged, and the cadets frequently challenge the officers of the garrison to a match of cricket.
An examination takes place every six months, in which the progress of each cadet is ascertained and reported. Those who pass through the series in good standing are promoted to a commission; the most distinguished to the engineer corps, and the others to the artillery. The appointment of these young officers gives rise to an interesting ceremony. The Duke of Cambridge, with a numerous staff, visits Woolwich Academy twice a year. All the cadets are present in review in front of the monument. It is pleasing to see how admirably they go through the manœuvres. The duke then enters a hall where a viva voce examination takes place on the art of fortification. This over, the cadets form in square, and the duke then advances to the table where the prizes are laid out. These prizes consist of a sword of honor, telescopes, mathematical instruments, and books. The President of the Council of Education reads out the names of the cadets of the first class who are to receive commissions in the engineers and artillery. In conclusion, the Duke of Cambridge addresses some parental words to the young men who are about to leave the academy to enter the army. Such is a brief account of this academical festival, to which the brilliancy of the uniforms, the rank and names of the assistants, the happy emotions on the faces of the young men, impress a character of charm and solemnity.
MILITARY COLLEGE AT ADDISCOMBE.
Addiscombe was formerly the residence of the Earl of Liverpool, but was converted into a school at an expense of $40,000, by the East India Company. Within a few years it has passed into the hands of the Government. One of the first acts of the Secretary of War and Council of Military Education was to inaugurate a system of admission (which was open by patronage of members of the company) by competitive examination, and which has been attended with the happiest results. After passing a year at Addiscombe, the cadets enter according to merit (ascertained by examination) and either enter the engineers, artillery, or line service. The India service will always remain distinct and sought after; that life of adventures, encampments in the jungles, tiger hunts, the attraction of struggles against man and nature, the dazzling figures of a world shining in the east through the fogs of Great Britain, all this responds to one feature of the English character, the love of adventure.
ROYAL COLLEGE OF SANDHURST.
Here are two distinct institutions—the college, which is a preparatory school for infantry and cavalry officers, and the senior department, or staff school. The scholars of the last department, who have already gone through the competitive examination, are commissioned officers; they have even served a certain number of years in the army; some of them have gone through the Crimean war and the Indian campaign. In 1859, one of these officers had received eighteen or nineteen wounds, which had deprived him of one of his eyes. I was surprised at finding among them candidates for staff appointments who could write and speak French in a manner that would have done honor to a French officer.
The English find it an advantage to admit young officers of talent and energy into the higher branches of the service. To the experience of their profession, their picked soldiers add knowledge already acquired, which a second course of education develops and consolidates. It must, however, be admitted that it requires a certain moral strength to return, after having held a command, to the benches of a school, to follow various studies, and to submit to strict examinations, which exclude all ideas of promotion and favor, fortune or birth.
In an economical point of view, these two institutions, Woolwich and Sandhurst, cover their own expenses without any cost to the State. This fact, which was by no means foreseen, is owing to two measures relatively of recent date—the gradual withdrawal of subsidies formerly granted by Parliament, and the accession of the sons of rich men not belonging to the army; these latter pay a high premium, and thus contribute towards the education of the other cadets, who, being sons of officers, enjoy certain immunities. In England, it is thought equitable that the services of the father should be counted in favor of the son; according to this principle, the debt contracted by the country towards military men is paid to their sons by civilians.
Young men who have not passed through Sandhurst may, nevertheless, be admitted as officers into the line or cavalry, but on the condition of undergoing an examination and purchasing their commissions. This purchasing of direct commissions is doubtless detrimental to Sandhurst College. The abolition of the system has often been mooted. The Duke of Cambridge approves of the abolition, as does the Minister of War, and wishes that no officer shall be admitted into the English army except from a military college.
COUNCIL OF MILITARY EDUCATION.
So far we only behold the members of a great system. There is unity in the Council of Military Education, which to a certain extent is the head of instruction. The influence of their council, which consists of eminent men, is felt in the different schools, introduces changes and useful reforms, directs the public examinations—in a word, gives the impulse to the military studies of the United Kingdom. The civil and religious element is represented therein by one of the most learned men of England (the Rev. Henry Mosley, canon.) The other members are generals and colonels belonging to different corps of the army.
Thus it will be seen that England enjoys a system of military education which will bear comparison with that of any other nation in Europe. The chief purposes of this system are a good general instruction up to the age of sixteen or nineteen years, then a short military instruction, then, after some years of service, a final course of studies in the senior department or staff college. It must not, however, be supposed that the present state of things, though happily modified by the recent principle of competition, is the extreme limit of progress. In the name of liberty, I am too anxious that Great Britain should maintain her position in the world, to pay a full compliment to her self-esteem and enslumber her aspirations for reform. She has done much in these latter times; but there is still much to be done, and she is aware of it, to raise the moral power of her officers to the level of modern times, where enlightenment pervades every class of society.
MODIFICATIONS IN 1871.
In 1867 a Royal Commission was appointed “to inquire into the Present state of Military Education and into the Training of Candidates for Commissions in the Army.” The Report, with the minutes of evidence and illustrated documents, was quite voluminous, and has been followed with important changes in both the system of military instruction, and in the mode of making appointments and promotions in the army, that will be noted in detail in the following chapters, which are compiled from historical notices by the Secretary of the Commission, and recent Regulations for the government of the several schools and the examinations for appointment and promotions.
The most important measure affecting the British army; after repeated discussions of the principle, in the last and former Parliaments, and particularly in the last, on a bill of the Gladstone ministry, in which the votes of the Commons in favor was overruled by the Lords, was the abolition of the whole system of purchase and sale of commissions by Royal Warrant issued July 20, 1871. This radical change was followed (October 30) by a revision of the Queen’s Regulations, in which original appointments and promotions in the military service are put on a new basis. Henceforth, commissions of the first grade are to be issued to sub-lieutenants, for any vacancy occurring:
1. To successful candidates, in the order of merit as ascertained by competitive examination in general subjects.
2. To graduates of the universities who shall pass a qualifying examination.
3. To Queen’s Cadets, Indian Cadets, and Pages of Honor, who have passed successfully the final examination of the Military Academy, or its equivalent.
4. To non-commissioned officers who are recommended for promotion by their commanding officers. If more candidates apply than there are vacancies to be filled, appointment is decided by competition.
5. To a lieutenant of the militia, who shall pass the professional examination required.
Sub-lieutenants are eligible to promotion only after passing a professional examination, and only after twelve months’ service with a regiment, under strict discipline, with liability to be removed for physical or moral unfitness. Within three years from the date of their commissions as lieutenants, officers may submit to an examination in respect to fitness for promotion to captaincies, and any officer failing to pass within three years, must retire from the army. Lieutenants are eligible to the rank of captain at any time after two years’ service in the army, having passed the examination. A captain may be made a major after two years’ service in the army; and a major is at any time eligible to a lieutenant-coloneley, which means the command of a regiment.
Every promotion must now be made on the recommendation of the Commander-in-Chief, with the approval of the Secretary of State for War; and from the principles laid down in the Royal Warrant, as will be seen further on, every precaution is taken to insure a gradual advance by seniority, and a more rapid rise by meritorious service founded on intelligent and disinterested tests. By the new Warrant the Militia is brought into closer connection with the Regular Army. To the abolition of purchase, and promotion by professional preparation and service, may be added the autumn field manœuvres, inaugurated in 1871, with 30,000 men, and the localization of the Army, by assigning a corps with staff, train, men, &c., to territorial divisions of the country.
COUNCIL OF MILITARY EDUCATION.
HISTORICAL NOTICE.
In the debates which took place in Parliament during the Crimean war, in the year 1855, attention was frequently drawn to the necessity of improving the professional education of officers, and more particularly of providing means of instruction for, and requiring special qualifications from, those who were candidates for the staff. In the course of the same year a great alteration was made in the principles which had hitherto regulated preparatory instruction for the army, by abandoning, so far as the scientific corps were concerned, the system of juvenile military education, and throwing admission to the Artillery and Engineers open to public competition among candidates whose age would afford the presumption that their general education was already completed. At the beginning of 1856 three Commissioners, Lieut.-Colonel Yolland, R.E., Lieut.-Colonel Smythe, R.A., and the Rev. W. C. Lake, were appointed by Lord Panmure, then Secretary of State for War, “to consider the best mode of reorganizing the system for training officers for the scientific corps”; and for this purpose were directed to visit the military schools of France, Prussia, Austria, and Sardinia. The instructions issued to the Commissioners informed them that it was already decided that admission to the scientific corps should be obtained by open competition, and that the age of candidates admitted to the examination should be from 17 to 20.
While the Commissioners were still engaged in their inquiries, the question of military education was frequently brought before the notice of Parliament in the course of the session of 1856, more particularly by Mr. Sidney Herbert, who, in an elaborate speech on the 5th of June, explained to the House of Commons the details of a general scheme of education for officers of all branches of the service, the outline of which he had previously sketched out while Secretary at War in 1854, in a letter to the Commander-in-Chief.
The subject of military education was one which at this time engaged the serious attention both of the Government and the public. Toward the close of the year, Major-General Lefroy (then Colonel Lefroy, and employed at the War Office as artillery adviser to the Secretary of State) was directed by Lord Panmure to draw up a general scheme for the education of officers; and numerous plans, with a similar object, were about the same period proposed for the consideration of the Secretary of State.
The military educational establishments which existed in 1856 were as follows:
The Royal Military College at Sandhurst, comprising a senior and junior department. Under the control of the Commander-in-Chief.
The Royal Military Academy at Woolwich.
The Ordnance School at Carshalton, a preparatory establishment to the Academy. Under the control of the Clerk of the Ordnance.
The Department of Artillery Studies at Woolwich.
The Royal Engineer Establishment at Chatham.
The East India Military College at Addiscombe. Under the Court of Directors of the East India Company.
The School of Musketry at Hythe. Under the control of the Commander-in-Chief.
The Royal Military Asylum at Chelsea, comprising a training school for army schoolmasters, and a model school for children. Under the control of the Deputy Secretary of War.
The Royal Hibernian School at Dublin.
Garrison and regimental schools for soldiers and children. Under the control of the Chaplain-General.
Up to this period no systematic organization for the direction of military education had prevailed in this country; the various educational establishments were under the control of separate departments, and no single authority exercised any general supervision over them. The appointment of a Director-General of Military Education had been already advocated in Parliament by Mr. Sidney Herbert, and the institution of a special department to superintend the whole system of education for the army was one of the main features both of Colonel Lefroy’s and of all the other schemes brought under the consideration of Lord Panmure at this period.
The Commissioners appointed in 1856, after having visited the military schools of the Continent, presented their Report in January, 1857. In this Report, although their instructions had more particularly directed their attention to the training of officers for the scientific corps, they touched upon several points connected with the education of officers of the army generally. One of the changes most strongly recommended by them was the formation of a special Board of Military Education. “We consider it of the first importance,” their Report says, “that military education in this country should be regarded as a whole, and that perfect unity of system and harmony in its working should be made to prevail. This, we conceive, can only be done by bringing military education generally under the control of one head, the Secretary of State for War; and to effect this, a Board or Section of Military Education should be formed, as part of the establishment of the War Office.” The Report adds: “The creation of such a Section appears to us far more important than any other single object we can recommend.” The Commissioners also stated that after careful consideration, they recommended the combined action of a Board in preference to the undivided authority of a single individual, on the ground of the variety of knowledge and experience required for the proper treatment of educational questions.
The appointment of the Council of Military Education was the first result of the recommendations of the Commissioners. Its institution was proposed in a letter from the Commander-in-Chief to the Secretary of State for War on the 6th of April, 1857, and as originally constituted, it consisted of the Commander-in-Chief as ex officio president, a Major-General as vice-president, and two field officers as members. The appointment of the Council, although the members commenced their duties at once, was not officially gazetted until June.
The functions of the Council, however, did not in the first instance extend to a general superintendence over the whole system of military education. Almost simultaneously with their institution an Inspector-General of Army Schools was appointed under the Secretary of State for War, to whom the management of all institutions connected with the education of soldiers and children, which had previously been in the hands of the Chaplain-General, was entrusted. Nor was the supervision of the Council even over the education of officers at first general, as the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich remained under the management of the War Office (under which department it had been placed on the abolition of the office of Master-General of the Ordnance), and the examinations for admission to it were conducted by a separate Board of Examiners, under the superintendence of Canon Moseley.
The instructions issued to the Council on their first appointment directed their attention more especially to the organization of a Staff College, the revision of the system of examinations for direct appointments to the army, the amalgamation of Woolwich and Sandhurst, and the professional instruction and examination of officers after entering the service. On all these questions they submitted reports in the course of the year, and at the beginning of 1858 they commenced to conduct the examinations in connection with the Staff College and the Cadet College at Sandhurst, although these establishments were not formally put under their authority until, by a Royal Warrant of the 1st of October, 1858, the Council were appointed Visitors of the Royal Military College. The examinations of officers for direct appointments to the staff, which had been instituted in 1857, were also placed under the superintendence of the Council in 1858; but at a later period, the portion of these examinations which has more especial reference to matters of drill and regimental duty was, on the recommendation of the Council themselves, removed from their control, with the view of its being conducted by a Board of Officers appointed by the Adjutant-General.
At the beginning of the year 1858, the office of Secretary to the Council of Military Education was created, and in June of the same year an augmentation of their number took place by the addition of two new members,—one a field officer, the other a civilian, the Rev. Canon Moseley. The constitution of the Council as then fixed continues to the present day, and consists of the Commander-in-Chief as ex officio president, a vice-president, and four members, one being a civilian.
The appointment of a civilian as a member of the central Board of Military Education had been recommended by the Commissioners of 1856, on the ground of the close connection between military and civil educational questions. The decision to carry out this recommendation, simultaneously with an augmentation in the strength of the Council, appears to have been connected with the determination arrived at, to place the superintendence of the Academy at Woolwich—the competitive examinations for admission to which had hitherto been conducted by Canon Moseley—in the hands of the Council. They were formally appointed Visitors of the Academy in August, 1858, their control over the education of the officers of the army being now made almost entirely general. The powers of the Council, however, in regard to Woolwich appear, probably from the fact of their not being defined by Royal Warrant, to be theoretically somewhat less extensive than those possessed by them over Sandhurst, as the recommendation of the appointment of professors, which in the case of the latter college is formally vested in the Council, is at the Academy left to the Lieutenant-Governor.
In October, 1859, the Indian Military College at Addiscombe was placed under the supervision of the Council, and the examinations for admission to it were conducted by them until the close of the establishment in 1861.
In 1860, the superintendence of army schools, garrison libraries, recreation rooms, the Royal Military Asylum at Chelsea, and the Royal Hibernian School at Dublin, were transferred from the Secretary of State for War to the Council.
In 1864, the Advanced Class of Artillery Officers, on its institution, was placed under the control of the Council. Since this date the whole system of army education has been superintended by that body, with the exception of the examinations of officers for promotion, the School of Musketry at Hythe, and the more peculiarly regimental institutions which exist in the Department of Artillery Studies, the School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness, and the School of Military Engineering at Chatham, for the special instruction of officers of the scientific corps. The Survey Class at Aldershot, though not formally is indirectly subject to their supervision.
1. ORGANIZATION AND DUTIES IN 1869.
The Council of Military Education consists of the Duke of Cambridge, Field Marshal Commanding-in-Chief, President; Major-General W. C. E. Napier, Vice-President; Major-General Sir Fred. Abbott, of the Royal Engineers; Col. Pocklington and Col. Hamley, of the Royal Artillery; Rev. Canon Moseley, civilian; and Capt. Greentree, Secretary.
Military Schools and Examinations.
1. To recommend to the Commander-in-Chief, and the Secretary of War, gentlemen for the appointment of examiners in the army examinations.
2. To recommend professors and instructors for the Advanced Class of Artillery Officers, the Staff College, the Royal Military Academy, and the Royal Military College.
3. To examine, by means of their staff of examiners, officers for direct appointment to the staff, chiefly the personal staff, and aids-de-camp and assistant military secretaries.
4. To examine officers of artillery for admission to the Advanced Class, and for certificates on quitting it.
5. To examine officers for admission to the Staff College, probationarily after a year’s residence, and for qualification for the general staff on quitting the College.
6. To examine candidates for admission to the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, and for qualification for commissions in the Royal Artillery and in the Royal Engineers on quitting that establishment.
7. To examine candidates for admission to the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, and for qualification for commissions in the army on their quitting the College.
8. To examine candidates for direct commissions in the cavalry, guards, and line.
9. To visit the several military colleges whenever they consider it desirable.
10. To report to the Commander-in-Chief on all questions connected with the education of candidates for the army, or with the educational departments of the several military schools.
Army Schools, Regimental and Garrison Libraries and Reading Rooms.
1. To receive and consider all applications for training schoolmasters or schoolmistresses; the usual course of procedure in these cases is annexed.
2. The appointment of trained schoolmasters and schoolmistresses, according to the regulations.
3. The appointment of acting schoolmasters and schoolmistresses, when trained masters and mistresses cannot be provided.
4. The appointment of civilian schoolmasters in embodied regiments of militia under special regulations as annexed.
5. The transfers of schoolmasters and schoolmistresses from one regiment or garrison school to another, as circumstances may require.
6. Promotion of schoolmasters and schoolmistresses from one class to another according to the regulations.
7. To receive and consider all communications from commanding officers on matters relating to the appointment of schoolmasters and schoolmistresses their discipline, application for leave to marry, furlough, etc.
8. To receive the monthly report of schools, prescribed by Article 16 of the Schools Regulations, and to consider the same, and take such proceedings thereon as may appear necessary.
9. The periodical inspection of all military schools, and of the Royal Military Asylum, Chelsea, and the Royal Hibernian School, Dublin.
10. To provide for and superintend the half yearly examination at the Royal Military Asylum, Chelsea.
11. The supply of suitable apparatus for the illustration of lectures for the instruction and entertainment of soldiers, according to the rules laid down by the Secretary of State.
12. The general supervision of regimental and garrison libraries and reading rooms.
13. To consider applications for, and appoint librarians at rates of pay previously authorized by the Secretary of State.
14. To supply games, and other authorized articles for reading rooms, according to the rules annexed.
15. To receive the quarterly reports of the state of barrack libraries in duplicate, and to consider any recommendation which maybe made therein; one copy to be forwarded to the Secretary of State for War, with the recommendations of the Council recorded thereon, should any be necessary.
16. To make out requisitions upon the War Office for additions to libraries, when necessary, within the annual amount granted by Parliament.
17. To receive and consider the half yearly reports of artillery and engineer libraries in duplicate, in aid of which a grant of money will be made annually to each brigade of artillery and company of engineers by the Secretary of State, on the recommendation of the Council of Military Education; one copy to be forwarded to the Secretary of State, with any remarks thereon which may appear called for, the other to be retained by the Council.
18. Hospital libraries and the schools and libraries of disembodied regiments of militia will remain under the Secretary of State for War.
19. Upon all matters connected with either schools or libraries, not specified above, and which may involve expense, reference should be made to the Secretary of State for War, previously to any decision being arrived at.
EXAMINATIONS FOR COMMISSIONS AND PROMOTIONS.
I. EXAMINATIONS FOR DIRECT COMMISSIONS.
HISTORICAL NOTICE.
Previously to the year 1849, no educational qualifications were required as a condition of obtaining a commission, except from officers appointed to the scientific corps—admission to which could only be obtained by passing through the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich—and from the small proportion of officers, scarcely amounting, at that time, to one sixth of the whole number annually obtaining commissions, who entered the other branches of the service from the Royal Military College at Sandhurst. Examinations for admission to the army generally were first instituted by the Duke of Wellington, when Commander-in-Chief, in 1849. The examination, in addition to general subjects of elementary education, included the professional subject of fortification, in which the candidate was required to have read some easy work on the subject, and to have received some instruction in drawing. This requirement was subsequently somewhat modified; and the knowledge of fortification afterward exacted from a candidate was, “to be able to trace upon paper, in presence of the examiners, a front of fortification according to Vauban’s first system, and also the profile of a rampart and parapet.” In other subjects, modifications were also introduced; but the general character of the examinations remained much the same as originally established, and the regulations introduced by the Duke of Wellington, in 1849, continued substantially in force, until the general revision of the system of military education, which took place in 1857. It appears, however, from the evidence given by Lord Panmure, before the Royal Commission on the Purchase System, that, during the Crimean war, the stringency of the examinations was very much relaxed.
The examinations were held at Sandhurst by the professors of the College, in the presence of the Lieutenant-Governor, and were conducted to a great extent vivâ voce. The Select Committee of the House of Commons on Sandhurst (1855) did not make any recommendation in regard to these examinations, but stated in their report that in the only branch of the examination which was of a military character, namely, fortification, the knowledge required would easily be mastered in a week. The character of the examination, however, appears to have been very generally regarded with dissatisfaction. Mr. Sidney Herbert, when Secretary at War, in 1854, criticised it severely, as being “too technical, too limited, and within its limits too severe,” and as leading necessarily to a candidate cramming up a few books which happened to be in use at Sandhurst, without affording any test of general education. He contemplated at that time a revision of the examinations, and the institution of a special board of examiners, in place of the Sandhurst professors, for the purpose of conducting them; and the Treasury, in connection with this subject, suggested that the machinery proposed for the object in view should be combined, as far as practicable, with that about to be established for examining candidates for the Civil Service.
The outbreak of the Crimean war prevented Mr. Sidney Herbert’s proposals, which were connected with a general plan for the instruction of officers, from being carried into effect; and in 1856, Lord Panmure, before the Purchase System Commission, spoke of the defects of the existing examinations in nearly the same terms as those used by Mr. Herbert in 1854. After stating that they led to a system of cramming up particular books, he laid down the principle that the examination “should be such as young men may be supposed capable of passing without having any particular professional education. It ought to be upon general subjects, such as a young man ought to become acquainted with during his passage through any high educational establishment in this country.”
The various schemes for the reorganization of military education brought under the notice of Lord Panmure, at the end of 1856, proposed improvements in the system of examinations for admission to the army; and nearly all the authorities consulted on the subject at that time appear to have concurred in the opinion that the examinations should be strictly non-professional, and should be confined to requiring proof on the part of the candidates of a knowledge of the ordinary subjects of liberal education. The commissioners appointed in the same year to consider the training of officers for the scientific corps also recommended that the examination of candidates for commissions, who did not pass through a military college, should be of a general, and not of a special, character.
The Council of Military Education, on their appointment, in April, 1857, were instructed “to revise the whole system of examination for direct appointments to the army,” which is at present very defective; and this subject was, in fact, the first of those referred to in their instructions which they were directed to take into consideration. After consultation with the head masters of some of the chief public schools of the country, with the view of ascertaining the amount of knowledge which might fairly be expected from young men of 17, the Council proposed a scheme of examination based on the fundamental principle that the examination should be entirely non-professional, and confined to subjects which form the course of ordinary liberal education at civil schools. Regulations founded upon the proposal of the Council were issued on the 1st of August, 1857, and it was announced that they would come into operation at the beginning of 1858. These regulations were subsequently modified in some of their details, even before the first examination was held under the new system; further modifications have been from time to time introduced in them, without, however, affecting their general character; and the scheme proposed by the Council of 1857 has, in its main principles, formed the basis of all the regulations under which examinations for direct commissions have been held to the present time.
It appears, however, from the evidence given before the Commission of 1869, that it has been found necessary, from time to time, to diminish the difficulty of the examinations, owing to the number of failures among the candidates, and that the present standard is considerably lower than that originally established. An acquaintance with French, English history and geography, and drawing, was at first an indispensable condition of qualification, but is now no longer required; the obligatory subjects of examination have thus been reduced from five to two—mathematics and English—while, at the same time, the amount of mathematical knowledge formerly exacted has been reduced.
The first examination under the new system took place in February, 1858. Even before this, at the end of 1857, the place of examination had been transferred from Sandhurst to London, and the method of conducting the examinations by printed papers, instead of by vivâ voce, had been adopted. The examinations have, ever since that period, been conducted by examiners appointed by the Council of Military Education, and have, as a rule, been held half yearly. By a regulation which has been for some years in force, candidates for direct commissions are also permitted to be examined at foreign stations. The examination is, in this case, conducted in the presence of a board appointed by the officer commanding the station; but the method of examination is, in all other respects, identical with that adopted at home. The examination papers are forwarded by, and the candidates’ replies are returned to, the Council of Military Education.
The plan proposed by the Council was intended to regulate admission to the army in ordinary times of peace; but almost immediately after it had been formally approved, and before it had actually come into operation, the pressure occasioned by the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny led to an abnormal condition of circumstances. In September, 1857, a circular was issued, announcing that commissions would be given without examination on the condition of the applicant raising a certain number of recruits. In March, however, of the following year, this temporary measure was abolished, the pressure for troops being no longer such as to render its continuance necessary. Since that period no candidates, with the exception of graduates of the universities, have obtained commissions without passing the regular examination.
Before 1862, candidates were eligible for commissions without purchase, on passing the examination for direct appointments. Since that year, however, all free commissions have been reserved for cadets at Sandhurst, and those who pass the direct examination have only obtained commissions by purchase.
REGULATIONS IN FORCE IN 1869.
I. The examinations of candidates for direct commissions will be held in London at such periods as the exigencies of the service may require, and be conducted under the direction of the Council of Military Education by examiners appointed for the purpose. The number of candidates summoned to attend each examination will be limited to the requirements of the service.
II. The age of candidates examined for direct appointments will be, until further notice, from 17 to 20 years for the infantry, from 17 to 22 years for the cavalry, and from 17 to 26 years for colonial corps.
III. The candidate will be examined by a medical board, to ascertain that he is in every point of view, as regards his physical constitution, fit for military service.
He will be required to produce the following certificates, which must be forwarded to the Council of Military Education, 13 Great George street, S.W., as soon as possible after the receipt of the Military Secretary’s order to attend for examination:
(a.) A certificate of baptism, or other satisfactory proof of his age.
(b.) A certificate from a minister of the church or of the denomination to which he belongs, that he has been duly instructed in the principles of religion.
(c.) A certificate of good moral character, signed by a clergyman of the parish to which he belongs, or by the tutor or head of the school or college at which he has received his education, for at least the two preceding years; or such other proof of good moral character as will be satisfactory to the Commander-in-Chief.
(d.) A statement of the subjects in which he wishes to be examined.
IV. The following will be the subjects of examination, but no candidate will be allowed to be examined in more than five of these subjects.
Marks.
The classics Latin, 2,000
Greek, 1,600
Mathematics, pure and mixed, 3,600
English language, 1,200
Modern languages (not including provincial dialects) each, 1,200
History, ancient and modern, with geography, 1,200
Natural sciences, i.e., mineralogy and geology, 1,200
Experimental sciences, i.e., chemistry, heat, electricity, including magnetism, 1,200
Drawing, 600
V. Of the foregoing subjects, the elementary branches of mathematics and the English language, to the extent stated in the following paragraphs, will be considered obligatory:
1. In mathematics, 1,200 marks will be given to the following obligatory portions, viz., arithmetic, including vulgar and decimal fractions, proportion, extraction of the square root, and simple interest.
Algebra, including fractions, simple equations, and questions producing them: Euclid, the first three books.
Of the 1,200 marks allotted to the foregoing portions of mathematics, 400 will be required for qualification, and of these at least 200 must be obtained in arithmetic.
2. In the English language, the candidate will be required to write correctly and in a good legible hand from dictation, and to compose grammatically. He will be required to obtain at least 200 marks in this subject.
3. Out of the remaining subjects the candidate may select any three.
4. No candidate will be allowed to count the marks gained in any one of the three voluntary subjects, unless amounting to one-sixth of the whole number of marks allotted to that subject; and for qualification, he will be required to obtain on his five subjects a total of 1,500 marks.
5. In the examination in classics, passages will be given for translation from the books usually read at schools; grammatical questions will be set, and English passages also given for translation into the Latin and Greek languages.
VI. The result of each examination will be reported to the Commander-in-Chief, and the names of any candidates who distinguish themselves will be specially brought to his notice.
VII. An unsuccessful candidate will not be debarred from applying to the Commander-in-Chief for permission to attend a future examination. No candidate, however, will be allowed more than three trials.
Should a candidate obtain only between 700 and 1,200 marks, he will not be allowed to present himself for reëxamination for at least six months. If he obtains less than 700 marks, a period of at least twelve months must elapse before he can be allowed to present himself again.
In all cases permission to be reëxamined must depend upon the number of applicants on the list.
In subsequent examinations no credit will be given for the marks gained by a candidate on former occasions.
In the event of a candidate not appearing for examination at the time appointed, such candidate will not be permitted to attend on the next occasion, and he will render himself liable to have his name either erased entirely or placed at the bottom of the list of those noted for examination.
VIII. A student at either of the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Dublin, London, St. Andrew’s, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Edinburgh, or Queen’s University, Ireland, who shall have passed the examination necessary for taking a degree in arts, is qualified for a commission by purchase without being required to pass the foregoing examination, provided he is within the limits of 17 and 23 years of age if for the infantry, 17 and 25 years if for the cavalry, and of 17 and 28 years for colonial corps, and can produce the certificates marked (a), (b), and (c).
Such candidate must furnish a certificate of having graduated, or of having passed the examinations, signed by the Registrar of the University, and showing the date on which the examination took place.
On his application being approved, the candidate will receive an order to be medically examined as to his physical fitness for the service.
The candidate will address his application, accompanied by the necessary certificates, to the Military Secretary, Horse Guards.
III. PUBLIC SCHOOL EDUCATION AS PREPARATORY TO MILITARY EXAMINATIONS.
A.—GENERAL NOTICE.
In connection with the Modern Departments, at some public schools, technical instruction in military subjects is actually at present given. This, for instance, is the case at Cheltenham College, the Modern Department at which appears, in fact, to have been originally instituted with the express object of affording means of special military education, and at the present day is officially called the “Military and Civil Department.” At one time, also, even at some schools in which Modern Departments did not exist, classes were formed in which instruction in military subjects was given to boys intended for the army. Both at Eton and at Harrow such classes existed, and fortification and military drawing were taught in them. The object of the formation of these classes appears in both cases to have been to enable boys to go up straight from school to the examinations for admission to the army, without the necessity of having recourse to private tuition. At the time of their institution a knowledge of fortification was required in the examination for direct commissions, and a candidate was therefore unable to present himself for this examination without some special preparation. At the commencement of 1858, however, the direct commission examinations were entirely remodelled; the small amount of fortification previously required was at that time excluded from the subjects of examination, which have ever since been of a non-professional character, and more or less such as enter into the course of ordinary liberal education. With the exclusion of technical subjects from the military examinations, the necessity for any special instruction in such subjects in candidates for admission to the army ceased. The military class at Harrow seems to have died out within a few years of its establishment; it has not been in existence during the last ten years and more. At Eton, though the corresponding class is still maintained, the teaching of technical military subjects in it has been abandoned. Even in the Modern Department at Cheltenham the instruction appears of late years to have become of a less decidedly military character than it originally was; and fortification, which was at one time taught at Wellington College, no longer enters into the course of instruction there. In the Modern Side, which has within the present year been established at Harrow, though partially intended, among other purposes, to assist the education of boys intended for the army, no attempt is made to give special military instruction.
The question of the possibility of affording an adequate military education at civil schools was fully discussed by the Commissioners appointed in 1856 to consider the training of officers for the scientific corps.
Having arrived at the conclusion that professional military education as hitherto given in this country has been begun at too early an age, we are met by what may be called the extreme opposite view, which would suggest the desirableness of giving up altogether education in military colleges previously to entering the army, or to entering a purely practical class or college for the special corps of Artillery and Engineers. An opinion appears to exist that the ordinary schools of the country are the best means of giving nearly the whole teaching of general and even military science which is desirable for all classes of officers before entering the army. It seems to be thought that not only modern languages and mathematics, but military history and topography are likely to be taught in such schools sufficiently for the highest military purposes, and that even young men intended for the special arms of the service may, on joining a military academy, be absolved, or almost entirely absolved, from any other studies than those included under the expression “a purely practical course.”
The Commissioners expressed their unhesitating dissent from this view. After pointing out the difficulties of giving at ordinary schools a complete preparation even in studies of a general preparatory character, such as modern languages and mathematics, and the still greater difficulties of teaching special subjects, like military history and topography, the Report proceeds:
Agreeing, therefore, as to the fact of a “sound general education being given by public schools,” we are unable to draw from it the conclusion that they will “give a specific military education.” They may indeed assist our military education, in a manner which the true sense of the term “sound general education” expresses, by encouraging preliminary tastes and studies, such as general history, mathematics, and modern languages, English included, to a greater extent than they do at present. But if there is such a thing as a science of war at all, it stands to reason that it can only be taught fully in cases where young officers have the passion and the capacity to begin it early, by its own teachers, and in its own place. The teachers should be practical men, as well as men of military science; the place a military college. And the great schools of the country will perform the same service to such an academy for young scientific officers as they do for places which give a specific education for other professions; they will prepare for it, but disclaim any attempt to complete it.
The Report of the Public Schools Commission does not appear to have made any direct reference to the question of the possibility of giving technical military instruction at civil schools; but the disinclination shown by the Commissioners to recommend even the general institution of “Modern Departments” would lead to the conclusion that they were not disposed to view with favor the introduction of any system of special instruction into the ordinary school course.
The question has been dealt with at considerable length in the evidence taken before the present Commission. In addition to the evidence given by Dr. Barry, Mr. Southwood, Dr. Benson, and Dr. Temple, to which particular reference is made in the Report, opinions on the subject were expressed by several military witnesses. Major-General Sir P. Herbert considers that all which is learnt at Sandhurst—all the knowledge requisite for a line officer—might equally well be acquired at a public school, if proper arrangements were made for teaching it. In his opinion fortification (including the practical construction of field-works), military drawing and surveying, military history and drill, could all be taught by military instructors at public schools without difficulty, and without interference with the subjects of general education. Major-General White considers that military history, modern languages, and drawing might be taught with advantage at public schools to boys intended for the army, although it would be difficult to teach the practical work of field fortification, artillery, and surveying. Colonel Baker appears to be of opinion that at the Universities, certainly, a special preliminary education might be given to candidates for the army, on a system similar to that which it was at one time proposed to introduce at Cambridge, but which does not appear to have ever been actually adopted. At the same time, though this instruction would be of a special character, Colonel Baker does not seem to contemplate its embracing strictly technical military subjects. On the other hand, His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge is of opinion that special military classes at public schools would fail; Major-General Sir F. Abbott thinks it unnecessary to establish such classes; Colonel Hort is decidedly opposed to an attempt to give military instruction at any but a military college, on the ground that it could not be so effectively given at a civil establishment, and would, moreover, interfere with the acquisition of a general education; and Lieut.-General Sir D. Cameron considers that it would be impossible for public schools to give a thorough or perfect knowledge of the practical subjects taught at Sandhurst, such as fortification, artillery, military drawing, and surveying.
In connection with the same subject suggestions have been made by some witnesses that the Government should assign a certain number of free commissions annually, as prizes to be competed for, either at particular public schools, or more generally amongst candidates educated at such schools. The institution of military exhibitions or scholarships at civil schools, and of military degrees at the Universities, has been also suggested. By some witnesses these proposals are advocated with the special view of inducing public schools to adopt a system of military instruction; by others with the more general object of holding out increased encouragement to enter the service to candidates who have had the advantage of a public school education.
Although the question of giving military instruction at public schools was not specially discussed by the Public School Commissioners, their attention was directed to the results of public school education in preparing candidates for the military examinations. Their Report speaks as follows in reference to this subject:
The number of public-school boys who enter the army is not large. Of 1,976 candidates for direct commissions within three years, 122 only had been at any of these schools. Of these 102 succeeded and 20 failed. It will be observed, on reference to the returns, that this proportion of failures is considerably below the average; the public school men, therefore, were better prepared than the general run of candidates. Of 96 who passed at their first examination, 38 came immediately from school, 58 had had intermediate tuition. Of the 20 who failed, 14 had had such tuition.
The public-school candidates for Sandhurst during the same period were 23 out of 375; the proportion who succeeded being here also above the average. Of 18 who succeeded, 11 came straight from school; of five who failed, only one.
The scheme of examinations for direct commissions, framed to meet the suggestions of the Head Masters of public schools, is simple and easy, and requires nothing that is beyond the reach of any boy of moderate industry and ordinary capacity; and it is clear that no boy, who will give himself a little trouble, needs to forego the wholesome influences of a great school for the sake of being “crammed” in the house of a tutor. The Sandhurst examination is also evidently within the reach of the schools.
The qualifying examination for Woolwich appears, before 1862, to have required an amount of mathematical knowledge difficult of attainment for a boy educated at a public school; but it underwent in that year some changes which have made it easier for candidates who have not received a special training. The obligatory mathematics do not now go beyond plane trigonometry; and a candidate need not obtain in them, to qualify, more than 700 marks out of 3,500; with this minimum, and with a fair proficiency in Latin, Greek, French, and geometrical drawing, he is entitled to enter into the competition. This standard is certainly not so high as to be inaccessible to a boy educated at a good public school, and from a table showing the working of the scheme at the examination of January, 1863, it appears that of the 20 successful competitors, 11 distinguished themselves in classics; the other marks were chiefly gained in mathematics and French. In three years, previous to this change, 35 public-school candidates passed and 49 failed to pass the qualifying examination, the totals being 545 and 689. Of the whole 84, two only went direct from the schools, and these failed.
In another passage the Commissioners say: “The main studies of the public schools being classical, it is obvious that, unless a due amount of weight is given to the classics in the Woolwich examinations, boys from those schools will not stand a fair chance in the competition. On the other hand, as it is of importance that the examinations should comprise other subjects besides classics, it is also obvious that unless the public schools provide a due amount of instruction in those other subjects, the candidates whom they send up must compete at a disadvantage. It is certain that there has hitherto been a want of adjustment between the Woolwich standard and the teaching of the public schools. The fault, we think, lies chiefly, though not wholly, in the deficiencies in the course of education pursued at the latter; and we are convinced that when these deficiencies have been supplied the difficulty which is now complained of will speedily disappear. But it is also to be observed, with respect to the Woolwich examinations themselves, that the scale of marks has lately (as we have already stated) undergone an alteration, which diminishes the amount of mathematical attainment required, and allows greater weight to classical scholarship. It appears probable that the Modern Departments at Cheltenham and Marlborough would not have been what they are had the old Woolwich standard, which is stated to have influenced them so strongly, been the same as the present; and probable, also, that they will hereafter feel the effects of the change which has been made in it.”
III. EXAMINATIONS FOR PROMOTIONS.
HISTORICAL NOTICE.
Examinations for promotion were for the first time instituted shortly after the introduction of examinations for admission to the army, by the Duke of Wellington when Commander-in-Chief, in the year 1850. A circular memorandum, published on the 14th of May of that year, announced that all officers would in future be subjected to an examination previously to promotion to the respective ranks of lieutenant and captain. The first examination was to be confined to subjects connected with the rudiments of drill, regimental duties, interior economy, and the Mutiny Act and Articles of War. The second examination for the rank of captain was in addition to extend to more general subjects, and to include geography, ancient and modern history, mathematics, and field and permanent fortification; but the examination in these subjects was not intended to affect lieutenants who had entered the service previously to 1849.
The examination for promotion to the rank of lieutenant was to be conducted regimentally by the commanding officer and the two next senior officers of the candidate’s regiment. The purely professional portion of the second examination, for the rank of captain, was to be conducted in the same manner; with regard to the mode of testing the candidates’ qualifications in the more general subjects required in this examination, it was stated that such orders would be given in each individual case as the Commander-in-Chief might think proper and necessary.
These regulations continued in force up to the time of the institution of the Council of Military Education in 1857, although it appears, both from official statements made by the Secretary at War, and from numerous expressions of opinion in Parliament between the years 1854 and 1857, that, at least so far as regarded the second examination for the rank of captain, little attempt was made, even nominally, to enforce the regulations. Mr. Sidney Herbert proposed, in 1854, in connection with his general scheme of military education, to remodel the examinations and to institute a special machinery for conducting them; and though no actual steps were taken to carry out his proposal, the necessity of making the examinations real and genuine tests of professional knowledge, and of enforcing strict qualifications for promotion, was frequently recognized in the numerous discussions which took place in Parliament on the subject of military education during the course of the Crimean War.