Part 1 — THE SPECIAL MILITARY SCHOOLS OF FRANCE. (continued 4)

The war depot has taken a large share in the preparation of the map of France. The first idea of undertaking this important work dates from 1808. After various delays and difficulties, the trigonometrical survey, which had been for a time suspended, was recommenced in 1818. The work was placed under the war depot, intrusted to the corps of geographical engineers. Since this period the geographical engineers have been incorporated in the staff corps, by the officers of which the work has been continued. The primary triangulation was finished in 1845; the secondary is now finished; the filling in the details will occupy several years to come. The number of officers of the staff corps employed on the survey has varied from twenty-six to ninety.

THE STAFF CORPS.

The officers of the French staff constitute a distinct and separate corps, numbering thirty-five colonels, thirty-five lieutenant-colonels, one hundred and ten majors, three hundred and thirty captains, and one hundred lieutenants. None but officers of this corps can be employed on the staff. When, by accident, there is not a sufficient number present, regimental officers may be temporarily employed, but they return to their regiments as soon as officers of the staff corps arrive to replace them. The division of the staff into adjutant-general’s and quartermaster-general’s department does not exist in the French service.

The only means of entering the staff corps is through the Staff School of Application. Of the fifty student-officers which the School of Application usually contains, twenty-five leave annually to enter the staff corps, and are replaced by an equal number. Three of these come from the Polytechnic, the remaining twenty-two are selected from thirty pupils of the Military School of St. Cyr, who compete with thirty second lieutenants of the army, if so many present themselves; but, in general, the number of the latter does not exceed four or five.

The course of study in the Staff School of Application lasts two years. The students have the rank of second lieutenant. On passing the final examination they are promoted to the rank of lieutenant; they are then sent to the infantry to do duty for two years, at the expiration of which time they are attached for an equal period to the cavalry. They may finally be sent for a year to the artillery or engineers.

This routine can not be interrupted except in time of war, and even then the lieutenant can not be employed on staff duty until he has completed his two years with the infantry. However, officers who have a special aptitude for the science of geodesy or topography, may even earlier be employed on the map of France or other similar duty; and, further, two of the lieutenants, immediately on quitting the Staff School of Application, are sent to the war depot (Dépôt de la Guerre) to gain a familiarity with trigonometrical operations.

The General Officers at their Inspections are required to report specially to the Minister of War on the captains and lieutenants of the staff corps doing duty with the regiments in their districts, both as to their knowledge of drill and manœuvres, and their acquaintance with the duties of the staff. They are to require these officers to execute a military reconnaissance, never allowing more than forty-eight hours for the field sketch and its accompanying report.

Officers of all arms of the rank of captain or under, are permitted to exchange with officers of equal rank in the staff corps; but they must previously satisfy the conditions of the final examinations of the Staff College.

THE BUILDINGS AND ESTABLISHMENT.

The Staff School of Application is situated in Paris, in the Rue de Grenelle, close to the Invalides. Of the ninety officers attending it, sixty lodge in the building and thirty out of it, but all take their meals in the town. Each has, in general, a room to himself. Servants are provided in the proportion of one to about eight rooms. The officers are forbidden to have private servants.

The staff of the school is composed as follows:—

The Commandant, a General of Brigade.

The Second in Command, Director of the Studies, a Colonel or Lieutenant-Colonel of the Staff Corps.

A Major of the Staff Corps, charged with the superintendence of the interior economy and the drills and exercises.

Three Captains of the same Corps, charged with the details of the interior economy of the School, and to assist the Major in the instruction of the Officers in their military duties. The Captains are required to take the direction of a portion of the topographical works on the ground.

A Medical Officer.

Thirteen Military Professors, or Assistant Professors, viz.:—

A Major or Captain, Professor of Applied Descriptive Geometry.

A Major or Captain, Professor of Astronomy, Physical Geography, and Statistics.

A Major or Captain, Professor of Geodesy and Topography.

A Major or Captain of Engineers, Professor of Fortification.

A Major or Captain of Artillery, Professor of the instruction relative to this arm.

A Military Sub-Intendant, Professor of Military Legislation and Administration.

A Major or Captain, Professor of Military Art.

A Captain, Assistant Professor of Descriptive Geography; charged also to assist the Professor of Fortification.

A Captain, Assistant Professor of Topography; charged also to assist the Professor of Geography.

A Major or Captain of Cavalry, Professor of Equitation; he acts under the immediate orders of the Major of the College.

Two Lieutenants or Second Lieutenants of Cavalry, Assistant Professors of Equitation.

An Officer of Cavalry of the same rank, acting as Paymaster to the Riding Detachment.

The Non-Military Professors are:—

Two Professors of Drawing.

Two Professors of German.

A Professor of Fencing.

One hundred and forty-five horses are kept for the use of the student-officers, and eighty-two men belonging to the cavalry to look after them.

Both the studies and examinations at the Staff School hold an intermediate place between those of the Polytechnic and St. Cyr, being less abstract than the former, and higher and more difficult than the latter.

CONDITIONS OF ADMISSION.—ENTRANCE EXAMINATIONS.

The entrance to the Staff School of Application in France is, as is the case in all the French military schools, by means of a competitive examination, or, rather, by the results of three distinct examinations, and by the selection of different sets of successful candidates. Three are taken from the students leaving the Polytechnic, who have an absolute right to the three first places in the Staff School, and twenty-two are selected from the thirty best students leaving St. Cyr, and an equal number of sub-lieutenants of the line under twenty-five years of age, if so many present themselves. The sub-lieutenants must have one year of service in that rank, and they must make known their request to be allowed to compete for admission to the Staff School to the Inspector General, and, through him, to the Minister of War. It should be added, that their number is generally extremely small.

The usual number of young officers admitted yearly to the school in time of peace is twenty-five, but this number is sometimes considerably exceeded, and we found no less than ninety present. The three Polytechnic students select the Staff School after their final examination, and the St. Cyr students make known their desire when the whole are examined by a Board of Examiners, and the thirty best are then selected as competitors for admission into the Staff School of Application.

The sub-lieutenants also repair to St. Cyr, where they are examined separately by the same examiners who have just conducted the examination of the St. Cyr students, and in the same subjects.

Their marks or credits are then compared with those of the St. Cyr pupils; and the relative position of the two sets of candidates is ascertained, and the list of those to be admitted to the School of Application determined accordingly.

These examinations take place before a Commission of Officers, composed of,—

A Lieutenant-General President, appointed by the Minister of War.

The Director or Chief of the Dépôt de la Guerre.

The Commandant of the School of Application.

Four Colonels or Lieutenant-Colonels of the Staff, appointed by the Minister of War.

A Field Officer chosen from among the Officers employed at the Dépôt de la Guerre, as permanent Secretary.

This Commission is also charged with drawing up and proposing regulations for the approval of the Minister of War concerning the interior organization and the course of study to be followed in the school, and to make changes in the programmes for admission and for leaving the school.

A very detailed account of the subjects of the entrance examination is drawn out, and inserted in the Journal Militaire, and the Moniteur every year. The following are the subjects:—

(1.) Trigonometry and Topography.

(2.) Regular Topography—the measuring of plane surfaces and leveling.

(3.) Irregular Topography, Plane Trigonometry.

(4.) Military Art and History, including—

(a.) History of Military Institutions at the chief periods.

(b.) Present composition of the French army.

(c.) Organization of an army in the field.

(d.) History of some of the most memorable campaigns, as those of 1796–97 in Italy, and of 1805 and 1809, in Germany.

(5.) Artillery and Science of Projectiles.

(6.) Field Fortification and Castremetation.

(7.) Permanent Fortification.

(8.) Military Legislation.

(9.) Military Administration.

(10.) Manœuvres.

(11.) German Language.

(12.) Drawing.

The marks assigned and the influence allowed to each of these subjects are the same as those given in the final examination at St. Cyr. The entrance examination places the students in order of merit.

THE STUDIES.

All the details of the teaching are in the hands of a Council of Instruction, similar to that of the Polytechnic, and consisting of the General Commandant (President,) the Director of Studies, and three Military Professors, appointed yearly by rotation. Other professors and assistant professors, or officers of the staff of the school, may be called in to assist the Council, but (except in deciding the list at an examination) they have no votes.

This council does not interfere directly with the administration, the common work of the school. It draws up, indeed, the list of lectures, making any alterations in them, or in the books to be used which may seem from time to time desirable. But the officer accountable for the daily working of the school is the Director of Studies. His functions appeared to us to bring him into more constant connection with the pupils than was the case with the director of the Polytechnique. In all the schools the General Commandant and the Director of Studies live in the establishment; but at the Ecole d’Application and at St. Cyr the director “examines the methods of teaching, and proposes to the Council of Instruction any modifications or improvements which may raise or quicken the instruction. He inspects the work of the student-officers, both in and out of the school. He keeps a register of the marks given by the professors, and at the end of every three months brings the sum of them before the General Commandant in a detailed report.” In fact, his school functions are not modified, as at the Polytechnic, by a body of able professors.

As already stated, there are fifteen professors, without reckoning those of equitation, and thirteen of them are officers; but the system of Répétiteurs, which we have seen so influential at the Polytechnic, does not exist here.

The hours of work are, in summer, i.e. from May to November, from six to five, and in winter from eight to five, with the exception of one hour for breakfast and one hour for étude libre, which appears to mean very little indeed. From seven to nine hours daily may be taken as the amount, but (as is the case with most French schools) there is a constant change, not only in the subjects taught but in part of the work being out and part in doors, some really head work, much purely manual. There does not appear to be the same intense application as at the Polytechnic; indeed, the work for three months in the year is almost entirely in the open air, consisting in making plans and military sketches, either in the neighborhood of Paris or in the more distant parts of the country; eight months are devoted to the in-door studies, one month to the examinations.

The in-door studies are entirely conducted in the halls of study (Salles d’étude), in each of which we found parties of twelve or fifteen students seated. They are inspected constantly by the director or some of the professors. None of the regular work may be done in private. It seems everywhere a fixed belief in the French Military Schools that very much would be done idly and ill if done in private. This presents a striking contrast to the feeling on the subject in England.

The severer and preparatory studies of mathematics are supposed to have been completed prior to entrance into the Polytechnic or St. Cyr. Some, however, of the studies of applied science occupy considerable time at the School of Application.

The following analysis will show the time assigned to each branch:—

1. Astronomy occupies 1½ hours weekly for the pupils of the first year; afterwards it ceases entirely.

2. To Applied Descriptive Geometry a good deal of time is given, but still only by the pupils of the first year. 12 hours a week are spent upon it in the first half year, 10 in the second.

3. Military Topography occupies about 10½ hours in the first year, 6 in the second.

4. A good deal of time is devoted to Field Fortifications. The junior division, it is true, only begin it in their second half year of study, and then only work at it for 1½ hours weekly. But the senior division are occupied 4½ hours weekly in their first half year, and 7½ hours in their second.

5. The Study of Military Administration and Legislation is begun immediately upon entrance. It occupies during both years 1½ hours weekly.

6. Lectures on Military Art and Tactics are also given for 1½ hours weekly during both years, and after hearing these lectures the students are occasionally required to write a military memoir on a campaign, descriptions of reconnaissances, or of fields of battle, and to make sketches of ground with accompanying reports. This course was noted by General Foltz, the director of the school, as defective, on the ground that it was too difficult to find a teacher for, or indeed to teach military art; and he thought that lectures on military history, or such works as Napoleon’s Memoirs, would be more useful to the pupils.

7. Drawing occupies throughout 4½ hours weekly, and great attention is bestowed upon it. “We were shown a large number of works done by the young officers of the school. To enumerate some of the most important—there were specimens of objects, with shadows; perspective of the exterior and interior of buildings, with shadows; perspective views of country; machinery drawings, plan, , and elevation; in fortification, a plan of comparison of a portion of ground with proposed field-works for defense; military bridges; reconnaissance, and memoir of a route, with accompanying notes and sketches, done both on foot and on horseback; plan of a portion of country made with a compass by parties of ten, under the direction of a Captain (for this the trigonometrical points and distances were furnished, and it was filled up by a minor triangulation;) plan of a field of battle, made without points; and a description of the battle.”

These drawings were mostly executed with great care, and we were told that the course was fully as much as the student could accomplish in two years. Some parts of it are done entirely in the Salle d’étude; sketches are made on horseback in the neighborhood of Paris, always under the direction of the professors, others again at great distances, such as one at Biarritz last year, and the one on which the pupils are to be engaged this year, is the line of operations of Wellington from the Spanish frontier to Toulouse. The two last kinds of work are roughly sketched, and finished at Paris. These summer occupations seem to stand in place of vacations, of which there are none.

(1.) To Fencing, three hours a week are given throughout.

(2.) To the Cavalry Drill two hours weekly in the first division. It is replaced by Infantry Drill in the second.

The studies which none but the senior division pursue are,—

(1.) Artillery studies, which occupy 4½ hours weekly.

(2.) Geography, meaning chiefly the military geography of a country, with a few lectures on statistics and political economy; these take 1½ hours weekly.

(3.) Geodesy, or trigonometrical surveying, also for 1½ hours.

The only strictly literary occupation is the study of German for about three hours per week during the whole time. We were told that a large proportion of the pupils unite among themselves to learn English privately, but no public course is given.

THE EXAMINATIONS.

The students have two examinations to go through in each year; the first commencing about the first of June, the last in November, and each of the first year’s examinations is held before a jury consisting of—

(1.) The General Commandant, or the Director of Studies; President.

(2.) The Professor of the Course examined in.

(3.) Two Officers appointed by the Council of Instruction.

The last examination in each year is, of course, the most important, inasmuch as the passage from the Second or Junior to the First or Senior Division, and in part from the Senior into the Staff Corps, is regulated by the results of these examinations; and the value allowed to the last examination in each year is just double of that assigned for the examinations in June.

The examinations of the first year are confined to the subjects of study followed during that year, viz.:—

Descriptive Geometry, Astronomy, Topography, Artillery, Fortification, Military Art and Administration, German, Drawing, Register of Notes and Memoranda.

The professors and members of the jury are directed rigorously to conform themselves to the following scale as regards the marks or credits they award for the oral answers, graphical representations, &c.

0 to 4 bad.

5 to 10 passable.

10 to 13 fair.

14 to 18 good.

19 to 20 very good.

The Co-efficients of influence of the various studies of the first year are as follows:—

Descriptive Geometry, Theory, 4 9

Geographical Representation, 3

Drawing of Machines, Memoir, 1

Drawing, 1

Astronomy Theory, 4 5

Graphical Representation, 1

Topography Theory, 4 10

Graphical Representation, * 6

Artillery, 4

Fortification Theory, 4 8

Graphical Representation, 2

Memoirs, 2

Military Art Theory, 4 7

Memoirs, On various questions, 1

On surveys, 2

Military Administration, Theory, 4 5

Memoirs, 1

Manœuvres, 2

German, 4

Drawing, 2

Keeping of Memorandum Books, 1

Conduct and Discipline, 1

Riding and Knowledge of the Horse, Riding, 2

Hippology,

Total, 60

* Subdivision of the Co-efficients of the Graphical Representations.

Survey with compass, 1

Rapid sketch, 1½ 6

Itinery of the first survey, 1½

Itinery of the second survey,

First Topographical Drawing, ½

Second, with relief, ¾

Third, on the scale of 1/20000 ¾

As soon as the examinations are concluded, the Council of Instruction, prepares a provisory classified list of the students, made out in order of merit from the credits or marks awarded by the Examining Jury in connection with the above-mentioned co-efficients of influence, in a similar manner to that already explained in the account of the Polytechnic School, the student with the largest numerical credit being placed at the head of the list.

This provisory list is submitted to the Consulting Committee of the Staff Corps for transmission to the Minister of War.

In order to pass from the Second or Junior into the First or Senior Division, every Student Officer must have obtained the following marks or credits from the Jury, viz.:—

In Astronomy and Geometry, six out of twenty in each.

In all other branches of theoretical instruction, four out of twenty.

In the classification of the graphical representations in topography, a mean of eight out of twenty, and in each of the other courses a mean of six out of twenty; and as the general result of his various works and of his examinations (the mean of the year being combined with the number obtained before the jury in the proportion adopted by the Council of Instruction,) he must have obtained a number of credits equal to one-half of the maximum (1,200.)20

Every Student Officer who in his oral examination before the Jury has failed in obtaining the minimum stated above is subjected to a fresh proof before the Consulting Committee of the Staff Corps, and if this is not favorable to him he ceases to belong to the school, and must return to his regiment, unless such failure can be attributed to an illness of forty-five days, in which case he may be permitted to double his first year’s course of study.

If the second proof be favorable he is retained at the school, but placed at the bottom of the classified lists prepared by the Council of Instruction.

The co-efficients of influence for the second year are—

Geography and Statistics, Theory, 4 5

Memoir, 1

Theory 4

Geodesy and Topography, Geographical Representation, 10

Survey with the Compass, 1 6

Reconnaissance, 1½

Itinerary of the first survey,

Itinerary of the reconnaissance 1½

Drawing of a Fortress and its Environs, 1½

Reduction of the Drawings, ½

Theory, 4

Artillery, Graphical Representation, 3 8

First Drawing of a Military Bridge, 1

Second ditto, ½

Breaching Battery ½

Drawing of Artillery Carriage, 1

Memoirs, 1

Theory, 4

Fortification, Graphical Representation, 3 11

Defilement, 1

Project of Fortification, 2

Memoir on a Fortified place, 2½

Memoir on a Project of Field Fortification, 1½

Military Administration, Theory 4 4

Military Art Theory 4 8

Memoir on various questions comprised in drawing up a memoir, 2

Memoir on the survey with a Compass, or sketch reconnaissance 2

Manœuvres, 3

German, 4

Drawing, 2

Keeping of Note Books, 1

Conduct and Discipline, 1

Riding and Knowledge of the Horse, Riding, 2 3

Veterinary Art, 1

Total 60

[Indented items:] Subdivision of the Co-efficients of the Graphical Representations, &c.

The examinations of the students of the Senior or First Division is made in a similar manner to that already described for the Junior Division, but after they are concluded, and prior to these students being admitted into the Staff Corps, they are subjected to another examination before the Consulting Committee of the Staff Corps, consisting of—

3 Generals of Division on the Staff.

3 Generals of Brigade.

3 Colonels of the Staff.

5 Lieutenant-Colonels, including the Secretary.

The professors belonging to the school may be called in to assist at this examination, and when it is concluded the Consulting Committee proceeds to the definitive classification of the Student Officers of the First Division by causing the following documents to be placed before them, viz.:—

The register of the notes of each Student Officer.

Tables of the value of their work; the classified list of passage to the First Division, and the provisionary list for leaving, recently prepared by the Council of Instruction. The numerical credits obtained in these two classifications are added (each sum being halved) to the definitive classification prepared by the committee. The total is divided by two, in order not to exceed the regulated limit of 1,200 credits for the maximum.

Every Student Officer who, in this examination for leaving, has not obtained the half of the maximum number of numerical credits is considered to be inadmissible to the Staff Corps.

This classified list, prepared by the Consulting Committee of the Staff Corps, fixes the position of the Student Officers in order of merit, and according to this order of merit they enter the Staff Corps. The committee reports to the Minister of War the names of the Student Officers that are not eligible for the Staff Corps.

The first two or three places, we were told, are always remembered as marks of distinction, but the honor does not descend lower, as in the intense competition of the Polytechnic.

Students belonging to the First Division may also be permitted to double the second year’s course of study on account of illness; but in no case can an officer be permitted to remain more than three years at the school.

MILITARY ORPHAN SCHOOL AT LA FLECHE.

The Collége or Prytanée Militaire appears, in point of studies, to differ from the schools that have just been described, chiefly in its having only one department for the elder pupils, the scientific, with merely occasional subsidiary lessons in grammar and literature.

The institution is a school for boys between the ages of ten and eighteen; no one under ten or above twelve years old can be admitted: and no one can commence a new course at the school after completing his eighteenth year.

The prescribed instruction comprises the following courses:—

Humanities (Latin, &c.)

History and Geography.

German.

Mathematics.

Physical Sciences.

Natural History.

Figure Drawing.

Linear Drawing.

And the general object of the courses is to qualify the pupils to pass the examination for the degree of Bachelor of Science.

The pupils also go through military and gymnastic exercises, and learn to swim.

The school is under military discipline, is governed by a general officer of the staff corps or a colonel in active service, as commandant and director of studies, and by a lieutenant-colonel or major, with the title and functions of second in command and sub-director. In addition there are four officers, twenty-three professors and teachers, and eighteen répétiteurs.

The yearly charge for paying pupils is 850 francs, and the cost of outfit about 500 francs; but there are 400 free and 100 half-free places (400 bourses and 100 demi-bourses) granted by the state in favor of the sons of officers, the order of preference being regulated as follows, those who are orphans on both sides having the first claim, and those who have lost their father, the next:—

1. Those whose fathers have been killed, or have died of wounds received in action.

2. Those whose fathers have died in the service, or after retiring on a pension.

3. Sons of fathers who have been disabled in consequence of wounds received in action.

Sons of non-commissioned officers or of private soldiers who have been killed or have been disabled in action, who have been placed on the retired list, or have been discharged after twenty years’ service, may also be admitted, as a special mark of favor.

The candidates undergo an examination, not, however, for the purpose of competition, but merely to show that they are qualified to enter the classes.

The school is inspected annually by a general officer sent by the war department, as also by an officer of the commissariat. There is no sort of engagement or expectation that the pupils should enter the military service. The nature of the studies holds out some inducement to them to compete for admission at St. Cyr or the Polytechnic; and in the examination for entrance at St. Cyr, it is stated that the sons of military men have the privilege of being raised fifteen places in the list of the order of merit. An officer’s or soldier’s son from La Flèche would, in case of 300 candidates being admitted to St. Cyr, be able to claim admission, if he came 315th on the list, to the exclusion of the candidate who stood 300th.

SCHOOL OF MUSKETRY

The School of Musketry, formed by the Ministerial Order of 29th March, 1842, was only intended at first to supply instructors to the ten battalions of Chasseurs who were armed with rifles. The results of its establishment were, however, found so valuable, that the benefits of the instruction it afforded were by degrees extended to the whole army.

In 1845, the Duc d’Aumale, who had taken a special interest in the improvement of fire-arms and the better instruction of the soldier in their use, was nominated Inspector-General of Schools of Musketry. Besides the chief school at Vincennes, others were formed in the principal garrisons; and eventually a regimental School of Musketry was established in every regiment of infantry.

Some changes have been made in the system established under the Duke. The School of Musketry at Vincennes has only been regularly organized on its present footing since 1852. A portion of the fortress affords the accommodation required for the theoretical instruction, while the Polygon offers admirable facilities for practical instruction and target practice.

The Staff of the School consists of,—

A Commandant, a Lieut.-Colonel of Infantry.

An Instructor in Musketry, a Major of Infantry.

A Professor, a Captain of Artillery.

An Assistant Professor, a Captain of Artillery.

A Sub-Instructor in Musketry, a Captain of Infantry.

Each regiment sends an Officer (a Sub-Lieutenant or a Lieutenant) to Vincennes, to go through the course of instruction. The course commences on the 1st of March, and lasts four months. Two hours a day three times a week are devoted to lectures on the construction and use of fire-arms, and the theory of projectiles. Each officer is required to complete a certain number of drawings of the separate parts of arms. At the termination of the course, certificates are given, and, if favorable, go towards the officer’s claim to be promoted “au choix.”

We were conducted over the rooms of the fortress set apart for the school by the officer charged with the Theoretical Instruction (Captain Févre, of the Artillery.) They consist of a large paved room, where the officers perform their small-arm exercise in bad weather; of the study-room, in which the drawings are executed; of a lecture-room or amphitheater; of the library, chiefly supplied with technical works on arms; and of a model-room, containing a very good collection of French and foreign arms, and of portions of arms, to illustrate the lectures. There are, besides, private rooms for the instructors, and a room for the orderlies. On the ground floor a small forge has been fitted up for the purpose of giving practical instruction in some of the details of the manufacture of arms.

To produce accurate marksmen is not the only object of the School of Musketry. Its staff may be considered a description of standing committee, to whom inventions in arms and ammunition are submitted, to have their qualities practically tested. On the day of our visits experiments on the relative merits of three forms of balls were being carried on, which we witnessed.

Quitting the fortress by a bridge over the ditch, in an angle of which the Duc d’Enghien was shot, we entered on the Polygon or practice ground. In a few minutes two detachments of troops, one from the Chasseurs de Vincennes, the other from the 20th regiment of the line, arrived and took up their ground in front of the practice butts. Of the balls between which comparisons were to be made, one was proposed by M. Minié, who was himself present, another by M. Nessler, the third was named the ball “de la garde.” There were six targets in line in front of the butt; the Chasseurs fired at three of them, and the 20th regiment at the other three. A trench runs along parallel to the butts, and at a few yards in front of them. The line of targets is in the space between the trench and the butts. The trench gives cover to the range party, one of whom is stationed opposite to each target, in a rude recess cut into the side of the trench, to afford shelter in wet weather. Each time a target is struck, the man opposite to it raises his banderol, which is then seen by the firing party, and acknowledged.

The trench is continued to some distance beyond the butts, and is there met by another trench at right angles to it; so that one may go up from the firing party to the range party without any risk.

On the cessation of the firing, the officer in command of the range party numbered the hits in each target. He marked separately the hits where the balls had arrived sideways (shown by the form of the perforation,) a very important consideration in comparative experiments with oblong balls.

Prizes and honorable mentions are bestowed annually on the best shots. The number of the regiment and the names of the men thus distinguished are inserted in the official military journal.

MILITARY AND NAVAL SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY

I. IMPERIAL MILITARY SCHOOL OF APPLICATION OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY AT PARIS.

This school, which is located at Paris, at the military hospital of Val-de-Grâce, is under the control of the Minister of War. Its design is to introduce the pupils in the medical service of the army to an actual exercise of their skill, to complete their practical education, and make them acquainted with the regulations, which govern the army in its relation to the sanitary service.

Admission to the School of Application as resident physicians and pharmaceutists, is gained by passing successfully a competitive examination. These examinations are held at Paris, Strasburg, and Montpelier, at uncertain periods, as the wants of the service may require.

For admission to the examination, the candidate for employment as resident physician must have his name enrolled in a bureau of military superintendence, and satisfy the following conditions:—1st. Be a native of France; 2nd. Be not above thirty years of age at the time of the examination; 3rd. Have received the degree of doctor of medicine from one of the medical faculties of the Empire; 4th. Be free from any infirmity that disables from military service; and 6th. Subscribe a pledge of honor that he will devote at least five years to the military sanitary service. The candidates are subjected to an examination in pathology, medical therapeutics, anatomy, and practical surgery. Candidates for the office of resident pharmaceutist must also be natives of France, be not above thirty years of age, have a diploma of pharmacy of the first class, be free from every disabling infirmity, pledge themselves to at least five years service, and pass an examination upon the materia medica, chemistry, and pharmacy.

During their continuance at the School, they receive a fixed annual salary of 2,160 francs, and an allowance of 500 francs for the first expense of uniform. After spending one year at the school and passing a satisfactory final examination, they receive the brevet rank of medical or pharmaceutical aid-major of the second class.

There is at Strasburg, in connection with the Medical School, a Preparatory School, designed to prepare for the degree of doctor of medicine the pupils belonging to the sanitary service of the army. It is annually supplied with pupils, who, without having passed the usual course of matriculation, are enabled to satisfy the conditions requisite for admission to the first grade of a doctorate. Every pupil of the preparatory school, has the right of admission to the Imperial Military School of Application.—Decrees of 13th of Nov., 1852, and 28th of July, 1860; Acts of 18th of June, and 15th of October, 1859, and 4th of August, 1860.

II. IMPERIAL NAVAL SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY.

These schools, located at Brest, Toulon, and Rochefort, are under the control of the Minister of the Marine; their design is to prepare sanitary officers for service in the vessels of the imperial marine.

The posts of surgeon, or pharmaceutist, of the third, second and first classes are assigned on examination, according to order of priority determined by a medical jury. For admission as student in these schools, after attaining to the first grade of the third class, it is necessary to be at least sixteen years of age, and not above twenty three, to produce a diploma as bachelor of sciences, to prove French nationality, and to be exempt from every infirmity that can cause unfitness for the marine service. Examinations for filling the vacancies in each school commence on the 1st of April, and 1st of October, annually.

The instruction is continuous. The libraries, cabinets of natural history, the botanical gardens, anatomical theaters, chemical laboratories, cabinets of natural philosophy, are at the disposition of the students. The candidates admitted, receive cards of membership. They are required to pay the treasurer of the library a sum of 50 francs, which is devoted to its maintenance.—Ordinance of 17th July, 1835, and 15th May. 1842.

THE IMPERIAL NAVAL SCHOOL AT BREST.

This school, located at the Road of Brest, on board the ship “La Borda,” and under the control of the Minister of the Marine, is designed for the instruction of youth destined for the corps of state naval officers. Candidates are admitted to this school after a public examination, which occurs annually. For admission to the examination, they must prove; 1st. By the production of the records, that they are French by birth or naturalization, and that on the 1st of January of the year of the examination, they were at least fourteen years of age, and had not passed the maximum of seventeen years; 2d. By the certificate of a physician, that they have been vaccinated, or have had the small-pox, and that they have no infirmity that disables them from the performance of marine duty.

The matriculation of the candidate is effected between the 1st and 24th of April, at the prefecture of the department in which the domicil of the family is located. The examination is made at the principal office for examination nearest to that domicil, or to the college where he has been educated; the choice as regards the place of examination must be made known at the time of matriculation.

There is required for admission into the school, a knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, plane trigonometry, applied mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, geography, the English language, and drawing, in conformity with the course of study pursued at the lyceums. The candidates must prepare a French composition, a translation from the Latin, an exercise in English, a numerical calculation in plane trigonometry, a geometrical drawing, and the off-hand sketch of a head. These compositions are done at Paris, and the principal towns of the departments simultaneously, on the 2nd and 3rd of July. The oral examinations are commenced at Paris on the 2nd of July, and repeated at the other towns in succession as previously announced. The oral examinations are of two grades; the lowest serving to determine whether the candidates are sufficiently well prepared for admission, the higher—to which only those are subjected, who have successfully passed the first—being the decisive one, and together with the compositions, determining the final classification in accordance with the order of merit.

The course of study continues two years, which are passed at the Board of Brest on the ship “La Borda.” The expense of board is 700 francs, and of the outfit, about 500 francs. A grant of the whole or half of the amount of the expense, may be made to young men without fortune. The insufficiency of the resources of a family for the maintenance of a pupil in the school, must be authenticated by a resolution of the municipal council, approved by the prefect. There may also be allowed to each beneficiary, at his entrance into the school, the whole or the half of his outfit. Application for this assistance must be made to the Minister of the Marine at the matriculation of the candidate.

The pupils that have passed the examinations of the second year in a satisfactory manner, are known as naval candidates of the second class.—Law of 5th June, 1850—Decree of 19th January, 1856—Acts of Sept., 1852, and 1st January, 1861.

SCHOOL OF MILITARY GYMNASTICS NEAR VINCENNES.

The practice of gymnastics is an essential part of the training both of officers and men in the French army, and constitutes a portion of the regular exercise in every military school. There are also several schools specially devoted to this department of physical education, and one styled the Imperial School of Military Gymnastics at the Redoute de la Faisanderie, part of the fortifications near Vincennes, may be regarded as the Normal School for training both officers and privates in order to act as monitors or instructors in their respective regiments and battalions. The following account of the instruction given, is abridged from an article in the New York Tribune, under the heading, “How the French and the English make their Soldiers.” The writer says that Military Gymnastics, in the form and to the extent taught in this school, is exclusively French, and is thought to have an important bearing on the more frequent and deadly use of the bayonet in future warfare.

About three hundred privates and officers compose the School of Military Gymnastics near Vincennes, where three professors of the science and art of gymnastics give a course of practical instruction for about six months each year. The school is under the same regulations as the School of Musketry—each colonel being responsible for the instruction of his regiment, and the lieutenant-colonel directs the application of the rules and regulations.

I. ELEMENTARY GYMNASTICS.

The gymnastic exercises are divided into “elementary gymnastics,” and “gymnastics applied,” that is, applied to special military purposes. A general progression regulates all the exercises.

The men are divided into three classes. The third class comprises all the recruits. These are exclusively practiced in the first lessons of elementary gymnastics during the first fortnight of their enlistment, and before they proceed to regimental drill. The first class consists of those who are proficient in the first four lessons of the general progression; and the second class, of those who are preparing for the first. The first class practices twice a week; the second, three times a week; the third class twice a day, until the men have commenced their regimental drill, and then once a week. Each practice lasts one hour and a half. “Returns” are drawn up recording the zeal and progress of the men, as in musketry instruction; and the captain instructor of gymnastics has to send in, every month, to the lieutenant-colonel, similar returns as to the general progress of the instruction, so that the number of effectives of each company may be accurately known.

None but the prescribed exercises are permitted by the instructor. He must never allow the men to attempt any extraordinary or exaggerated feats, that might cause accidents. His aim must be to develop the strength, agility and dexterity of the soldier by a wisely regulated exertion, and inspire him with that self-reliance which the various occasions of his military life may demand. He must strive to rouse his pluck and emulation by rendering the exercises as agreeable and as easy as possible, taking all necessary precautions to prevent him from injuring himself or becoming discouraged. He must never forget that the perfect safety of the soldier under training, the pleasure of the various exercises, and, above all, the soldier’s own desire to excel, are the first and secret elements of success in gymnastics. Harsh treatment must be carefully avoided, much more anything like turning his efforts into ridicule when he fails, or punishing him for involuntary awkwardness. In conclusion, he must not expect more than regularity, precision, and relative perfection in these exercises, to which a military form has been given merely to facilitate their study and their application to the whole army.

The men practice in their fatigue dress, in squads of ten or fifteen, and are provided with belts.

The first exercises are intended to make the body supple from head to foot, turning the head from right to left, forward and backward, or merely toward right and left, bending the body, raising the arms vertically, with and without bending them; flinging out the right or left arm, fists clenched, and describing a circle of which the arm is the radius.

No soldier marches so easily as the French. It is the result of his method of learning to march. In the moderate and quick cadence the foot comes flat to the ground, the point of the foot touching it first; in the running cadence the movement is an alternate hopping on the points of the feet. It is obvious that this mode of teaching to march must enable the soldier to avoid the great cause of universal bad marching and walking, namely, bringing the heel to the ground, thus shaking the whole body, especially the spine, and consequently distressing the brain and lungs. By the great elevation of the legs the soldier must habituate himself to bringing the toes first to the ground, instinctively, to avoid the shock, especially in the running cadence. During the practice the soldier repeats the words “one—two,” as each foot comes to the ground, in order to practice the lungs at the same time, and also to give a rhythm to the performance.

In order still more to direct locomotion to the fore-part of the foot, so essential to good and easy marching, there is the following practice:—1. Attention. 2. Flexion of the lower limbs. 3. Commence. 4. Cease. At the second command the soldier brings both feet together, throwing the weight of the body forward. At the word commence, he slowly lowers his body by bending his hams, so that the thighs touch the calves of the leg, the arms falling beside the body, the weight of the body being entirely thrown on the points of the feet. He then gradually rises to the erect position.

There is also what is called the “gymnastic chain.” Circles are traced on the ground contiguously; the men are posted in these circles, in a single rank, three paces apart. The instructor commands:—1. Squad will advance. 2. Double. 3. March. 4. Halt. At the first word the soldier throws the whole weight of his body on the right leg. At the word march, he throws the left foot smartly forward, the leg slightly bent, bringing the point of the foot to the ground, thirty-nine inches from the right, and so in like manner with the right, always keeping the weight of the body on the leg which feels the ground, allowing the arms to take their natural motion for equilibrium. The first man (a monitor, one of the best trained) runs successively through all the windings of the chain of contiguous circles without stopping; the others follow, preserving the distance. When the men meet each other at the inters of the circles, they shorten or lengthen the pace, so as not to jostle each other, and so that two men shall not pass by the same interval.

To deliver a thrust or a blow with the bayonet, sword, or fist to the best advantage, requires training of the subsidiary muscles, and such scientific practice as places the body in the best position to aid and intensify the effect. This is done by the “Pyrrhic Exercise.” The command is:—1. Pyrrhic Exercise (right or left limb forward.) 2. Ready. 3. March. 4. Halt. At the word ready, the soldier faces to the left, carries the right foot forward, the heel sixteen inches from the hollow of the left foot, the right knee bent, the left leg stretched, the right arm extended forward, the fist clenched, on a line with the shoulder, the nails slightly upward, the left arm in a line with the left side and but little bent, fist clenched, and about six inches from the thigh, the nails toward the thigh, the upper part of the body inclined forward, the head erect, the eyes looking to the front, the left shoulder lowered. At the word march, the soldier straitens his body, bringing the right heel near the hollow of the left foot without touching the ground, turns at the same time his right forearm, so that describing a circle from below upward, the fist lightly touches the right breast, then flinging the fist smartly forward, the nails a little upward, and advancing the right leg to about twenty-five inches, the foot striking the ground with force, or an “attack,” as we call it in sword exercise, the upper part of the body inclining forward, the left leg stretched, the foot flat, the left arm turned outward and along the thigh as before. These movements are continued until the words “company—halt” are given, when the soldier faces to the right and comes to attention. The left arms are practiced in like manner, and a rhythm is given to the performance by the repetition of the numbers 1, 2, 3, by the soldier.

A soldier must not be easily knocked off his legs; so there are six positions for the practice devised to teach the soldier how to maintain his equilibrium. He stands alternately on the right or left leg, bending the other against the body with his locked fingers, or he stands on one leg, the other bent behind, or he comes slowly to the kneeling position and springs up smartly, flinging his arms suddenly above his head, the nails turned inward, and then comes to attention, or he bends forward on one foot, or backward in like manner, and to the right or left, all on one foot.

The elementary development of the muscles forms a most important part of the training. By word of command the soldiers strike their breasts with the right or left fist—strike out with the right and left as in boxing—support cannon balls in the hand, one or both arms extended, and hurl the balls to a distance. They fling an iron bar, held by the middle; they support a heavy club in every possible position, at the shoulder, behind the back, one with the left hand, another with the right, at right-angles, or two together, one in each hand. They swing the club horizontally and overhead, or vertically and behind, or round and round the body.

Preparatory to leaping, the proper muscles must be taught their necessary contractions, and this is done to the words of command—“Simultaneous flexion of the legs,” “Simultaneous flexion of the thighs and legs,” whereat they hop on the right or the left leg singly, and then on both together. They are practiced in advancing on the position of kneeling on one leg alternately, obviously a very useful mode of progression for a skirmisher in stealthily changing position behind a low wall or a hedge.

They are taught to walk systematically on the heels alone and on tiptoe, and to fling a cannon ball with the foot by means of a strap attached to it. As practice alone can habituate us to the proper inclination of the body in ascending and descending, both these modes of marching are carefully taught, attention being fixed to throwing the weight of the body on the point of the feet in the former, and on the heels in the latter.

Their wrestling takes every shape and mode of contest. With extended arms, the fingers interlocked, the left leg advanced, they push against each other; or, holding each other by the hands or by the wrists, they pull against each other; or, each man holding his left wrist with his right hand, the thumb underneath, seizes with his left hand the wrist of his antagonist, and then at the word “wrestle,” he pulls or pushes uniformly or by jerks, to the right, to the left, forward, to the rear, upward and downward, striving to displace his antagonist.

Furnished with appropriate handles, with a short cord attached, they pull against each other, each striving to drag his antagonist with one hand, then with both hands; and then three wrestle together in like manner, the central man pulling or resisting the outer two, or both of these pulling against him in opposite directions.

Then two wrestle in a sitting posture. They sit, closing the legs, feet to feet, and sole to sole, with the aforesaid handle and cord between their feet, and at the word of command pull away, striving to raise each other. As soon as one is raised the contest ends, and the victor holds the handle in his left hand. The instructor then makes all those wrestle together successively who have won the handle, until only two remain, and then ascertains the strength of these two by a dynamometer, and makes a note of it.

The last of the elementary exercises are those of traction, or drawing against each other, holding on by a rope, either in pairs, or several together pulling against a fixed point, which may be a dynamometer, indicating the force of the combined pull resulting, or the men are divided into two squads and pull against each other.

As most of these exercises admit of a rhythm or cadenced sound emitted by the men themselves, this vocal accompaniment is strongly recommended. It certainly gives additional animation to the scene. Indeed the cultivation of the voice is considered eminently essential in the course of gymnastics. Singing exerts a salutary influence on the chest, and, moreover, it is incontestable that it will be the means of powerfully acting on the morale of the French soldier, by teaching him songs of patriotic and martial import. The singing-lesson at which I was present was particularly interesting. The system is one recently invented, wherein the ordinary notes are represented by arithmetical numbers—thus occupying about one-third of the usual space. Pointing by means of two canes to each representative number is all that is required by the instructor. The pupils, about 300 men and officers, intoned the notes with admirable precision. When the instructor opened out the canes they made a crescendo—swelling to the loudest—and when he closed them gradually it was a beautiful diminuendo, “in linked sweetness long drawn out.” There was then sung a concerted piece in two parts, extemporized by the highly-gifted Commandant, who figured it on the blackboard. It was at once most accurately sung—first and second so admirably concerted that the whole seemed as it were an organ of human stops—alto, tenor, and bass most harmoniously blending.

Such are the elementary gymnastics of the course.

II. APPLIED GYMNASTICS.

The exercises of applied gymnastics must be directed with extreme prudence. Care must be taken by the instructor that the emulation of the pupils should not degenerate into a spirit of rivalry, instigating them to dangerous efforts.

During cold weather they must abstain from executing leaps that require violent efforts; at all times those who are not perfectly disposed should not be required to leap at all. Carelessness and inattention to the rules can alone cause those accidents apprehended in these exercises.

The dimensions of the obstacles to be leaped over must be gradually increased; but no downward leap must ever exceed sixteen feet—five meters. Such is the regulation; but really to leap down sixteen feet seems no small matter, considering that the height of an ordinary room—some ten or twelve feet—would make the nerves tingle if we had to leap down that height; however, the French soldiers perform such leaps with ease, and therefore we must conclude that all Anglo-Saxons here or elsewhere can “go and do likewise.”

The words of command are: 1. Attention. 2. Forward—leap—one, two, three. At the second word, the man closes the points of the feet; at the word one, he stoops on his lower extremities, slightly raising the heels and stretching his arms to the rear, the fists clenched; he then rises again, the arms hanging naturally down. At the word two, he repeats the movement; at three, he recommences the same movement, stretches the hams vigorously, throwing his arms forward, leaps the distance, or over the obstacle, falls on the point of his feet, stooping down, and then comes to attention.

The same principle is observed in all leaping, whether to a height, downward, or forward and downward—the only difference being in the position of the arms. In leaping upward, the arms are flung overhead to aid the ascent—the same in a downward leap; but if the leap be forward and downward, the soldier begins with his arms in advance, and then places them perpendicularly for the fall. The reverse takes place when in leaping forward and upward.

Thus they practice leaping in every possible direction—upward and downward combined—upward, forward, and downward—to the right or to the left—to the right and to the left and downward combined—the arms being directed accordingly. They leap backward precisely in the same directions, and according to the same rules. In leaping backward from the top of a wall, the man first takes a glance at the descent, turns, closes his feet—the heels projecting over the wall, stoops—the upper part of the body being forward, places his hands outside his feet and seizes the edge of the wall, the four fingers above, the thumb underneath, and thus flings himself backward, his arms overhead. When there is width as well as depth in the backward leap, the body and the legs are flung off almost horizontally.

The running leap is performed in a similar manner—the run being quickened more and more up to the moment of springing forward. Some of the leaps I saw performed were from fifteen to twenty feet. As a complement to these leaping exercises, the ground may be prepared with various objects to leap over, such as benches, tables, heaps of stones, &c.

The men are also progressively practiced in all these leaps, carrying their arms and baggage. In such cases the downward leap must be restricted to thirteen feet. The soldier holds his rifle balanced at the trail with the right hand, the muzzle slightly raised, so as to prevent it from touching the ground; he holds his sword (as the French soldier has a sword) with his left hand. When the soldiers have become familiar with leaping, the difficulty is increased by rendering movable first the point of departure, and then the point of the fall, and, finally, both these points are made movable. To leap from a body in oscillation, the soldier leaps at the moment when the body is sinking. There is great danger in leaping from an object in rapid motion. In case of necessity, the soldier must face in the direction of the motion, and at the moment of quitting it he must lay hold of it, shortening his arms, and so push himself backward, lengthening his arms.

It is a general principle that in leaping from a height of any extent, the soldier should avail himself of anything at hand to diminish the shock of the fall.

The circumstances in which leaping must be resorted to are often unforeseen, and require prompt decision; it is therefore important that the men should be taught the following principles—useful to everybody—to apply them spontaneously on all occasions:—

First. To form a rapid judgment of the obstacle, and also of the ground on either side. We scan the ground in advance of the obstacle, in order to make a good choice of a footing for the leap; if the ground is too smooth the foot may slip; on soft ground there can not be a good footing for the leap. By scanning the ground beyond the obstacle, we select our landing-place, and we foresee what difficulties we shall meet with. A difference of level between the point of departure and the fall modifies considerably the extent of the leap.

Second. During the leap the breathing must be restrained, and the air with which the lungs have been previously filled must be expired the moment the man reaches the ground.

Third. In leaps in width and height, fling out the clenched fists in the direction the body is to take, so as to augment the impulse given by the legs.

To prove the utility of this principle, the men, in leaping, sometimes hold in each hand a grenade of two-pounds weight, or a four-pound shot; with this auxiliary the width of the leap is augmented.

Fourth. In downward leaps, raise the arms vertically as soon as the body begins to descend, in order that the body, reaching the ground on the point of the feet, may sink vertically without losing its equilibrium. If a man leaps into water, he places his arms at his side, his hands on his hips, the feet close together, the points of the feet lowered, the body stiff and rigid.

Fifth. During the whole time of the leap keep the arms in the parallel position they have at its commencement, in order to preserve the equilibrium of the body.

Sixth. In forward or wide leaps incline the body forward, in order that the oblique action of the legs on the body may be more efficient.

The recommendation to precipitate the last movements of the run preceding the leap, has the important advantage of enabling the soldier to incline his body as much as possible.

Seventh. Fall on the point of the feet, the legs being close together, bending all the articulations of the body from above downward, in order that the shock be not transmitted to the head without being lessened and attenuated by numerous decompositions of the force. The articulations of the feet concur efficaciously with this result, and it would be dangerous not to avail ourselves of them by falling on the soles of the feet, especially the heels, as previously explained.

Eighth. Avoid too rough a fall by giving to all the articulations a general and supple “setting up,” so as to make a light bound on landing.

Ninth. On landing avoid all useless motion, allow the muscles to relax; their continued contraction and rigidity would interfere with the body’s equilibrium.

They also practice leaping with poles. These are of different dimensions, beginning with the smallest—not longer than the rifle—and finished with long ones from nine to twelve feet in length. He then seizes the pole higher or lower, according to the distance of the leap. Of course perfect success in this exercise depends greatly upon the energy of the effort, and the long and rapid run by which it is preceded. They also leap with two poles together from a height, the poles being planted parallel and about two feet apart.

Suspension-bars are made subservient to the training of the French soldier. This exercise enables him to use his body as he pleases, in any possible position, provided he can get hold of anything. Its beautiful and splendid result is extraordinary strength of arms, legs, hands, and fingers. Indeed, these suspensions of the body by the hands, the elbow, the legs, by one hand, one leg, one finger, in every possible position, show how the men are prepared for the thousand casualties of the assault.

They climb ropes after the manner of sailors, and horizontal beams are raised at various heights from the ground, in which they learn to preserve a perfect equilibrium—sitting, moving along them by the hands, supporting the body, which is free to fall, and, finally, walking erect upon them like a rope-dancer without his balance-pole! In these ticklish positions they meet and pass each other—simulate a fall and recover; the beams may be inclined or even set in motion, it matters not—they hold on and do their work equally well—and drop to the ground without injury.

They are taught to pick their way over scattered stones or stakes driven into the ground; and it has even been thought expedient to teach them how to walk systematically on stilts.

They are taught swimming—all its necessary movements before they go into the water; and many, I was told, strike out at once, at the first trial, thus proving the physiological or anatomical efficacy of the well-considered mode of tuition. In the water they are practiced in performing the feats required in actual warfare, carrying their arms and accoutrements in a variety of ways, according to the supposed circumstances of the campaign.

Of course, if the men are taught to swim they must be sent regularly into the water. This regulation, therefore, insures personal cleanliness—the first rule of health, which is much needed in all armies. The morality of most armies is generally above the average; it should naturally be less—as nothing conduces more to long life than exercise, regular hours, and a rational discipline. But cleanliness, personal cleanliness is wanting, and we have to deplore the consequences.

With a view to escalading, the French soldier is assiduously trained in all the shifts of ladder-mounting—with ladders of wood and ladders of rope—and he becomes as good as a sailor in pulling himself up a rope, either looped, knotted, or smooth, from the ground to any reasonable or unreasonable height. If a scaling-ladder be not at hand, a tent-pole or any pole will do to enable him to get to the top of a wall or the crest of a parapet. He is actually taught nine different modes of performing this achievement so flattering to the ambition of the French soldier.

The scaling of a represented turret was something beautiful to see. “In the twinkling of an eye” or “done in no time,” can alone describe the rapidity of the exploit.

Every appliance may, however, be wanting on certain occasions in war—it matters not—the French soldiers are taught how to mount a wall without any instrument whatever—with their feet and the hands and the fingers alone. Bullets and cannon balls leave holes and indentations in the hardest walls—these are represented on the walls of the Gymnasium—and thus they practice this last resort of the resolute and determined besiegers. If there be no holes—no points d’appui for the ascent—what then? Why, then they build a pyramid of men—four men stand as a base, two or four more perch themselves on the shoulders of these, and then one mounts to the top on the shoulders of the latter by way of apex!

They have adopted all the fetes of the trapèze, as performed by acrobats. These tend to strengthen the arms and promote that self-reliance and confidence which are the prime elements of a good soldier. Some of their swinging leaps with the trapèze were prodigious, from one end of the long gymnasium to the other, where they alighted, and caught on the top of the wall, and descended to the ground, with hands and fingers, by mimic bullet holes, as before described.

Flying leaps on and over a wooden horse are practiced in every possible direction, and the French cavalry are required to be able to leap on their horses from the rear while galloping, and to leap over a hedge or barrier together with the horses, but on foot, holding the reins! It is impossible to believe that very many can do this; but that is the aim, and the higher the aim the greater the effort, and something worth having is sure to be done, even if we fail of the highest attainment.

The most laborious of the practices is probably that of carrying, at the top of their speed, all the implements of war, fascines, sand-bags, gabions, projectiles, &c., whose weight is progressively increased from twenty to fifty pounds. They must also practice carrying ladders, beams, caissons, dragging gun-carriages, &c., and they are equally habituated to carry rapidly and skillfully the wounded from the field of battle, by placing men on litters, or any substitute at hand, in the gymnasium.

Sword exercise, bayonet exercise, boxing and fencing are also taught, but only the rudiments. In the regiments and battalions they have more opportunities of perfecting themselves in these accomplishments.

Such is a succinct account of the military gymnastics of the French. The 300 various fetes and practices have only one object in view, preparation for the possible and probable casualties of war, but they have, meanwhile, the positive and immediate effect of giving the men the utmost freedom of motion, aplomb, self-reliance, and that very useful self-estimate in the soldier, namely, that he is superior to every other in the world. It will take a vast deal to knock that conceit out of him.

REMARKS ON FRENCH MILITARY EDUCATION.

The English Commissioners in their Report on “The best Mode of Reorganizing the [English] System of Training Officers for the Scientific Corps, together with an Account of Foreign and other Military Education,” close with the following general remarks on French Military Education:—

The following summary may close our account of French Military Education.

1. The French army combines a considerable proportion of officers professionally educated, with others, who form the majority, whose claims to promotion consist in their service, proved ability, and conduct. One-third of the officers in the line, two-thirds of those in the scientific corps, and the whole of the staff, receive a careful professional education; the remainder are taken upon the recommendation of their superior officers, from the ranks. But it was stated to us expressly that such officers do not often rise above the rank of captain.

2. There are no junior military schools in France, and no military education commences earlier than sixteen. This is the very earliest age at which pupils can be received at the Polytechnic or at St. Cyr, and the usual age is later; whilst in the case of the Special Corps, strictly professional education does not begin till twenty or twenty-one. The best preparation for the military schools is found to be that general (in France chiefly mathematical) education which is supplied by the ordinary schools of the country, directed as these are and stimulated by the open examinations for admission to St. Cyr and the Polytechnic.

3. The professional education for commissions in the line is that given at the school of St. Cyr. A fair amount of mathematics is required at entrance, but the chief instruction given at the school is of a professional character. Active competition, however, which is the principle of all French military education, is kept up amongst young men educating for the line by the competitive entrance to the school, by the system of examinations pursued in it, and in particular, by the twenty-five or thirty places in the Staff School which are practically reserved for the best pupils on leaving.

4. In the Staff School itself the competitive system is acted upon; there are strict examinations, and the pupils are ranged in the order of merit on leaving the College.

5. The officers of artillery and engineers may be said to be in quite a peculiar position in France, owing to the high education given at the Polytechnic School. The consequence is, that the preparatory education of French artillery and engineer officers is of the highest scientific character. We have already spoken largely on this point, and need do no more than allude to it.

6. We may remark, that preparatory military education in France is mainly mathematical—at the Polytechnic almost wholly so. The literary and classical elements, which enter so largely into all education in England and Prussia, are in French military education very much thrown aside. Lectures in military history and literature are said, however, to succeed at St. Cyr.

7. The system of State foundations (Bourses) existing in the Polytechnic and St. Cyr, and affording a curious parallel to the military foundations in the Austrian schools, requires some notice. Every pupil, in both the Polytechnic and St. Cyr, who can prove poverty, is entitled to State support, either entire or partial. At the present time, not less than one-third of the students in each of these schools receive such maintenance. The system of civil Bourses is of old standing in France; most of these were destroyed at the Revolution. They were renewed and greatly devoted to military purposes by Napoleon. The extent to which they are given may seem excessive, but it must prove a powerful incentive and assistance to talent.

8. It has been remarked that there is comparatively little practical teaching in the School of Application for Artillery and Engineers at Metz. But a very extensive practical training is in fact supplied to these officers after they enter the service, remaining as they must do with the troops until promoted to the rank of second captain, and subsequently being employed in the arsenals, workshops, fortified places, &c.

9. The French have no “senior departments” for military education. In this respect their practice differs from that of England and Germany.

FRENCH MILITARY EDUCATION IN 1869.

The following remarks on French Military Education are from the Report of the English Military Education Commission submitted to Parliament, and printed in 1870:

1. The proportion of professionally educated officers in the line is greater now than in 1856, when it was stated by the Commissioners in their report to be one-third.

2. The professional education for commissions in the line is given by a two years’ course at St. Cyr, admission to the school being dependent on competitive examination. Admission to the Artillery and Engineers is obtained through the Polytechnic, where young men intended for commissions in those arms receive a preparatory education of a highly scientific character, in common with candidates for many other branches of the public service. Admission to the school is obtained by competition, and the choice of services is dependent on the results of another competitive examination at the end of the two years’ course. Commissions are then obtained in the respective corps, and the young officers go for a further period of two years to the School of Application at Metz, there to receive their strictly professional instruction. The course of teaching at Metz is still mainly of a theoretical character, and the main portion of the practical training of the officers is deferred until they join their regiments. The Staff Corps is recruited entirely from the Staff School; a very small number of pupils from the Polytechnic have a claim to admission to the school, but the great majority of the students are admitted by competitive examination, open nominally to the sub-lieutenants of the army and to the best students of St. Cyr, but in practice almost entirely confined to the latter. The students join the school with commissions as officers; at the end of the two years’ course they are definitely appointed to the Staff Corps in the order in which they stand in a competitive examination, but before being employed upon the staff they are sent to do duty for five years with the various arms.

3. The military schools in France are not, as in England and in Prussia, placed under the control of a special department. They are all under the immediate management of the Minister of War. There is, however, for each branch of the service in the French army a consulting committee (comité consultatif), or board of general officers, attached to the War Department, for the purpose of giving advice to the Minister, and in matters affecting the individual schools the Minister generally consults the comité consultatif of that branch of the service for which the school is specially preparatory.

4. Each school has its own conseil d’instruction, composed of officers and professors of the establishment, which exercises a general supervision over the course of instruction, and has the power of suggesting alterations or improvements in it. The financial business of the school is managed by another board (conseil d’administration); and there is generally also a similar board (conseil de discipline), which exercises more or less authority in questions of discipline. The effect of this arrangement is to give the various officers and professors of each school to some extent a voice in the general management of the institution.

5. The staff of officers and instructors employed appears, in most cases, very large in proportion to the number of the students; 48 for 270 in the Polytechnic; 33 for 170 in the school at Metz; 62 for 600 in St. Cyr, &c.

Though there is in all the schools a military staff separate from the staff of professors and instructors, and more especially charged with the maintenance of discipline, the line of separation between the two bodies is not, except at the Polytechnic, so distinctly drawn as in the English military schools. The military professors exercise disciplinary powers; while, on the other hand, the members of the strictly military staff in almost all cases take some part in instruction. The latter appear to be more utilized for this purpose than is the case either at Sandhurst or Woolwich.

6. Considerable care is exercised in the appointment of professors; at the Polytechnic the candidates are selected by the Conseil de Perfectionnement; at La Flèche they are recommended to the Minister of War by the Minister of Public Instruction; at the Staff School and St. Cyr the appointments are thrown open to competition.

7. The discipline maintained at all the schools is of a very strict nature; except for the youngest pupils at La Flèche it is entirely military; the punishments are similar to those inflicted in the army, and even include imprisonment. The maintenance of discipline is considerably facilitated by the fact that the pupils at most of the schools are actually subject to military law; and those of St. Cyr, if dismissed from the school, are sent into the ranks as private soldiers. There appears, however, in all the schools to be an absence of the moral control over the young men which is exercised in the Prussian schools. The Commandant of each school has very extensive powers in regard to discipline, but in no case has he authority to dismiss a student from the school without the sanction of the Minister of War.

8. The principle carried out in France is that special military education should not be begun until a comparatively late age, and should be founded upon a groundwork of good general education in civil schools. The only approach to a junior military school in France is that of La Flèche, and this is mainly a charitable institution; the pupils, it is true, learn drill, but beyond this no special military instruction is given them. The course of study is the same as that at the Lycées or ordinary civil schools, and the pupils are under no obligation to enter the military service. Nor can the Polytechnic be called an exclusively military school; even those who enter the Artillery and Engineers from it have their education in common with civilians at the very least until the age of 18, and in the great majority of cases their strictly professional instruction at Metz does not begin till 20 or 21. The very earliest age at which a special military education commences in France is 17, which is the age of admission to St. Cyr, and comparatively few enter the school before 18 or 19. The knowledge required for admission to St. Cyr is entirely such as is acquired at civil schools, and so much importance is attached to a good general education that the degree of either bachelier ès sciences or bachelier ès lettres is made a necessary qualification for admission to the examination, while the possession of both degrees gives considerable advantage to a candidate. The principle of deferring the commencement of special instruction has even received extension since 1856; the age of admission to St. Cyr, which was then 16, has been now increased to 17, and the junior school of La Flèche has been made even less military in its character than it was at that time.

9. When a professional education has once commenced, the principle appears to be that it should be almost entirely confined to subjects which have a practical bearing on military duties. Mathematics, as a subject by themselves, do not form part of the ordinary course of instruction at any of the special schools. The previous course at the Polytechnic secures of course very high mathematical attainments in the candidates for the Artillery and Engineers who enter Metz; but at Metz itself the study of mathematics is no longer continued. In the same way at the Staff School a knowledge of mathematics as far as trigonometry is required for admission, and their practical applications to operations of surveying enter into the school course; but no part of the time spent at the school is devoted to mere theoretical instruction in pure mathematics; yet the officers of the Staff Corps are intrusted with the execution of those scientific surveys which in our service are in the hands of the Engineers.

St. Cyr offers to some extent an exception to the rule that the course of study at the special schools should be of an exclusively professional character, as the instruction given there during the first year is partly of a general nature, embracing history and literature. This, however, arises from the fact that the students from the Lycées generally show a deficiency in the more literary subjects of a liberal education, and a portion of the time at the school is therefore spent in completing and improving their general acquirements. A knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, and plane trigonometry is required as a qualification for admission, but beyond a very brief revision of these subjects, and a voluntary course for candidates for the Staff Corps, mathematics are not taught at the school. It would seem indeed that, except in the case of candidates for admission to the Artillery and Engineers, mathematics do not hold so prominent a position in French military education as is generally supposed in England to be the case. For staff and regimental officers the main requisite demanded seems to be a practical knowledge of trigonometry as required for surveying.

10. Much time is devoted in all the French schools to drawing in its various branches; some hours daily are invariably given up to the subject; indeed the time spent upon purely geometrical drawing appears almost to be excessive. The great importance attached to the drawing of machinery is a peculiar feature in all the schools. Landscape drawing is one of the regular subjects taught to candidates both for the line and the Staff Corps.

The theoretical instruction given at every school is supplemented by visits to numerous military establishments, manufacturing departments, and fortresses. This is also a feature in the system of military education in Prussia; in both countries it seems to be thought desirable to afford young officers a practical insight into the working of the various establishments connected with the army. In the case of officers of the Artillery and Engineers it appears in France to be made a special object to cultivate a mechanical genius, and to secure a thorough acquaintance with manufacturing departments with which their professional duties bring them into contact.

Military law and administration (comprising financial and other regulations connected with the army), and drill, riding, and fencing in the way of practical exercises, form part of the education of officers of all branches of the service; in drill, lectures explanatory of the drill-book are invariably given in addition to the practical instruction.

11. The system of instruction in all the French military schools is more or less that of the Polytechnic. Lectures attended by large numbers, enforced study of fixed subjects, the execution of all work under close supervision of the instructors, and frequent periodical examinations, are everywhere found. Active competition is the leading feature of the system; the students are perpetually being “kept up to the mark.” A fixed period of two years is in all cases assigned to the course of study; the course can not be completed in a shorter time, and the regulated period can not (unless under quite exceptional circumstances) be exceeded.

It seems also to be thought that, as a necessary consequence of the strictly competitive system, the subjects upon which the competition depends should be exactly the same for every student. No choice of studies is allowed; those which enter into the examination are equally obligatory for all. The only exception to this rule is at St. Cyr, where in languages a choice between German and English is given.

No pecuniary rewards are offered to the students at any of the schools. The bestowal of the numerous bourses which are granted to those admitted to the Polytechnic and St. Cyr is regulated entirely by the poverty of the candidates, without any regard to their ability.

12. The education of officers in France is entirely concluded before any regimental duty has been done. The French system is in this respect the exact opposite of that pursued in Prussia, where no professional instruction, as a rule, is given until a certain amount of service with the troops has been performed. There are in France no establishments for the instruction of officers of some years’ service, like the Staff College in England, or the Artillery and Engineer School and the War Academy in Prussia.

13. The chief changes which have taken place in the military schools of France since the publication of the Report of the Commissioners of 1856 may be summarized as follows:—

(a.) The modifications in the course of instruction at the Polytechnic; the abridgement of the studies previously pursued; and the slightly increased importance now attached to literary subjects.

(b.) At Metz, the introduction of an examination at the end of the first years’ course of study.

(c.) At St. Cyr, the alteration of the age for admission to the school from 16 to 17; the extension of the subjects of the entrance examination; the modifications in the course of instruction, and the postponement of the commencement of strictly military studies almost entirely until the second year; the introduction of a stricter system of discipline, combined with additional encouragements to good conduct and industry; and the increased advantages offered with the view of attracting to the school a higher class of professors and officers.

(d.) At La Flèche, the complete reorganization of the institution with the object of more closely assimilating its general arrangements to those of a purely civil school.

(e.) At the Staff School some modifications in the course of study and in the mode of admission to the school have been made; but the most important alterations are those adopted in July 1869, by which the number of students admitted annually to the school is increased considerably beyond the number of vacancies likely to occur in the Staff Corps, and the novel principle is introduced that admission to the school does not carry with it the certainty of permanent employment on the staff.

It may be added that there seems a tendency to diminish the importance of mathematics as an element of preparatory military education, and to attach slightly more weight to studies of a literary character. This is more particularly seen at St. Cyr and at La Flèche, and to a less extent at the Polytechnic. There is also a growing disposition to increase, in the case of the cavalry and infantry, the proportion of officers who have received a professional education.

EXPENSE OF MILITARY SCHOOLS IN 1869.

SC Sums charged to the Schools Estimate.

MP Military pay charged to other Estimates.

T Total.

CS Cost to the State.‡

EP Each pupil.

Name of School. SC Frs. MP Frs. T Frs. CS Frs. EP £.

Polytechnic 719,673 85,515 805,188 568,188 78

Artil’y and Eng’er school at Metz 99,500 *416,350 515,850 515,850 50

St. Cyr 1,348,792 15,000 1,363,792 741,292 49

Staff school 99,000 *214,870 313,870 313,870 168

La Flèche 539,868 15,000 554,868 457,868 45

Medical school 659,300 † 659,300 . . . .

Cavalry school at Saumur 227,000 18,500 245,500 . . . .

Gymnastics, musketry schools 36,270 “ 36,270 . . . .

Regimental schools 173,600 “ 173,600 . . . .

Total 3,903,003 765,235 4,668,238 2,597,068 390

* These sums include the pay of the officer students at these establishments, amounting to 288,000 frs. at Metz, and 103,000 frs. at the Staff School.

† The estimate for the Medical School appears to be exclusive of the pay of all military medical officers employed at the school, but the amount of this additional sum is not stated.

‡ For 1,520 pupils, who repaid 956,500 francs.