PART II. MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. (continued 3)

The instruction in the first cœtus embraces in general the subjects required for the ordinary Officers’ Examination, that is to say, the elements of Military Science, so far as every Subaltern Officer is obliged to know them. To this is to be added instruction in mathematics, in French, and in free sketching.

At the commencement of the instruction the teachers inspect the whole of the Ensign-Examination papers of the newly-arrived students, which are laid before them by the Director, in order the better to judge of their acquirements. During the first quarter they take pains to ascertain the ability as well as the amount of acquirements of each student, so as to be able to give a confident opinion upon him at the end of the quarter.

After the close of the first quarter a conference of the teachers, under the presidence of the Director, takes place, to form a report upon the students, and to furnish data for recommendations to the rank of ensign of such students as have given satisfaction by their conduct and progress. The students about whom the teachers have not yet been able to speak confidently, who, in certain studies, as in mathematics and the special branches of their arm, are behind-hand, as well as those whose conduct has not been without blame, are proposed to the higher authorities for permission to continue to remain at the school. On the other hand, the Board of Studies proposes for dismissal from the institution, students whose conduct has been unsatisfactory, and principally who give too little hope of a favorable career. The Board is to express an opinion whether any prospect may be held out of a future recall to the institution, according as its unfavorable report has been founded on the want of ability or on the want of industry of the student.

The students favorably reported on are immediately, by the General Inspectors, appointed ensigns, subject to vacancies. The Curatorium decides regarding the further stay at the institution, or the dismissal of the others.

After the end of the second quarter, those pupils who can not yet be recommended for promotion to ensign are only in special cases allowed to remain till the end of the theoretical instruction of this year; if they can not then be recommended, they are sent back to their regiments.

Fourteen days before the close of the theoretical instruction for the year, that is to say, about the middle of June, the teachers give an opinion regarding each student of the first cœtus, as to whether or not they consider him capable of undergoing the Officers’ Examination, and to pass into the second cœtus. These reports, joined to that of the Director, as regards the conduct of the students, enable the Board of Studies to propose to the higher authorities either that permission may be granted to undergo the Officers’ Examination, (and, if successful, to enter the second cœtus,) or that the student be sent back to his corps. Students who have been refused permission on grounds not altogether unpardonable, from presenting themselves for the Officers’ Examination, or who in the course of instruction have been sent for any reason to their corps, with the prospect of being afterwards called back to the school, may, on the proposition of the Board of Studies, through the Curatorium, be granted a second and final entrance into the first cœtus.

The Curatorium decides in every case whether a student who has not qualified himself for entry into the second cœtus, may return to the first cœtus after having left the institution, or in case he shall have in the meantime passed the Officers’ Examination, whether he may, as an exceptional case, enter the second cœtus. In a case of the latter kind, the applicant can not present himself for the Officers’ Examination without having previously passed a preliminary examination at the school, to do which, the permission of the General Inspector of his corps is necessary.

The theoretical course closes at the end of June. During the month of July the students of the first cœtus are employed in surveying operations. It is during this month that the examination for the rank of officer before the General Examining Board takes place. The students who pass this examination enter afterwards into the second cœtus; those who fail are, at the expiration of the practical course of their year, sent back to their corps.

The students who pass the Officers’ Examination, and are found qualified to enter the second cœtus, are then proposed for election to the officers of their corps. If the decision be favorable, their names are submitted by the General Inspectors to the King, to be appointed, on vacancies occurring, to the rank of Supernumerary (Ausseretatsmässigen) Second Lieutenant.

To assist the Officers of the Corps in making their election, an extract of the reports above alluded to is sent to them, so far as it concerns the students who have successfully passed their Officers’ Examination.

It is an indispensable condition for entering the second cœtus, that, if a student of the first cœtus, he should have passed the Officers’ Examination, or if he should now enter the school for the first time, that he should have the rank of Officer. The sum of acquirements necessary for the Officers’ Examination forms the basis of the instruction given in the second cœtus. In it the instruction ceases to be entirely common to the two arms.

At the end of the theoretical course of the second cœtus, a report of progress and conduct is drawn up, as in the first cœtus, by the Board of Studies, on the data furnished by the teachers as regards the studies, and by the Director as concerns the conduct of the students. In forwarding this report to the Curatorium, it is stated for each student whether or not he is considered qualified to pass the former part of the Special Corps Examination. Those who are unfavorably spoken of in this respect return to their corps, if there are no mitigating circumstances which permit a further stay in the second cœtus, following the decision of the Curatorium. They may either endeavor to obtain a transfer into another branch of the army, or by study and good conduct prepare themselves for admission into the third cœtus at a future period. But in this case they must not only be recommended by their corps, but they must also pass the former part of the Special Corps Examination.

The students recommended to present themselves for the former part of the Special Corps Examination undergo it before a Board appointed by the chiefs of the two corps in the beginning of July. It extends over the subjects of professional science which have been taught in the second cœtus. A particular regulation defines the mode of this examination, which is entirely written; it decides whether the student shall enter or not into the third cœtus.

The successful students pass, by direction of the Curatorium, into the third cœtus, while the unsuccessful ones, as well as those who have been reported unfit to undergo the examination, return to their corps. By good conduct and study they may obtain permission to come up again at the next examination for the former part of the Special Examination. Their definite return to the school depends upon their passing this examination, and upon the express order of the Curatorium.

The instruction in the third cœtus is chiefly directed to supply the special scientific knowledge required by each of the two arms. The students of the two corps, therefore, receive separate instruction. A further object of the instruction is to enable the students to make use of the knowledge which they have acquired, on which account instruction and practical application go hand in hand. Practice and theory go thus together in this the highest portion of the instruction, so that they both terminate at the same time, namely, at the end of the month of June.

Previous to leaving the School, the latter part of the Special Corps Examination is undergone before the same Board as for the former part. This examination tests their qualifications in their special arm, and proves their fitness for Artillery or Engineer Officers. The results of this part of the examination and of the former part of it passed at the close of the second cœtus, are combined by the Board, and forwarded to the Curatorium. Along with these reports is submitted a proposition for those who have passed the examinations to be admitted into their corps. In the preparation of patents (for commissions) they are antedated to the time of passing the Officers’ Examinations, proper regard being had to the results of the Special Corps Examination for arranging the officers among each other.

Any officer who does not pass the Special Corps Examination, remains with the pay of an infantry officer in his corps until he either enters into another arm, or having obtained permission to re-enter the third cœtus, he qualifies himself for the final examination. A successful passing of the Special Corps Examination at this second trial can give, under the most favorable circumstances, no higher seniority than that of immediately after the officers who have passed their examination the previous year.

A.—The Instruction in General.

The general instruction may be divided into—

1. The theoretical part, designed with the view to the practical professional requirements of the students, and their further self-improvement.

The instruction ranges over—

(a.) Artillery.

(b.) Military Engineering.

(c.) Hydraulic Construction.

(d.) Elements of Tactics.

(e.) History of the Art of War.

(f.) Mathematics.

(g.) Theory of Surveying.

(h.) Physics.

(i.) Chemistry.

(k.) French Language.

(l.) Rules and Regulations of the Service.

(m.) The Horse.

(n.) Plan Drawing.

(o.) Free Sketching.

(p.) Descriptive Geometry.

(q.) Artillery Drawing.

(r.) Artillery Constructions Drawing.

(s.) Fortification Drawing.

(t.) Architectural Drawing.

2. The practical part of the instruction, designed by a series of practical exercises to exhibit the application of the theory taught and to extend the knowledge previously acquired.

The practical part includes—

(a.) Visits to the Military Establishments and Institutions in Berlin and Spandau, examination of the objects, collections, models, &c., which they contain.

(b.) Chemical manipulation.

(c.) Examination of raw materials, of cannon, limbers, and ammunition wagons, of shot and shells, and of small-arms.

(d.) Management of machines.

(e.) Practical exemplification of the rules for placing guns with reference to the ground, and to tactical considerations.

(f.) Marking out and tracing batteries and field-works.

(g.) Drawings from Artillery objects, and from buildings, &c.

(h.) Being present at the practical operations of the Engineer Division of the Guards.

(i.) Solution of problems in the attack and defense of fortresses.

(k.) Practice in elementary tactics.

(l.) Practical surveying.

(m.) Artillery practice.

3. A course of Military and Gymnastic Exercises, requisite to prepare Officers for active military service.

They are divided into—

(a.) Exercises on foot.

(b.) Exercises with the different kinds of guns in position.

(c.) Fencing and gymnastics.

B.—Instruction in Detail—The theoretical Part.

The theoretical studies commence each year on the 1st of October, and end on the 30th of June. They may be reckoned, after deducting the vacation and holidays, to include a period of thirty-five weeks.

As a general rule, the studies take place only in the forenoon, namely, during the five hours between eight and one o’clock. Occasionally only are there hours of study for a small part of the students in the afternoon. A portion of the afternoons, during the theoretical course, are employed for drills and practice, but in no case more than twice a week, in order that the students may have the necessary time for recreation. The students are required (those who are officers excepted) to remain in their quarters in the evening, to prepare the work which has been allotted to them by the teachers.

The parallel classes of each cœtus, with the exception of the drawing classes, are, as a general rule, to be under the same teacher.

The theoretical instruction is distributed as follows:

AMOUNT OF STUDIES, WEEKLY.

Art. Artillery.

Eng. Engineers.

NATURE OF STUDY. 1st Cœtus. Art. and Eng. 2d Cœtus. 3d Cœtus.

Art. Eng. Art. Eng.

Artillery, 4 3 8 0

Military Engineering, 4 3 0 10

Hydraulic Construction, 0 0 0 0 0

Elements of Tactics, 4 0 0 0 0

History of the Art of War, 0 3 0 0

Mathematics, 6 6 { In two divisions } 4

Theory of Surveying, 2 0 0 0 0

Physics, 0 4 0 0

Chemistry,

Lectures, 0 0 0 4

Manipulations, 0 0 0 4

French Language, 2 2 2

Rules and Regulations of the Service, 2 0 0 0 0

The Horse, 0 0 0 2 0

Plan Drawing, 4 2 4 2 3

Free Sketching, 2 0 0 0 0

Descriptive Geometry, 0 1 0 0

Artillery Drawing, 0 2 0 3 0

Artillery Construction Drawing, 0 2 0 2 0

Fortification Drawing, 0 4 0 4

Architectural Drawing, 0 0 2 0 3

30 32 34 31 36

REMARKS.

In the first cœtus.—All the instruction in this class is common to the two arms, and is equally divided among the six forenoons of the week.

In the first and second cœtus.—With reference to the mathematical instruction, it is particularly ordained, that each of the two mathematical teachers shall give instruction to the same students in the first and second cœtus, so that the one who teaches in the first cœtus one year, teaches in the second cœtus the year following.

In the second cœtus:—

1. The larger portion of the instruction, as the table shows, is common; in Plan Drawing the only difference is that the Engineers receive two hours’ additional instruction.

2. The instruction in French, for a select number of the most advanced students only, takes place on two afternoons.

3. The instruction in Free Sketching for the Engineers takes place also on two afternoons.

In the third cœtus:—

1. About one-half only of the instruction in this class is common; in Plan Drawing the Engineers have one hour more instruction a week.

2. The Chemical Manipulations (in which a very small number only of the students share) take place on two afternoons.

3. The instruction in French, in which only those already selected in the second cœtus take part, also is given on two afternoons.

4. For mathematical instruction the class is formed into two divisions. The first consists of those pupils who, in the opinion of the teachers, are able to follow profitably the instruction in the higher mathematics. The remainder form the second division, and go over a second time what they have already learned, to which is added a variety of questions in applied mathematics, important to the Artillery and the Engineers.

TENOR OF THE STUDIES IN GENERAL.

First Cœtus.

Artillery.—Elementary Description of all the matériel of the Prussian Artillery, and of the basis of its arrangement. Effect of the different natures of guns, and the simplest rules for their employment.

General Military Engineering.—The elements of field and permanent fortification. The principles of the attack and defense of fortresses. General notions on the construction of military bridges.

Tactics.—General organization of an army. Formation of the different kinds of troops. Fundamental rules for the placing, moving, and fighting of the separate arms, as well as their combination. Occupation of ground. Attack and defense of positions. Field-service.

Mathematics.—Algebra and Arithmetic. Simple and higher equations. Progression series. The binomial theory for integral exponents. Series of powers and logarithms. Analytical trigonometry. Plane and analytical geometry. Plane trigonometry.

French Language.—Translation from French into German, with parsing.

Rules and Regulations.—Official correspondence, with examples. Discipline. Military code. Courts-martial. Courts of honor. Service in and out of garrison.

Plan Drawing.—Theory of representing ground. Principles of topography. Surveying. Drawing from copies and simple models. Knowledge and description of the different conventional marks.

Free Sketching.—Drawing of straight lines, broken lines, and angles. First principles of figure drawing. Hatching with black chalk. More difficult studies in figure drawing.

Second Cœtus.

Artillery.—Description of the organization of the Prussian Artillery. Rules for the employment of artillery in the field and in sieges.

Special Military Engineering.—Extension of the course of field and permanent fortification, given in the first cœtus. Extension of the instruction on sieges. Formation of camps. Specialities of military engineering, in so far as it is of interest to artillerists.

History of the Art of War.—History in early times, in a very general manner; that in the middle ages, as they approach modern times, in greater detail; in modern times, very fully. Organization of the armies and mode of conducting war at each remarkable period, illustrated by the description of some campaigns and great battles.

Mathematics.—Solid geometry. Spherical trigonometry. The theory of projections. Theory of co-ordinates and conic sections. Statics, geostatics, and hydrostatics.

Physics.—General properties of bodies. Laws of the equilibrium of solid, fluid, and aëriform bodies. Heat. Application of steam and gases. Measurement of heights. Hygrometry. Acoustics. Optics. Magnetism, Electricity. Electro-magnetism. Magneto-electricity.

French Language.—Exercises in translating German into French, for a select number of pupils, about one-third of the whole.

Artillery Drawing.—Use of drawing instruments and scales. Drawing of the matériel of the artillery, and principally of the separate parts of an object in different views and sections, to a certain scale, without the original.

Artillery Constructions Drawing.—Construction of the different limbers, gun-carriages, &c., and the principles of their arrangement, forms, proportions, and admeasurements; in greater part, however, intended only as illustrations of the rules of perspective.

Fortification Drawing.—Instruction in the composition of drawings; the practice includes representations of projects of fortresses and their details in plan and section, and in cavalier’s perspective (bird’s-eye view); both etched and shaded with Indian ink, and colored. The chief object is to qualify the pupils to understand, and to prepare correctly, drawings and plans of objects in field and permanent fortification.

Plan Drawing.—Further practice in drawing of ground, with objects, buildings, &c., marked in black and colors. Further progress in geodesy. Sketches and reconnaissances.

Architectural Drawing.—Perspective. Drawings of architectural decoration in outline, with the lines of shadow, but without further detail.

Free Sketching.—Further figure-drawing. Landscapes and the drawing of ornaments, for the more skillful students.

Descriptive Geometry.—The theory of descriptive geometry. Projections of various bodies in space, upon planes. Drawing according to proportional scales. Theory of light and shade of drawings.

Third Cœtus.

Artillery.—History and Literature of artillery. Review of the general relations of the artillery system in the principal states of Europe. Scientific basis of artillery objects, and their technical description. Theory of the parabola and of projectiles. Organization and employment of artillery, considered in its highest point of view.

Exclusive Military Engineering.—Special application of the rules for sieges under given circumstances more or less connected. Complete instruction in building, and its application shown by projects for given sites.

Hydraulic Constructions.—General principles of the science. Knowledge of the construction of such works, of which the principles should be known to engineer officers. In this is chiefly to be considered fascine work for the protection of the banks of rivers and canals, the construction of bridges and sluices, and the laying the foundation of heavy masonry in water.

Mathematics.—(For the first division, about a quarter of the class.)—Differential and integral calculus. The higher geometry. Analytical mechanics and hydraulics.

(For the second division, about three-quarters of the class.)—Repetition of the most important part of the studies already gone through in the first and second cœtus, with practical useful problems. Mechanics and hydraulics, as well as some instruction necessary for artillerists, but so as not to require the higher analysis, and more of a practical than of a theoretical nature.

Chemistry (Instruction.)—The necessary preliminary knowledge of theoretical principles. Treatise of separate substances (of the metalloids and their indifferent combinations, of the acids, of the metals,) all illustrated by experiments. To conclude with a survey of the composition and alteration of the surface of the globe from a chemical point of view.

(Manipulation.)—Instruction in the principles of qualitative chemical analysis, illustrated by experiments. Manipulation by the students under the superintendence of the instructor. Instruction in the principles of quantitative analysis. Analysis by the students, of substances employed by the artillery. (Only four or five of the best qualified take part in these experiments.)

French Language.—Select conversation (only for the already selected students in the second cœtus.)

The Horse.—Natural history and anatomy of the horse. Good and bad points. Food. Internal and external sickness, with the mode of discovery and cure of the same, as far as practicable, by the means to be had on actual service. Shoeing.

Artillery Drawing.—Continuation of the instruction. Matériel of the artillery, represented as combined artillery objects, partly on a given scale, partly drawn from a real object, by the more skillful students.

Artillery Construction Drawing.—Construction of each description of cannon. Principles of their forms, proportions, and sizes. Problems on the construction of existing and not existing guns, carriages, &c. Construction of the artillery matériel of foreign powers.

Fortification Drawing.—Projects of field fortification, to be constructed of earth, or of earth and gabions, with application to the nature of the ground. Drawings with the use of Von Prittwitz’ copies of the fortification of places, as a continuation of the fortification drawings begun in the second cœtus. For all these exercises in projects and drawings, the concert of the teacher of exclusive engineering is required.

Plan Drawing.—Practice in copying and reducing large plans. Drawing of plans of battles with the position of the troops, and of plans of sieges, with the trenches and batteries.

Architectural Drawing.—Architecture in its application to military buildings, done in India ink. Finally, practical exercises in copying buildings.

PRACTICAL EXERCISES.

These are carried on, as has been already remarked, in part during the nine months of theoretical instruction, on some of the afternoons, but they principally take place during the three summer months of July, August, and September, in the forenoon. They commence early in the morning, and often last till the afternoon, on which account there are no evening hours of study during this period. As the students of the third cœtus return to their corps at the beginning of July, those of the first and second cœtus only take part in this practice. The visits to the Fortress and Military Establishments of Spandau, and the preparation of projects of military constructions, and of reconnaissances, must be made during the period of theoretical instruction. It is therefore suspended for one day for the students of the first cœtus, and for three days for the Artillery, and five days for the Engineer students of the third cœtus.

The distribution of time for each cœtus is as follows:

Art. Artillery.

Eng. Engineers.

DURING THE NINE MONTHS OF THEORETICAL INSTRUCTION.

Number of Days employed.

1st Cœtus. Art. and Eng. 2d Cœtus. 3d Cœtus.

Art. Eng. Art. Eng.

Visits to the Artillery Workshops, 2 0 0 4 0

To the Collection of Arms in the Arsenal 1 0 0 0 0

To the Models of Fortresses in do. 1 0 0 0 0

To the Ordnance, Gun-carriages, Ammunition-wagons, &c., in do. 4 0 0 0 0

To the Foundry and Boring Machinery 2 0 0 2 0

To the Iron-foundry, and to one of the large Manufactories of Machinery in Berlin, 0 0 0 2 0

To the Fortress of Spandau, the Powder-mill, and Small-arm Factory, 1 0 0 0 0

Working in the Laboratory 12 12 12 0 0

Examination of Ordnance, 0 0 0 6 0

Examination of Gun-carriages, and Ammunition-wagons, 0 0 0 6 0

Examination of Shot and shell 0 0 0 2 0

Examination of Small-arms, 2 0 0 0 0

Practical representation of the Rules for placing Guns:

With reference to the ground, 0 2 2 0 0

On given tactical conditions, 0 0 0 4 0

Solution of problems in the art of Sieges, with reference to an actual fortress and the country surrounding it (Spandau,) 0 0 0 3 5

Practice in Elementary Tactics, 4 0 0 0 0

Drawings of Ordnance, Carriages, &c. 0 12 0 0 0

Drawings of Buildings, &c. 0 0 0 0 14

Practice in Geodesy, 12 0 0 0 0

DURING THE REMAINING THREE MONTHS.

Practice in Geodesy, 16 28 32 Nil.

Practice in Fortification of the 1st cœtus, with the Engineers of the Guard 12 0 0 “

Practice in Fortification of the 2d cœtus, 0 10 10 “

Visits to the Models of Fortresses in the Model-house, 0 2 2 “

Gun Practice, proof of gunpowder, the management of machines, &c. 14 14 14 “

Remarks.—The employment of time in the last three months above given, requires the whole of the months of July and August, and about the first third of the month of September, after deducting fourteen days for the Officers’ Examination for the first cœtus, and occasional days lost through bad weather. The remaining two-thirds of September are given for vacation, as well to afford recreation to the teachers and students as to allow of the repairing and cleansing of the school-buildings.

MILITARY AND GYMNASTIC EXERCISES.

The month of October is appointed by the Director to the fitting and making uniform the regimental clothing brought with the students from their corps. Military exercises then take place once a week for two hours in the afternoon, till the 1st of April, or for about five months.

The military exercises are carried on under officers of the garrison, namely, a Captain and two Lieutenants of the Artillery of the Guard. They put themselves in communication with the Director to arrange the time, nature, and extent of the exercises.

The exercises consist of—

1. Exercises on Foot.—The whole of the first cœtus here take part, but only so many of the second Cœtus as are required as non-commissioned officers. Considering the composition of the squad, (Artillery and Engineers,) and the object of the exercise, the perfection of the students in company-drill is less to be attempted than the endeavor to give to each a good position and carriage in the front as well as in the ranks, and more particularly to accustom them to military order and precision.

2. Exercises with different descriptions of Guns in Position.—In preference, the light field-pieces of the year 1842 are to be used for drill, and correct, united and prompt execution required. With the siege-guns, every student is instructed and practiced with at least one calibre of each nature.

In addition to their military exercises, there are also—

3. Fencing and Gymnastics.—In these exercises the students of the first cœtus only take part, and for two hours of the afternoon each week, during the first six months. There is neither time nor appliances to admit of the students arriving at a high state of excellence. The practice in fencing is only intended to give confidence in the use of arms, that in gymnastics to produce activity, and to afford bodily exercise to young men much occupied in study.

EXAMINATIONS AND CENSURES.

In addition to the several examinations already enumerated, by which the fitness of the students for a certain rank or for promotion into a higher cœtus is shown, some other examinations take place.

1. For the purpose of enabling the Director and the Board of Studies to learn the progress of each separate student, and to confirm by their own knowledge the opinion given by the teachers, there is twice in each quarter an oral repetition of some portion of such instruction in the first and second cœtus. The period of the examination is previously named by the Director.

2. To give a general view of the progress of the entire year, and to incite the students to study, a public oral examination of those in the first cœtus takes place at the close of the theoretical instruction, in presence of the higher authorities of the school, superior officers of the two arms, and other persons interested.

As a further incitement to the students, and as a warning to those whose diligence or conduct has not been satisfactory, the quarterly “censures” are read out to the assembled cœtus. In general the names of the students are not mentioned, a number known to the individual only being used instead. The best pupils are, however, openly commended by name.

In the first cœtus, on the other hand, those pupils who have obtained very bad “censure” are mentioned by name.

FINANCIAL RELATIONS.

The annual expense of the School is fixed at 16,049 dollars. The sum is distributed as follows:—

Personal.

Salaries and allowances of Teachers 10,731

Pay and allowances of the Staff, 3,478

14,209

Practical exercises, 520

School necessaries, 720

Keeping up materials for instruction, 110

Cleansing the rooms 130

Lighting, 100

Bureau expenses, 210

Covering unforeseen expenses, 50

1,800

In the event of war, and if the instruction is suspended for an indeterminate period, the salaries of the civil teachers cease. Application is not to be made to the King for the grant of a provisional indemnity, except under very peculiar circumstances.

The payment of the salaries and allowances is made monthly and in advance.

The administration of the funds is directly under the supervision of the Director. The Treasurer carries out the details. The superior orders for the administration of royal grants are most strictly to be followed.

The annual accounts are forwarded by the Director to the War Department.

The property of the School consists of—

The Library, the Collection of Instruments and Models for Artillery and Engineers, the Collection of Physical Instruments, the Collection of Chemical Apparatus, and the School Utensils.

The principal object of the Library is to serve as materials of instruction for the teachers and students, and the Officers of Artillery and Engineers present at the Institution. After that, as a center, for the collection of all the best works, old and new, on Artillery and Military Engineering.

The Director and Board of Studies take care that the instruments and apparatus for the studies are always kept complete and in good order. As the means of the school do not thoroughly admit of the collections keeping pace with the progress of science, special care is taken that at least the most necessary articles are not absent.

The utensils of the school are kept always complete, under the supervision of the Director.

The property of the school is examined yearly by the Director and Board of Studies, and a report to that effect sent in with the annual accounts.

PROGRAMMES OF THE PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS TAUGHT IN THE ARTILLERY AND ENGINEER SCHOOL AT BERLIN.

I. ARTILLERY.

The instruction must commence with the first elements of the science, since the new arriving students have little preparatory knowledge. It must be carried on to such an extent that the pupil may be able, after going through the first cœtus, to pass his officer’s examination, and after the completion of the entire course, not only to show at his special examination that he possesses the positive knowledge required for the ordinary duties of the service, but also to prove that he is qualified for continuing his studies by himself.

The Engineer pupils who close their instruction in artillery at the end of the second cœtus, are to be instructed in the composition of artillery, in the effect and the use of cannon, but more especially in its employment in sieges.

From this general notice of the limits of the course it is evident that neither a perfect exposition of the theory nor complete practical exercises are expected. Still to train the students properly in the different directions which an artillery education requires, the instruction must not consist only in a theoretical lecture, but be aided by judicious directions for drawing, and be perfected by practical exercises. For the attainment of the two latter objects special prescriptions are given, to which we refer.

Instruction in artillery is closely connected with the lectures on mathematics, physics, chemistry, tactics, fortification, and veterinary science.

a. As special points may be mentioned, in mathematics, calculation of contents, and fixing the centers of gravity, of cannon and its parts; calculation of piles of shot; strength, direction, and distribution of recoil on the separate portions of a piece of ordnance; theory of machines, of carriages, of parabolic and projectile curves, and calculation of the flight of rockets. In all these cases the mathematical lecturer develops the necessary formulas for the artillery student, but their application belongs to the course of artillery.

b. In physics.—Explanation, notice, and determination of the specific gravities of the materials used in artillery. The law of gravity. The absolute and relative strength of woods and metals. Friction. Resistance of the air. Expansive power of gases, especially of those generated by gunpowder.

c. In chemistry.—The general laws of chemical action of bodies on one another. The simple elements of the materials used in artillery. The chemical properties of their combinations. The acids exhibited in the combustion of gunpowder and their action on metals; the processes used in the reduction and manufacture of metals up to the point where they are fit for use in artillery; chemical analysis of gunpowder and of the most common metal-alloys. The action of the atmosphere on substances exposed to it, which are used in artillery.

d. In tactics.—The organization and tactics of artillery, so far as they stand in direct relation to other arms. A complete account of the conduct of artillery when coöperating with other troops.

e. In fortification.—Everything referring to the tracing, the relief, and the construction of fortifications; attack and defense of field-works by infantry and cavalry; complete exposition of the art of besieging, with a discussion of all the duties of an engineer, a sapper or miner, both in the attack and the defense of a fortress, also the use of infantry and cavalry in sieges, with the omission of the points specially belonging to artillery.

f. In the veterinary art.—The anatomy and physiology of the horse; general rules for feeding, treatment of diseases, and disinfection of the stables and utensils.

The instruction in the first cœtus must, as already mentioned, be so calculated, that the students at the end of the course of lessons may be able to satisfy perfectly the requirements of the Officer’s examination.

As a further prosecution of the same subjects of instruction in the second, and again in the third cœtus, would lead to a great loss of time and to tiresome repetitions, the lectures are to be so planned that the separate subjects to be treated in the first and second cœtus, taken together, are of sufficient extent for the Engineer pupils in general; the further developments necessary for the Artillery pupils are reserved in preference for the third cœtus.

A. IN THE FIRST CŒTUS.

The separate subjects of the lecture are—

1. Definition and distribution of arms.

2. Theory of gunpowder: component parts—manufacture—ignition—force. Proving. Storing. Transporting. Necessary precautions in manufacturing. Marks of damaged powder, and the possibility of restoration. Mention of the substances which may be used in place of gunpowder for various military purposes.

3. Cannon. Materials. Dispositions. Manufacture. Proving. Storing, and duration.

4. Gun-carriages. Limbers and other artillery carriages. General explanations on the construction of carriages, with particular reference to those used for artillery. Materials. Distribution and composition of gun-carriages. Limbers and wagons. Their examination and storing.

5. Military combustibles. Elementary notions. General account of laboratory work and regulations; also with reference to later proceedings in a laboratory, and, omitting all figures not absolutely necessary, a description of the preparation of fire-works, matches, ammunition both for artillery and for small-arms, signal lights, and particular kinds of combustibles. Their packing and storing.

6. The service, working, and moving of cannon, and of artillery carriages, with account and description of the machines in use by the Prussian artillery; but without special explanation of the official regulations.

7. Firing. Theory of the movement of projectiles, of the effect caused by their movement, and the mode of turning this action to the best account for military purposes. Elements of the theory of firing. Practice. Various descriptions of fire; their effect, and their employment for various sorts of guns.

8. Small and side-arms. Purpose and description of the composition and arrangement of small-arms. Their manufacture, storing, and the practical rules for their use. Purpose and description of side-arms. Fabrication, proving, effect, and use of them.

B. IN THE SECOND CŒTUS.

The instruction in the second cœtus is a continuation of the lectures of the first cœtus, and embraces the use of artillery in the field and in sieges. Its object is to bring the Artillery students to that point, that they are able, at its close, to discharge satisfactorily the ordinary practical duties of the service, and be prepared to follow the course of the third cœtus, and to give to the Engineer students, who, in the third cœtus no longer receive instruction in artillery, all the knowledge of the subject required for their future profession. The instruction must therefore be complete enough for the Engineers, and give the Artilterist a solid and thorough preparation for the third cœtus.

Instruction in the second cœtus should comprise, in particular—

1. The organization of the artillery: purpose and considerations in the putting together of all parts of artillery material, both in tactical and administrative respects, with historical mention of the diversities of practice of other Powers.

2. The use of artillery in the field. Marching and tactical movements. Taking up position. The engagement itself, and conduct in some particular cases; for example, in defile fighting, in entrenchments, passage of rivers, &c.

3. Use of artillery in sieges:—

a. For Attack.

Planning and throwing up the batteries. Preparation and use of the different kinds of materials of construction. Different sorts of batteries. Methods of construction. Repairing of damaged batteries, and the calculation generally of all the materials necessary for constructing them.

Purpose and equipment of besieging batteries, with the preparations, special and general, for a regular attack.

Proceedings in the regular attack, and their modifications in irregular sorts of attack, occasioned by the situation of the fortress with reference to the surrounding ground, or by the special nature of the defenses.

Proceedings after capture, and when the siege is raised.

b. For Defense.

The equipment of the fortress. Determination of its artillery. Preparations in the fortress when it is declared in a state of siege. Conduct of the artillery in the regular attack, and against irregular modes of attack, as well as in particular cases, such as when in detached isolated works, when the place is relieved, or when the garrison fight its way out.

C. IN THE THIRD CŒTUS.

In the artillery course of the first and second cœtus, the students have gained a general knowledge of the materials of artillery, as well as its organization and use as an Arm; but the lectures were for the most part limited to what was of the greatest immediate consequence, viz., the description of the actual condition and relations of the Prussian artillery.

The object of the instruction given in the third cœtus is, on the one hand, to expose the scientific laws of artillery and its various parts, and, on the other, to track the historical development of the Arm, so as by this means, and by consideration of the constitution of foreign artilleries, to extend the views of the students beyond our own practice, thus, to form their judgment, and induce them to think and contrive for themselves.

In the comparison of our own and foreign existing systems with the results of scientific considerations, the teacher should proceed with caution, and not raise in the young men the inclination to or the habit of crude and officious criticism. Investigation of things as they exist must, therefore, not confine itself to the mere search after defects; it can be only profitable when employed to test our own powers at improvements, and to discern thereby the difficulties and impediments that accompany them. The value which speculative reasoning has for the purposes of the artillery ought to be properly esteemed by the students, but, in face of the results of experience, not be estimated too highly; and in the comparison of different artilleries one with another, the influence must not be overlooked which the peculiarities and the history of a country ever exert on its institutions.

The final aim of the artillery instruction in the third cœtus must be a higher degree of preparation for the future practical ability of the students. As regards the material portion of the artillery, the students are to acquire a general knowledge of the construction, fabrication, and proving of the matériel, and for the tactical part, it is above all things to be made an object that they be made capable, by the instruction given them, of greater dexterity and confidence in dealing with special cases in the field or in siege operations.

The instruction commences with:—

1. Organization of the artillery service. The general relations of the artillery service are to be explained according to its different purposes, as an arm both in technical and administrative respects, then the principles for the organization of the service and of its separate portions in peace and war are to be developed, and comparison made with those carried out in the principal foreign artilleries.

At the same time, on the one hand, more details are to be gone into on the different branches of the artillery service (field, siege, fortress, and coast artillery, the technical and the administrative branches,) than was done in the second cœtus; and on the other, those considerations must be kept sight of in which the artillery appears as a portion of a greater whole, as in its relation to the Army and to the State.

2. Artillery, regarded as an arm. Since the elementary rules for the use of artillery in war have been given already in the second cœtus it will be the object in the third cœtus, first, to develop the principles of artillery tactics in the field, and in sieges, from an extended point of view, and then to apply the rules for the movements, placing in position and fighting of the artillery to the bodies now actually used in war, and to examine the great questions that may hence arise. For the field artillery, the tactics of single batteries and of masses of artillery and the collective relations of the artillery of a corps d’armée and of an army, must be shown. For sieges there will be less occasion to treat of the separate means of defense by artillery than of the various combinations under different circumstances, of its diversified applications.

To give this instruction its most practical tendency, historical examples of battles are to be taken, and not merely their results adduced, but the circumstances gone through in detail. These are to be compared with the rules previously given, and the causes and effects of any discrepancies, as far as practicable, and with caution, explained.

Themes are then given out of campaigns and sieges, in working which the students are to show applications of tactical rules under given circumstances.

As regards the preparation for the field and the conduct in marches, quarters, camps, or bivouacs, what was necessary has already been taught in the second cœtus, as far as concerns a corps of artillery as large as a battery. In the third cœtus, therefore, only more extensive and important relations have to be explained.

Finally, as the students at the close of the third cœtus are to enter immediately into active service in the regiments, it will be useful to give them a general view of artillery duties in time of peace, of which no mention was made in the first and second cœtus, and to show the principles on which they rest. Further, the education of the men, the selection, management, and care of the artillery horses, instruction in riding and driving, the various exercises in serving and moving the guns, artillery practice, the different fatigue duties, conduct in manœuvres, detachments, &c., are to be particularly explained.

3. Artillery in a technical and administrative point of view. In the instruction given in the first and second cœtus, a descriptive notice only was given, as regards artillery material, of the arrangement and effect of what actually exists; and the reasons for this arrangement were added only so far as was necessary for this principal object.

In the third cœtus the pupils are to learn by the inductive process how, according to existing principles of natural science and of tactics, with the known mathematical and technical aids, artillery material must be contracted, manufactured, and proved, so as to obtain the desired end in the highest degree; and then our existing material and that of other countries are to be compared in the manner above stated with the results thus obtained.

To this end, in the lectures, first, the necessary explanations of artillery requirements are to be brought forward from the doctrine of mechanics; after that the fabrication, proving, and action of gunpowder are to be introduced; and finally, the construction, fabrication, and examination of cannon, carriages, and ammunition of the artillery and of small-arms.

Of course the details of powder-mills, of cannon foundries, of artillery workshops, of laboratories and small-arms manufactories, are here to be explained.

The action of projectiles and the mode of applying it, are to be scientifically explained, by the aid of the parabolic and projectile theory, as well as the principles upon which artillery experiments are to be conducted.

Finally, the principles of the management of the artillery material in the artillery dépôts are to be explained.

4. The course of instruction will be closed by an historical description of the progress of artillery, and by an historical review of its literature.

D. GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE TIME.

The total number of hours is, according to the constitution of the school—

For the first cœtus, 35 weeks of 4 hours = 140 hours.

“ second “ 35 “ 3 “ = 105 “

“ third “ 35 “ 8 “ = 280 “

The exact number of hours dedicated to each division must be stated by the teacher in the first instance in his special plan for lessons, as they in part depend upon his general experience. But, at all events, all the above-stated subjects for the first cœtus must be taught in the prescribed periods.

The lecture in the first cœtus must by no means be a mere mechanical preparation for the Officer’s examination; even here the understanding of the pupil is not to remain unoccupied, though the memory is to be had recourse to in a very high degree, and the historical form, that is, description of objects as they are, predominates.

The principles of the arrangements can only be taken up in their chief features, (partly because) time will not allow a farther advance, and partly because the progress of the students in the other studies is not yet sufficiently forward.

In the second cœtus the advantage has been obtained that the students have gained a knowledge of the entire material of artillery in its various relations, and the lecture gives, therefore, an introduction to the use of artillery in the field and in sieges; and with special regard to a fundamental knowledge of the details, and with the view to what is necessary to complete the Engineer pupil and make an efficient preparation of the Artillerist for the third cœtus, aims at a somewhat more scientific treatment, without going into the full comprehensive details reserved for the latter student. For the same reason, this portion of the lectures is confined nearly throughout to the explanation of existing conditions of our artillery, and only where the necessities of the Engineer student may demand it, can mention be made of the earlier material, or of the most important matters of foreign artilleries.

The instruction, therefore, of the first and second cœtus is directed more to the general and historical, that of the third cœtus, more to the special and scientific culture of the student; the materials were there collected which are here to be worked up.

From this general point of view proceed also the methods which are to be observed by the teachers in each cœtus.

The principal point to be kept hold of in all three cœtus is, that everything that can be shown the students, or which they can learn by their own manipulation, should be brought visibly before them, and as far as time and circumstances permit, should be actually put in practice. The material objects, in their actual state for use, must as often as possible be shown and explained, for which the Practical Exercises offer the best opportunity to which reference is here therefore made.

After these, a collection of models, diagrams, tables, and literary notices are necessary, which may be partly used for immediate instruction in the class, and partly furnished the pupils as a necessary and time-saving aid to the memory.

Deficiencies in these aids to the lectures are to be laid before the Direction and Board of Studies by the teacher, and supplied as far as the existing means allow.

Those cases in which the proceedings are fixed by certain regulations require special mention; for instance, the transport of powder, examination of cannon, drills, harnessing of horses, stable and camp service, &c.

All these regulations are grounded on certain principles, from which no deviation can take place without evil. The method of drawing them up is, however, variable, on which times and circumstances, and even the views of the superior authorities, have influence.

It is, therefore, highly necessary that in this respect the essential be carefully in the instruction separated from the accidental, and by omitting the latter, not only gain time, but hinder that the students accustom themselves in a slovenly manner to look only to forms, and to seek in them the true being and life of artillery.

A true exposition of the principles on which these regulations rest ought not to be omitted from the lectures. They will suffice to prepare the students to act correctly in every case that occurs, for which actual service gives them, moreover, the separate instruction. The more completely the teacher keeps this point in view the less need he fear to form his pupils to immature critics, since the well-informed officer will more easily enter into the spirit of each such regulation, and more exactly carry it into execution for the benefit of the service, than he who has been accustomed to keep without reflection only to the dead letter; this, in the varied phases of practical life, will often enough leave him without guidance, unless he knows how to find it within himself.

As amongst the many existing class and hand-books for the artillery, none is entirely adapted to form a basis for the lectures, the formation of a special plan of lectures for each cœtus is indispensable, that the lecturer may have a defined path, and the students an assistance in their repetitions.

II. GENERAL AND SPECIAL ENGINEERING IN THE FIRST AND SECOND CŒTUS

The lecture commences with the first principles of fortification, supposes no previous knowledge, and comprises—

(a.) Field fortification, attack and defense of a redoubt, communication in the field, and,

(b.) Permanent fortification, the art of besieging, with the example of a siege that has actually taken place.

In the first cœtus it must be so far carried out that the pupil is capable of passing his Officer’s examination according to the regulation of the 26th March, 1846. In the second cœtus the general knowledge of field and permanent fortification acquired in the first is carried on in such a degree as both Artillery and Engineer officers require to form a good foundation for the particular professional study of both arms in the third cœtus.

In the formation of the special plan of the lecture the instruction-regulations for artillery and exclusive engineering in the third cœtus are to be kept in view, so as to prepare for these subjects by the nature and the method of the instruction.

The principal contents of the lecture are—

A. IN THE FIRST CŒTUS.

a. In Field Fortification.

A correct description of the profile, the ground plan, the technical obstacles and modes of strengthening, the construction, and elementarily also, the use of field-works; attack and defense of a redoubt, and the military communications in the field, as roads, fords, and bridges.

b. In Permanent Fortification.

Exposition of the essential principles for plan and profile; acquaintance with the parts of a bastioned fortress with the outworks; special acquaintance with a work on Vauban’s first system, and its improvements by Cormontaigne. Knowledge of the characteristics of the Italian, Dutch, and French fortification, of the ideas of Rimpler and Montalembert, as well as of the latest fortifications in Prussia; lastly, a knowledge of sieges as regards a regular attack and defense. The art of construction is taught to the Engineers in the third cœtus.

B. IN THE SECOND CŒTUS.

Applied art of fortification, and, namely, attack and defense of the various sorts of field-works, castrametation, permanent fortification, provisional fortification, and sieges. At their proper places, are to be introduced the precepts of military constructions which are suitable alike to the Artillerist and the Engineer, as well as the conduct of infantry and cavalry, and the duty of the Engineers in sieges.

Distribution of Time.

The first cœtus receives four, the second three hours weekly; therefore, in thirty-five weeks, the first 140, the second 105 hours. The number of hours which are to be dedicated to each portion will be indicated by the teacher in his special plan of the lectures, as it in part depends upon his experiences. All the above-named subjects must, however, be gone through within the prescribed period.

Before every principal division of the lectures, a general statement of its purport and essential principles is given; then follows a short historical exposition which is to explain the connection, the employment, and the thence arising conditions of the subject under consideration in reference to the other parts of the art of war.

The precepts hence deducible on the form of the parts of a fortification, and on the subsisting relations of fighting, are to form the latest and principal portion of each lecture.

The lecture is to be given in detail in such a manner, that its precepts may be deduced from one another in a way suited to the powers of perception of the pupils, and their mental powers accustomed to the carrying out of principles, rather than to a blind adherence to absolute regulations. To avoid repetition, the details of those doctrines which belong to different places are to be given only once, namely, where they are first required; and afterwards reference only made to them.

The military element, as indispensable both for the Artillerist and Engineer alike, is to be kept continually in view.

As regards the principal divisions, oral repetitions may be made from time to time for greater clearness; and, since individual and continued attention and self-reflection alone render a well-grounded progress in the student possible, written themes, besides those prescribed, are particularly recommended. It will not be necessary to submit each individual essay to a separate correction, but the teacher may content himself each time with giving a general view of important defects in the treatment of the subject, and then reading aloud one or more of the essays that have best succeeded, and showing by their analysis how the subject could be best treated.

In both cœtus, the existing models and full sized drawings in the school, as also the models in the arsenal, and for the second cœtus more especially the models of fortresses in the model-house, are to be used.

The means employed to complete the instruction in both cœtus, are fortification drawing, practical exercise in field-works, and an inspection of the fortress of Spandau.

The lectures are given without any fixed hand-book, from manuscript drafts or notes.

III. EXCLUSIVE ENGINEERING IN THE THIRD CŒTUS.

The instruction in General Engineering in the first cœtus was intended to teach the Artillerist and Engineer so much of the art of fortification, of sieges, and of field-works as is requisite for officers of every arm, and is necessary for the students to pass their Officer’s examination.

In the second cœtus this instruction was enlarged, and connected with its application to field and permanent fortification, to such extent as the kindred arms of the artillery and engineer corps required equally to know, that they may execute effectually their separate duties in fortification and sieges.

The instruction in Exclusive Engineering in the third cœtus is, however, intended solely for Engineers, as it teaches only professional matters which the engineer shares with no other arm of the service; while, on the other hand, the Artillerist receives a special instruction in those branches which are only necessary for the artillery officer.

Since the lectures would receive a too great and heterogeneous extension, if to them were to be added that portion of hydraulics which the engineer officer ought to know, without being immediately connected with his military constructions, and if further, civil architecture applied to military buildings was touched on, these subjects will be taught contemporaneously in the third cœtus by special instructors, and are therefore in the lectures on Exclusive Engineering not to pass the limits of that instruction. Their respective teachers must receive reciprocally special information of each other’s plan of lectures, and give mutual help by communications and inquiries where the studies might come into collision.

The teacher of the Exclusive Engineer class must learn the extent of those subjects of instruction which have been already treated in the lectures on Special Engineering in the second cœtus, and not only by inspection of the programme, but by personal consultation with their respective teachers.

In more remote relation, the instruction connects itself with the earlier lectures on artillery, tactics, history of the art of war, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and the exercises in plan-drawing and surveying. The special programmes of instruction of these branches of study are also to be taken notice of by the teacher, that nothing may be twice taught, and that where the use of doctrines from those studies is necessary, he may merely refer to them historically.

This instruction comprises, after an introduction, the following principal divisions.

1. The application of the rules for sieges already given to particular cases, with a general regard to the ground, more especially of irregular fortresses, shown by various remarkable sieges.

2. A theory of construction as auxiliary science in the execution of engineering works for field or permanent fortification, and in the execution of military constructions: building materials, modes of building, and the application of both for given purposes.

To this part belong—

a. A knowledge of the different building materials from the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms; their production and preparation for various building purposes, and the data, so important in practice, regarding their durability and mode of employment.

b. The theory of the use and combination of these building materials for constructive purposes, and of the building of separate portions of an edifice.

c. The foundations of buildings and the means of improving the foundation bottoms.

d. Construction of ordinary buildings, as inclosures, inclined or unloaded revetments, loopholed walls, barracks and hospitals, dwelling and guard-houses, military prisons, stables, magazines, such as arsenals, wagon sheds, provision stores, bakeries, powder magazines, laboratories, communications, mines, weirs and stop-sluices, ice-breakers, &c.

e. Principles of machinery, with explanations of the forces necessary to move machines, with notice of the most common for raising and moving weights, for pumping, draining, dredging, &c.

3. The art, to apply the knowledge gained by the foregoing lectures by means of projects for certain special purposes, and under given circumstances of ground, such as his service may require of an Engineer Officer. The application of field fortification to given portions of ground is alone excepted, since the teacher of applied Fortification-drawing has this especially assigned to him, who still is only to give out his projects in unison with the teacher of Exclusive Engineering.

There belongs to this part—

a. The method of preparing plans and estimates of buildings, in the manner treated of under 2, at (c) and (d,) illustrated by frequent practice in making out such plans.

b. Practice in plans for special objects and given ground, which latter is to be chosen in the neighborhood of the fortress of Spandau.

c. Instructions generally conceived on the duties in a fortress of an Officer of Engineers, and on the practice of building in Prussian fortresses.

d. As appendix, notices on the formation and preservation of hedges, and plantations of shrubs and trees.

The time fixed for this instruction amounts in thirty-five weeks, at ten hours each, to 350 hours, which, according to the importance of the different sections, may, as a general rule, be appropriated as follows:—

Introduction and details of the first principal section, about 20 hours.

Theory of building, namely; the lectures on materials and their use, 140 “

Lectures on constructions, 80 “

Lectures on machinery, 30 “

Details of the third principal section, 80 “

Total, 350 “

The more particular distribution of this general division of time is matter of the special lesson plan, and it only remains to be observed, that with the approval of the Director, some afternoons are to be taken for viewing the most remarkable buildings in Berlin and neighborhood; and in conjunction with the teacher of applied Fortification-drawing, three days are to be set apart for a recognizance of the works of the fortress of Spandau, relative to the projects of fortifications mentioned under 3 at (b.)

The two first sections of this instruction, namely, the continuation of the instruction on sieges, and the theory of construction, keep their place in the regular lectures of the school, though naturally they have an immediate applicability to practical service, and the lectures therefore ought to be made his own by the pupil by frequent exercises and detailed plans.

The projects for a given ground, on the contrary, must be worked out by the pupils in conformity with the instruction given, as much as possible independently, and as on service a young officer would do under the guidance of his superior. The drawings need not be entirely shaded, but may be partially executed by lines only, but they must be distinct and clean. Here, as in Fortification-drawing, the prescriptions of the Engineer regulation of the 25th of April, 1820, are to be observed, a copy of which is therefore always present in the drawing-room, that they may be seen by each student. Attention is to be given also to the correctness of the scale, to correct coloring, entry on the drawing of the date when done, and of the name as well as the rank of the student, as directed by the above regulation.

In the exercises all propositions for improvements which vary from the mode of practice now in use are excluded.

The teaching auxiliaries are the books and models of the school.

IV. HYDRAULIC CONSTRUCTIONS IN THE THIRD CŒTUS.

The instruction in hydraulics is to comprehend:—

1. Those general principles of hydraulic architecture which in the lectures on Exclusive Engineering in the third cœtus of the school could not be specially explained without extending them too far, and therefore were there taken for granted.

2. Such hydraulic works, as do not immediately come within the scope of military buildings, and therefore could not be included in a lecture on Exclusive Engineering, but which on account of their connection with the profession of an Engineer Officer in general, independently of military construction proper, ought to be known by him in their most important principles.

Since in the instruction in engineering in the third cœtus, opportunities offer for projects of fortification, with application of the theoretical principles given above (at 1,) the exercise problems for the instruction in hydraulic architecture need only extend to those hydraulic works (at 2,) not referring to fortification.

The instruction is in immediate connection with the lectures on mathematics, physics, and exclusive engineering, the last of which will be lectured on at the same time as hydraulics; the lectures on physics and that portion of mathematics which is here necessary, with the exception of hydraulics, have been already treated in the first cœtus. In arranging the plan of the lectures, and in carrying it out, the plans for those sciences must be considered, and conferences held with the teachers it may concern, to prevent the frequent repetition of the same subject.

The entire number of hours is seventy, two of which are given weekly, which, that they may fall in at the same time with the lectures on exclusive engineering, are thus distributed:—

Hours.

1. Introduction and laws of the motion of water in open channels and pipes, wells, suction and forcing pumps, about 5

2. Motion of water in streams, hydrometrical measurements, 3

3. Regulation of streams by dams, cuttings, &c., explanation of ice-floats, and of the means to prevent their destructive power, 5

4. Execution and construction of these works and of securing the banks by dikes, packing, and weirs, 14

5. Historical description of the works for internal navigation, canals, sluices, towing-paths, &c., 4

6. Draining and irrigation works, inundations, 4

7. Harbors, moles, sands, lighthouses, roadsteads, &c., 6

8. The principles of foundations under water, with accompanying notice of the usual pile and scoop machines, 12

9. The general principles of bridge building; historical relation of the most remarkable works executed of this kind, 17

Total, 70

To make the lecture plainer, and to exercise the student in comprehending existing hydraulic buildings, eight afternoons, at the choice of the teacher, after a previous consultation with the director, are to be appropriated to the inspection and drawing of hydraulic constructions, at Berlin, namely, the sluices and mills.

Although this instruction embraces a large field in a very short period, it must not be extended over too many objects, but rather to be confined to what is indispensable to the practical use of the engineer; the matter of these, however, to be treated fundamentally and thoroughly, and all superficiality be avoided.

The lectures are to be given from private notes, without any prescribed hand-book.

V. TACTICS.

In the First Cœtus.

The Students of the first cœtus are to receive a thorough instruction in elementary tactics, and the employment of the different arms, both separately and united. The object is not merely that they may pass the Officer’s examination, but that they may gain true general ideas on these subjects, which ought not to be strange to a well-informed officer of any arm. A frequent illustration of the lectures delivered, by examples and problems for actual ground, is particularly recommended.

Lectures on tactics are closely connected with those on artillery, fortification, rules of the service; and in certain respects the lectures on plan-drawing and veterinary art, as well as practical exercises in surveying.

More especially—

a. In artillery: Construction of cannon, of small-arms and side-arms, choice and training of horses for artillery service; organization of the artillery; regulation for the artillery on march and in camp; use of artillery in the field, as regards the specialties of its position, movement, and mode of fighting. The use of artillery in general, in attack and defense, with the use of the reserve artillery in more important battles, in village skirmishes, passage of rivers and defiles, and field fortifications, belongs to the lectures on artillery, but only in the second cœtus; these subjects are therefore to be treated historically with tactics, as far as knowledge of them is required for the Officer’s examination. As a general principle, however, all the relations of detail in the constitution or the specialties of artillery are to be treated in the lectures on that science; in the tactics, on the contrary, only the more general relations which concern all the arms of the service, and where the artillery acts in union with infantry and cavalry.

b. In Fortification; the designing and construction of field-works and all means of obstruction. The manner in which ground in general, and the given position in particular, is to be used for the throwing up field-works. Attack and defense of field-works. Complete exposition of the art of sieges.

c. Veterinary art. Natural history, physiology, and general nourishment of the horse.

d. Plan-drawing and surveying. Everything that is to be said on the general physical laws of the form of the earth’s surface, and specially on a knowledge of topography and its representation.

e. Rules of the service. A knowledge of military style. Discipline in all its various branches. The internal service on detachments, convoys, and separate commands, and some historical remarks on the provisioning of an army.

The lectures embrace the following principal sections:—

1. Introduction. General ideas of war. War materials. Aim of war. Conduct of war. Tactics and strategy. Army organization.

2. Organization of the Prussian army. Raising and equipping the troops. Formation and strength. Replacing of men and materials. Supplies.

3. Special ideas of tactics. Forming, changing position, and combat. Close and open fighting; distant and near fighting. Offensive and defensive. The enemy. The ground. Characteristics of the different sorts of troops. A short sketch of the development of tactics up to their present state.

4. The proscribed tactics of the infantry, cavalry, and artillery according to the Prussian regulations.

5. Ideas on the combination of the three Arms and order of battle.

6. Influence of ground on the use of troops. Classification of ground and cognizance of the individual objects on it.

7. Occupation, attack, and defense of objects on the ground, as heights, valleys, woods, river lines, farm-buildings, inhabited places, defiles, bridges, dykes.

8. Security of troops on a march. Service of advanced posts. Reconnaissances. Special duties for detachments, as escorting convoys in our own or enemy’s country; foraging, surprises, ambuscades, covering of works in the field. In conclusion, some remarks on partizan warfare.

The total number of hours comprises, according to the regulation, in thirty-five weeks at four hours each, 140 hours, of which are to be employed:—

For the first and second principal sections about 15 hours.

“ third “ “ 20 “

“ fourth “ “ 40 “

“ fifth and sixth “ “ 15 “

“ seventh “ “ 25 “

“ eighth “ “ 25 “

Total, 140 “

The lectures on tactics furnish the student with the positive knowledge that is necessary as a general basis; but further care is particularly taken that by the application of the problems put before the students their knowledge is not made up of mere dead knowledge, but that throughout their understandings are exercised. It is, therefore, a special duty of the teacher to frame his lectures accordingly, and as well by a development of the basis upon which the organization, the elementary tactics, and the art of war is founded, as also by very frequent exercises given to the pupils on the lectures to press towards this end.

For the solution of the tactical problems, a number of plans of ground is necessary. They are obtained on the requisition of the teacher through the Director.

It is further necessary to illustrate the use of the different troops upon the ground itself, as well for attack as defense, and to have the examples and problems given by the teachers sketched by the scholars. For such exercises four days of two or three hours each will suffice.

Of the existing hand-books, none appears perfectly qualified to serve as a basis for instruction. The filling in, therefore, of a sketch of the lectures, and of a special plan of instruction, is indispensable to give the teacher a fixed basis, and the scholars an assistance in their repetitions.

VI. MATHEMATICS.

The mathematical lecture, besides its general tendency to sharpen the intellect, is to make the scholars acquainted with all those theories and laws which are indispensable to the Artillery and Engineer officer to enable him to solve with certainty and ease those problems which so often meet him in the service.

Since these problems in part require the application of rules of the higher branches of mathematics, lectures on these ought not to be wanting, and consequently the mathematical instruction for at least a portion of the pupils must embrace (with few exceptions) the entire field of this science.

In order, however, that this demand be accommodated to the time at disposal and the capabilities of the students, the following rules are to be observed:—

1. The students of the first cœtus having already passed their examination for Portépée ensign, and the Predicate ziemlich gut, in their mathematical examination, being requisite for entry into the School, it is to be presumed that they enter with a good or at least sufficient preparatory knowledge. Still, as it is not to be expected that the necessary requirement in arithmetic and algebra will be possessed throughout, the first part of the instruction must be considered as the most important, and be given thoroughly and fundamentally.

2. Such portions of mathematics as are less necessary for Artillerists and Engineers (for instance, astronomy and the higher geodesy,) are to be entirely omitted from the lectures.

3. As even in such portions as fall within the scope of the lectures, there is much that can not be exhausted, therefore all that belongs solely to speculative views, or possibly only serves to the rounding or perfecting a system, must be passed over. The instruction in mathematics stands in near and frequent connection with the lectures on artillery, architecture, mechanics, physics, theory of surveying, and with drawing lessons, as well as with practical mensuration.

These belong specially—

a. To Artillery: architecture, mechanics; the application of all those formulas which the mathematical lectures have to deduce and to prove.

b. To Physics: the theories of dioptrics, and catoptrics, which the students require to a perfect understanding of the construction of telescopes and reflecting instruments; what is necessary from aerometry and aerostatics.

c. To Drawing lessons: practical working out of the theory of perspection, and the construction of shadows.

d. To the theory of Surveying: a knowledge of all the instruments requisite for mensuration and leveling, and the principal theorems, with their application to cases occurring in mensuration.

The lectures on mathematics form of themselves a continuous, closely connected whole; consequently, the same teacher who gave instruction in the first cœtus is to retain his pupils in the second, so that each of the two teachers commence with the first cœtus in alternate years.

For the third cœtus there will be a selection made of those students who have made themselves noticed in the second cœtus by distinguished ability, special application, and peculiar talent for the study of mathematics, and have thus raised hopes that they may be conducted with success into the higher branches of the science.

They form a separate division, whose number should always be small if the selection be guided strictly by the contemplated purpose. All the other students of the third cœtus form a second division, in which the entire field of what they have already been taught in mathematics is again gone over, with a view to its application; and at the end of this course some other subjects necessary to the Artillerist and Engineer are to be treated, without, however, mere scientific speculations.

For each of these divisions a separate teacher is appointed.

A. THE LECTURES IN THE FIRST CŒTUS EMBRACE,—

I. Arithmetic and Algebra.

1. Algebra, with sums, differences, products, quotients, whole numbers, roots, powers with real exponents and logarithms. The qualities of fixed numbers, fractions, decimal and continued fractions. Extraction of square and cubic roots in figures and letters, practical use of logarithms.

2. Algebra, equations of the first and second degree, with one or more unknown quantities, proportions, and the higher numerical equations.

3. Arithmetical and geometrical progression, calculation of interest, theory of combination, binomial theory for real exponents, series for powers and logarithms and analytic trigonometry.

4. Cubic and biquadratic equations, pure equation of the nth degree, reciprocal equations. (4½ months.)

II. Plane Geometry.

Similarity of figures formed by straight lines, their contents. Theory of the circle; measurement of the circle and of its parts. Geometrical analysis and application of algebra to geometry. (2½ months.)

III. Plane Trigonometry.

Trigonometrical functions and their logarithms. Calculation of triangles and polygons, certain parts being given. Application to the circle. (2 months.)

B. THE LECTURES IN THE SECOND CŒTUS COMPRISE,—

I. Geometry.

1. Geometry of solids. Place of lines and superfices in space. Solid angles, solids, determination of their superfices and contents. Applications, with consideration of the weights of material bodies.

2. Solid trigonometry, with its application to the superfices of the earth.

3. The theories of projection and co-ordinates.

4. Conic sections. (4½ months.)

II. Statics.— Geostatics and Hydrostatics.

With application to practical cases, namely, determination of center of gravity for ordnance and their parts, pressure upon supports, rafters, against walls, dikes and arches; stability, carrying power, strength as well as regulation and calculation of power of machines which are moved by animals. (4½ months.)

C. THE LECTURES IN THE FIRST SECTION OF THE THIRD CŒTUS COMPRISE,

1. Differential and integral calculation. (3 months.)

2. Higher geometry. (2½ months.)

3. Dynamics (mechanical,) and hydraulics, with application of the determination of the strength, direction, and distribution of the recoil upon the separate proportions of a piece of ordnance, of the science of projectiles, of the theory of carriages, of the rise of rockets. (3½ months.)

D. THE LECTURES IN THE SECOND DIVISION OF THE THIRD CŒTUS COMPRISE,

1. Repetition of the most important results of the instruction in the first cœtus in a series of exercises.

2. Repetition of the theory of statics and solution of numerous problems from real life. (3 months.)

3. Dynamics and hydraulics without higher analysis, with applications. (3 months.)

E. GENERAL APPROPRIATION OF TIME.

The number of lessons (hours) amounts, according to the prescribed plan for the first and second cœtus, to six hours, for each division of the third cœtus four hours, weekly; if the course be taken, after deducting the holidays and other interruptions, at thirty-five weeks, then there will be for the first and second cœtus, 210, and for each division of the third, 140 hours.

The number of hours to be devoted to each portion must, in the first instance, be determined by the teacher in his special lecture plan, as it in part depends upon his previous experience; at all events, all the above-named themes for the first cœtus must be treated in the stated time. Only in special cases, in the second and third cœtus, can the omission or transposition of one or the other, on reference to the higher authorities, be permitted.

It has been already remarked that the course of mathematics should impart to the students not only that amount of positive knowledge which he requires for his immediate sphere of action and needs as incitement and guide to further study, but also should fill the important purpose of forming the mind of the students generally. This purpose will be the more certainly gained the more the teacher is enabled to render the scholar self-trusting, and in each separate study to lead to the development of a few select principles simple and easily understood, but comprising in natural and logical connection the whole theory, so that the scholar fancies they are his own discovery, and therefore prizes them as his own. The teacher must, therefore, gradually propose a series of connected inquiries, and those naturally first on which the usual systems are based, as questions to which the students have to submit answers deduced from the above-named principles, with constant application of simple common sense. By these means the students are not only continually gaining single results, made ready to their hand by use, but what is principally desired, they acquire thereby great mental activity.

As regards instruction in the separate cœtus, the following rules are to be observed:—

At the commencement in the first cœtus, the teacher should endeavor, by frequent questions to form a full and correct judgment of the previous knowledge of each student, that he may determine how he should proceed with his lecture, slower or quicker, and to what subjects generally for the entire class special notice and exercise should be devoted.

The most complete exercise of the elementary rules, forming, as it does, the indispensable basis for all future progress is in this cœtus the principal aim of the teacher.

In the second cœtus, in the application of the theory of co-ordinates to the commonest curves, no investigation of the specialties of the theory of curves is necessary, because this is reserved for later lectures, and it would here abridge the time required for subjects of nearer interest. The development of these theories must, therefore, be confined to the simplest elementary use. The study, too, of the analysis of finite numbers is to be continued only so far as the student requires for immediate application, without any intention of going deeper into the science. On the other hand, a suitably increased time is to be given to statics and hydrostatics, because the student ought to be acquainted with them in the most complete manner.

As the first division of the third cœtus consists of but few and only the best scholars, it may be required of them to work out independently at home separate questions given by the teacher, and submit them to him for examination. The progress of the student is more surely gained and advanced, the oftener he has opportunity of personally discovering mathematical truths, or by applying them to examples to come to a clearer comprehension and use of them.

In the second division the teacher will not always be able to avoid giving a repetition of the reasons of propositions. This is necessary when he perceives from the work or expressions of the students, that the majority have not perfectly comprehended the proposition. Still the teacher will here content himself with bringing forward the most important points in the chain of deduction. The explanatory problems are solved by the teacher himself, who then sets similar ones for working out by the students at home.

For practical static problems, the teacher can use with great benefit objects often occurring in common life, and yet regarded so little; the numerous applications of the lever, of the inclined plane, &c., by artillerists and engineers, for their works, carriages, draught, &c., furnish sufficient material for such problems; as for instance, determination of the depth of a boat of given length and breadth when after putting into it a piece of ordnance a given height out of water is required; determination of the power requisite to overcome the resistance of a log lying in the track of a vessel; determination of the pressure of a laden beam on two or more supports with reference to the flexibility of the beam; determination of the center of gravity in an excentric hollow shot, both theoretically with given radius and known centers, as well as more practically when the centers and the radius of its interior are unknown, as by dipping the hollow shot into quicksilver; determination of the counterpoise of a drawbridge and examination of the best position for the axle ; investigation of the strength of metal and wood pipes which are to serve as water-pipes at given heights of pressure, &c.

At the same time the teacher ought not to leave unnoticed the advantages which theory can offer to practice when rightly applied, by which is in no way meant that the practical man should enter every time into a prolix and anxious calculation, but from the improvement his mind and capacities have received, he may apply readily what he has learnt to the purposes of common life.

Dynamics and hydraulics will be rather treated in a physical and historical point of view; here, too, the application of known professional results is the principal object.

As the limited time will not allow separate mathematical repetitions, the teacher should therefore be the more careful to make his lectures as much as possible applicatory. To insure progress the students must, besides the usual writing out the lecture, have frequent themes given to them for work at home, and of which their own execution should be secured by proper means.

It is perfectly necessary that a hand-book should form the basis of the instruction, from which the teacher should lecture, and the students make repetitions.

The hand-books are to be proposed by the teacher to the Board of Studies, and must not be changed without permission.

These books, as well as the logarithm tables, every student must have a copy of, as he can not do without them in the school, and may frequently require them in future life.

Models of solids, to illustrate the projection theory, are in the collection of the models of the school.

VII. PRACTICAL ARTILLERY EXERCISES.

The practical artillery exercises are intended, in the first place, to furnish the students with a sight of that portion of the material of the artillery which they have had no previous opportunity of knowing, and of which the knowledge is indispensable for a complete understanding of the theoretical lecture. The exercises should follow the lecture as immediately as possible, and occur therefore during the continuance of the theoretical course.

The students are besides to become acquainted with the methods of execution of the most important artillery duties, in an extent compatible with their position, and the time at their disposition. For this portion of the exercises, the months of July, August and September are to be preferred.

In the major part of these exercises, the engineer students take part so as to gain a knowledge of such parts of the artillery service as seem to be of the greatest importance to them.

The artillery exercises separate into numerous subdivisions, of which the following may be particularly remarked:—

I. EXERCISES OF THE FIRST COETUS.

A. Visits.

The visits happen, as already noted, at the period of the theoretical instruction. The students are to be divided into as many sections as is necessary, that each may gain the desired information. There belong to this part—

a. Visiting the foundry and the boring machine. All the students of the first coetus are to be taken by the artillery teacher of this coetus, on two afternoons, to the foundry, and to the new boring machine.

They will see the general construction of the foundry and the boring machine, and, in case such work is going on, the molding, boring, and turning, and receive the explanations necessary.

b. Examination of ordnance, gun-carriages, and ammunition wagons.

Those in the arsenal, as well as the exercising pieces of the regiment of artillery of the guard, are to be used for this purpose, to exhibit the construction of ordnance both in the Prussian and foreign artilleries, and also those of an earlier date, from the specimens kept there. In the same way as has been remarked for the ordnance, the gun-carriages and equipages of the guard artillery regiment in store will offer opportunity for a more exact scrutiny of these carriages, limbers, and wagons. For these visits four afternoons are to be taken.

c. Visit to the workshops of the artillery:—

The students will, in two afternoons, gain there a knowledge of the following objects:

1. The mode of work in general.

2. Processes in the manufacture of the most important objects of artillery material, as axles, wheels, carriages, mountings, sponges, harness, ropes, &c.

3. The raw material (wood, iron, leather.)

4. Objects furnished to field, siege, and fortress artillery.

d. Visit to the small-arms factory and powder-mills in Spandau:—

The scholars of the first coetus will be conducted into both manufactories, to obtain a general insight into the various works.

In order that the work of the manufactories may receive no interruption, the teacher of the first coetus is to communicate beforehand with their respective superintendents, and take the students in suitable small parties, and before entering the powder manufactory to insist, most carefully, on all the proper precautions being observed.

These visits are to take place during the theoretical course on the same day as is fixed for the first coetus to visit the fortress of Spandau to study its fortifications; and, therefore, an agreement should be made between the teacher of artillery and the teacher of general engineering.

e. Visit to the armory at the arsenal:—

The students are to be conducted on an afternoon to the armory of the arsenal, where the superintendent will explain to them the peculiarities of match and wheel locks, with the most remarkable projects for loading at the breech, and with the form of small arms amongst other nations.

B. Exercises.

a. Examination of small arms:—

The students are to be taken by their teacher to the musket manufactory, where they will be shown the mode of proof of small arms in general, and with reference to the theoretical lecture then in progress.

Each student then receives a faulty musket, with direction to examine and note its defects. The teacher revises and corrects these notes.

b. The management of machines:

In the presence of the students the management of various machines, &c., as well as the repair of damaged carriages, will be undertaken. According to the means at disposal, such exercises will be selected as are most instructive, in exhibiting arrangement, strength, and care in their application.

The students will be permitted to lend a hand only in such cases as it is foreseen that their strength will be sufficient. For all other purposes where strength is necessary, workmen must be employed.

II. EXERCISES IN THE SECOND CŒTUS.

When the teacher judges proper, some of the previous visits are repeated on the afternoons disposable during the theoretical course.

A. Marking out and Tracing Batteries.

The students undertake these exercises under inspection of their teacher of artillery on two days in the last three months of the course.

The teacher instructs them then how to ascertain the prolongation of the enemy’s lines, and the mode of determining the line of fire of the first embrasure of the different batteries, as well as the other points to be marked out, both with the use of the usual instruments, and with simple measurement by pacing, and laying down right angles by the eye.

A complete construction of a battery is not possible on account of the shortness of time, paucity of means, and strength of the students. The exercise, therefore, is confined to an explanation of the formation of the material and tool depots; to marking out and tracing horizontal and sunk batteries on even, irregular, and sloping ground, and to the construction of the powder magazine.

B. Practical Exemplification of the Rules for Placing Ordnance according to the Ground.

These exercises are to be carried out on two afternoons by all the students, under the inspection of their artillery teacher.

They have only reference to the ground, and leave out of consideration all tactical considerations. This object may be fully attained even without guns, and the necessary instruction may be given without them, as it would not be easy to form all the batteries in the desired number.

The teacher chooses the ground, explains it by means of a plan to the students, and goes with them to the place. He divides them into various sections, and lets each select positions for from two to eight pieces, both for attack and defence with different kinds of ordnance, giving only generally the direction and distance at which the enemy is operating.

Each position is inspected by the teacher, and the views and reasons for it received and discussed as regards effect, mode of firing, and covering and free movement, and where it is necessary, improved; and at the same time the requisite precautions taken for the limbers and wagons.

C. Drawings of Ordnance Carriages and Wagons.

These exercises are to be undertaken by the artillerists of the second cœtus, under inspection of the teacher of artillery-drawing, on twelve afternoons in June.

The drawing of a piece of ordnance is to be clearly distinguished from the examination of it. For the first, taking the necessary measures is alone necessary, but not their comparison with given models.

The teacher will order these exercises, so that the students learn principally—

1. What scale they ought to take for a given object, so as to execute a drawing with the precision necessary for being afterwards worked from.

2. With what instruments and method of procedure they may most easily obtain their end.

3. How notices of improvements are to be taken and arranged.

4. How the rough draft is to be jotted down.

It must be here particularly remarked that our guns, carriages, &c., have no mathematically exact forms, and that therefore the number of measures to be taken must be often multiplied to have a true figure of the body.

A fair drawing from these measures in the above period is so much the less possible, as the number of objects is as much as possible multiplied. It is fully sufficient, however, for the purpose of this exercise, that the students learn to take complete and useful rough drafts.

On their entrance into the third cœtus, the complete drawings from these rough drafts take place.

In his selection of objects to be drawn, the teacher must, in having regard to variety, take care that the drawings by too great difficulty do not exceed the time and power of the students, nor by too great simplicity cease to be instructive.

Ordnance carriages, limbers, wagons, and the machines required in artillery, are the most suitable for choice, and are easiest obtainable in the arsenal.

The students must be divided into sub-sections, of at most three or four persons, and to each a separate task given.

The teacher is to be present at the drawings to see to their proper execution, and has delivered to him the notices and rough sketches to amend any errors that may be in them.

The relative section of the second edition of Burg’s “Drawing of Artillery Material” is to be taken as the basis for these exercises. In addition to them, the students receive guidance and suitable instruction in drawing artillery objects off-hand by the eye, without the use of instruments. The first two days are to be chosen for this, and the students by this use of off-hand drawing receive at the same time a useful preparation for the drawings subsequently required to be taken by the aid of instruments.

D. Exercises necessary in regard to Sieges—

Are to be conducted by the teacher of artillery and special engineering jointly, and are given more in detail under exercises in fortification.

III. EXERCISES IN COMMON OF THE FIRST AND SECOND CŒTUS.

A. Proof of Powder.

This exercise is to be conducted by all the students of the first and second cœtus at the time of the gun-practice, and comprises—

1. Firing different sorts of powder from the proof mortar.

2. Firing different sorts of powder purposely brought into an abnormal state.

3. Instruction in weighing and measuring the powder.

B. Artillery Practice.

All the students of the second and third cœtus take part in the practice under the inspection of the two teachers of artillery, for which fourteen days in August and September are fixed. If possible, it is to be undertaken in the morning, and only when the practice-ground is otherwise occupied is it to be deferred till the afternoons.